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China: La Gran Incógnita AÑO XX, NÚMERO 78, OTOÑO DE 2019 78 China La gran incógnita Zhōngguó Soledad Jiménez Tovar (coordinadora) Andrés Alba Bajatta, Ivonne Virginia Campos Rico, Hanna Deikun, ZHANG Fan, Andrea López Ortiz, Henri-Irénée Marrou, Jean Meyer, Manuel de Jesús Rocha Pino, Guy Thuillier, Alejandro Santistevan, Merle Schatz $ 100.00 DIRECTOR FUNDADOR Jean Meyer . Istor es una publicación trimestral de la Di­ visión de Historia del Cen tro de In ves tiga­ DIRECTOR David Miklos ción y Do cenc ia Econó mi cas (CIDE). CONSEJO EDITORIAL Catherine Andrews, . El objetivo de Istor es ofrecer un acercamien­ Luis Barrón, Adolfo Castañón, Clara García to original a los aconteci mien­­tos y a los Ayluardo, Luis Medina, Antonio Saborit, gran­­­des de bates de la historia y la actua lidad Rafael Rojas y Mauricio Tenorio internacio nal. DISEÑO Y FORMACIÓN Natalia Rojas Nieto . Las opiniones expresadas en esta revis ta son responsabilidad de sus au to res. La reproduc­ CORRECCIÓN Pilar Tapia y Nora Matadamas ción de los tra bajos necesita previa autori­ zación. CONSEJO HONORARIO . Los manuscritos deben enviar se a la División Yuri Afanasiev † Universidad de Humanidades, Moscú de Historia del CIDE. Su presentación debe Carlos Altamirano Editor de la revista Prisma (Argentina) Pierre Chaunu † Institut de France seguir los atributos que pueden observarse Jorge Domínguez Universidad de Harvard en este nú mero. Enrique Florescano Secretaría de Cultura . Todos los artículos son dictaminados. Josep Fontana † Universidad de Barcelona . Dirija su correspondencia electrónica al edi­ Manuel Moreno Fraginals † Universidad de La Habana tor responsable: [email protected] Luis González † El Colegio de Michoacán . Puede consultar Istor en internet: Charles Hale † Universidad de Iowa www.istor.cide.edu Matsuo Kazuyuki Universidad de Sofía, Tokio Alan Knight Universidad de Oxford Seymour Lipset † Universidad George Mason . Centro de Inves tiga ción y Docencia Olivier Mongin Editor de Esprit, París Eco nó mi cas, A.C., Carretera México­Toluca Daniel Roche Collège de France 3655 (km 16.5), Lomas de Santa Fe, 01210, Stuart Schwartz Universidad de Yale Ciudad de México. Rafael Segovia † El Colegio de México . Certificado de licitud de título: 11541 y David Thelen Universidad de Indiana contenido: 8104. John Womack Jr. Universidad de Harvard . Reserva del título otorgada por el Indautor: 04­2000­071211550100­102 . ISSN: 1665­1715 . Impresión: Impresión y Diseño, Suiza 23 bis, Colonia Portales Oriente, 03570, Ciudad de México. Suscripciones: Tel.: 57 27 98 00, ext. 6093 [email protected] Zhōngguó Portada: China en caracteres chinos (tradicional y simplificado), por White Whirlwind (dominio público) y en pinyin (chino en caracteres latinos). ­istor, AÑO XX, NÚmero 78, OTOÑO de 2019 ISTOR, palabra del griego antiguo y más exactamente del jónico. Nombre de agente, istor, “el que sabe”, el experto, el testigo, de donde proviene el verbo istoreo, “tratar de saber, informarse”, y la palabra istoria, búsqueda, averi gua ción, “historia”. Así, nos colocamos bajo la invocación del primer istor: Heródoto de Halicarnaso. ÍNDICE Presentación 3 Soledad JimÉNEZ TOVar, China: La gran incógnita Dossier 7 IVONNE VirgiNia Campos Rico, Frontera étnica y parentesco en China imperial: Etnicidad han durante la dinastía Qing (1644­1911) 23 ZHANG FAN, Descubriendo el tesoro occidental: El Tíbet en la historiografía cosmopolita Qing 39 Soledad JimÉNEZ TOVar, ¿Tienen los imperios una lengua nacional? Visiones desde China 57 Merle SchatZ, “¡Nosotros no comemos sus cosas!” Comida blanca e identidad en Mongolia Interior 65 MANUel de JesÚS Rocha PINO, La política exterior de China y el concepto “ruta de la seda” (1994­2019) Usos y abusos de la historia 81 GUY THUillier, Sobre el placer del historiador 89 HENri-IRÉNÉE MarroU, Tristeza del historiador Historia y literatura 121 AlejaNdro SANtisteVAN, El Señor de la Historia, el Ángel de la Historia y el juicio histórico a Alan García Reseñas 133 ANdrÉS Alba Bajatta, La “cultura” china o lo cultural como constructo político 139 HANNA DeikUN, Un mundo distinto en la frontera sino­rusa 145 ANdrea LÓpeZ OrtiZ, Nacionalismo e identidad en el siglo XXI Cajón de sastre 151 JeaN MEYER Presentación CHINA: LA GRAN INCÓGNITA Soledad Jiménez Tovar* En las últimas dos décadas, el mundo ha visto un desaforado crecimiento econó­ mico de “China”. Dicho crecimiento ha comenzado a transformar las relaciones económicas y políticas a nivel global. Al mismo tiempo, el crecimiento exponen­ cial de la presencia “china” en el mundo representa un reto a un imperialismo más tradicional, es decir, aquel ejercido por los países de la Europa occidental junto con Estados Unidos de América. “China” y su explosivo arribo a las relaciones económicas neoliberales ha trastocado, de hecho, la vida cotidiana de las personas. Hoy por hoy, es muy difícil encontrar productos que no provengan de “China” cuando se hacen las compras cotidianas, por ejemplo. En lo escrito hasta aquí, es probable que haya