CEU eTD Collection In partial offulfillment therequirements the for degree ofMaster of Artsin Critical Gender G ENDER I RANIAN TRAPPED WITHIN HETERONORMATIVE ( INTER Supervisor: Associate Professor Hadley Z. Renkin O UTLAWS BETWEEN T Second Reader: Professor Eszter Timar RANSGENDER ) Department of Gender Studies Central European University European Central NATIONAL FRAMEWORKS Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted M.Ali Abdi Studies 2011 By A SYLUM E ARTH AND S EEKERS S KY : CEU eTD Collection hierarchical power relations shape the broader framework of my of thesis. framework broader shape the relations power hierarchical intertwined modernities and friction the continuous between local and global within processes of The recognition chapters. indifferent debates andcitizenship transgenderism of theories and colonial theories, Butler’s discussion of Foucauldianperformativity, understandings of power, along citizens transgender man/woman.lines of male/female binary the Idraw and on post- against thoseinternational levels, whichinform and areinformed byatdiscriminating works each other, transgenderwith Iranian transgender Ishow asylum seekers, discipliningthat onnational trends and people in interviewsprejudices,on Iconducted ground.NGOs workingthe InvokingTurkey deep and who do not sexuality,isbut deeply in fitembedded internationalthe law,asylum UNHCRimmigration judges’ within heteronormalizingandlimited disciplining tendencies arenot the politics toIR’s of and gender dominantknowledge definitiondiscourse andof scientific discreet western of a confluence regime is Iran today in transsexuality informing discourse the onthat truth of truthof sex, modernities. Iargue between Iranianand western interaction mutual continuous constitution and forof andline the along level international on and years thehundred IR’stwo last the throughout Republic Classical heteronormalizing potential by looking refugees, through dominantthe politics inof gender andsexuality Islamic Islamic discourse as of UNHCR acceptance people transgender and operations of Republicsex-change recognition politics. on truethe country Turkeyto seekto asylum through UNHCR. The thesis aims at understanding Islamic sex, Yet,whichpartially funded by Islamic Republic. Nevertheless, a number of Iranian transgenderI people leave providesclaim and areallowed operations Iran, sex-change in arecriminalized relationships While same-sex that the Abstract i CEU eTD Collection Rights and Peace activist, who was killed on June 1 June on was killed who activist, andPeace Rights I woulddedicate also like words to of the thesisthis Haleh to Sahabi, IranianWomen’s the Mehdi Khodaei tofour years(sentenced in andmore.prison) prison), in years ten to (sentenced Nabavi Zia prison), in years eight to (sentenced Tavakkoli Majid in prison), years four to (sentenced Malihi Ali in prison), years seven to (sentenced than four Kouhyar months), from Goodarzi (deprived continuing hiseducation) Asadi Milad Hedayat (sentenced 9years to in prison),AliAkbar Mohammad in Zadeh more(now forprison Bahareh my friends, to specifically thesis the dedicate I democracy. andseeking rights academic are deprived backhomeimprisoned or from because theirpursuingof continuing education their are either who students of Iranian the thousands the to thesis the dedicate like to I would feedbacks. and insightful for hercareful reviews Eszter Timar Professor dear my supervisor second grateful to I am also knowledge, andkindness. broad experience contributions study with hisdeepand throughout the pricelessunbelievable andvaluable support, emotional unforgettable comments, patience, expressI would mysupervisor my thanks like HadleyRenkin to Professor his to warmest for Acknowledgement healing her pains. funeral of her father. I wish my tears, even now that Iam writing these lines, would contribute to ii st 2011 by Iranian security 2011by forcesIranian security during the CEU eTD Collection ASYLUM SEEKERS TRAPPED 69 IN A PARADOX...... AND EARTH SKY:IRANIANTRANSGENDER 4–“GENDER BETWEEN OUTLAWS” CHAPTER IRANIAN 50 LGBT ASYLUM ...... SEEKERS OF DISCURSIVEREPRESENTATION FROMEVILTOFREEDOM: 3–TRAVELLING CHAPTER DISCOURSE ON TRANSSEXUALITY...... 31 RELIGIO-PSYCHO-MEDICALIZED ANDSPACE:THE COMPLICITY BEYOND TIME 2- CHAPTER THE QAJAR DYNASTY (1794 – 10 PRESENT)...... IN ANDSEXUALITY CULTURALAMNESIA:THEPOLITICSOF IRAN SINCE GENDER 1- CHAPTER INTRODUCTION...... 1 TABLE ...... III OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...... II I ABSTRACT...... Table ofcontents B R C C R P C C A P R T C P P F Q P M T OST SYCHO OLITICS OF OLITICS AHLAVI OUCAULT AND OLITICS OF OLITICS RANSGENDER ERMINOLOGY ECOGNITION OF ECOGNITION EPRODUCTION OF THE EPRODUCTION OF ELIGIOUS ACKGROUND ITIZENSHIP ONCLUSION ONCEPTOF ONCLUSION ONCLUSION NALYSIS AJAR ETHODOLOGY Analysis: Reduction, 65 Neglect, ...... Backlash NGOs: Are they 58 Doing Good?...... World Press 56 Tendency...... Seeking Asylum: A Practice with Unintended 55 Consequences...... sai oent...... 26 Islamic Modernity...... Foucault’s Discussion on Iranian Revolution: 25 Political ...... Sprituality The Cultural Amnesia: How and Why the Figure of Amrad(numa) 24 was Forgotten?...... Najmabadi’s Discussion on History of Sexuality in Iran During 19 Foucault’s Discussion on History of 16 Sexuality ...... in Europe 9/11 E -M RA E : R RA EDICAL D R HETORIC ...... 12 ...... /I G G R ELIGIO ISCOURSE ON ISCOURSE ...... 67 ...... 48 ...... 28 ...... : DENTITY ENDER ANDENDER ENDER ANDENDER EFUGEE WITHIN EFUGEE ...... 81 ...... C I ...... 7 N ...... 6 NDIVIDUALS AFTERNDIVIDUALS OMPULSORY A AJMABADI D SYLUM -P ISCOURSE ON ISCOURSE : SYCHO I RAN AS THE RAN P E OLITICS VIL S S T S EXUALITY DURING EXUALITY IN EEKERS RUE ’ -M I S H RAN I D ETEROSOCIALITY WITH ETEROSOCIALITY NTERNATIONAL EDICAL /I ISCUSSIONS ON ISCUSSIONS S NTERNATIONAL /F EX T A I RUTH OF REE C SLAMIC XIS OF ...... 35 ...... LAIM BASED ON LAIM D W “M ISCOURSE ON ISCOURSE EST E ODERN R S VIL EX EPUBLIC ...... 55 ...... I P SLAMIC H OWER ...... 53 ...... 38 ...... LGBT ISTORY OF ISTORY ” I RAN S L : iii T R EXUAL FROM R OVING RANSSEXUALITY H ELATIONS EPUBLIC (1794- UMAN S EXUALITY IN P -C O ERVERTS TO RIENTATION AND RIENTATION OMPANIONATE PRESENT R (1979- IGHTS ...... 52 ...... th and Early 20 PRESENT D ...... 40 ...... 12 ...... ) EBATES E P UROPE AND ATIENTS H ...... 25 ...... ) G ETEROSEXUALITY ...... 71 ...... ENDER th Cnuy...... 19 ...... Century ...... 33 ...... I RAN I DENTITY ...... 16 ...... 21 ...... : A B RIEF CEU eTD Collection EEECS...... 103 REFERENCES...... 101CONCLUSION...... C I RANIAN ONCLUSION Membership of a Particular Social Group: 92 Who is ...... Transgender? Fear of Being Persecuted: The Reproduction of Discreet/Non-Discreet 85 Citizen...... Process 83 of Seeking Asylum...... LGBT ...... 99 ...... A SYLUM S EEKERS IN T URKEY ...... 83 ...... iv CEU eTD Collection 1 My thesis aims atseekers’ claimsif and, they were legitimate, granting them status. refugee examining infor(UNHCR) Refugee AnkaraCommissioner is Status for examining asylum responsible Islamic Republicseek High Nations asylum.United toTurkey leaveIranian transgender thecountry people of number a month each Nevertheless, Thailand. recognition after world in the number highest second sex which is undergoso far, the change surgery by to of as“patients” Republic, Islamic regarded transsexualssuch operations. This has ledpermission 3000Iranian around transgender people, whoare issued founderthe (religious forIslamicfatwa Republic of a decree)granting permission (IR), sex-change surgeries and are allowed fundedby partially In1985,Ayatollah state. the Khomeini, inwhich country Muslim only is the Iran in Iran, criminalized are relationships same-sex While “I amneitherman nor woman. Iamsomewhere Somewherebetween. between earth andsky …” Introduction relationsb) in shapesthe representationsby discursive seekingIran, dominant asylum of Iranian relations a) informs modernities. Iintend analyze to the how interactionthis within theinternational existing power recognition of sex andwestern between interaction mutual Iranian and constitution linethe continuous of change operations along level international on and Republic Islamic in sexuality and gender of politics anddominant criminalization by looking the potential through refugees, as UNHCR of people transgender acceptance of same-sex LookatTerminology Section atthe endof the Introduction Hamideh, Iranian transgender-identified asylum seeker 1 1 as patients and CEU eTD Collection writing that the Iranian “Islamic” government believes “sex change cures gay people of their of people gay cures change “sex believes government “Islamic” Iranian the that writing instance,White, tothisfor contributed orientalist(Matthew 2008;Ireland discourse, 2007).Jane desire same-sex forhomosexuals seeking “cure” “punishment” “solution”, or Republic’s Islamic introduces sex linked relations. with It explicitly as surgery illegality the change same-sex of The second major representation of of subject the intranssexuality Iranin the world pressis Organization, gender andsexuality issues (Harrison 2005;interview with Head of jurisprudencetowards of Shi’i attitudes progressive the to permission link this andtranssexuals” Iranian officials’ position on sex-change operations which render Iran as “a paradise for September 2009; 2005; Tait Mangez 2005;Fathi This language2004). celebratory resonateswith at (look some others among are world” of the capital change sex “unlikely the is Tehran and marriage” transsexual approve to set Iran not: or it “Believe operation, change change in an Islamic sex of permissibility the state. over surprise express press world inthe articles the of most First; Titles and phrases such as Iran’s is represented; for sex surgeries change sanction Republic Islamic “surprisingly liberal understandingsex operations in dominantchange of Thereare ways inIran. two whichthe laws” on sex whichreports havein been appearing press world the since 2004,shaping themainstream of series of in because me interest raised inprimarily Iran people transgender of The topic in Turkey. (UNHCR) Status for Refugee Commissioner High inUnited Nations seekers asylum transgender LGBT in the West and c) affects the asylum process and outcome of the cases of Iranian E’temaad newspaper, no. 1481, Sep 3 2 rd 2007). Navab Safavi Welfare Navab Safavi Speak Equal CEU eTD Collection distinct“species” p. (1990 [1978], 43). calls, Foucault what as, homosexuals and people transgender of emergence tothe contributed and heteronormalization of process the accelerated West, the with interactions increasing 1979) compulsory heterosocialization. Islamic The rise of Republic, along and with continuous interactions Iranian between modernists of Qajar Era and Europeans, andin Pahlavi era’s (1925- has not sensibilities Iranians’ of process heteronormalizing the that necessarilyargue will I period. same relatively 1925), juxtaposingit inwith Foucault’s history discussion through Europe on sexuality of startedwill look at200years history inof of gender andsexuality Iransince Dynasty Qajar (1794- with theMustaches withoutand Men Beards:Gender and SexualAnxieties ofIranian Modernity rise of In chapter, bymainly first the Islamic through going Najmabadi’s inherbook discussions Republics, andaheteronormative into social genderorder. roles sexual practices butpolitics of andgender sexuality, and aims at assimilatingindividuals within non-normative is heteronormalizing global the with rootedinteraction in continuous is which politics, heteronormalizing in the permission and criminalizationearly of same-sex relations must be looked at within the context of IR’s sexuality necessarily forces homosexuals undergosex to change butsurgery,rather sex change politics IR’sdominantongenderand nor transsexuals, IR’smoretowards tolerance indicates necessarily sanction sex nor change transsexuals, for “paradise” isneither a that Iran argue In the first two chapters of thechange operations” 2009). (White thesis I will contestillnesses” andIranian “actively officialshaveencouraging are gaywomen and mento sex the aforementioned representations. I will 3 Women with (2005), I (2005), CEU eTD Collection discourses, some of some intheworld discourses, Iranasapre- render press,which of which I traced western (and modernities other) are within eliminated setof a specific totalizing and reductive Such and ongoing between mutual complexities and the interaction constitution Iranian and citizens. “legitimate” to “illegitimate” from consequently pretend to be transsexualsin order to change their social status from “perverts” to “patients”, and might homosexuals undergoing as Iranian operation, a by certified without transsexual state the transsexuality.is it Since absolutely possible, legally and and sanctioned religiously tobe of recognition Republic Islamic the from benefit might homosexuals some that show homosexualspress indicatingforces Republic undergosexchange I willalso Islamic to surgery, treatment, while homosexuals“patients” suffering from “gender dysphoria”, in need of psychological,remain hormonal, or surgical as “perverts”. as transsexuals areunderstood thisdiscourse matrix. aheterosexual Within normatively within Yet, in contrast act them to expects and female/woman male/man or aseither people categorizes This discourse with reports in the worldpsycho-medicalized discourse on transsexuality. religio- powerful a established has sex, biological her/his from directly derived behavior of norms certain with inaccordance perform should person healthy psychologically every meaning sex”( “true on discourse Islamic Classical of confluence the that argue will I politics. heteronormalizing IR’s dominant justify the knowledge and to of certaintruth produce regimes generate Islamic which Republic, of informing establishment afterthe sexchangeoperations anddiscourses psycho-medical In the second chapter, I will discuss the two sets of seemingly distinct but interrelated religious and the modern western-rooted psycho-medical discourse on “truth of on of “truth sex” ( discourse psycho-medical western-rooted modern and the jinse-e haqiqi ), meaning each person is innately either male or female, or male either innately is person each meaning ), 4 haqiqat-e jins ), CEU eTD Collection which is partly influenced by identity politics and international LGBT human rights framework, rights human LGBT international and politics identity by influenced ispartly which itself, law asylum international the and UNHCR, at judges immigration NGOs, how showing from seekers deprived backhome,Iranian asylum transgender whowere their rights citizenship inasylum process.Iwillinvoke in interviews Iconducted the summer2010 that Turkey with and law asylum international the and UNHCR, through look I bodies, legislative international In 4,in chapter toshed order lighton this heteronormalizingforce, whichis on present ones. western including and in societies, all obscuring and thedisciplining international heteronormalizing forces are which present on level denies the internaland western, uniform, monolithic, modernity