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4-1-2017 Reverse in Hellenistic : The Case for a Gender Critical Readying Josh Law

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Reverse Circumcision in Hellenistic Judaism: The Case for a Gender Critical Reading

Josh Law Edited by Dr. Mary Thurlkill Under the direction of Dr. James Bos

I. Introduction circumcision is not only an ethnic Biblical texts often contain quite marker for Hellenistic Judeans. Instead, graphic and explicit descriptions of male circumcision is- in addition to an female bodies. Male bodies, however, ethnic marker- the means by which typically elude the gaze of male Judean patriarchy is solidified and a key authors; this trend breaks in a few marker of Judean . I will telling verses in 1 Maccabees regarding argue that those who underwent male circumcision. The key text reads, epispasm did so as an attempt to “And they built a gymnasium in perform Greek masculinity instead of Jerusalem, according to the custom of Judean masculinity and that this the Greeks, and they made for attempt angered the practitioners of themselves , and they Judean masculinity. abandoned the holy covenant” (1 Macc A brief word must be said about 1:14-15a).1 This text raises two obvious exactly what I mean by the word questions: what does it mean to make a “masculine.” I am defining masculinity for oneself, and why would as a set of behaviors practiced by which anyone ever do this? a person with a male body becomes a Contemporary scholars have .2 Thus, I am not defining persuasively written about masculinity as an inherent category to uncircumcision procedures- and the 2 polemic against them- from the Whether or not a male body is a prerequisite perspective of ethnic difference. The to behave as masculine and be a man is a contestable issue. Could a person with a female writing on uncircumcision procedures body (or body) perform masculine fails to include a discussion of the behaviors? Of course. But would that person be gender dynamics in play. In order to considered a “man” by the dominant culture? fully explore uncircumcision operations The answer to that question is much more in Hellenistic Judaism, a gender critical difficult to ascertain and varies from culture to culture. Given that it is outside of the scope of lens must be applied. I will argue that this paper, I have decided to forgo this discussion and will primarily discuss masculinity 1 Translation is my own. All other translations as a set of behaviors performed by people who come from the NRSV unless otherwise stated. possess male bodies.

be born into (such as a male body) but a oneself a foreskin? There are two set of behaviors to perform.3 Masculine procedures in the ancient world behaviors often vary across and within designed to undo circumcision: people groups. In any given culture, infibulation and epispasm.4 Infibulation, there are often several competing according to Celsus, the first century at play, and the dominant medical author, involved drawing the (i.e. hegemonic) form of masculinity is skin around the forward to cover often the one practiced by those at the the glans and fastening it with a fibula top of society with the most power and or twine.5 Epispasm, which is often influence. Therefore, it is possible for called the “Cadillac of corrective hegemonic Judean masculinity to surgeries,” is the most effective include a quite different set of procedure known to undo circumcision. behaviors than hegemonic Greek Epispasm was a challenging operation: masculinity and that male bodies would the surgeon would cut the skin on the have some degree of freedom to shaft of the penis, pull it forward to perform either Judean or Greek cover the glans, and dress it carefully so masculinity. that the skin would attach itself to the glans, leaving a foreskin. Bear in mind II. What is an Uncircumcision that this operation was practiced Operation? without , though Celsus Uncircumcision operation is a promises that the operation was “not so generic term that refers to several very painful.”6 There simply is not operations designed to undo the marks enough data to state whether 1 of circumcision on a male penis. The Maccabees refers to either infibulation earliest known reference to the or epispasm. It is possible that operation in Jewish writing is found in 1 Hellenistic Judeans were practicing Maccabees 1:11-15. Uncircumcision both infibulation and epispasm.7 For the operations are mentioned in texts sake of convenience, I will use the term written from the second century BCE to epispasm generically as a substitute for the sixth century CE (1 Maccabees, “uncircumcision operations.” , Talmud), which is suggestive that the operations were practiced for more than five hundred years.

What exactly did the operations 4 Robert Hall, “Epispasm: Circumcision in include? How does a person make for Reverse,” Review (1992): 54. 5 Hall, “Epispasm,” 54 3 6 On this point, I am indebted to the thought of Hall, “Epispasm,” 54 7 R. W. Connell. See, R.W. Connell, Masculinities The Roman poet, Martial, mocks a Judean (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, whose fibula fell out while bathing. See Hall, 1995). “Epispasm,” 54.

