Research Report Canid predation: a potentially significant threat to relic populations of the Inland Carpet metcalfei () in Victoria

Geoffrey W Heard1-*,Peter Robertson3, Dennis Black', Geoffrey Barrow', Peter Johnsons, Victor Hurley6 and Geoffrey Allen6

'Department of Environmental Management and Ecology, La Trobe University, Albury-Wodonga Campus, PO Box 821, Wodonga, Victoria 3689 'Current Address: Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086. Email: [email protected] 'Wildlife Profiles Pty. Ltd., PO Box 500, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084 'Parks Victoria, Tara Crt, Ford Street, Wangarana, Victoria 3677 'Department of Sustainability and Environment, North-west region, PO Box 3100, Bendigo Delivery Centre, Bendigo, Victoria 3554 Tlora and Fauna Business, North-west Region, Department of Sustainability and Environment, PO Box 905, Mildura, Victoria 3500 Abstract In Victoria's contemporary rural environments, introduced predators may represent the principal predatory threat to many large, non-venomous . We present circumstantial evidence that introduced canids are predators of the Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota metcalfei, using data collected during a radio-telemetric study of the sub-species' ecology across northern Victoria. Seven pythons (23% of those tracked) were killed by predators during the study, and evidence col- lected during transmitter retrieval suggested that foxes or wild dogs were involved in six of these cases (the seventh having been eaten by a goanna). Evidence includes the recovery of transmitters from fox den sites, their partial burial in several cases (consistent with caching behaviour) and dam- age to each transmitter consistent with chewing by a fox or dog (teeth marks in the silicon coating, puncture of the metal housing). Given the abundance of canids (specifically foxes) within these study sites, their ability to prey on carpet pythons, and evidence of their involvement with these pre- dation events, we conclude that canid predation was the primary cause of death for each of these six , and represents a potentially significant issue for carpet python conservation in Victoria. Suggestions for canid control programs and habitat management to minimise this threat to remaining populations of this endangered are offered. (The P"ctorian Naturalist 123 (2) 2006. 68-74)

Introduction The Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota omous, and inhabits inland regions of metcalfei (Pythonidae) is a large (to 3 m southern Australia where introduced preda- total length), semi-arboreal snake that is tors can be abundant and ubiquitous across distributed widely across the Murray habitats (Newsome et al. 1997). Darling Basin of south-eastern Australia In this paper, we present circumstantial (Barker and Barker 1994; Greer 1997). In evidence that these pythons are vulnerable Victoria, the sub-species is considered to predation by introduced canids (primari- endangered (DSE 2003) and restricted to ly the Red Fox V~rlpesv~rlpes but potential- the woodland habitats of the northern ly also Wild Dogs Canis familiaris). plains, primarily those associated with Specifically, we detail evidence that canids watercourses (River Red Gum Euca/,~ptzrs killed the majority of carpet pythons lost to camald~rlensisor Black Box E. Iarg~jlorens predation during a radio-telemetric study woodland) or prominent granite outcrops of the sub-species' ecology conducted (Coventry and Robertson 1991 ; Allen et al. across Victoria's northern plains between 2003). Apparent declines in the sub- 1997 and 2002. species' Victorian range have been attrib- Methods uted primarily to habitat alterations; how- Stirr!~.areas ever, predation by introduced has Pythons were radio-tracked in nine study also been cited as a potentially threatening areas, spanning three regions of northern process (Allen et al. 2003). This snake may Victoria (Fig. I). In the north-east, 17 be particularly vulnerable to exotic preda- snakes were tracked in three study sites tors; it is relatively slow moving, non-ven-