as of perception feeds acolonialist relations, power international paternalistic bolsters dichotomy This dynamics documents. and articles these by reinforced of LGBT of pre-modern/uncivilized/evil Iran and modern/civilized/freeis West upheld within and life in Iranand ofIranian LGBT NGOs’ documentation hierarchical arguethatthe issues.Iwill dichotomy and the West,Iranian LGBT refugees andtheir seeking of practice by looking asylum, through worldthe press and works 3 In chapterIwill legacies discursiveof the trace colonial by these representation delineating at denying or societies. western goinglinearmodernization through arrivea likeprocess atto look modern/civilized/free and the in needof astraditional societies non-Western Westand the with render modernity associate which 1964), (Lerner by modernization theories classical partly and (progressive), and West the (backward) between Islam hierarchical dichotomy and oppositional an and encourages cultures which essentialitythe byOrientalism perpetuates are informed 1991[1978]), partly (Said of modern/uncivilized/evil entity and West as a modern/civilized/free one. These set of discourses 5 CEU eTD Collection four different cities Kayseri, across Turkey and Nevesehir, (Isparta, Nidge). My interviewees’ I initiated my field 17-day in study summer2010. I interviewed 11 Iranian transgender people in moretouch with participants. Turkey, some Icontacted ofmy potential interviewees. Ithen used get samplinginsnowball to with someleaving Iraniantransgender in of asylumseekers the to Turkey. Before Budapest founders of the of one and head the Ghahreman, Saghi with and activists gay some with familiar was I Methodology interactions. international the lookingas a not boundeda contextnecessity it andof at understandingwithin closedspacebut the emphasizing processes, local and global between friction continuous the to attention our directs my analysis chapters, all Through levels. international and national on control and mechanisms through ofsocial actively constructed are sociallyproduced and politically region. The thesis also shows how the social categories, such as citizen, refugee and transgender, adding to the understandings of complexities and internal dynamics of LGBT communities of the contributesMy work to the nascentscholarship ongenderin andsexuality “Middle East”, the man/woman, and, thus, attempts to make them fit within that definition. dominantthe definition transgenderdiscreet of citizens along the binary lines ofmale/female and atdiscriminatingworks thoseIranian asylum against notseekerstransgender fit whodo within sexuality, and gender of politics Republic Islamic by informed also is which level, international heteronormalizinghave trend for asylumseekers.Thisdisciplining on transgender tendencies Iranian QueerOrganization (IRQO), who helpedme infinding andbuilding trust 6 CEU eTD Collection normative gender roles which are socially considered as incompatible with the biological sex. I sex. biological the with incompatible as considered socially are which roles gender normative non- what-are-traditionally-understood-as performing in interested sometimes) or (always Through the thesis, I will use the word “transgender”Terminology as an umbrella term for safe. people felt who are terminology weremorewith which mighthave comfortable,they provided aspaceinwhich they same time, my familiarityfrom raising some issueswith which they thought Saghi useless or harmful to theirGhahreman cases at UNHCR. Atfrom an talking to outsider. Besides,theirthe critical in situation havemight Turkey prevented them (head them discouraged have might ofidentity IRQO),non-asylum-seeker my non-transgender that understand I and my careful use of the October. late parts necessary the transcribed and notes, took interviewees, the of permission the with interviews all the I recorded subject. the to relevant thought they material the all include to time them lead the conversationTurkey, and the asylum processso through which they hadthey either gone or were still waiting for. Iletwere able to volunteerasked them about their life stories, why they left Iran, their differenttheir lived experiences in Iran and own accountsinterviewed my askingparticipants, them questionsopen ended in framework.semi structured I and had enough issues, Ideep- contested me the to myinterviewees direct let narrative of the flow the to In order Bahaii). Christianity, (Islam, religions different or in no believed and Arab), Fars, (Kurds, groups ethnic different from classes, social different from cities46. They across were ages rangedfrom Iran, and from had20 to different come 7 CEU eTD Collection or being rendered as “gender outlaws” (Whittle 2006, p. xiii) and “aberrant” cases (Junag 2006, cases(Junag xiii) and“aberrant” p. 2006, being(Whittle “genderoutlaws” or as rendered by becoming transgenderhow people, analyze pages the Iwill this through thesis, of Therefore, others” (ibid.). and viable eliminate personhood, of variousinstitutions possibilities simultaneously that produce and systems of operations the reveal phenomena these in which “manner the suggestion, ininterested the transgender phenomena perse,butwhatIseekis,parallelwith Stryker’s themselves culturally produced and enforced” (p. 3). Yet, through the thesis, Iam notnecessarily the “effects of the relationships constructed between those phenomena and sets of norms is “transgender from of “exotic[ism]” arguesthe resulted phenomena” As Susan(2006) Stryker that are my under identities gaze. transgender bybringingcertain with certain people bodies,performances, andgender andsexual of category makingof the to am contributing I as aresearcher, fact, In masculine/feminine. is iscontemporary understandings man/woman, of of dominant who gender, andwhat dominantdisciplinary binary ofsex/gender.regimes These getwords theirmeaning withinthe feed the and mightreaffirm andtranssexual transgender terms the use of I understandthat as (pronounced Zee) instead of she/he and“hir”instead of him/her (suggestedbyWhittle 2006). “s/he” pronoun the use will I woman, as nor man as neither self-identifies who person person who feminine self-identifiesmale-bodied a for and “he”, pronoun the use Iwill man as self-identifies who person as woman, I willsex (mainly genitals) with theiridentity. gender When I addressafemale-bodied masculine use the pronoun “she”.undergo hormonal therapy or sex change surgery to, as theyWhen themselves say,“fit” their biological I want to address wish or to undergone already have who people for transgender “transsexuals” term employ the a 8 CEU eTD Collection social social (Valentine 2007). power of intertwinedrelationships the shaped, along identities are and transgender category transgender and between interaction modernities, (andIranian and Western other) through which the asylum oninternational level.process is tobe going This analysisthe of mutual the construction and law asylum UNHCR of that and Iran of Republic Islamic of politics heteronormalizing p. 707),enable ustodeconstructand understand better normative the assumptions of the 9 CEU eTD Collection transsexuals (and transgenders) compared to other countries intranssexuals other countriesinstead, the region. compared (andtransgenders) to policy, Such towards IR’smore tolerance indicate necessarily not does sanction sex change I will argue that agree-to-be introductionthe “modernity”of toIran by duringEuropeans Qajardynasty. what-most-historians- is since that years, hundred two last the throughout transformed been have politics and the cultural and of understanding political informed are figureof the transgender and sexuality,and, considering modernities, theinteractionbetween howsuch Iranian and western sex change homosexuality criminalization operation andwithin politics of of the IR’s gender and In this chapter, I will seek to answer the question undergo homosexuality people sex-change to remains surgery. criminalized. Yet, of how we can understand transgender to permission decree)granting fatwa (religious issued IslamicRepublic, founder of the permission of category of perverts homosexualityinintoRepublic wascriminalized.Transgender 1979,the people werealsoput by Islamic Republic of rise Islamic after the Yet, 2005). Najmabadi in (Afary 2009; Iran practices recognized cultural officials. In 1985, however, Not more hundred than years samesexrelations two ago, and homoeroticism wereimplicitly Ayatollah Khomeini the Sexuality sincetheQajarDynasty Sexuality in Iran (1794 –Present) Chapter 1-Cultural Amnesia:The PoliticsofGender and full games offull and coquettish” and hair,andcrystallinechinfolds, black-scented with magiceyes, eyebrows, crescent Venus-shaped,coquettish, withcheeks,sugar moon-faced, winebearers with tulip lips, silver rose-faced, “young beardlesscypress-saturated, eyed, men, bodied, narcissus (King of Iran –16 Rustam whomyoung al-Hukama the men describing Tahmasb Mirza toward th century) was sexually inclined 10 CEU eTD Collection andsexual relatively in politics throughout Iran of same period 17 with in Najmabadi’sargumentsongenderhistory sexuality Foucault’s discussion Europe of on I will and contrast compare part second in inQajardynasty.the In andIran modern sexuality I will divide the chapter intofour main parts. In the first part, Iwill discuss the politics of gender atforgettingworked figureof the amrad(numa). labor cultural the modernities, Western and Iranians between interaction continuous with along hundred last the years,species, two transsexual aspersonages.Throughout as distinct emerged and in homosexual social order which continuedand establishedaheteronormative this process heterosexuality Pahlavi and Islamicduring how era, andlater companionate-loving Republic heterosociality a normative into shifted Qajar era during homosociality erotic and heterosexuality procreative howand why discuss Iwill heterosocialization. in era’scompulsory and Pahlavi Republics, in buthas roots early interactions of Iranian modernists of Qajar erawith Europeans, with not Iwillhasstarted Islamic heteronormalizing the riseof Europe, showthat process chapter) and by juxtaposing my with Foucault’sdiscussion analysis history of of in sexuality was engaged in same-sex relations with bearded adultmen, be to discussedin length in this By focusing on figurethe of people. on transgender transformation of gender and sexual relations and politics, and the above regime of knowledge trace the Dynasty to of Qajar emergence in sincethe Iran and sexuality history gender of years at200 Iwilllook of order. social a heteronormative into gendersexual practices and non-normative with individuals assimilate to is aim whose sexuality, and gender on power of must atandunderstood belooked within thecontextof IR’s regulatory and disciplinary regime amrad(numa) (the beautiful young beardless man during Qajar who Qajar during man beardless young beautiful (the 11 th until late 19 late until th centuries. In CEU eTD Collection MiddleAs East. many includingscholars Foucault(1990 [1978]) and Halperin (1993) have Iran the butuniqueto or was homosexuality” anything “status-defined The what-Afary-calls following been samelegacy. the “penetrated” side. Ourknowledge sameon women’s sex is limited,relations butmight they have youngerposition,and inferior with social standing the “passive” usually the played role, orthe usually holdingstatus “penetrating” theonewith “active” the better role,older or the one played The etc. standings, ages,social classes, from were involved men werecomingdifferent who is (two) that status; social asymmetrical holding men between mostly were relations sex same male documented the like“pre-modern” cultures, that many Afary other conventions. argues and rules certain in with accordance wereoccurring ofmalewhich same sexactivities records century extensive(Afary Qajar2009; DuringNajmabadi 2005). we have to dynasty access nineteenth decades late of practices the cultural until wereimplicitly recognized homoeroticism in and relations aretoday Although Islamic criminalized relations same-sex sex same Republic, sexuality. discuss, transformed manyaspects includingof lives, Iranians’ theirlife dynamics of gender and equality and as such, the project modernity of introduced by was Iranian elites which, asIwill law, and nation, ideasfreedom, modern theas emergence of such Europe with interactions control The cultural,through Qajar family took Iran in of and educational economical 1794 and Qajar Era (1794-present) Iran in “Modern” and Sexuality Gender of Politics gender and sexuality. Ifinish the chapter with conclusion. thirdthe andfourth sections Iwill Pahlavi’s anddiscuss Islamic dominant Republic’s position on 12 CEU eTD Collection adolescent of Greek antiquity”) (Najmabadi 2005a, 59). After 59). acquiringadolescent an of afullyvisibleGreek antiquity”)2005a, beard, (Najmabadi the “ephebe, is West in the amrad to equivalent closest the that say might (one beloved who could in havebeen his early twenties and waskeptby man adultan his as companion and the two figures of in historical of dynasty, Iran scholarships on studies sexuality Qajar Najmabadi during discusses Modernity and SexualAnxietiesofIranian herIn parts book of groundbreaking is man/woman of amodern binary asthe or construct. masculine/feminine gender of developed in 19 been not had heterosexual and homosexual of (species) types human two the only not that Najmabadi argues time4), deal (2005) (p. pre-modern arenotnecessarily to useful with matters Padgug’s (1979) discussion thethat categories weusetoday analyzeto gender and sexual But,in with 79). the‘feminine’”accordance (p. andanother gender‘masculine’ conventions thatinAfary suggested homosexuality Qajar“onestatus-defined assumedthe during partner sexualthe body” (p.420). sexuality systemswas embedded inbroader of politics in a way that“the body social precedes but acts, sexual their from derived not was identity their and “homosexuality” called not was citizen/non-citizen, orof adultmale citizen/statutory minor, and assuch. Their sexual orientation social andsubordinate of status holding superordinate rolesinsertive were and receptive on which Athenian public life was (p.419).Thatorganized” is, who those were playing the by very the principles “wasconstituted classical Athenians the of thatsexuality Halperin argues inAncient Greek andpre-modern very suggested, Europe. the same phenomenon was prevalent th century century butalso,andinIran, with Afary’scontrast approach, very the thinking amrad and amradnuma Women withwithoutMustaches and Men Beards: Gender : The former was a “beautiful young beardless man” beardless young wasa“beautiful former : The (2005)which is oneof if not few, the only, 13 CEU eTD Collection practicing what an statutory minor does, that is remaining as the object of desire. Iwill discuss in man. He was also posing marker most(the beard) manhood significant of andbynot becoming real, acomplete, desiring threat to the social because masculinity hegemonic timethat of byevading the detested indicatingof fragility of the order by acquiring been he had that note to