III. Scholarly Treatments of Epispasm in Hellenistic Jewish men underwent the 1 Maccabees operation in an effort to appease not Before engaging in a analysis of the Greeks generally but Greek men, epispasm from a gender critical specifically. perspective, it is necessary to rehearse Robert Hall’s treatment of the scholarly positions on epispasm. epispasm in 1 Maccabees is more Relatively little has been written on the robust than Goldstein’s but still lacks an topic, so it shall not take long to present overt discussion about gender. Hall an overview of the key scholarly says: treatments. “Some probably submitted In his commentary on 1 to epispasm because they shared Maccabees, Jonathan Goldstein briefly the common Greek and Roman mentions epispasm: “In a Greek revulsion toward circumcision… Gymnasium all the physical exercises Jews of means naturally wished and sports were performed in complete to participate in gymnasium and nudity… Many peoples of the Near East bath. Not only were these a chief besides the Jews practiced means of recreation, they also circumcision, but Greeks tended to view functioned as hubs for business. it as an unseemly . Hence, If Jews exercised or bathed while some of the Hellenized Jewish youths circumcised, they offended their who had to strip in the gymnasium were gentile neighbors and submitted willing to submit to painful operations themselves to incredulous to disguise the fact that they had been ridicule; if they did not attend, circumcised.”8 Goldstein rightly everyone knew why- and talked associates epispasm with the Greek about it. Either way their business Gymnasium, as does the author of 1 would suffer.”9 Maccabees. However, Goldstein utterly Hall recognizes that epispasm is a fails to account for the masculinities at means to attain greater economic play. He uses the terms “many power. Though he does not say so, peoples” and “Greeks” to disguise the publicly accruing economic power is fact that the text is talking about men typically a masculine behavior in and male bodies. Goldstein writes that Hellenistic Judea. Hall also recognizes “Hellenistic Jewish youths” underwent that epispasm paved the way to greater the operation, but this is not the case; social power: “Athletics constituted a

chief avenue of social advancement for 8 Jonathan Goldstein, I Maccabees: A New underclass boys… Since athletes Translation, with Introduction and Commentary exercised and competed without (New York: Doubleday, 1976) 200. Goldstein is to some degree dependent upon Shurer on this 9 point. Hall, “Epispasm,” 54. Italics are mine.

clothes, this avenue was denied to those who were circumcised.”10 IV. Judean Circumcision and Masculinity Females were prohibited from How one views epispasm relates professional sporting, so the social to how that person understands advancement Hall discusses is a circumcision. It is necessary to zoom out thoroughly masculine social and reflect upon circumcision in the advancement. Hall recognizes that wider Judean world from the epispasm was both ethnic, economic, perspective of masculinity. Against and social, though he does not overtly Shanks, who argues that circumcision recognizes that it is also gendered. had nothing to do with manhood, I will Hershel Shanks is known as the argue that male circumcision, a surgery world’s leading amateur biblical performed exclusively on male bodies, archaeologist, and he is the editor of has everything to do with masculinity. A the Biblical Archaeology Review. His brief history of Judahite worship of treatment of uncircumcision operations YHWH and male circumcision will reveal is lacking fullness. Shanks writes, “In a the gender ideology implicit to the number of cultures [circumcision] was a operation. rite that prepared a man for marriage. Although it is likely that Judeans Only in Judaism was it performed on an inherited circumcision from other eight day-old . And it had nothing people groups in the wider Near East, to do with manhood or sex, but was a Judean circumcision in the Hellenistic sign of the covenant between God and era had several distinct features.12 the Jewish people.”11 How could Uniquely, Judahite texts command the circumcision, practiced exclusively on of all males while male genitals, have nothing to do with they are still (Genesis 17:12). manhood or sex? Shanks’s treatment of That Judeans were practicing uncircumcision operations may be the circumcision on all males in the infancy most obviously blind to issues of stage is distinct from any other masculinity, but he is not alone in circumcision practice in the wider Near treating the operation as being East in which only a few males were primarily due to ethnic pressures circumcised as they transitioned from instead of gendered pressures. It is time boyhood to manhood13. The means by to, against Shanks, discuss the which Judean circumcision gained its thoroughly masculine element of uniqueness is the subject of much circumcision, epispasm, and the debate, and in order to provide an polemic against it. 12 David Gollaher, Circumcision: A History of 10 Hall, “Epispasm,” 54. the World’s Most Controversial Surgery (New 11 Shanks, “A Flip of the Foreskin,” 1. Italics are York: Basic Books, 2000), 2. 13 mine. Gollaher, Circumcision, 3.