68 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report

Fig. 1. The location of each study area in which carpet pythons were radio-tracked across northern Victoria. Study areas are: 1 - Mt Killawarra, 2 - Boweya, 3 - Mt Bruno, 4 - Mt Meg Flora and Fauna Reserve, 5 - Mt Hope Flora and Fauna Reserve, 6 - Nyah State Forest, 7 - Piambie State Forest, 8 - Lambert Island, 9 - Walpolla Island State Forest.. either within, or adjacent to, the Warby dominated by Deane's Wattle Acacia Range State Park, including Mt Killawarra deanei paucijuga (Conn 1993; Parks (36O15'N, 146O1 I'E), Mt Bruno (36OI9'N, Victoria 2000). 146O09'E) and Boweya (36O 1 7'N, Eight pythons were radio-tracked within 146O09'E). An additional study site, the Mt the Riverine forests of north-western Meg Flora and Fauna Reserve (36O22'N, Victoria. From east to west, snakes were 146O05'E), is located in the Chesney Vale tracked at Nyah State Forest (35O05'N, Hills, 22 km WSW of the Warby Range. 143O20'E), Piambie State Forest (34O52'N, All areas within the north-east are charac- 1430201E), Lambert Island (34O2 I'N, terised by steep, rocky slopes (weathered 142O22'E) and Walpolla Island State granite outcrops and screes) with open Forest (34O07'N, 141°42'E). All sites were granitic woodland or low heathland. At all located on the floodplain of the Murray locations, remnant vegetation abuts cleared River. Vegetation composition varied little agricultural land, with the extent of frag- between the three localities, being domi- mentation being highest at Mt Meg, where nated by River Red Gum and Black Box. a mosaic of remnant vegetation occurs Disturbance from cattle grazing, timber (Heard and Black 2003; Heard et al. 2004). extraction and recreational activities are Five pythons were radio-tracked within common to all localities. the ~i Hope Flora and Fauna Reserve (35059fN, 144013tE)in north-central St~idj'aninzals and radio-telenzetric Victoria. Mt Hope is a prominent granite "lonitoring massif that rises steeply from the Temperature-sensitive. miniature radio ing plains, most of which have been transmitters (Holohil Systems Pty Ltd, cleared for agriculture, The reserve sup- Canada; S1-2T) were ports a shrub-land vegetation community implanted within the body cavity of snakes Research Report under aseptic conditions. A description of sheltering within a rock crevice. Its trans- implantation techniques is provided in mitter was subsequently located within an Heard et al. (2004). Units represented less open paddock east of this site, partially than 2% of python body weight in all cases. buried in the soil, with numerous teeth We endeavoured to locate each python marks in the unit's silicone coating. weekly (usually in the morning to early The remaining two snakes lost in the afternoon). However, logistical constraints north-east were both apparently killed occasionally resulted in this interval being within the vicinity of residential buildings. reduced or extended between 2 and 21 At Mt Meg, 'NE16' was last recorded days. A directional 'H' antenna and minia- inhabiting a roof cavity within a series of ture radio receiver (Telonics Inc., Arizona) buildings in the south of the study site. The were used to track the signal of radio trans- snake had occupied these buildings during mitters, and co-ordinates of each location all locations in the two months following were recorded in the Universal Transverse her re-release, and thus appeared to have Mercator (UTM) system using a Trimble been taken during her first movement global positioning system (Trimble 10 away from the buildings during the track- channel Ensign XL GPS Unit). ing period. Her transmitter was subse- Upon the death of a python, notes were quently located lying on the ground in an maintained on the location of the carcass open paddock east of this site. The unit had or transmitter, and descriptions of the sur- been bitten repeatedly, exposing its metal rounding habitat and specific collection casing. At Mt Bruno, an immature female site recorded. The identity of any predator 'NE15' was killed after residing for sever- involved was assessed by damage to trans- al months in the vicinity of a residential mitters (including teeth marks), collection building located in remnant woodland. site characteristics and the presence of This snake was also last found inhabiting a scats or footprints. roof cavity. Its transmitter was retrieved from a wooded slope overlooking the Results property; it had been chewed and partially Seven carpet pythons (23% of those buried. tracked) were killed during the study, five One python was killed at each of the Mt in the north-east and one each at Mt Hope Hope and Piambie study sites (Table I). At and within the riverine forests of the north- Mt Hope, the dismembered remains and west (Table 1). One of these transmitter of the large, adult female 'NEI I' apparently fell victim to a Lace 'NW31' were found at the entrance to a Monitor Varanus varius; the transmitter rock crevice on 4 May 1999. The snake was located within a tree-hollow some four had been recorded within this rock crevice metres above ground amongst numerous during the previous two tracking events goanna scats. However, evidence collected (25 March, 14 April 1999). and had fre- during transmitter retrieval suggests that quented the site during the months preced- canids killed the remaining six pythons. ing death. This snake had been tracked for Two animals were killed in remnant 565 days in total. Lastly, the Piambie ani- woodland at Mt Meg. The first, 'NE13', mal 'NWOI' was apparently killed whilst died within 16 days of release. Prior to inhabiting a large, relatively open hollow death, this was recorded sheltering log in River Red Gum woodland. The par- in a hollow log amongst intact remnant tially chewed transmitter (numerous teeth woodland on the north face of Mt Meg. marks were evident in the silicone coating) The heavily chewed transmitter from this from this snake was located approximately snake was located within a fox den in 50 m from this log, beneath loose woody dense shrubbery amongst the remains of debris. Closer inspection of the hollow log other prey items, including rabbits and a revealed numerous feathers and other possum. The second individual, 'NEI 2', vertebrate remains at its entrance, suggest- died within two months of release. This ing that a canid (probably a fox) regularly snake was last recorded inhabiting remnant used the log. The python was an adult woodland on the south-eastem boundary of female and died within three weeks of the Mt Meg Flora and Fauna Reserve, release.