is important itthe does, Afary as atransgender, amradnuma if wecall Thus, age of an adult male but categories totwo:male andfemale,man and woman” (emphasis added) (p.16). sexual gender and heteronormalization of all of andthereduction timeour thedepth reveals “theThus, Najmabadi designation suggest, ubiquitous of amrad beardless the …as (somebody looks like zan’numa butwho anamrad) notlooks like (somebody who awoman). beards 19 the during men adulttheir were shaving those who his malformation; a malformation; his Afary who defines amradnuma as an“ amradnuma defines Afary who adolescent beardless men do not derive from words connotingfemaleness. So in contrast with Indeed, as Najmabadidevelopinginto the real,man desiring, bearded (2005b, pp.57-59). argues, manhood, isthat beard,the and thus threatening manhood and marking its fragility bynot theand for detested being anadultman butshaving the most significant“visual marker” of Iranian word amrad practice, werestigmatized man. amradnumas was desiring Whilekeepingamrads a ubiquitous and othershaved his beard wordsto look like an amrad, that is to be theemployed object of desire rather than becoming a to indicate the The latter, from his own string of amrads. desire sexual enjoying concomitantly while women, marry man, anactive become amrad could amradnuma transgendered (literally translated as looking like an amrad), was an adult man who man adult an was amrad), an like looking as translated (literally person” (p. 376; (p. person” emphasisNajmabadi added), arguesthat effeminate 14 man who was deemed very close a to th century were called amradnuma werecalled century effeminate woman in in CEU eTD Collection transformation of gender and sexuality in Iran since late 18 brieflyI will bodies”2005a, p.54). (Najmabadi governmentable modern of of a “project production present in period that of linkedtransformation andsexualEurope gender wasinextricably with relations Foucault’sbodies, governmentality laterinand more, Hehadthis forchapter. arelatively suggested similar docile bio-power, discipline, on discussions his employ will I because sexuality, of history analysisEurope andBefore liketo answeringturn Foucault’s discussion Iwould these questions to on so(after these 1985)through discussions? to transsexuals for surgery change sex of comparepermission the analyze to How sexuality? and gender Whatand distinguishes contrast the of perverts)? Islamic the category as homosexuals, in the category individuals same were transgender Republic from Qajar both afterIslamicRevolution the Pahlavi andwere criminalized 1985 whythen (until era andit Pahlavi erawith in terms end 19 the of of its politicsdiscussions of was andfigure atthe forgotten How becamenotorious why the relationships of amrad same-sex 18 does how late from But thisoccur deepheteronormalization on duringlater, Republic,suchfigure Islamic posed threat heteronormative tothe order. social and ashamed of, modernizers were which Iranian practices of same-sex occurrence widespread a while figureduring man Pahlavierathe of reminding of that Iranians a beardless adultwas the th century? homosexual century? How as emergeand transgender not types did until late 15 th century. th century century mid-20until th century? CEU eTD Collection 89). Such model takes education, medicine, psychology, psychiatry, criminal justice, etc. as etc. justice, criminal medicine, psychiatry, Such model education, psychology, takes 89). employed are that in on levels and and formsall thatgobeyond theits …” apparatus state butby notby technique, law butby normalization,by not butpunishment by methods control, right by ensured not is operation “… whose effect overall its and relations force of multiplicity of asconstituted power which is represents needed model butpower of a new adequate understand which power, powerassomethingrendered alwaysnegativeis and not repressive, information aboutand population the data within nation-states, previouslythe heldmodels to among things, other medicaland psychological statistics sciences, necessity and the of obtaining Foucault argues that from around the beginning of of beginning 18 from the around argues that Foucault something not tobespoken of. constrains,alwayspower somethingsuppresses that prohibits, andas torender so sexas denies between sex relation establishes hypothesis, a negative asifcallsand power repressive sexis repressive, uniform, comprehensive,monotonous and That top-down. model, whichFoucault law,of and wasbased on specific understanding of as power something alwaysnegative, inherited from monarchies sovereign the of Middlethe Ages equated withwhose power rulethe workings of power which he calls History of inbook his parts thatof previously the Sexuality (1990 [1978]) heldrepresentation of conceive the historical and social transformations of dynamics of gender and sexuality, discusses better us help and societies inwestern power of analytics the toelaborate in order Foucault, in Europe of Sexuality onHistory Foucault’s Discussion Iran and Europe in of Sexuality History on Discussions Najmabadi’s and Foucault juridico-discursive 16 is anymore.adequate not That model was th century onward and with the rise of, rise the with and onward century (p. CEU eTD Collection of a machine is then achieved through actions of such discipline, or as Foucault puts itin orasFoucault puts actions of discipline, machine achieved issuch of through then a disallow it. Bio-power disciplines the body. Docility of the body and the idea of the body as part to lifefoster or life,to of in aspects all power total can exert state inwhich ways the to attention bio-power directs control the 1990 [1978], p.42).In words, other our populations” (Foucaultof bodies for and“an achievingthesubjugation and explosion numerous of diverse techniques of governmentality, directs out attention to how power is maintained over bodies and bodies over maintained is power how to attention out directs governmentality, Bio-power,way state justifies itis more of sustaining health, welfare and security of the nation. which ameansrather isnormalizingand which controlling agoal, also of although the population, the is one goal, ultimate or the with techniques disciplining of and rangeof controlling constituted wide of thethemselves as a coherentnation, and, as stated before, itis not only limited to statetechnologies politics but is know and themselves, know and govern to made are citizens which in ways the highlights which rationality, is a bureaucracies, state of practices ordinary very the is governmentality of power Inotherwords, p. 102). 1991, (Foucault technical security” means apparatuses of andas its target population, asits principal form knowledgeof political economy, andasits essential a constitutive which has form of complex power, albeit exerciseallowthisspecific the very of and that tactics calculations the and reflections, analyses procedures, formed institutions, by “thethe ensemble elementgovernmentality, bio-power and disciplinarity. Governmentality is the “art of the government” or of, things, amongintroduced concepts the other functions, state Foucault democratic bureaucratic of Employing the aforementioned model and discussinghowthemodern administrative and and normalized. devicespower by usethe individual of which population isand controlled, disciplined regulated, 17 life through CEU eTD Collection “discursive production” and“propagation of knowledge” on gender and sexuality 12). (p. techniques aiming of power andnormalizing atcontrolling leads the population, which then to state’s apparatuses but denial,of andcensorship, defenses, through employment subtle of of because just not sexuality; and gender of regimes of transformation the witnessing been have 17 the of end the since how is This forinstance, is a consequence of this process (p. 43). notion of homosexual as a “species” and a type available for scientific researches and scrutiny, of the The construction “maximum saturation” (pp.45-48). sexuality” placesof andprovides power leads to the “multiplication of singular sexualities”, “extends the various forms of fornecessary thestate step to regulate and discipline the deviantsexual and desires practices, (especially through medical, psychological, and psychoanalytical discourses), which is a them by very abnormal. the identifying of On contrary, forms the act sexualities diverse of Yet, it does not mean that homosexuals. certain this instance for “deviant”, power just sets boundariesfor instance in some contexts the body of certainfor heterosexuals,“normal”, rendered are and certainothers bodies certain “abnormal” that so or functions, its and body the regulate sexualities and living and by renderinglife toprotect by state is used the legitimized and bio-power from sovereign, of threat the death the on based more were which power of understandings traditional the to in contrast Thus, it. regulates and problem political and scientific a as population with concerned also is Bio-power (p.136). acts” improved andthatthis docile body can onlybeachieved regiment strict through of disciplinary Discipline and (1995)“a Punish body ismay docile be that subjected,used, transformed, and th century in Europe, and probably other parts of the world, we 18 CEU eTD Collection both female and beardless male beauties (understood as amrad(numa)s by Iranians), it as female was by amrad(numa)s both Iranians), male beauties beardless and (understood werewitnessingEurope to men whoweretravelling NajmabadiIranian discussesthatalthough andmaking citizens. governmentable spheres lifeof and naming andcategorizing people based ontheir sexualpractices and desires other from sexuality separating began sciences, psychological and medical of popularization “backwardness” by Europeans who had already, and because of the development of statistics and “vice”and signof as lovewere considered andsame-sex man practices younger (amrad) man- older becameawarethat Europe to were travelling who families royal the members of 19 early in relations same-sex Najmabadi discusses widespreadand despitethat the homoeroticism culturally and recognized modernization of through country.eradicated the same-sex will andbeoptimism” that relations practices naturally “modernist cross-gender not exist), (which modern state did in centralized by abureaucratic Iran Qajar rendered asabnormal during and same-sexwords, forrelations instance, Europe, than conceptthe with of modernity”“achieving ((Najmabadi 54-55). In 2005a, pp. other the were bodyin in period arelatively for had suggested Foucaultsimilar bodies”, governmentable that a way ofnot a personclassified,is1925, that duringless dynasty, the Qajar waslinked with a “project of modern production of who was engaged years regimesbetween andthe of related and 1785- the and power relations knowledge gender but, in same-sexas I willputtingBut, inher work dialogue with Foucault, Najmabadi that transformation argues sexual of practices discuss, was not there was a Early 20 Najmabadi’s Discussion on History of Sexuality 19 in IranDuring of Sexuality onHistory Najmabadi’s Discussion th Century th century, by century, midnineteenththe century Iranian elite men and 19 th and CEU eTD Collection twentieth century when Islamic Republic came to power. But whatpower. Buthappened twentieth through Pahlavi Islamic Republiccame to century when late the even until desire inherent an than act an of more remained Iran in desire same-sex “homosexuality”of Yet, andbecameits possibility condition (p.38). of and reproducibility” Europeans)within spacesin for homosocial (Iranians’explanation theformation whichresulted governmentable bodies, in as itIran, Najmabadi was argues, negationthe of homosexuality modern production through of a “species” callsFoucault emergedaswhat “homosexual” natural and homosexuality a“derivativep.as (2005a, desire” 67).Yet, unlike Europethat as heterosexuality rendered gradually It begun. already had sexuality of heteronormalization century end process of the nineteenth of the words,asNajmabadi suggests,bythe In other desire remained more as an act which could not, or did not, generate a homosexual identity. emergeandnot same-sex did asatype thehomosexual unlikeEurope, but, same-sex practices, homosociality empty as homosexuality,of Najmabadi continues, gradually engendered naming of presentation Iranians’ of act very The 38). (p. homosexuality” for homosociality “misreading i.e. explainingIranians started Europeanshomosexuality, wereactually toEuropeans that as holding hands or embracing or kissing on the cheeks should not be read as signs of Europeans thatsome men between began“explaining”argues, Iranians to Iranian practices such inThus, “progressive” tolook order and“modern”Europeans Iranian, to and other asNajmabadi heteronormalized Iranian men’s sensibilities” (2005a, 66). … cultural practices European “[h]eterosocial the heterosexuality, as by Iranians was misread meeting women in the publicused to men not were who Iranian influence on This hadradical and etc. various entertainments, space. Najmabadi arguesEuropean that while the European heterosociality women who surrounded them at parties, accompanied them in operas, invited in to operas, them accompaniedthem thematparties, whosurrounded 20 CEU eTD Collection for modernityfor (p. and progress” 356). Usingown “women’scountry emancipation 356-60). Paidar’s words, … [was]aprecondition (p. implement Asia during verythe century and same thus twentieth plannedto reforms within their two Shahs, especially because they were witnessing the gender reforms in Caucasus and Central by offered the modernization of of project the andpractices discourses the linkedto inextricably within and wascentral as Paidarsuggests, Gender, andprogress. ofmodernity and concepts the (1995) thatReza hisShah son and deeplyinfluenced by were cultural andwestern social values 1997), Parvinin argues Paidar In accordance with historians’various onPahlavidiscussions era (Abrahamian Ajoudani 1982; and asabnoramal. transgender gradually genderhomosexual which,sexual Iwillargue, therendered body and of relations, as on citizens’happened along with a formation of a centralizedwhich government used disciplinary practices bodies throughimproving health care, andinstitutionalizingmodern ajudiciary system. These changes the exertion modern andbureaucracy, army aswellanational education, public establishing etc.) factories, as of and (railroads, dams, things,infrastructures among building advancing technologies other bio-power “modernize” had This included, to ambitious country plans (Afary the 2009; 1995). Paidar leading to Qajarin dynasty 1925.Heandfurtherhis son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled who Iran until 1979 transformationsReza Shah PahlaviHeterosexuality came to power Loving-Companionate with Heterosociality Compulsory Era: Pahlavi ofwith the overthrow of Ahmad analysis? in myfurther Shahme help will which Qajar, the last kingera inthat sexuality genderand of transformation over the debates are the what and dynasty of Women andthePolitical Process inTwentieth Century Iran 21 CEU eTD