Notes Introduction 1. Catalogue for the Industrial Show of the West Clare Branches of the United Irishwomen, 1913, quoted in the Irish Homestead, 30 August 1913, p. 729. 2. M. Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism (London: Pluto Press, 1989), p. 46; S. Pašeta, ‘Nationalist Responses to Two Royal Visits to Ireland, 1900 and 1903’, Irish Historical Studies, 31 (1999), p. 489. 3. L. Davidoff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 450. 4. For example, see A. Twells, ‘Missionary Domesticity, Global Reform and “Woman’s Sphere” in Early Nineteenth-Century England’, Gender and His- tory, 18 (2006), pp. 266–84 and A. Clark, ‘The Rhetoric of Chartist Domesticity: Gender, Language and Class in the 1830s and 1840s’, Journal of British Studies, 31 (1992), pp. 62–88. 5. ‘Easter at the O’Curry Irish College’, Clare Champion, 15 March 1913, in TCD Ms 5924. 6. K. Gleadle, Borderline Citizens: Women, Gender, and Political Culture in Britain 1815–1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 18. 7. For example, see L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and the Vote: Becoming Citizens (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007). 8. ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 15 May 1909; ‘Sinn Féin’, Enniscorthy Echo, 12 June 1909. 9. L. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”? Women’s Voluntary Activism and the Women’s Movement in Twentieth-Century Ireland’, in E. Breitenbach and P. Thane (eds), Women and Citizenship in Britain and Ireland in the Twentieth Century: What Difference Did the Vote Make? (London: Continuum, 2010), p. 95. 10. G. Meaney, ‘Women’s Writing, 1700–1960’, in A. Bourke et al., The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing: Irish Women’s Writing and Traditions (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002), p. 769; L. Lane, Rosamond Jacob: Third Person Singular (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2010), p. 77. 11. ‘Irish Shoddy’, United Irishman, 4 March 1905, p. 3; ‘Household Hints. Suggestions and Recipes’, Irish Homestead, 18 September 1909, p. 774. 12. Irish Homestead, 25 November 1911, p. 946. 13. M. Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere: Middle-Class Women and Civic Life in Scotland, c. 1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 14. P. Maume, ‘Somers, Elizabeth’, in J. McGuire and J. Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), http://dib. cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a8189, accessed 20 June 2011. 15. Earner-Byrne, ‘ “Aphrodite Rising from the Waves”?’. 16. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 25–6. 161 162 Notes 17. Lane, Rosamond Jacob,p.22. 18. For a recent exploration of the potential of the 1911 Census of Dublin for historical research, see D. Connor, G. Mills and N. Moore-Cherry, ‘The 1911 Census and Dublin City: A Spatial Analysis’, Irish Geography (2012), pp. 1–19. 19. S. Pašeta, Before the Revolution: Nationalism, Social Change and Ireland’s Catholic Élite, 1879–1922 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999); F. Campbell, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 3. 1 Women, Gender and National Identity: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives 1. Hanna Sheehy Skeffington, ‘Sinn Féin and Irishwomen’, Bean na hÉireann, November 1909, p. 6. 2. For a recent example of scholarship which explores the transnational con- nections that helped circulate feminist ideas at the turn of the twentieth cen- tury, see J. H. Quataert, ‘ “Being Heard on Important Matters of International Life”: Transnational Perspectives on Women’s Movements in Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain, 1890–1914’, in D. Geppert and R. Gerwarth (eds), Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain: Essays on Cultural Affinity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 173–98. 3. M. Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere: Middle-Class Women and Civic Life in Scotland, c. 1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 4. J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). Prior to the publication of an English translation, a short summary of Habermas’s ideas about the public sphere appeared, which began to influence feminist scholars. See J. Habermas, ‘The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article’, New German Critique, 3 (1974), pp. 49–55 and M. P. Ryan, ‘Gender and Public Access: Women’s Politics in Nineteenth-Century America’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1992), p. 261. 5. See J. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), p. 7. For a useful recent sum- mary of these debates, see P. Johnson, Habermas: Rescuing the Public Sphere (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 152–65. 