70 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report

- Table 1. Gender, rnorphometric data and tracking details for each python killed during the radio- telemebic study. Snout-vent length (SVL) and weight recorded upon capture. * first located in tree hollow from which transmitter was retrieved on 29 March 1998. ** first located at site from which transmitter was retrieved on 14 March 1997. - Scale-clip Study area Sex SVL Weight Tracking period Days number (mm) (ef tracked NEll Mt Meg F 1750 3300 1811 1197 - 1213199 132* NE12 Mt Meg M 1460 1100 1811 1/97 - 1511198 59 NE13 Mt Meg M 1600 1450 1511 1/97 - 3/12/97 19 NE16 Mt Meg F 1530 1350 2211 1/97 - 22/1/98 61 NE15 Mt Bruno F 890 207 10110197 - 2013198 59 NW3 1 Mt Hope F 1770 3068 16110197 - 4/5/99 565 NWO 1 Piambie F 1640 1475 2012197 - ? 18** Discussion behaviour. Dietary studies have also iden- Predation of carpet pythons by canids is tified carpet python remains in canid scats. of significant concern for the conservation Canid dietary analysis conducted at the Mt of this endangered snake in Victoria. Meg study area identified python vertebrae Records collected during the telemetry in one of the scats examined (Heard 2001), study indicate that either foxes or dogs and similar research has documented the lulled the majority (86%) of radio-tracked occurrence of python remains in canid carpet pythons lost to predators. Whilst our scats collected in south-eastem New South data do not definitively prove this con- Wales (those of the Diamond Python M. s. tention (or differentiate between fox or dog spilota; Lunney et al. 1990). predation), we use several pieces of evi- Secondly, canids are the most abundant dence to argue that canid predation is the introduced predators present at these study most likely cause of death of these ani- sites (and possibly most abundant large mals, and that conservation initiatives that predators in general), with foxes being par- minimise the sub-species' exposure to ticularly abundant. In north-eastern introduced predators should be pursued. Victoria, where the majority of predation Firstly, additional evidence that canids events occurred, foxes are the most com- prey upon carpet pythons is available. monly detected mammalian predator dur- Shine and Fitzgerald (1996) documented ing regular spotlight surveys and scat sam- seven instances of fox predation among a pling within and surrounding the Warby group of ten Coastal Carpet Pythons M. s. Range State Park (G. Barrow unpubl. mcdowelli that died whilst being radio- data). Analysis of canid scats collected at tracked in north-eastem New South Wales Mt Meg during the summer of 2000 - 2001 (70% of mortality records, 37% of all revealed that 87% were deposited by foxes snakes radio-tracked). Each of the seven and 13% by dogs (Heard 2001). With the retrieved transmitters displayed bite-marks exception of one record of a feral cat, all characteristic of a canid, and the authors tracks recorded on baited sand-pads during concluded that foxes were involved in each this period were those of foxes (Heard case. Similar evidence was gathered during 2001). the present study. Six of the seven trans- Nonetheless, in the absence of observa- mitters were retrieved from the ground sur- tions of canids actually catching and face, in relatively open localities (one killing carpet pythons, alternative explana- within a fox den) and either displayed tions cannot be discounted. For example, it numerous bite marks or had been thor- is possible that they merely consumed the oughly chewed (the exception in each case remains of these snakes after some other being the transmitter of 'NEI l', which was event caused their death. Death through evidently eaten by a goanna). Three of the collision with vehicles is possible for transmitters were also partially buried. example; however, python home-range Foxes and dogs regularly cache food items rarely overlapped with roads in our study (Saunders er al. 1999; Fleming et al. areas, and therefore death from such events 200 I), and the partial burial of these trans- seems improbable. Similarly, death result- mitters appears to be an example of this ing from illness is questionable given that