Collection talk, and interact intalk, andinteract way” a modernWestern (Afary p. 157). walk, bus to expected …andstations stores, werealso baths,theaters, … from entering public veiled and in groups, women got arrested objections were“prevented from streets religious the were there although measures: anddisciplinary of newadministrative the enforcement successful the guarantee to a“panopticon” would call Foucault what deployed way)Reza Shah and in coherent aspecific function regularly liketo (expected amachine treated were specific places) In fact, women’s bodies (and also 1995). Paidar (Sanasarian 1982; reforms nation gender the regarding modernize andEuropeanize men’s bodies since they alsoinitiative to significantReza Shah and dramatic scholars most of and asthe viewthis gender had to wear a uniform dress Most historians publicplaces. in desegregating (heterosocializing) samewhile, atthe ordered time, formal and legal making itdecree forcompulsory women unveil to inwhen appearing publicthe public appearance of and issuedEuropean Russian women and their a publicheterosociality, In 1936,Reza Shah, with intentionthe of Europeanizing thecountry and influence under the of exerting (Afari, bio-power 155). p. Iranian inboth citizens andconduct” appearance by makingmodern bodies and docile through modern “creating legal among thingsaseducational such andwere aimedreforms, at, other disciplines"Afary two 222), Shahs’ thatthe modernization (p. liberation argues and projects in or “the words other ‘enlightenmentwhich discoveredinvented the liberties also the movements, their and bodies the regulate and population the control to state the by used widely are which mechanisms disciplinary and administrative new by accompanied been always have In agreement with Foucault’s argument in with In agreementargument Foucault’s Discipline andPunishDiscipline 22 (1995) that modern “liberties” (1995) that CEU eTD Collection were viewed asthesymbols of “backwardness” p.67). (2005a, Iran’s likeveilandgender segregation, which, sexualities” “unnatural as rendered same-sex practices heterosexuality,is asfrustrated homosexuality they consequently segregation, and that translated sex practiceslinked among Europeans, ubiquity same-sex of gender amongpractices Iranians to modernists of early and mid-twentieth century, who were already aware of the notoriety of same- 57). homosexual (p. would Iranian disappear” NajmabadiIn otherwords, practices suggests, expectation … that once women became ‘available’ to men, and men treated women fairly, women, but“the heterosocialization modernist project of was compulsory on the premised just modernize not atool to was unveiling andgenderdesegregation Najmabadi arguesthat Najmabadi 2005b, 42-60). 155-73; (Afary, same-sexpractices of eradication and heterosexuality andloving companionate unconsciously, shifting procreativeand widespread heterosexuality erotic homosexuality to maybe even at, aimed were which policies heteronormalizing son’s his and Shah’s Reza by gender which desegregation and unanimously unveiling modernistswere Iranian to supported link they intentions, such had have might Shah Reza that agree both they Although idea. this women’s education Najmabadiand employment (pp. 106-9), opportunities andAfary challenge in of Reza participation national which,from view, point Shah’s increase could programs of Reza Shah’s “women’s emancipation” agenda and a prerequisite for women’s wider were parts unveilingand desegregation women’s gender thatcompulsory While discusses Paidar 23 CEU eTD Collection modernists that same-sex relations are an unfortunate consequence of gender desegregation and desegregation of gender consequence an unfortunate are same-sex relations that modernists because assumed it by Iranian was againstclassifying homosexuals, worked same-sex practices modernists gender of thought that Pahlavi dynasty who desegregation eradicate would eventually late Pahlavi era. The what-Najmabadi-calls “modernist optimism” (2005a,p.72)of Iranian characteristics until inherent asatype with emerged neither nortransgender homosexual Yet, heterosexual genre and“normalization (Afary of p. 142-73). of erotica” heterosexual 2005, eros” new “a popularized eventually Afary argues, state, the of practices and regulatory disciplinary and surely film directors, novelists, journalists, of contribution The ones. cross-sex to couples and high-school from literature andtextbooks transforming all same-sex lovingportrayals of figure through, among things, eliminating other homoerotic sections of Persian classical poetry tried erasingthat as Afari suggests, or, locations” (p.64-69) transcendental or modern times Thus, Iranianmodernists Najmabadi placingargues, tried figurein the of “pre- amrad(numa) figure” (p.65). “overbringing sexuality lurkingembarrassment and discomfort them the inappropriate inthat like look made practices Iraniansoftheamrad an reminding prevalenceof them same-sex and menbe sex practiceshadshave denounced,but would to that but had also theirbeards, have to amrad(numa): in order to look like Europeans, discussions on inlabor” investedby modernists “cultural the forgetting thefigureof Iranian not just women had to unveil andherishistorians, Ithink, scholarsyears and Iraniangender among distinguishable other not just same- makesWhat onthe work history Najmabadi’s gender last of andsexuality hundred two through Forgotten? was FigureofAmrad(numa) and Why the How The Amnesia: Cultural 24 CEU eTD Collection supported supported Islamicthe Revolution 1979 because, already of “Muslimexcited bytheconceptof revolution.As Kevin B.Anderson and Afary Janet Foucault(2005) haspointed, vehemently Foucault has publishedFoucault’s Discussion onIranian Revolution: Political Sprituality his most extensivepresent) set of (1979- Republic Islamic during writing Sexuality and Gender of Politics for a non-western societyin 1979. on Iranian notemerge as types until late 60s and early 70s and specifically until the rise of Islamic Republic did (transsexual) andtransgender homosexual acts and remained as normative gender practices non- and relations same-sex in Iran Yet, Republic. Islamic of establishment the before long and conform normativetheir docile bodies to masculinehas feminine gender and started roles relationships inheterosexual tobeengaged were expected who andwomen men of categories anddisciplining of bio-power intotwo exertion the through dividingcitizens the population After all, asgenderscholars andhistorians have argued, aprocessof heteronormalization and 2005a, p.67). (Najmabadi heterosexuality” normative underwrite was to that heterosociality compulsory modernity Iranian heterosexuality,of “insistedprocreative on the a regimePahlavi era of with combined homosociality compulsory as named be can era Qajar of regime social if the So, Republic). andIslamic (duringhomosocial Qajar spaces live to in subjected mostly thewhenthey were time lessvisibility to compared experience policies and the provision mixed-gender publicof places,helpedindividuals transgender to state heterosocializing Besides, the heterosociality. bycompulsory it benaturally eradicated will 25 CEU eTD Collection support for within critiques hisbroader modernity of and Enlightenmentand thus expressed his passion and what he believedIn fact, inwith contrast Foucaultframed who hisdiscussions on 1979-Islamicthe Revolution toIslamic Modernity be a countermodernwishing for. revolution, radical offering seemingly, Islam very the was theorizingwas, which same thingFoucault and Afary modernity,pessimism rationality over asletand such, reason, him be seduced by a kindof argues thatsay isFoucault’shis theoreticalfundamentalism” to tools and that (Thompson2005,p.24); Islamic andreligious “marriage between postmodernism as akindof onIranRevolution Foucault’s work Passion Foucault ofMichel instance, Islamic for hascalledFoucault’s in offolly on one discussion as Revolution his Miller, James scholars. non-Iranian and Iranian both by challenged been has analysis Foucault’s Seductions of Islamism availableat 1978-1979, between instance,for at, (Look states modern bureaucratic and disciplinary Western of limits the beyond state of a newkind invent and creativity irrationalitywas of an rationality,outbreak against believed, Foucault which, couldoriginate authenticitytowards (p.37-39).In and salvation” words,Islamicother for Foucault, Revolution, and imperialism to colonialism, opposition “an and spirituality”, “political or a spirituality, rejectionand politics of ofa combination but state, modernity,modern another of emergence the expecting not he was Spirituality”, and a fascination with the discourse of death as a path set of articles in the Italian newspaper intheItalian set of articles 2005). (1993) or, in (1993)or, another approach, Michael describes Thompson Foucault and theIranianRevolution:Gender Foucaultand the and Corrieredella Sera, 26 Iran: la Révolution au nom de Die aunom Iran: laRévolution and the French daily French the and (1979), and (1979), Le Monde The CEU eTD Collection gender desegregation, compulsory unveiling and heterosociality aiming at erasure of at andsame-sex heterosociality aiming unveiling gender compulsory desegregation, generated West the with era andPahlavi ofQajar modernists Iranian of if interaction In fact, 2005a, p.69). 265-91; Najmabadi Afary 2009a, pp. 336-55; (Paidar, pp. new order thisfoster heteronormative interpretationsand for women sexual filled thenewspapers;offences and education system,specific of religion,engaged in same-sex relations; reports on “executions, hanging, stoningand flogging”men of those threatened lashes and media, penalty death while crimes became homosexuality female and male and other became compulsory women)ideological(for and recommendedmen) (for faced and violators punishment; andmakecodes (veil no appearances and upfor women, for shirts men) beardandlong-sleeved state apparatusesschools, beaches, weresport parks, segregation spaces(buses, public of gender hijab regulations; thecompulsory violated stadiums, employed mosques, etc.) who anyone and punish arrest to the country around streets toto weredeployed morality police the were enforced by the Islamic state;employing, usingAfary’s “Islamistwords, (p.267-69): panopticon” new dress by heteronormative order, and underitsgaze, all a established population, brought citizens andnormalizes the in oflife, total aspects regulates Islamicall power exerts Republic words make bodieshierarchized,homogenized, to citizens.In andexcluded”governmentable other thepopulation,differentiated, and“compared, internalization the discipline,the of regulates gaze, madebodies discipline, actions the constantdocile observation, through of and ensuring on body;the it citizensused modern brought of technologies andtheirpower, its under practices polygamy,likeemployed, various Pahlavi techniques modernity regime, directly of operated that segregation and practices suchasgender many “pre-modern” Republic, reviving while 27 CEU eTD Collection Najmabadi’s words, the “modernist optimism” (2005a, p. 72) of Najmabadi’s “modernist the p.72)of (2005a, secularmoderniststhe optimism” words, of state wouldbureaucratic that innationally and beinterested itssubjects, if, using regulating nocentralized was there West but the with Iranians elite of interactions the with era along Qajar long during Republic Islamic had the before started process ifIn heteronormalizing sum, the Conclusion hegemony of (Afary Islamicstate” the 270). 2009a, p. ideological and of indicators “political the 337)and p. (Paidar, modernity” Islamic “signifiers of twentieth century, compulsory homosociality gender segregation, and veiling were (Hijab) early of Iranianmodernity the markersof were and unveiling heterosociality desegregation, As hasargues, ifcompulsory impurified 270). gender Paidar the Islamic culture (p.234,p. hundredyears twoforfight against hegemony believed, which, about western over Iran Islamists within should beunderstood abroader for instance,feminism desegregation against, and gender Afaryall linked to, “western(2009a) observes, imperialism” thus, Islamists’backlashes (p. 269); were rest, the and desegregation, gender democracy, rights, human women, and men of equality Since Shah was a US-supported dictator, many (seemingly) western concepts and politics such as secularcorruption. linkedit to the Western Islamists country, contemporary the of backwardness the “vices” andall to other practices linked same-sex homoeroticism, Iran twentieth century AIDS” (p. high336) rates of divorce, low status of motherhood, adultery, illegitimateand, children, prostitution, marriage, lowof rates family, the of “destruction in a society: was “wrong” all that epitomized of course,early 1980s (and foritseven today Western rulers) society and its values, Paidarargues, homosexuality: of rulers for Republic the Islamic sensibilities, of Iranians’ andheteronormalization practices that is, if the secular modernists of early 28 CEU eTD Collection there is an ongoing interaction between between them. is interaction there an ongoing modernityWesterners, butnew meaningsgot andshapes As in different contexts. Idiscussed, perceivedby asthose necessarily not same the by modernizers, were understood Iranian modernity, letsay Iranian conceptand practices ofmodernity waysinthe or the which were 2008,p.18).Asworlds” the Ihavearguedthrough chapter, the 2006 cited inDogruoz (Smith parts of the ways indifferent insignificantly different expressed be and received,developed, societies, but asplural, modernities, as since “’modernity’ and its and features forces can actually (modern) likearrive western look toatand modernization (westernization) in needof traditional harmoniouswhich as countries 2004,36), progress integration” Islamic renders towards (Kaya in pattern structured as a“uniform,not modernity not unambiguously assingular, understanding of necessity on the discussions with broader modernity resonates of Islamic The recognition dismantling heteronormative the social which order, deserved punishment andnormalization. of and, course, prescribe, imperialistandwestern powers imitating what theimpurifying culture, because Islamicclassified, andthen rendered deviant of by tothe modernity threat posing opposite sex, and living anybody outside this was heteronormativedimorphic order named, in the is natural whichthe one’s one’sbiology, rooted sexual is gender towards orientation (both of establish with the usepower ideology) in and of heteronormativerepression to order a startednormalizing usingtechniques disciplinary especiallyand that 1979revolution state after itwas etc., and transgender homosexual, heterosexual, of categories into people typifyng and against sex-desires classifying worked same-sex practices) eradicate would eventually desegregation and gender heterosocialization in intervention thatstate thought (who Pahlavi era 29 CEU eTD Collection question. individualstransgender purposes? andwith what In Iwill nextthe chapter, seek tothis answer andof sethappened, generatetruth discourses knowledge onhomosexual andwhich and homosexual