adequate answer, something must be incorporation into Judahite worship; said about the masculinity of YHWH and these behaviors are thoroughly his worship in Judah. masculine.15 Further, representations of That YHWH was initially an YHWH, albeit rare, depict him with a embodied male deity before his rise to male body, and the drawings of YHWH the disembodied monotheistic God is a found at Kuntillet Arjud establish that: well established norm in contemporary a). YHWH had a male body and a penis scholarship. Howard Eilberg-Schwartz and b). YHWH possessed a female boldly proclaims: partner, Asherah.16 Clearly, YHWH was “The thought of God having a once imagined as possessing a male penis is shocking. Most Jews and body and performing Judean Christians think of God the father masculinity. as lacking a body and hence as Having established the beyond sexuality. Without a masculinity of YHWH, it is time to reflect body, God obviously can have no upon the meaning of his masculinity as sexual organ? But from where he is elevated to a monotheistic does the idea of a disembodied status.17 There are two fundamental God come? What if, historically properties of Judahite culture in the speaking, it is discomfort with the exilic period that together problematize idea of God’s penis that has male bodies as YHWH becomes the generated the idea of an sole deity of worship. First, Judahite incorporeal God? What if this culture is patriarchal and privileges uneasiness flows from the males as YHWH’s servants and contradictions inherent in men’s representatives. Second, Judahite relationship with a God who is culture was heteronormative and explicitly male?”14 homophobic (Lev 20: 13).18 Due to the The embodied masculinity of YHWH heteronormativity of Judahite culture, within a heteronormative culture problematizes male bodies. That YHWH 15 Thomas Rőmer, The Invention of God, trans. was once imagined as having a male Raymond Geuss (Cambridge, MA: Harvard body and performer of hegemonic University Press, 2015), 47. 16 masculinity hardly needs argument Römer, The Invention of God, 164. 17 anymore, though a few words can be I am indebted to the work of Howard Eilberg- Schwartz for illuminating this issue for me. said on the issue. Thomas Rőmer argues 18 Applying the modern terms heteronormative persuasively that YHWH was initially a and homophobic to ancient culture is obviously southern war and storm god before his anachronistic, though it should be no more so than applying the modern terms pantheist or 14 Howard Eilberg-Schwartz, God’s Phallus and monotheist. Suffice it to say that most elites in other Problems for Men and Monotheism the culture would not have looked favorably (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1994), 1. upon male-male sexual relationships.

women were the logical primary not be regarded as too imaginative intimates and servants of the male have explanatory power. Steven deity, YHWH. However, allowing Weitzman, for instance, argues that females primary intimacy would circumcision is rightly understood as a destabilize the patriarchal religious “rite of domination.”21 David’s forced system.19 Oddly enough, YHWH’s circumcision of the Philistines is not an masculinity initially destabilized Judean attempt to make the Philistines into masculinity and patriarchy. Elite Judahites (which would be ethnic in Judahite men countered this problem in nature) so much as it is about three ways. First, they got rid of symbolically dominating the masculinity YHWH’s body so as to reduce the of the Philistines (1 Sam 18: 25). On that blinding obviousness of his phallus and note, the circumcision of the Hivites in masculinity (hence, aniconism). Second, Genesis 34 is not actually an attempt to they embellished the notion of female make the Hivites into Judahites (which impurity (Lev 12:5, 15: 25-29). And would be ethnic in nature) but is a trick finally, they feminized male bodies to dominate the masculinity of the through genital mutilation and Hivites and kill them (Gen. 34). ultimately circumcision so as to make and Ptolemy claim that the men proper partners for YHWH.20 I will Hasmoneans forced circumcision upon argue that circumcision in Judahite conquered Gentiles, which Weitzman culture represents symbolic argues is as an act of domination upon and submission to YHWH. defeated enemies rather than an This emasculation ultimately serves to attempt to make the enemies into reinforce patriarchy, in that it secures Judeans.22 Circumcision, then, is best male privilege to primary intimacy to understood as an act of domination or YHWH and symbolizes submission to forced submission upon inferior men. the ultimate patriarch, YHWH. It is true YHWH’s command for Judahite men to that Judean men are submitting and circumcise themselves (Gen. 17) should taking a secondary position. However, be read as Judean men’s symbolic this submission establishes a hierarchy submission to the superior man, YHWH. in which YHWH is on top, Judean men Eilberg Schwartz writes, “[Circumcision] submit to YHWH through circumcision is ideally an injury inflicted by the father and Judean females submit to both on the son to signify their submission to YHWH and Judean men. God.”23 This submission may seem Understanding circumcision as an 21 act of submission is not particularly Steven Weitzman, “Forced Circumcision and uncommon in biblical studies and ought the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology,” HTR 92 (1999): 37. 19 22 This point will be further substantiated below. Weitzman, “Forced Circumcision,” 41. 20 23 Eilberg-Schwartz, God’s Phallus, 137-162. Eilberg-Schwartz, “God’s Phallus,” 157.