Vol. 123 (2) 2006 7 1 Research Report all the pythons that died during our study 75 pythons tracked) where radio-transmit- were sequestered in shelter sites during ters surgically implanted within the peri- their last re-location. We assume that these toneum of South-westem Carpet Pythons snakes would remain secluded within these M. s. imbricata were subsequently shelters during any illness (as they general- expelled through the alimentary tract, most ly do when shedding their skin) and there- being deposited within faecal pellets fore be inaccessible to canids. Shelter sites (71%). They subsequently cautioned selected by these pythons generally pro- against the conclusion that an implanted vide excellent refuge from predators (the animal had been lost to predation if its exception in this study being the log inhab- transmitter alone was relocated (even if it ited by 'NWOl ' prior to death, which had a had been chewed, as this may have relatively wide hollow and was evidently occurred after expulsion), and advocated used by a fox). that inference of a radio-tracked snake's It may also be the case that the fate of death due to predation be made only if the these animals was either unnatural due to carcass was located. We agree that such behavioural changes resulting from trans- evidence is required for unequivocal con- mitter implantation, or misinterpreted due clusions on the fate of tracked animals, but to a failure in the telemetry technique. In found no evidence of transmitter expulsion the first instance, it may be argued that the during this study. Also, considering that death of several snakes within months of these pythons spent the major part of their release ('NE12', 'NE13', 'NE1 5', 'NE16', time in secluded microhabitats (e.g. rock 'NWOl') was the result of transmitter crevices, tree hollows; Heard et al. 2004) implantation increasing their susceptibility (and often defecated there) it seems to predation. For example, transmitter improbable that expelled transmitters implantation may have increased the would be accessible to scavenging canids. snakes' time spent basking (to maintain The discovery of the dismembered remains higher body temperatures, as has been of 'NW3 1' and the occurrence of non-fatal observed when ingestible transmitters are injuries consistent with canid attack on used in snake telemetry projects; other pythons captured during the project Lutterschmidt and Reinert 1990) or mov- (G.Barrow, P. Robertson pers. obs.), sug- ing (due to the stress of captivity and gest that attacks do occur and are the most surgery, or disturbance of their normal plausible explanation for the apparent pre- activity patterns). We cannot discount such dation events detailed here. behavioural shifts and associated increases Given our conclusion that canid predation in predator exposure. However, consider- was the primary cause of death for 20% of ing that these snakes displayed similar carpet pythons radio-tracked during this behavioural patterns to the other 23 study (and is potentially representative of pythons monitored, and one of the snakes predation rates in the population as a killed had been tracked for several years whole), the effect of canid predation on prior to death, a consistent effect of the python population viability must be consid- radio-tracking technique is not apparent. ered. Small wildlife populations with natu- The techniques used during this study are rally low birth rates are particularly sensi- considered standard for radio-tracking tive to environmental perturbations such as snakes, and have been applied widely in increases in predation levels, as mortality Australia without apparent negative effects rates can easily exceed recruitment rates on the behaviour, health or survivorship of and plunge these populations into decline the study animals in most cases (e.g. Shine (Primack 2004). Victorian populations of 1979; Slip and Shine 1988; Madsen and carpet pythons have probably always dis- Shine 1996; Webb and Shine 1997; played relatively low densities and repro- Fitzgerald et al. 2002; Pearson 2002; ductive rates as they inhabit a temperate Butler et al. 2005). In the second instance, environment that allows a relatively short it is possible that the transmitters of these active period; a circumstance in which pythons were chewed following their snakes find it difficult to accumulate the expulsion from the snake's body. Pearson energy stores needed for annual reproduc- and Shine (2002) documented 14 cases (of tion; Shine 1991). Thus, the sub-species is