asdistincthuman and transgenderemerged Buthowthis gradually species. of figures the that modernities other) (and western and Iran between friction the is along It 30 CEU eTD Collection the dominantthe medicalreligious and discourses, inknowledge which are embedded and produce change operations and criminalizes same-sex practices. I will seek answer tothe question howof justifyknowledge to and feedIslamicbio-power which Republic’s forpermission grants sex- In this chapter Iintend tounderstand the discourses which generate regimes of truth and produce canbesex relations andhomosexual by arecriminalized penalty. practices punished death same time same At the in1985. permission religious granting decree) (religious fatwa a issued undergowishingsex to change surgery so sincedo thefounder of IR, Ayatollah Khomeini, only officially allowed butpartially funded state, bythe which has let about3000persons The Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) is the only Muslim country in which sex change surgery is not Psycho-Medicalized Discourse on Transsexuality Chapter 2- Complicity beyond Time and Space: The Religio- woman …itismy dutytoknow someone is amanif orawoman.” homosexual. you Makeupyour wantmind. Either to beamanor you want tobea a evensuspectedofbeing you may be transsexual, youareatransvestite, want“If you tocontinuedress butkeeplike agirl your male body,youare not a a conservative state-affiliated journalist told a client atthe Gender Identity Disorder clinic “Iran isaparadise transsexualfor patients.” Dr Mir-Jalali, the Iranian leading specialist in sex reassignment surgery, said in in Tehran in Documentary ‘Be Like Others’ (Eshaghian, 2008) 31 Documentary ‘Be Like (Eshaghian,Others’ 2008) CEU eTD Collection modern psycho-medicalized discourse on “truth of sex” ( 2011] framework. Availableat 2 citizens. “legitimate” to “illegitimate” from consequently and “patients”, to “perverts” from status social their change to order in beundergoing homosexualstranssexualstranssexual might pretend to without operation, Iranian a as state the by be certified to sanctioned religiously and legally and possible, absolutely is it some homosexuals mightbenefitfrom Islamic Republicthe recognition transsexuality.of Since I will that show bealsoalso productive. might forces heteronormalizing aforementioned Yet, the intervention. “patients” suffering from identity “gender indisorder” need of psychological and surgical matrix.heterosexual feminine respectively transsexuals arender as within They roles gender ofmenpeople groups into two andwomen who follow have masculine certain to prescribed and behavior from her/his derived biological sex. These discourses intwo cooperate categorizing physically and healthypsychologically individual must perform certainaccording to codes of ( sex” “true on discourse medical Islamic classical of confluence the by informed is Republic transsexuality in Iran, I will argue that the dominant discourse on transsexuality after the whichdiscuss texts religioussignificant andscientific most majorIslamic and the Looking through politics? aforementioned the informed and other each legitimized and affected have sexuality, and gender of politics IR’s for Iamthankful to Professor Najmabadi and her article “Truth of Sex” (2005) which helped me think through this jins-e haqiqi 2 ) meaning every human body is innately male orfemale, and the wester-rooted http://www.iranian.com/Najmabadi/2005/January/Sex/index.html 32 haqiqat-e jins [last access June 6th ), meaning), every CEU eTD Collection eventually managed togetin; Khomeini’sby hisbeatenbuthouseto in for guards, went sex-changesurgery. 1985,got She released, she decided tomeet Ayatollah Khomeini,the leader of the revolution, toget permission revolution for notobeying the prescribed normative genderroles 2005).But, (Tait, after being was firedfrom her and arrestedand job got locked upinTehran’s notorious Evin the after prison she that Guardian with interview in her recalled Iran, inside activist rights transsexual influential most today’s the Molkara), Fereydoon named time that and (MtF Molkara Maryam-Khatoon samehomosexuals.the asperverts, in as regarded their with not sex,were seemingly compatible which were who revolution,the individuals,were practicing those genderroles transgender or years after few in first which the was, order social heteronormative theaforementioned Within Patients to Perverts from Republic: Islamic after Individuals Transgender inIran. transsexuality on discourse psycho-medical and religious the discuss to on move will I then and fatwa Khomeini’s Ayatollah before by I willstart transgender backgroundon how weretreated abrief people giving changed forme." Khomeini didn'tknow about thecondition until then. From thatmomenton,everything waswhat hermaphrodites … andtranssexuals room the difference between and heasked threedoctors the his trusted personwasin of saying,'This isGod'sservant.'Hehad whothose someone He forshelter. hadcome around him,askinghow they couldmistreat was"I taken intoacorridor…Icould raising hearKhomeini was hisvoice. He blaming (Tait, 2005) 33 CEU eTD Collection and simultaneously religious variousproduce governmentableinvokedmodernity techniquesof citizens,to several butalso and scientific notemployed only sense. It inthat wasnot an exception modern state asa Republic Islamic discourses to generate its“maximum saturation” (pp.45-48). own regime of truth of singular sexualities”, “extends thevarious forms ofsexuality” and provides of places and “multiplication the ledironically, to of power, trend repressive this seemingly normalized. But, genderidentities andsexual acts and sothatabnormalities desires, and getcorrected deviants get bodies, exclude and hierarchize, classify,to wereemployed discourses and psychoanalytical psychological, medical, things, other among Thus, gaze. own their under perverts and sexualities needed bring to deviant and states population, toregulate the andin discipline order Europe, from Foucault mid-eighteenth [1978]) We in from that century (1990 already know onward worldthe Thailand. after 3000 transsexuals have is sex changewhich secondhighestnumberin undergone the operation, which “patients” hormonal and,can getsurgical transsexual andtreatments, since 1985,about which inthe of ended establishment generatedaprocess fatwa surgeries beforeIslamicespecially the during 70s,this Revolution offew accounts sexchange are Although there inneed“patients” treatment. of but “sinners” “perverts” or not as transsexuals recognition of state Islamic the thisbut causing time fatwa, when he didnothave any power,the 1985meetingpolitical resulted in re-issuanceof the 1963 era) Pahlavi during Ayatollah the for writing been had she that letters numerous to response inchange asMaryam-Khatoon surgery have 1963(which couldMolkara said, occurred, asa Although Ayatollah Khomeini had issued fatwaalready granting for religious permission sex Gender Identity Disorder Gender Identity 34 clinics mainly in Tehran from inTehran mainly clinics CEU eTD Collection scientific knowledge through history and the difficulty and sometimes impossibility sometimes of and difficulty history andscientific the knowledgethrough Muslims’ of limitation of because But, 75-7). (p. it” “discover to be ways must there everybody, since thatGod haswords, itwas/is jurisprudents assumedby assigned sex Islamic atrue to ifdetermined is even person intersex individual that withan “ambiguous”genitalia;or inother individual beto granted certain rightsreligious and obligations her/his sex” “true mustbe refer malefor to byjurisprudents any to isfemale, everything and which understood apair”, Law in MedievalIslamic in discusses Sanders Paula hermaphrodites. on discourse Islamic classical from derived is transsexuality on discourse religious The Sex True on Discourse Religious each other: consolidate and converge science, psychological discourses which, althoughsex change operation they are premised on comeand generated twofrom set of religious andtwo medico- different sources fact sex the in that specifically of Qur’an)andthepermission forbidden consequentchange isnot of religion and in should TheAyatollah Iran beunderstood. Khomeini’s isinitially fatwa(which grounded on It is through these discussions that the religio-medico-psychological discourse on transsexuality new personages. history opens up insexuality of spaces for emergencemultiple the Europe, sexualities of and knowledgeproduce justify to and bio-power, feedits which,like Foucault’s on discussion (1991) that based (1991)that Quranic onthe “we verse have of of created Gendering the Ungendered Body: Hermaphrodites theUngenderedBody: Gendering 35 CEU eTD Collection PhD dissertation on the on dissertation PhD his written has who Kariminia, al-Islam Hujjat The cleric genitalia. people “ambiguous” with or individuals intersex on discourse Islamic in classical basis theoretical and historical has added), opposite sex, it rather reveals his/her reveals itrather sex, opposite the to him/her transform not does surgery sex, opposite the to belonging his/her of confident is Thus, what Ayatollah Khomeini had stated in his book in his stated had Khomeini Ayatollah what Thus, hermaphrodites: article 825-949of Iranianthe Civil Code discussin it length.Article 939is about Republic and maintains gendered distinctions, women’s inheritance isrights half of men and in dominates Islamic now of Islam which interpretation certain to instance, according For on how to deal with problems thatsuchimpossibility of (p.knowing would 75-83). produce sex determining true the havebased on jurisprudents literature genitalia, published largeIslamic sum of the portions of one male and one female.] of ishalf the which threeapples inherits isapples, ahermaphrodite of two a male that [My example:instance,own for four if inheritsa male apples, and afemale inherits half one man and one woman … (Political Science Website, access April 2011). indication be preponderant, the hermaphrodite will femaleness take the nor half maleness of the the neither sumif …and of woman the one of portions portion the takes of hermaphrodite the greater, arethe femaleness of manof if indications one … and the follows. If the indications of maleness are the greater, the hermaphrodite takes the portion Article 939- … ifthe heir is hermaphrodite … a his/her be portion will determined as Legal andJurisprudentialSex Change Bases Operationof true sex true that has so far been hidden” (p. 754; beenfar hasso hidden” (p. 754; emphasis that 36 Tahrir al-wasila Tahrir (1967) that “if someone (1967)that (2004-5) CEU eTD Collection now rules the country. which Islam of interpretation specific the invoking by primarily experiments their of legitimacy the gain still scientists unsurprisingly, Thus, implemented. be can practice scientific the law or the of religion, interpretation aspecific not transgress does scientific research lawor such first be discussed must amonginnovation evenascientific law is anynew or theocratic, structure political Since Iranian a body of clerics (calledfemales so toprovideGuardian them with a “healthier” life 44).(p. Council) and,most intersexualsif it is decided at the thatreligious authoritiesmoment tomedical andpsychological scientists who, especially “catch since 1950s, of birth” to fit them responsibilitythe managingof the bodies intersexualsof others)(and was from transferred within one of the categories of secularization, process Thus,alongthe with p. 36). 2000, needcorrection” (Fausto-Sterling of of males or certain wereabnormal “thebodies declareand variation” authority to andclaimed of that natural aspects statistical a clearsense the of “developed scientists centuries, andnineteenth eighteenth intonotcontinuum dimorphic by biology categories.and But of emergence the during the a along gender and sex understood relatively practitioners medical classical early system, genitalia withmaintain “ambiguous” so to thesex two-sexed those the techniques determines of modern sexessurgical the and areonly two there that assumes deeply culture and European American today’s the Although West. the in intersexuality of history the to similar is partly This and their“true sex” is hidden (Kariminia 2009). bodies” “wrong in the entrapped are who those of problem the also but years), thousand a than solve,to only not genitalia with problem the those of ambiguous (which morehas thehistory of discusses inhis book modernthat medical and surgical science has helped Islamic jurisprudents 37 CEU eTD Collection because their gender identity is not compatible with their sex … if a transsexual needs help, needs transsexual a if … sex their with compatible not is identity gender their because individual’s biological sexfrom etc. modes of cognition, aspirations, career scents, modalities, movement gestures, talking,hobbies, imaginations, of set of ways performances, isidentity emotions, “...gender a carrying out sex change surgeries worldwide. toher, According successfully surgeons of lists and diets, food necessary treatments, surgical and hormonal She further psycho-medicalthe elaborates definitions of transsexuals, and discusses the Ayatollah Khomeini) by –starts using these words: transsexuals by and headed Maryam Khatoon Molkara one (the who gotthefatwa from Individuals with GenderIdentityDisorder Dr. AnnaFarahmand’s work surgeries. andapproved by and supported state the is Dr.Mir-Jalali in leadingIran’s specialistsex change Others Surgery Sex Reassignment discourse on “truth of sex”. I will focus on excerpts from Anna Farahmand’s ascientific fosters and with resonates then, sex”, “true on discourse religious discussed The ofSex Truth on Discourse Psycho-Medical (2008) to investigate (2008)to medico-psychologicalthis These discourse. surgeons two are That’s what little little made of” boys are what That’s Snakes and snails and tails puppy-dog made little girls are of what That’s “Sugar spice and and nice everything (2010) and Dr. Mir-Jalali’s narratives in (2010)and Dr.Mir-Jalali’s narratives documentary the , which is available on the website of … transsexuals are suffering from gender identity from identity …transsexualsdisorder aresuffering gender - the only in only the Iran with NGO issuesof the dealing 38 Iranian SocietyforSupporting Gender Identityand developed Be Like CEU eTD Collection that their bodies don’t match how that theirbodies upthe cage feel…somyoperationopens don’t matchhow doorandallow they they cannotachievetranssexuals theprowess andvirilityofTarzan …Theunderstandingof is those excerpts in length; Like Others his inoperations in of narratives parts Iransince1990,through different documentary the In the second account, Dr. in Tehran. Mir-Jalali, clinics disorder identity gender of establishment in the the Paris trainedconstruction of a powerfulsurgeon religio-psycho-medical discourse on transsexuality, who which ended up has performed to the and contributed thus Islamic discourse matchedaclassical shapes. Theyperfectly about 400 Persian tothe newtranslated to Iranian modernity,and got meanings were introduced and when discourses, modern western these words, other In sex. biological their with match identities donot from since dysphoria,gender andtheir they surgical suffer treatment Reassignment As Hines (2007) discusses, works such as Benjamin’s suchas works As Hines(2007)discusses, Anna Farahmand’s work is, in fact, a translation of bodies of work on transsexuality in theWest. 