llamado la atención del lector mi uso de las comillas para referirme a “China”. La razón, de tan compleja, resul­ ta muy simple: si se quiere pensar más allá de las relaciones internacionales con­ temporáneas, es muy difícil definir lo que significaría la palabra China. Nos enfrentamos, en este caso, a un Estado con un territorio que es producto de las relaciones imperiales de los siglos XVIII-XX. Esas relaciones imperiales son tanto centrífugas —en este caso, eso se referiría al imperialismo euroamericano del periodo referido—, como centrípetas, es decir, la conformación e imaginación de China misma como un imperio. Además, en la incertidumbre conceptual que la caracterizó en la construcción de su nacionalismo, lo que sería o no incluido en China no podría sino caracterizarse con un adjetivo: nebuloso. En primer lugar, la construcción de la mayoría poblacional como la nación china es un proceso que ha tomado mucho tiempo en llevarse a cabo. Surgen, en * Soledad Jiménez Tovar es profesora­investigadora titular de la División de Historia del CIDE. 3 SOLEDAD JIMÉNEZ TOVAR primera instancia, las ambigüedades del término han como categoría étnico­racial. Así, se tiende a hacer una identificación de lohan como lo chino; sin embargo, esta identificación no necesariamente es tan transparente como un lector recién iniciado en estos temas podría pensar. No se puede asumir una continuidad lin­ güística, histórica y cultural de los han mantenida durante varios milenios.1 Esta es una simplificación discutida, en este volumen, en el artículo de Merle Schatz acerca del consumo de lácteos en Mongolia Interior y en mi propia contribución sobre la lengua nacional en China. En lo tocante al parentesco, los han también se han mezclado a lo largo del tiempo, y eso hace difícil pensar la nación china en términos de pureza racial,2 lo cual conlleva también la duda sobre la pureza cul­ tural, tal es el caso de la discusión de Ivonne Campos sobre los han en la dinastía Qing (1644­1911), también en este dossier. La mayoría étnica es muy difícil de definir claramente, lo cual dificulta, a su vez, la delimitación de una categoría político­geográfica.3 La expansión y compre­ sión de China a lo largo de la historia es tan compleja que no se puede hablar de un territorio coherente, ni siquiera a lo largo del periodo considerado en las con­ tribuciones de este número especial (siglos XVIII-XX). Así, mientras en el siglo XVIII tenemos el inicio de la expansión territorial de la China de la dinastía Qing, que llevaría el territorio chino a su máxima expresión hacia finales del siglo XIX,4 a inicios del siglo XX, con la “independencia” de Mongolia Exterior, Tíbet y Xinjiang tras la capitulación de la dinastía Qing (1911) y la fundación de la Repú­ blica de China (1912), el territorio chino se vería enormemente disminuido; más adelante, en 1949, Taiwán se convierte en una China “aparte” de la República Popular China, que se ubicaría en la China continental. Al mismo tiempo, du­ rante la década de 1950, vendría la “liberación pacífica” y la consiguiente rein­ corporación a China del Tíbet (1951) y Xinjiang (1955). Todos estos cambios geográficos, de un eminente carácter político, han sido discutidos en la (re)confi­ guración del (de los) nacionalismo(s) chino(s) del siglo XX.5 Además de lo anterior, 1 T. Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation: Ethnic Classification in Modern China, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2011; “Critical Han Studies. Introduction and Prolegomenon”, en T. Mullaney, J.P. Leibold, S. Gros, E.A. Vanden Bussche (eds.), Critical Han Studies. The History, Representation, and Identity of China’s Majority, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2012, pp. 1­20. 2 F. Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China, Hong Kong, Hurst & Company, 1992. 3 U. Granados, “La frontera de China: Problemas actuales y perspectivas a futuro”, Istor, vol. VII, núm. 27, 2006, pp. 121­140. 4 P. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia, Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005. 5 J. Leibold, “Competing Narratives of Racial Unity in Republican China: From the Yellow Emperor to 4 China: La gran incógnita tenemos el imperialismo europeo del siglo XIX que, después de dos Guerras del Opio (1839­1842 y 1856­1860), permitió la concesión de los llamados “puertos de tratado”, que permitirían la presencia europea en ciertos puertos de la costa oriental de China; el retorno de Hong Kong a la República Popular China por parte de los británicos, en 1997, puso fin a ese proceso.6 En este tenor, la contribu­ ción de ZHANG Fan sobre la incorporación del Tíbet en la imaginación imperial de la dinastía Qing es muy ilustrativa de los vericuetos identitarios que implica el “occidente Chino” (xiyu, 西域) en la construcción de la China moderna. Por último, parecerían existir más de dos Chinas, si se obvia la problemática de dos países que reclaman la legitimidad de ser la “verdadera” China, o sea, la República Popular y Taiwán.
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