illogical, but it is a necessity for men to representatives.26 attain intimacy with YHWH as his Circumcision, though it is representatives and servants. emasculating, does not stifle patriarchy That symbolic emasculation and but facilitates it by allowing male bodies genital mutilation is a prerequisite to the place of primary intimacy with male connection with YHWH is implicit YHWH. Men’s intimacy to YHWH does within several biblical texts.24 For not necessarily lead to a patriarchal instance, is blessed by God after religious system. However, it does lay his wrestling match at Peniel, and he the foundation upon which a patriarchal says, “I have seen God face to face, and religious system can be built. Maleness I have prevailed.” (Gen 32: 30). becomes a prerequisite to representing However, Jacob is only blessed after a and serving YHWH, whether as his genital injury, in which God struck him or his king. The temple and the in the hollow of his loins (Gen 32: 25).25 palace, then, necessarily become male Further, genital injury and blood is the spaces where power and literacy are mechanism by which ’ life is concentrated. It is in these male spaces spared and his status as YHWH’s that texts are written which normalize representative established, after which male experience, marginalize females Moses speaks with YHWH “face to and generate patriarchal household, face” (Exod. 4:21-26, 33:11). Genesis economic, and social regulations. I am 17, then, is rightly understood as by no means arguing that all of this YHWH’s command for Judahite men to social organization that I am labeling undergo genital injury in order to be his “patriarchal” is completely dependent servants and representatives. upon male circumcision. Social systems Circumcision is an act of submission to are far too complex to blame any one YHWH that allows for intimacy between factor. However, I am arguing that male the male deity and Judean males. Or, intimacy to YHWH is secured through as Eilberg-Schwartz puts it, “The blood circumcision and that this intimacy gives of circumcision is a symbolic men the power to shape a religious and acknowledgment that a man’s political system in a way that benefits masculinity belongs to God,” and this men. acknowledgement allows Judean men Genesis 17, written by the male to serve as God’s intimate priestly writer, well illustrates the connection between male intimacy to

24 YHWH, female marginalization, and Once again I am indebted to Eilberg- Schwartz for illuminating this trend. See esp, patriarchy. In the text, YHWH says, Eilberg-Schwartz, “God’s Phallus,” 151-155. “This is my covenant, which you shall 25 On the discussion of exactly which body part of Jacob’s was struck, see Eilberg-Schwartz, 26 “God’s Phallus,” 153. Eilberg-Schwartz, “God’s Phallus,” 160.

keep, between me and you and your gender ideology supported by the offspring after you: Every male among operation is not to dismiss the ethnic you shall be circumcised” (Gen. 17:10). ideology that is surely present. That the male priest has the power to Nevertheless, what remains and must speak for YHWH is dependent upon be clearly stated is that circumcision is male intimacy to YHWH. Notice that the the answer to the problem of YHWH’s covenant is circumcision, which means masculinity in a heteronormative that the priest, in this text, excludes society. Forced circumcision of Judean females from participation in the males is a symbolic unmanning and covenant. To be excluded from the submission to the male deity. However, covenant with the tribal deity is this unmanning serves to stabilize male discriminatory in and of itself, but this intimacy with YHWH and the patriarchal exclusion also gives males the right to religious system that depends upon speak for YHWH and invent household males as the exclusive representatives codes that benefit men to the expense of YHWH. of women. Obviously, male circumcision alone is not to blame for Judean V. Circumcision and Greek Masculinity patriarchy, but it is a symbol that While circumcision was a supports the social system of prerequisite for Judean masculinity, an domination. Harry Brod argues that intact foreskin was a necessary circumcision is the means by which prerequisite for Greek masculinity. A patriarchy is transmitted simple scan of Greek sculptures reveals intergenerationally. Brod writes: “To be that the ideal male form included a a Jewish man means to be long, tapered, uncircumcised foreskin.28 circumcised… For circumcision is above Ancient Greeks are famous for their all a male-to-male transmission of celebration of male beauty, and those Jewish identity, one that dramatically who mutilated their male form were centers Judaism on fathers and sons subject to mockery and isolation.29 and marginalizes mothers and Further, that there were several daughters.”27 procedures within Greek antiquity Circumcision is YHWH’s genital known to lengthen a foreskin suggests it injury inflicted on Judean men in order necessity as a component of Greek to have intimate relationship with them. masculinity. 30 Thus, while to be Judean To be clear, circumcision is surely functional as an ethnic marker as well as 28 Thomas Hubbard, ed., Homosexuality in masculine symbol. To emphasize the and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents (Berkeley, CA: University of 27 Harry Brod, “Circumcision and the Erection of California Press, 2003), 267-268. 29 the Patriarchy,” Men and Masculinities in Glick, “Marked in Your Flesh,” 31. 30 Christianity and Judaism (2009): 356. Hall, “Epispasm,” 54.