12-17;(pp. emphasis added). Stoller’s of transsexuals much are of transsexuals life thatabout98% body …Recentand studies haveshow changeher/his successfully a happier she/he should either change her/hisidentity gender with psychological … therapies or - Icannotturntranssexuals intoacomplete full men orwomen,won’t they beabletoreproduce, Sex and Gender Sex and (Eshaghian, 2008) expressed very telling remarks, and I prefer to bring of some to I prefer very and remarks, telling (Eshaghian, 2008)expressed (1969) render transsexuals as patients who need psychological, hormonal or hormonal psychological, need who patients as transsexuals render (1969) happier aftersexhappier change operation (1968) and Green Money’s Green and (1968)and 39 , which is a result be to proud of …” Transsexual Phenomenon Transsexualism andSex Transsexualism (1966), Be CEU eTD Collection from the religious discourse on “true sex”. In other words, like what Ayatollah Khomeini had Khomeini Ayatollah what like words, other In sex”. “true on discourse religious the from isin prison (cage) before the operation”, resonates with and atthe same time gains itslegitimacy “helping the one inentrapped wrongthe body escapeto andfeel theone’s ownrealbody which First; this discourse on“opening and upthe cage door allowing soar”,i.e. theindividual to on Transsexuality Discourse Religio-Psycho-Medical Analysis: order: heteronormative existing the maintain to function these andassumptions their discuss paradoxes and arguehow implications, andlater they dominantstate-approved scientific on discourse gender and in sexuality Iran.Iwill first present lie core of the atthe withthestate, of their association which, because account Mir-Jalali’s and Dr. embeddedinDr.Farahmand paradoxes) (andimplicitThere arecertain assumptions regretted undergoing theoperation …even onetranssexual who cannotbe found regret it… her husband happy, sheis much better at itthan otherwomen …Notranssexual has ever keeping cleaning, keepinghouse,cooking, her, for becauseinallaspects, males isaloteasier be…becauseattracting woman couldever womanthan anyother me, becomesevenmuchmore the [telling anMtF]whenfather when my hand, leavesfrom new she finds birthday becauseof other way putsona skirt. Hecan’thelphimself. Hisbrainis like hissister’s …Your child toour right? Butyour a knife throats, wouldweson thesecondhismomlooks Sir?Am I wearwiththat’s my thefatherofanMtF]andIwouldn’t askirteven …You[telling deep desire the patientthatthis say: operation isfromhell.Thehomosexualescapes.Atranssexualwould this individualtosoar … A homosexualisnever willing tooperate. thingIdoistotell Thefirst 40 CEU eTD Collection paradox, using Butler’s (2006 [1990]) words, usingparadox, not (2006 [1990]) Butler’s “a only suggests radical between discontinuity This moreacts? real body performs alesscomplete How aman/woman? morethan real even canbemale/female, is than a complete less sex theoperation complete after whose transsexual, biological sex, and if from develops the mightif directly one identity as AnnaFarahmand suggests gender ask, there areBut, woman. or man two other any than woman sexesor man more much become even can sex, to comes of males and females, whenitidentity,gender unlike when it transsexuals, to comes discourse, tothis Third,according how the gender identity factors. arecomplementary characteristics of a one’shormonal, andanatomical, chromosomal, genitalia, and secondary gonadal, sexual woman (female). Besides, as Dr. Mir-Jalali implies, what determine one’s sex in this discourse is a complete nor man (male) complete neither a is transsexual ifanafter-the-operation binary construction of sex as a binaryfull man/woman”notbecause reproduce would, beingable ironically, of very to question the of male/female, becausea complete as “not namingYet, atranssexual less in sense. real that becomeandcomplete, less there would be a continuum operation after the status lose this children, reproducing of beingcapable womanbecause of or but not a man a complete of usuallyfit definition the operation the before bodies whose why transsexuals hemeans male/female) is aperson whois capableof reproducing thenext generation, and that is Second, when it comes to body, as Dr. Mir-Jalali suggests, a “complete” man orbein discussed.yet embedded to discourse aremorethis assumptions there a woman (that escapes the cage. Thus, the basis of the two religious and psycho-medical discourses is the same, him/her lets only far, so hidden been has what reveals only but person, the of sex the transform stated, if somebody feels belonging to the opposite sex, the sex change surgery does not 41 CEU eTD Collection “appropriate” parenting, the truth of his/her male/female sex (corresponding male/female his/her truth of the parenting, “appropriate” in Bahreini, In p.35). words,other in natural and normal when circumstances person the receives mothers”,“hostile anddevaluing andsuch parents”, (Awhadi, as p.244-6; Rayisi, p.73-5; cited Identity Disorder and Unnatural Human Sexual Tendencies and and UnnaturalHumanSexual Behaviors state-approved psychologists’ such andworks psychotherapists’ as Awhadi’s Behnam which is inother accordingto thisidentity discourse discussed Whatdisorder, causes gender never wears a skirt even with a knife tohis throat, unless he needs psycho-medical treatment. sexed body, otherwise individualthe is patient suffering from identity gender aman disorder: mustfixed,genderidentity and from universal derive a coherent the this specific, discourse, in men,cooking, attracting asit husband keeping cleaning, happy,is her Yet, etc. and implied in abilities her/his because of woman for instance, more, becomes bodied, female male or be either Butler’s “awords, phantasmatic ideal heterosexual identity”of (1993,p.313):an individual, to using imitate, ifshe/hecan more woman man moreor becomes one that identity, performative asa gender on discussion with Butler’s in assumes, by It accordance acts. constructed reality no“truth”, andits is status, hasidentity is, noontological gender of that gender; character performative the of an affirmation opposite, exactly the but biology,from their derived affirmationan not is Mir-Jalali, ofDr. and Farahmand theDr. of narratives in the existenceimplied is what fact, In of “truth of sex” meaning gender rolessexed bodies (2006[1990],p.9). of healthy individualsfrom derived necessarily not of performances aset and artifice” floating a “free but dimorphic, are sexed bodies genders” and culturally constructed but affirms genderidentity that isnot also (2002),are“absent“overprotectingand fathers”, abandoned engulfing and 42 (2005) andRayisi & Nasehi’s Natural Gender CEU eTD Collection latter “unnatural”latter and“againstreligion” social which “disrupts ( order” and the “disorder” or formerthe a“disease” while calling separate” they are “fundamentally denouncesassociate any discussions withattempt tohomosexuality –saying on transsexuality alsoharshly Kariminia al-Islam surgery, Hujjat cleric homosexuals”“true undergo that won’t over the possible confusion of transsexuals and homosexuals. Not only Dr. Mir-jalali believes In fact, Iranian officials, religious authorities andmedical experts are all very much concerned isfrom such hell. afteroperation hearing that surgeon office the the of escapes homosexual a undergo while operation, to is who willing a person is atranssexual characteristics: essential visible, and permanent reality” (Foucault, p.44), and even assigns transsexuals andhomosexuals analytical, an homosexuality] and transsexuality [here it “gives rather it order, heterosexual words,although other upholding discourse aimsthis gender-andwithin the sex-dimorphism a at In 1990, p.43). asa“personage”(Foucaulthomosexual homosexual, atype, also produces as transsexual,by and, boundariesarounddrawing this itfrom subjectand distinguishinga subject again Foucault’s of the very and with inaccordance ironically analysis, produces, man/woman, or male/female of binaries the of in one transsexual locate to tries desperately this -as Fourth, a system discourse in knowledge which extentto the ispossiblethat - intervention. medical and of truth sex donotmatch, theindividual becomes pathologizedbe so normalized to by Dr. Anna imaginations). Farahmand suggested, Iftruth of sex is expressed, not if identity gender identity (hobbies, way of talking, movementmodalities, and all other gender performancesperson’s in the and even,itself as show will relationships) heterosexual within masculinity/femininity 43 ASP August 29 th 2008). CEU eTD Collection do notdo sufferfrom mental other butare disorders “real” transsexualsfulfilling -through written they that therapists convince they Should psychotherapy. of courses toone-year six-month attend by introduced a psychologist tospecial “gender identity clinicsdisorder” in applicantsTehran, being After procedure. amedico-legal should pass surgeries Those seekingsex change therapists. lesbian-friendly and of gay- support some in and clinics safethe space enjoy a relatively transsexualsnot stable is and fixed butfluid which andporous, provides some homosexuals to But, paradoxically, very the boundary sought by Iranian authorities between homosexuals and homosexuals. with them of misidentification society’s the over discontent expressed also talked I whom with transsexuals 3 itself) (“Sheytanat-haay-e Piraamoon-e Maa” [“Mischief Around US”], deviancy” sexual a never is disorder identity devianciesmentally from from ones disordered identity gender people ---Gender disordered Iranian separate sufferingthrough Legal MedicalNational from to those Boards sexual made efforts the all ignore media] [western They … homosexuals!! to permission change sex Disorder ofherorganization website herfamiliarity with gays sex surgery,undergoing has found it necessary topublish on the informed had who Molkara, Maryam activist transsexual the enough, Interestingly Translatedby the author from Persian. that “some western media are trying to instill in their audience the idea that Iran gives Iran that idea the audience in their instill to trying are media western “some that Iranian Society forSupportingIndividualswith GenderIdentity 3 44 (two exclamation marks are from from website marksthe are exclamation (two GID website]. Some website]. Guardian of CEU eTD Collection Mir-Jalali, undergo 100%of transsexuals who sex notchange surgery, regretsurgical the do Dr. Farahmand,Dr. Fifth,more and enough,according to according than to 98%, surprisingly arrest him, since he has permission from the state to dress like a woman. not will police Moral public. the in women as dress then, and, transsexual he is that state from certification get transsexual, as pass therapy, month six aforementioned the through going by hecan so in clothes do street, the towearfemale if wishes gay homosexual feminine instance, a for Thus, “legitimate” citizens. to “illegitimate” from andconsequently “patients”, to “deviants” less guilty offeel to so transsexuals, be as certified to procedures andlegal courses theirpsychotherapy six month same-sex passthe some homosexuals homosexuality), for Republic cure asIslamic operations sex-change desires and practices,resembling anythingbut “sex change or die” (the way some articles in the world press reports on and/orundergoing Thus, asa operation. without transsexual be bythe state certified to sanctioned to change theirAs by discussed itNajmabadi is (2008) absolutely andlegally and possible, religiously social status fromundergoing operation(s). the sex applicant undergo to changeA newidentity surgery. card will be issued only after the permitting certificate the issues eventually which Office Prosecutors’ Public to her/him refers applicant, interview with the session setting one which, after Organization Legal Medical to the Persian) whose operation is more difficult (Boulat 2007; also look at 5 Index), Bender-Gestalt test, SCL-90-R (SymptomChecklist-90-R) and more. 4 tests Number of operations differs from one person to another. It ranges from 3 for MtFs to even 23 for some FtMs Thesetests include TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test), Rorschach Test, MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality 4 and chromosomal and hormonal tests and also giving oral interviews – their cases are sent 5 45 Iranian TS (FtM & MtF) Support website, available in CEU eTD Collection (including show transsexuals Iranian on documentaries different as But, bodies. their on interventions Mir-Jalali the leading specialist in doing the sex change surgeries) that, linked journalist Gender aclientatthe told Identity clinicinDisorder Tehran by (headed Dr. Let me bring first when quotation Istarted very thisby the chapter which state- a conservative healthy person with gender identity proper in compatible with his/her truth the of sex. a of is a characteristic desire opposite-sex andd)the have traits, “feminine” is to healthy woman that the “truth of sex” of a healthy man isemotionally “healthy” individualhas a gender identity his/hercompatible with biological sex, soto have “masculine” traits and the “truththere of sex” of a shouldwhich is aset of characteristicsbe and behaviors developed as a result of onlythat biological sex, identity is and an gender b) female; or male either sex” “true one have two individuals all is, that sexes; gender identities betwo should only there signified, and isgenitally circumstances in“natural” sex of each person of thata) assumes surgeries, sex change in doing of whom are engaged most recognized surgeons man state- bythe and written books and accounts aforementioned in the found woman;be can illustrations whose transsexuality, c) on literature a religio-psycho-medicalized psychologically dominating Republic’s Islamic sum, In and perpetuatedby ideological theand heteronormative order euros) the state. support than legitimizea justification to the operations (each whichof brings the 4000 surgeons about account authentic an less is surgery, the after transsexuals of condition life the of representation the continuation and health their on surgery the of repercussions negative as such reasons various for operation of the after years or months some the operation regret do most of if not transsexuals some indicated, their problems in family and society. Thus, to me, the two surgeons’ Be Like Others Be Like (2008)and Tedium 46 (2008)), and asmy transsexual interviewees CEU eTD Collection characteristics that are culturally regarded as feminine, or when a female bodied person bodied female whena or feminine, as regarded are culturally that characteristics categories of dichotomous the fits within one person the sothat bymedical intervention bemust corrected of males or females,is born “ambiguous” with genitalia, he/she