72 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report predisposed to be sensitive to increased extraction continue to fragment and predation rates. However, recent reductions degrade the woodland habitats of these in habitat quality through structural simpli- pythons across the state's northern plains. fication, fragmentation and isolation, and Subsequent reductions in habitat continuity concurrent population declines of many of and complexity almost certainly expose their mammalian prey species (Bennett et carpet pythons to higher predation risk. a1 1998) have probably further reduced These snakes rely heavily on camouflage population sizes and recruitment rates and cryptic behaviour to avoid detection amongst Victorian populations of carpet by predators; characteristics that are inef- pythons. Canid predation may subsequently fectual when moving through open country be generating unsustainable mortality rates (to move between habitat remnants) or amongst these populations, and jeopardis- structurally simplified habitats. Shine and ing their long-term viability. Fitzgerald (1996) suspected that carpet Measures to reduce the threat of canid pythons in their telemetry group were cap- predation to remaining Victorian popula- tured by foxes whilst moving through open tions of carpet pythons should be pursued. habitats (orchards) within a study area in Previous research at Mt Meg suggests that north-eastem New South Wales. Data col- control programs that aim to reduce canid lected during the present study are insuffi- abundance before and during the summer cient to describe the habitats or microhabi- months may be most beneficial. Scat tats in which pythons were killed (with the analysis confirms that carpet pythons and exception of 'NW31', the remains of foxes prey predominantly on rabbits in this which were located outside the rock- region (P. Robertson, G. Barrow unpubl. crevice previously occupied by the snake). data) and habitat use by these species sug- However, it is apparent that most were gests they forage primarily within areas of killed during excursions from sheltered semi-cleared woodland where rabbits are microhabitats. Two habitat management most abundant. At Mt Meg, pythons fre- actions are appropriate: (i) maintaining and quent these habitats in summer when they expanding connectivity between habitat disperse widely in search of prey (Heard et remnants (through habitat acquisition and al. 2004). During this period they select revegetation) to reduce the snake's need to microhabitats in close proximity to rabbit cross cleared land when moving between burrows and will also shelter in them at habitat remnants; and (ii) preservation of this time (Heard et al. 2004). Scat distribu- ground cover such as woody debris, fallen tion and visitation rates to sand-pads indi- timber and ground and shrub-layer vegeta- cate foraging activity by foxes is also cen- tion within habitat remnants (through the tered on rabbit burrows at Mt Meg (Heard elimination of grazing and timber extrac- 2001). As carpet pythons move frequently tion) to increase the snake's ability to during summer (often through open coun- avoid predators during daily thermoregula- try between habitat patches) and their habi- tory, foraging and movement activities. tat use during this period overlaps signifi- We conclude by proposing that manage- cantly with that of foxes (both in terms of ment actions which reduce canid popula- broad habitat associations and microhabitat tions (particularly foxes) within and sur- locations), these snakes are likely to be rounding python habitat during the warmer most vulnerable to fox predation during months, increase the continuity of the sub- the warmer months. It is notable that all species's woodland habitats, and enhance pythons, except 'NW3 l', that were appar- the structural complexity of these habitats ently killed by predators during this study are requisite components of conservation died during, or late in, the summer activity programs for this endangered snake season of these snakes (December - throughout northern Victoria. March). In combination with control programs, Acknowledgements This project was financially and logistically sup- habitat management will be crucial for ported by Parks Victoria and the Victorian reducing the susceptibility of carpet Department of Sustainability and Environment. pythons to canid predation in Victoria. Collation of data presented here was supported Vegetation clearing, grazing and timber by research grants to the senior author from La