6. N. Fraser, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the ‘Postsocialist’ Condition (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), p. 81. For a recent critique of the idea of counterpublics, see C. Calhoun, ‘The Public Sphere in the Field of Power’, Social Science History, 34:3 (2010), pp. 301–35. 7. Fraser, Justice Interruptus, p. 74. 8. Ryan, ‘Gender and Public Access’, pp. 269, 271, 279. 9. See, for example, T. C. Barnard, ‘Sites and Rites of Associational Life in Eighteenth-Century Ireland’, in J. Kelly and R. V. Comerford (eds), Associational Culture in Ireland and Abroad (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2010), pp. 11–12; K. A. Conrad, Locked in the Family Cell: Gender, Sexual- ity, and Political Agency in Irish National Discourse (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), pp. 13–14; L. Ryan, ‘Publicising the Private: Notes 163 Suffragists’ Critique of Sexual Abuse and Domestic Violence’, in Ryan and Ward, Irish Women and the Vote, pp. 75–89 and C. A. Kennedy, ‘ “What Can Women Give But Tears”: Gender, Politics and Irish National Identity in the 1790s’, Unpublished PhD thesis (University of York, 2004). 10. L. Davidoff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 450. 11. For one of the most sustained critiques, see A. J. Vickery, ‘Golden Age to Separate Spheres: a Review of the Categories and Chronologies of English Women’s History’, Historical Journal, 36 (1993), pp. 383–414. See also K. Gleadle, ‘Revisiting Family Fortunes: Reflections on the Twentieth Anniver- sary of the Publication of L. Davidoff & C. Hall (1987) Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson)’, Women’s History Review, 16:5 (2007), pp. 773–82. 12. J. Rendall, ‘Women and the Public Sphere’, Gender and History, 11:3 (1999), pp. 475–88. 13. Ibid., p. 482. 14. A. Twells, ‘Missionary Domesticity, Global Reform and “Woman’s Sphere” in Early Nineteenth-Century England’, Gender and History, 18 (2006), p. 268. See also K. Gleadle, The Early Feminists: Radical Unitarians and the Emergence of the Women’s Rights Movements, 1831–51 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). 15. E. Gordon and G. Nair, Public Lives: Women, Family and Society in Victorian Britain (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003), p. 7. 16. S. Morgan, A Victorian Woman’s Place: Public Culture in the Nineteenth Century (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007). 17. K. Gleadle, British Women in the Nineteenth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 4. 18. M. K. Smitley, ‘ “Woman’s Mission”: the Temperance and Women’s Suffrage Movements in Scotland, c.1870–1914’, Unpublished PhD thesis (University of Glasgow, 2002), pp. 98–9. See also Smitley, The Feminine Public Sphere. 19. Smitley, ‘ “Woman’s Mission” ’, p. 68. 20. For the experience the Gaelic League gave women in public leadership roles, see T. G. McMahon, ‘ “To Mould an Important Body of Shepherds”: the Gaelic Summer Colleges and the Teaching of Irish History’, in L. W. McBride (ed.), Reading Irish Histories: Texts, Contexts, and Memory in Modern Ireland (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003), p. 135. 21. G. Eley, ‘Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century’, in Calhoun, Habermas and the Public Sphere, pp. 289–339. 22. For a recent exploration of how a nuanced conception of the public sphere can help our understanding of women’s activism, see M. P. Ryan, ‘The Public and the Private Good: Across the Great Divide in Women’s History’, Journal of Women’s History, 15:2 (2003), pp. 10–27. 23. M. DiCenzo, ‘Militant Distribution: Votes for Women and the Public Sphere’, Media History, 6:2 (2000), p. 117. See also M. DiCenzo, Feminist Media History: Suffrage Periodicals and the Public Sphere (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2010). 24. E. J. Yeo, ‘Some Paradoxes of Empowerment’, in E. J. Yeo (ed.), Radi- cal Femininity: Women’s Self-Representation in the Public Sphere (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), p. 15. 164 Notes 25. K. Steele, Women, Press, and Politics During the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), pp. 176–9. 26. L. F. Suffern, ‘Militancy and Motherhood II’, Irish Citizen, 26 December 1914, p. 250. 27. M. E. Duggan, ‘Motherhood v. Militancy II’, Irish Citizen, 16 January 1915, p. 267. 28. M. Cullen, ‘Feminism, Citizenship and Suffrage: a Long Dialogue’, in L. Ryan and M. Ward (eds), Irish Women and the Vote: Becoming Citizens (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007), p. 15. 29. Ibid., p. 10. 30. Ibid., p. 15. For Anna Haslam, see C. Quinlan, Genteel Revolutionaries: Anna and Thomas Haslam and the Irish Women’s Movement (Cork: Cork University Press, 2002). 31. Cullen, ‘Feminism, Citizenship and Suffrage’, pp. 13–14. 32. M. Cullen, ‘Women, Emancipation, and Politics, 1860–1984’, in J. R. Hill (ed.), A New History of Ireland, Volume 7: 1921–84 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 845–63. 33. Ryan, ‘Publicising the Private’, in Ryan and Ward, Irish Women and the Vote, p.