man meant to be circumcised, Greek heavily? manhood required an unmutilated I have argued that circumcision foreskin. One could not simultaneously stabilizes Judean masculinity and perform the dominant form of both patriarchy; why would men choose to Greek masculinity and Judean “make for themselves a foreskin”(1 masculinity, and for those living in Macc 1:15) and destabilize patriarchy Hellenistic Judea, a choice was from which they benefit? My answer is required. certainly not that these men undergoing epispasm are proto-feminists resisting VI. Epispasm Reconsidered from a the patriarchy. Instead, I contend that Gender Critical Perspective they are merely opting to benefit from Now that circumcision has been Greek masculinity over and against discussed within its varying Greek and Judean masculinity. Robert Hall argues Judean contexts, it is time to take a that circumcision excluded a man from running start at the initial topic: Greek baths, athletics, and citizenship.33 epispasm of Judean men. The practice Given that Greek baths were the was widespread enough to receive location at which business deals were mention by the writer of 1 Maccabees, struck; that athletics offered the the Mishnah, the Talmud, and Moses opportunity for social advancement; Maimonides.31 Although the operation and that citizenship was a prerequisite may have been common, it was not well to hold political power, a Judean male’s received by the writers of surviving texts exclusion from those male spaces would (i.e. elite Jewish males). For instance, have meant financial, social, and Maimonides writes, “Anyone who political suffering. Thus, Judean men elongates his foreskin is denied a share opting for uncircumcision are not in the world to come.”32 subverting Judean patriarchy as much Scholarly work on epispasm has as they are simply choosing Greek painted an incomplete picture in that it masculine status over Judean masculine has discussed only the ethnic status. They are giving up their Judean dimensions of the operation and not the masculinity and the benefits it confers in gender dimensions of the operation. order to reap the benefits conferred by Two simple questions guided this Greek masculinity, for which an intact project. Why, from a gender critical foreskin is a prerequisite. It is not about perspective, would Judean men opt to defying patriarchy and masculinity but a undergo a painful uncircumcision selection of which cultural type of operation, and why did the writers of to perform and surviving texts criticize the operation so benefit from. Men who underwent