is“abnormal” and such andabnormality “ambiguity” fitsIn sum, what this religio-psycho-medicalhis/her discourse suggests as the solutionis that when a person true sex; discriminations. topathologization,are subjected andsocial and cultural when a male they heterosexuals, normative unmarried monogamous but or heterosexuals marital reproductive bodied person “hierarchical the 1983, p.279).Yet,since sexual value” they inferiorsystem stand of (Rubin to expressessexual in standcontemporary homosexuals positioncastes, Iran they inabetter in to compared In other words, unlike many modern orhomosexuals, and butperverts of whoarenotpatients, transvestites deservepunishment. Western societies categories the into put is individual that Otherwise, transsexuality. thatfrom suffering is patient one transsexuals are the mostdetermines in clinics that Tehran Disorder Identity Gender state-approved from certificate certain despised as translated (loosely heterosexuality)is accidental. not Besides, as journalistthis implied, atransgenderis pervert discourse that I discussed above (dichotomous sex/gender order and normativity of discourse which represents ideological discourse of her Islamicof Republic resemblance the to the psycho-medical scientist, psychological or medical a not was journalist that Although someone isamanor a woman.” Make upyourmind. Either youwant tobeaman or awoman …itismy duty toknow if being ahomosexual. suspectedtranssexual, youmaybeeven youareatransvestite, of “If you wantyou are not a likeagirlbutkeepyourmalebody, “If you tocontinue dress monharef ) unless he/she becomes a transsexual, that isa mustget one a that becomes ) unlesshe/she transsexual, 47 CEU eTD Collection medicalized discourse on truth of sex, meaning a psychologically healthy individual performs in meaning eachhuman is body innately either male female, or and psycho- western-rooted the sex, true on discourse of Islamic classical the in Iran. convergence The informing transsexuality religious and modern psycho-medical discourses, in the construction of dominant discourses classical between modernities, andwestern modernity between isIranian So there complicity order. heteronormative existingmake fit within them the to of docilecitizens bodies aimedat practices modern technologies of constituted of power both religious andmodern discoursesscientific and various employs Republic of Islamic structure political theocratic the scientists, psychological gradually from shifted authorities thereligious mainlyto legalsystem medical and andto regulating, disciplining andnormalizing non-normative genderand sexual andpractices desires If history the through insexuality of responsibilitythe Europe, managing, for classifying, Conclusion of Islam. interpretation rule lawfrom tothe of specific according derived be punished must who a criminal, “pervert”, but patient, not is he/she desires, heterosexual non- expresses individual an when and a pervert; but a patient, not is person this therapy without identity); gender the with sex the of truth match (to treatments surgical or sex) the of truth with identity gender the match (to therapies hormonal and psychological needs and disorder” identity whohas “gender is he/she masculine,a “patient” culturally as thatare regarded traits expresses 48 CEU eTD Collection will shed light on on questions. these light shed will I chapters next the In context? in that other each within interaction in are modernities How press? in is world the by represented practiceLGBT How discursively the of seeking asylum Iranian How each of the national and international regimes benefits or confines the lives of transsexuals? lawstransgender on and refugees through which process the asylum transgender seekers go? gender and sexuality and their underlying ideologies are differentfrom or similar internationalto of regimes disciplinary and regulatory Republic’s Islamic the extent what to ask, might one then thepermission despite sex-change surgery, asylum of becauseof socio-cultural mostly pressure, seek to insidedecide the country living since transsexuals and someYet, transgender of the citizens. legitimate to illegitimate from status social their from Islamic Republic recognition transsexuality of by passing as andtranssexual, shifting thus benefit also homosexual Some more). (and transsexuals and homosexuals of types two least at of emergence the to leads and system gender-binary and sex- very that challenges paradoxically whichorder sex-perpetuates and gender-dimorphism andnormative heterosexuality, heteronormative Republic’s Islamic the within fits although that, transsexuality on discourse religio-psycho-medico-legal apowerful consolidated of sex, have truth his/her with accordance 49 CEU eTD Collection international power relations and asylum law, how is the practice of seeking asylum by Iranian by asylum seeking of practice is the how law, asylum and relations power international I will seek answer to two broad QueerOrganization). Iranian questions in this chapter.isTheir tobenumber estimated with 104as August 2010 (personal of contact head of NGO the First; withinbutnotexclusively,“sexualidentity” to, related gender their (UNHCR2008). orientation and the context of existingUnited Nationsindividuals. group(from latter This now on,andputit to LGBT short, people) canopen in cases High Commissionerreligious minorities mostand, for notably my research, lesbian,bisexual gay, and transgender and ethnic movements, women’s and students labors, of the formembers artists, activists, rights Refugees Iranian asylum seekers political include, among groups, journalists, dissidents, other (from human now on UNHCR)mountains. the over border the crossing ways, other among based on Those withoutpassportlegally cannotclaimspassport. border. Yet,theythe risk the cross take of,can visa from Iranian citizens, cities across isTurkey Iran’s(UNHCR 2010).Turkey require neighboring not country and does enabling Iranian asylum comingfrom more than nationalities) as living40 inDecemberof 2010, more than 30 satellite seekers to leave their22000 asylum number seekers of about of with total the approximatenumberof 4300 (out an home country with a largestgroup of makeIraniansin Iraqis, upthe currently after second asylum Turkey seekers Representationof IranianLGBT Seekers Asylum Chapter 3–Travelling from EviltoFreedom:Discursive “[Iranian] Gay Refugees Flee GayRefugees toTurkey“[Iranian] SeekingFreedom” Anthony Faiola, April 3 50 rd 2010, Washington 2010,Washington Post CEU eTD Collection repercussions. upheld within and perpetuated documentationsNGOs andworld press,andwhatareits is West Iran/Free Evil of dichotomy the discuss and seekers asylum LGBT Iranian of case study see how Islamic Republic I will offirst discuss the concept of Iranrefugee within international power relations, andis I will move to represented in post 9/11 peopletransgender wholiveinside Iran. rhetoric. I will then focusbisexuals, thesituation gays, lesbians, many and ironically,other hand,of exacerbate and on the other the on but, seekers, asylum LGBT Iranian of benefit the for serve hand, one the one might, while underestimating internal the or denying of lifedynamics LGBT in andIran West, the how such among showrepresentation, countries.reductive Iwill discursive totalizing and the relations international power unequal paternalistic existing Westwithin the andfree/civilized Iran evil/uncivilized/un-free of dichotomy hierarchical orientalist the uphold West inthe asylum representation LGBTof seekersIranian asylum andof very the of seeking practice Iranians’ major NGOsillustrating thesituation Iranian LGBTpeople,of Iwill argue that the discursive the articles written farso on Iranian LGBT asylum seekers, and analyzing the discourses used by examiningtheHistorically conceptsof asylum lookingseeker andrefugee, some and through of representation? such of are Anddiscursive the what repercussions LGBT asylumseekersassuch? potential documentations of issues? WhatLGBT Iranian explains tendency this representingof Iranian LGBT in intheWest is people represented discursively worldthe pressand NGOs’ the through 51 CEU eTD Collection the internationalthe framework suggested by UNHCR whichis a more “neutral” organization. states, U.S., and Canada seem divergeto from their previous policies during cold war andfollow terrorists”311). After (p. collapsethe of Union Soviet Keelyand during 1990s, argues, European peoplegranting refugeeto status comingfrom Muslim sincethey“worried about countries, in werealsoreluctant states in European 1979, Republic of Islamic emergence the timethe after Keely thatduring destabilizeare able early regimesindicates (p.307-8). communist the 1980s, to feed Union,of the discursive representation communism andas the“evil”, check if such policies whoin“escaped “the toshow Soviet the those communistbankruptcy” of oppression” order inand was status United resettling very States grantinggenerous refugee notes, Keely instance, 304). For for process (p. refugees butwasa“politically international of contentious” protection necessarily toasylum was legacy followingthe status seekers not mechanism refugee of granting worldKeelyafter two the (2001)argues,however,that warsandduring cold the war,the 465).(p. prior to1951 eventsin occurring Europe seek asylum linked to whose reasons were justthose to not and universal” for refugees protection “international the (2010)writes, addresses LaViolette in Later a Protocol Status the as of RefugeesRelating1967 was to to, byUNinorder passed after world two the thus warsand primarilyhad a“Eurocentric 2001,p.304). focus” (Keely “European situations” displaced person tothe respond the 1951convention was passedto In fact, “aspeople occurring who beforeof a result January events be1951” could regardedasrefugees. providingConvention of asylum for theStatus relatingThisConvention Refugees. aimed at to Worldpass led Wars, whichof 1951Geneva the UNto two the people andafter during Historically, the concept of refugee, as a specifically legal concept, comes from the mass shifting Relations Power International within Refugee of Concept 52 CEU eTD Collection play role in theimmigrationredefining laws (look at Fassin 2005; Collinson 1996) role in reshaping theirimmigration policies, orhow European Union’s security measures might 6 peace “threaten whichthe states Korea as North and Iran, Iraq of Republic Islamic herepresented introduced W. of by George Bush inJanuaryUnion Address State on his the 29 It must be noted that ofEvil Axis the as Iran Rhetoric: Post 9/11 Islamic Republic of Iran constitutesis an in not asylum sense. exception seekers, that one LGBT my Iranian caseof The analysis, relations. power international existing context of the the of the three meaning asylum mechanism and be refugeestatus of to granting seekers must analyzed within “axes of cancontinue. These examples evil” 1192). US], …regardless is immigration status, of immunefromsuspicion ofbeing (p. aterrorist” [to immigrant “no terrorists: potential are Iran) (including network have might Qaeda Al where from 34countries the coming of one those seekers,especially all words, asylum 1175); inother “fewhave immigration policies [after 9/11]without terrorism been created mind” in policy (p. that way in a law, immigration the reshaping and subordinating is policy terrorism how shows theAmericanimmigration lawspolicy (2004)analysisUNHCR, Tumlin’s of post-9/11 with But, in contrast to Keely’s argument that western powers have adjusted their national refugee one might be interested in looking at how conflicts between two neighboring states might play might states neighboring two between conflicts how at looking in interested be might one of the world”, while stressing that Iranian young generation the Iranian young thatdemocracy while of world”, (emphasis wishes stressing 6 I conclude from the aforementioned set of debates that the that debates of set aforementioned the from Iconclude 53 th 2002 in which 2002 CEU eTD Collection non-homogeneous, and unstable force relations but rather we must question them on two levels two on question them wemust rather but relations force andunstable non-homogeneous, unbalanced, of multiplicity from existing the be analyzednot separately –should join together field and –asin knowledge a which power asFoucault anddiscourse has argued,practice Yet, backmy I go to home country. back home for pursuing their democratic aspirations, and I myself might risk my freedom should friends inprison are my many closest of lines (May2011), these timewriting the of at After all, inmy occurring country. rights violation human of andwidespread the systematic underestimate analysis in followingthe paragraphsdoes not intend, byany deny means, to even or International Amnesty or Watch Rights Human such organizations rights human international neutral relatively by documented been have which violations, rights human for Republic powers, in Islamic condemning Western agree more with andother Obama, I cannot its is aregimeof own citizens”. which Republic “afraid called Islamic 8 9 7 seem may times though … aspirations your to is responsive that a country forge to power the and civilization, Persian both carry greatness nation, ancient“You, the youngyou of within Iran -- people saying,of Iranian the inMarch 2011,Obamaaddressed commemoration (Persian NewYear) Nowruz of up following in Bush dissociating Islamic Republic from Iranian people: in his annual of endedfor dialogue beyond reasons authorities, thescope this helater start thesis with Iranian added) http://www.hrw.org/en/middle-eastn-africa/iran http://iranchannel.org/archives/1031 http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/01/29/bush.speech.txt/ 7 . Although Obama’s administration initially intended to diverge from Bush’s policies and policies Bush’s from diverge to intended initially administration Obama’s Although dark , I want you to know that [last access June 6th 2011] 5 4 [last access: June 6 I amwithyou ” 8 th (emphasis added). He 2011] 9 . Thus, my CEU eTD Collection in a way which feeds certain discourses. In fact, many of my interviewees in Turkey many in expressed fact, myinterviewees Turkey certain In feeds of indiscourses. away which interpreted be/are can how theirover practices havecontrol Westare aware inof or asylum the think of ways other than asylum inseeking nor West, the arguing Iranians those that whoseek I am neither suggestingIranians that whohave fear of being inside persecuted country the should Iran. and powers) Western other (together US between confrontations harsh and consequent the intensified 9/11attacks is after us from and time, inherited colonial to the is which West, Iran/free evil of dichotomy the enrich and feed to employed strategically by NGOs and press world in the articles workingin some is discursively-represented practice such in which ways forthe and West, inthe etc.) transgender, Iranian journalists, activists, rights human dissidents, political LGBT peopleIn lightof Isuggest thethat very bedebates, practicethese of asylumby seeking (to Iranians (whichA Consequences Seeking