Vol. 123 (2) 2006 73 Research Report

Trobe University (Albury-Wodonga campus) Heard GW (2001) Aspects of the distributional ecology and the Peter Rankin Trust Fund for of the Inland Carpet Python (Morelia spilota met- Herpetology. We are indebted to Sharon Reid calfei) in the Warby Ranges, North-east Victoria. (BSc Honours Thesis, La Trobe University) (Parks Victoria, Wangaratta), Daniel Hunter Heard GW and Black D (2003) A survey of the reptile (Department of Sustainability and Environment, fauna inhabiting the Mt Meg Flora and Fauna Tatura), Dale Gibbons and Richard Minton Reserve, North-east Victoria. The Victorian (Sunraysia TAFE, Mildura) who assisted with Naturalist 120, 84-91. the radio-telemetric work. Barbara Triggs con- Heard GW, Black D and Robertson P (2004) Habitat ducted all scat analyses from the north-eastem use bv the Inland Camet Python (Morelia spilota study sites discussed in this paper. Mark metcilfei, ~~thonidae).seasonal relationships with habitat structure and prey distribution in a rural land- Hutchinson (Herpetology Department, South scape. Austral Ecology 29,446-460. Australian Museum) kindly examined the Lunney D, Triggs B, Eby P and Ashby E (1990) python vertebrae obtained from a fox scat at Mt Analysis of scats of dogs Canis familiaris and foxes Meg. We thank Michael Clark and Brian Vulpes vulues (Canidae: Carnivora) in coastal forests Malone (Department of Zoology, La Trobe near ~e~a',Ndw South Wales. ~;stralian Wildlife University) for commenting on an earlier draft Research 17,61-68 of this manuscript, and acknowledge the helpful Lutterschmidt, WI and Reinert, HK (1990) The effect of ingested transmitters upon the temperature prefer- suggestions offered by Nick Clemann (Arthur ence of northern water snakes, Nerodia sipedon Rylah Institute, Melboume) during the review- sipedon. Herpetologica 46, 39-42. ing process. The python telemetry project was Madsen T and Shine R (1996) Seasonal migration of undertaken under DSE permit number 100018 17 predators and prey - a study of pythons and rats in and ethics approval number AEEC 981005. tropical Australia. Ecology 77, 149-156. Research within the Mt Meg Flora and Fauna Newsome A, Pech R, Smyth R, Banks P and Dickman Reserve was carried out under DSE permit num- C (1997). Potential Impacts on Australian Native Fatrna of Rabbit Colicivirus Disease. Biodiversity ber 10001086. Group, Environment Australia. Parks Victoria (2000) State of the Parks - 2000. Parks References Victoria, Melbourne. Allen G. Barrow G. Hurlev V and Robertson P (2003) Pearson DJ (2002) The ecology and conservation of the The lnland Carpet python (Morelia spilot; met: South-westem Carpet Python Morelia spilota imbri- calfei). Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement cata. (PhD Thesis, University of Sydney) Number 175. 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Butler H, Malone B and Clemann N (2005) The effects Herpetologica 35, 1- 11. of translocation on the spatial ecology of tiger snakes Shine R (1991) Australian Snakes: A Natural History. (Notechis p cut at us) in a suburban landscape. Wildlife (Reed Books: Sydney). Research 32, 165-171. Shine R and Fitzgerald M (1996) Large snakes in a Conn BJ (1993) Natural regions and vegetation of mosaic rural landscape: the ecology of carpet pythons Victoria. In Flora of Victoria, Volume I - Morelia spilota (Serpentes: Pythonidae) in coastal Introduction pp. 79.158. Eds D.B. Foreman and N.G. eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 76, Walsh. (Inkata Press: Melbourne) 113-122. Coventry JA and Robertson P (1991) The Snakes of Slip DJ and Shine R (1988) Habitat use, movements Victoria: A Guide to their Identification. and activity patterns of free-ranging Diamond (Deoartment of Conservation and Environment: Pythons Morelia spilota spilota (Serpentes: Boidae): kelboume.) a radiometric study. 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