31 Hall, “Epispasm,” 55. 32 33 Hall, “Epispasm,” 55. Hall, “Epispasm,” 54.

epispasm did so because in their cost to undo their circumcision would have benefit analysis, to be a Greek man was put YHWH’s masculinity at risk, and if more beneficial than to be a Judean YHWH’s place in the hierarchy man, and they must have thought that crumbled, men’s place in the hierarchy the cost of the painful operation would could lose stability. be worth the benefits reaped. Further, circumcision aided in There are two quite obvious solving the problem of YHWH’s reasons why epispasm upset elite masculinity and male intimacy to YHWH Judean men. First, Judean men because it is through symbolic selecting Greek masculinity over Judean submission that Judean men are masculinity insulted Judean men who allowed primary access to YHWH in continued to perform Judean place of females. Circumcision secures masculinity. As Harry Brod reminds us, men’s place as servants and “To be a Jewish man means to be representatives of YHWH, as exclusive circumcised.”34 Therefore, to forgo participants in YHWH’s covenant . If practicing circumcision is to forgo circumcision was undone, the practicing Judean masculinity, and just exclusively male priesthood and the as modern protest masculinities upset patriarchal regulations supported by it practitioners of the dominant could be called into question. Judean masculinity, Judeans undoing their men who undid their circumcision circumcision upsets the practitioners of contributed to the destabilization of the Judean masculinity. patriarchal religious system. Therefore, Epispasm upset elite Judeans not it should not be surprising to historians only because it destabilized Judean that the writers of patriarchal religious hegemonic masculinity but also texts have some harsh words for because epispasm dismantled the Judeans who undo their circumcision. hierarchal social system from which elite That epispasm destabilizes Judean males benefited. Recall that Judean masculinity and patriarchy is the circumcision is not merely an ethnic best explanation for the polemic found marker; it is the means by which Judean against uncircumcision. This explains men submit to YHWH as the ultimate why the writer of 1 Maccabees, who is man. Broadly speaking, Judean society in the priestly line, declares that those was a three tiered hierarchy in which who undergo epispasm have men submitted to YHWH and women “abandoned the covenant” (1 Macc submitted to men.35 Judean men opting 1:15). Further, this explanation best makes sense of why the author of 1 34 Brod, “The Erection of the Patriarchy,” 356. Maccabees praises Mattathias and his 35 The situation in reality is much more complex than this, and a complete hierarchy must account for issues of class, sexual orientation, ability, etc.

friends for “forcibly circumcising all the masculinity and patriarchy and thus uncircumcised children they found attracted negative attention from elite within the borders of Israel” (1 Macc 2: Judean males. My reading is directly 46).36 Even more, 2 Baruch, praises opposed to the writing of Hershel Josiah for being “firm in the law at that Shanks who proposes that circumcision time so that he left no one had, “nothing to do with manhood or uncircumcised” (2 Bar. 66:5). For the sex,”37 and a nuance to the position of writer of 2 Baruch and 1 Maccabees, an Jonathan Goldstein and Robert Hall uncircumcised male in Judea poses a who emphasize the ethnic dynamics at problem for all men. These writers play as opposed to the gender praise those who forcibly circumcise dynamics. I hope to have shown that Judean boys because circumcision circumcision and uncircumcision cannot stabilizes Judean masculinity and be understood with only an ethnic lens patriarchy. and must also be inspected through a Epispasm, then, is well gender critical lens. In no way do I understood only when discussed in the suppose that talking about epispasm context of masculinity. Epispasm is an from a masculine approach negates the to attempt to become a Greek man ethnic elements of the discussion. My instead of a Judean man. Those who explanation of epispasm is both underwent the surgery did so because gendered and ethnic, emphasizing that the benefits of Greek manhood Judean men undergoing epispasm are outweighed those of Judean manhood, opting for Greek masculinity over and elite Judean males opposed Judean masculinity. I contend that a epispasm because the operation complete discussion of epispasm in the destabilized Judean masculinity and Hellenistic era ought to include a patriarchy. discussion of gender and ethnicity and that to do anything less is to tell only a VII. Conclusion half-truth. I have offered a reading of epispasm found within 1 Maccabees Bibliography that attempts to emphasize the gender Brod, Harry. “Circumcision and the ideology implicit within the surgery and Erection of the Patriarchy.” Men polemic against it. I argue that and Masculinities in Christianity and circumcision functioned as a stabilizing Judaism (2009): Connell, R.W.. factor for Judean masculinity and Masculinities. Berkeley, CA: patriarchy. Judean men who undid their University of California Press, 1995. circumcision destabilized Judean Eilberg-Schwartz, Howard. God’s

36 37 Translation comes from the NRSV. Shanks, “A Flip of the Foreskin,” 1.

Phallus and other Problems for Men Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook and Monotheism. Boston, MA: of Basic Documents. Berkeley, CA: Beacon Press, 1994. University of California Press, 2003. Goldstein, Jonathan. I Maccabees: A Rőmer, Thomas. The Invention of God. New Translation, with Introduction Translated by Raymond Geuss. and Commentary. New York: Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Doubleday, 1976. Press, 2015. Gollaher, David. Circumcision: A History Shanks, Hershel. “A Flip of the of the World’s Most Controversial Foreskin,” Moment 31.3 (2006): 1. Surgery. New York: Basic Books, Weitzman, Steven. “Forced 2000. Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Hall, Robert. “Epispasm: Circumcision in Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology.” HTR Reverse,” Bible Review (1992): 53- 92 (1999): 37-59. 57. Hubbard, Thomas ed. Homosexuality in