Asylum: Practice withUnintended I will refer West Iran/Free Evil the of Reproduction to in a while), can be/are utilization. this contested through or are reconstructed power and knowledge regimes of andwhat discourses, might ask what kinds networkof of forces are at play which necessitates the employment of such is, integration; that one its productivity and strategical face might question one tactical value, instead instance, words,for message human of other violation in Obama’s on righttaking Iranat necessary variousina given episode confrontations(Foucault of In the thatoccur” 1990, p.102). make their utilization what forcerelationship and conjunction (what integration “strategical ensure)”and and they of knowledge power reciprocal effects (what “tactical of productivity 55 CEU eTD Collection dichotomy of evil Iran/free West. These articles whose focus is on Iranian gay refugees (and refugees gay Iranian on is focus whose articles These West. Iran/free evil of dichotomy in in fit general, particular,the Iranian andLGBT asylum perpetuate and within seekers, seekers, asylum far Iranian so on been have written in which press world the articles Most of the World PressTendency asylum. seeking of practice tothe they give meanings the about representation,ifby, things, andinterviewspossible, among other talking giving writing or or practices.own their to meaning give or interpret they how and seekers asylum the of Neverthelessintention the of regardless “freedom”, towards world”, “free to the West, the to violation”, rights human “mass Iranian asylum of from from country “evil”,from the the Iran, are “fleeing” who is“afraid”, Islamic Republic seekers, if of as“dissidents”, whom seekers asylum relations, rendersIranian power international existing they wish, candissidents, human activists, journalists,rights individuals),LGBT or located when within the resist to someThus,suggest, I thethat very of process seeking in asylum West by the Iranians (tobe political extent such context of, using Tsing’s “unexpected(2005) words, andunstable …global interaction” (p.3). necessarily have control “unintended the consequence over 401)within [their]of (p. action” the whatever suggests, not behind intention the (1994[1984]) they people’s Ortner practices, do as fact, West. In in asylum the seeking meaningof the over meaning the over practices, their of discrimination against LGBT people might not be limited to Iran) do not necessarily have control instance, for that, believe (and “free” world the about are skeptical who seekers asylum andtheir being therefugee dream evenof granted status entering the “free”world. But, those 56 CEU eTD Collection Turkey, seeking with,This, together for instance, article Faiola’s entitled flee(2010) “[Iranian] Gay refugees to Canada afterthis free escaping the from hands ofthat evilIslamicstate; note added article byinvoking whatShahmoradi hisfeelings;says about “Ihappy amvery [ findinghadhis voice, beenthat something is Shahmoradi [Farzan] in Canada, months two “After words, own Graham’s In West. the and in Canada policies liberal against it juxtaposing while community, gay against policy regime” freedom markedit “[w]hen flight endLufthansa, the harrowing Shahmoradi's three-year to Farzan of homosexual. University translated Ahamdinejad’s derogatory word of ham-jens-baz into the English appropriate word of and gara) instead used the derogatory term ham-jens-baz (loosely translated as faggot), the translator atColumbia 10 his by starts for article status granted refugee Canada,David Graham was who Shahmoradi) Farzan (named seeker asylum gay Iranian an about writing instance, For infreedom Westthe (look atFaiola 2010,Graham 2010). and introduce Iranian gay (and other) asylum seekers as dissidents who flee the country to pursue isof the inproblem homosexuality,sex change IslamicRepublic’ssolution operations Iran to of depictCode, the harsh realitiesof gays’ livesinside both Iran and thepermission Turkey, suggest They also typically mention the death penalty for same-sex relationships in the Iranian Penal Iran. speech in in Columbia he University 2007when denied the homosexual in of any existence rarely lesbian,on bisexual, and transgender Mahmoud refugees), usually quote Ahmadinejad’s althoughAhmadinejad did not use the gay-friendly and appropriate Persian word for homosexual (ham-jens- 10 ” (emphasis added) (2010). Graham then continues to describe” (emphasis Graham continues to added) (2010). “Iran’srepressive then the freedom ” (2010; emphasis added), or Faramarzi’s (2010) indication of orFaramarzi’sindication “4000 added), ” (2010; (2010) emphasis of stolen 57 from him Iran” (emphasis added). He ends his The Star with these words, these with now in now that Iam ]”. CEU eTD Collection for profit Toronto-based organization which deals with the problems of Iranian LGBT asylum of problems the dealswith for organization which Toronto-based profit not another (IRQO), Organization Queer Iranian of head the Ghahreman, Saghi asked I When b) freedom.enjoy their so to West free escape the Iran to Republic to as slavesbytheIslamic are kept who individuals way, IRQR, which is sympathetic to freedom, works as a railroad to help Iranian LGBT cause. In Canada they had their had they Canada In cause. 11 to androutes of safesecret houses in used by Black slaves century to United19th the States [which] of“[t]he (American/Canadian) audience Railroad Underground wasaninformal network identified gay activist Arsham has Parsi, suchadopted name becauseit reminds westernthe a) The non-profit Iranian for QueerRefugeesToronto-based Railroad led (IRQR), bythe self- fostering that dichotomy of evil Iran/free West. Let me bring three following examples: non-Iranian)lesbian, gay, bisexual asylumand seekers transgender in in Turkey also contribute nothowever,is limitedonly the world Major NGOsworking Iranian to press. with also (and seekers, by LGBT asylum inIranian West the asylum seeking of representation Such discursive AreNGOs: theyDoingGood? dichotomy of the evil Iran/free West. gays have since beenexecuted allvery IslamicRepublicin1979”, fit well and upholdwithin the http://www.irqr.net/ free states and mainly to Canada with the aid of freedom ” (IRQR Website, emphasis added) 58 abolitionists who were sympathetic 11 . To put it other to their to escape CEU eTD Collection indication of people seeking freedom from their evil countries, in the subsection in Executive evil subsection the from freedom countries, their seeking of indication people Although the report does not explicitly articulate the practice of seeking asylum in the West as an report). the of in (Cover andTurkey” seekers refugees asylum transgender Haven advanceworking to fundamental rights and freedoms in calledissued Turkey, areport Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly, independent an non-governmental Istanbul-based organization with violence fortogether basedadvocacy refugees gender fledworldwide, have who sexual or provides which organization, Francisco-based San non-profit international the ORAM, c) more indicative of in work opportunities West,inthe world. free the McDonald, in this discourse, is notviewed as a symbol of exploitative capitalist system, butis an Westis maintained. andfree/nice/appropriate-place-to-live-and-work-and-marry marry Iran un-free/dark/inappropriate-place-to-live-and-work-and- of dichotomy again, hierarchical the Here, cultures. inversion western of isnegative a in Iran, there, happens andwhat societies, against the West, against McDonald, in order to show that Iran is dissimilar from western byjuxtaposing it US, against Iran of interpretation prejudiced the reinforces Saghi’s narrative country and asylum, replied, seek she seekers, that what are some of the problems which force Iranian transgenders to leave the in 2009 which “thedeals with security challenges facing lesbian,bisexual gay, and like McDonald. bodies. ButinUStheycancomplete theirsex-change surgery, andatleastwork inplaces way tobecome many ofthemtheonly ofmeetingtheircostsis prostitutes andselltheir Transgender people inside Iran cannotmarry sleep or with thepersonwish. they Sofor 59 Unsafe CEU eTD Collection Americanin activists, fact, gay by rendering “Outside” as sitethe murderingof and “intransigent single ‘gay execution’ [in Iran] toprove the allegations” (p. 120). Long argues that many UK and is noevidence sex,there have havingconsensual for Iranians alleged “of a to executed been those of cases the of analysis sympathetic and close very his in argues Watch, Rights Human But, asScottLong, directorthe of Lesbian,Bisexual Gay, and Transgenderfor Rights Program 2009, p.125). (citedinLong Iranian same-sexrelationships hangedforhaving execution of the teenagers two condemn to in2005 democracy” greatest “world’s the of Department theState asked instance, for major group, Campaign, US gay News).HumanRights 365gay.com Gay a City The or (look at, continuous executionsmake of gays stop Republic which Islamic to world ask the passionately for instance, andreports gays” articles of you “Iranexecutes thousands brings on Google words with the reports inisperhaps, executed A now, global partof popular since 1979 Iran knowledge. simple search been have gays” of “thousands that organizations rights human two made these by made claim The by the Britishsays, “are governed by Sharia law” (p. 6). LGBTname of anyNGO the of mention countryno is there phenomenon, a global is LGBTs of OutRage!,persecution that exceptadmits report Iran and some other “maintainsacknowledges consensual that Iran for penalty homosexual acts”.Although death the orMuslim search countries Revolution).some ofon which, On pagethe 5 reportwheresince meant 1978” (p.1;emphasisadded) (probably report 1979whichis yearof the the Iranian the report discusses mostthat“…rise,is of have from whom believedIran to comes executed where global persecution ofSummary (p. 1) the LGBTs,report mentions that the number of LGBT asylum seekers in Turkey isit on the again 60 thousands of gays thousands of CEU eTD Collection consultation, and emotional and IRQOand financial support. IRQR issuealso for certificates inprovide theirto IranianLGBT efforts asylum seekers with,legal things, other among persistent are These NGOs seekers. asylum LGBT Iranian of local realities the on organizations and persecution of gaysin Iran, Ido not want, by any means, todeny the positive effects of these Again, bychallenging these NGOs’ discursive representation Iranian LGBTof asylumseekers 2). materialandculture” (p. civilization European of is anintegral part Orient “[t]he Said’s words, itself.Using defines Westwhich against Orient, the Other, over overthe Iran, Westover the justifies by Thisenablesof theexerciseof andfree or power West. discourse un-free/evil Iran tendencyuphold withindichotomy the dominant the looked atandmustbe understood to but be Islamic Republic homosexuals, executes isnot only invalid (sinceitis based onno evidence), including headof the Toronto-based two the Iranian organizations of IRQO andIRQR, that aroundworld, the many LGBTactivists belief among popular the I suggest,that So, added). tendency kind of representation] operates as representations usually do, for do, usually asrepresentations operates representation] kind of [this system of representation] is a misrepresentation of some Oriental essence … but that [this As Edward Said wrote ininfluentialAs hisbook wrote Edward Said authorities) has access to any evidence to prove such allegations. Iraniannobody today, (maybe Judiciary But, except fordeath penalty same-sex relationships. in still gay maintains no the Iranian Code has In thatfact, Penal Iran. to proclaim beenexecuted community “Inside”,withinThis the freenon-Islamo-fascistwithin notis the 130-33). world (p. non- the of world , in a specific historical, intellectual, and even economic setting” (p. 273; emphasis 273; (p. setting” economic even and intellectual, historical, in aspecific , us ”, were trying to assert boundaries around their own identity, their own gay own their identity, own their around boundaries assert to trying were ”, Orientalism 61 (1991 [1978]) his concern “is his (1991[1978]) concern a purpose , according to a not that CEU eTD Collection to Iranian homosexuals (p.14). number“anin increasegrant ofcriminal thein casesagainsthomosexuals refugee status to Iran” (2009) shows how the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration referred to reports which pointsinstance, 2009; Hojem For Hojem 2009). LaViolette 2008; hometo backO’Leary (Berger2009; convince judges UNHCRimmigration of well-foundedthe fearof shouldpersecution they go to have people LGBT chances more the NGOs, international and national by documented First; as various authorsmight explain this; have shown, havethe beenmore hanged human in Iran” of gays rights claim“thousands the NGOsaccept Why these one? as the free/civilized and West the without violations close examination Iran as the un-free/evil/un-civilized for IranianLGBTtorepresent seekers which work asylum of LGBT NGOs of aforementioned peoplethe among the tendency general this cases?explain might what ask, might one such, are I argue that three reasonsConsidering tendency the NGOs torepresentof Iranian asylum seekers and as their practices gay,other lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people living inside Islamic Republic. many situation of the ironically,might, exacerbate in also argue a while, asIwill representation, hierarchy internationalexistingof among within countries relations. Such the context power international paternalistic the fosters which one, civilized free the as West the of and world as Iargued,complicit inare, discursive of the Iran representation astheun-freeencouraging evil extent on these organizations for their consultations and legal support. Nevertheless, these NGOs large a rely to themselves seekers LGBTasylum Iranian case. a of outcome the of determining is process the a positive used inUNHCRthrough role by This certificate and plays transgender. each Iranian LGBT asylum whichseeker indicates person that “is”lesbian, gay, bisexual or 62 CEU eTD Collection the interview session at UNHCR (H., an MtF transgender). As Morgan (2006) argues the asylum be isnormal back Iran notto have world deported life” able where “nobody and a to during to in “free” livethe wishto their expressed had interviewees my of transgender several Similarly, establish the merits of their clients’ petition for refugee status. to so West free and Iran evil/un-civilized of dichotomy the in bolstering contribute IRQR and implying is that the Uniteddoes States nation that protectwomen” acivilizedIRQO (p.671), women‘protect’ ‘uncivilized’ not countries of Guatemalado while that the group within must position in(2009) of “theiradvocates women-asylum-seekersGuatemalan USthat widespread existing against persecutions LGBTpeople in Similar West. the Berger’s to analysis the upon reflect sufficiently not do reports their also but in Iran) executed are gays of thousands documentation violation LGBT humanrights of not only invalidsometimes provides(e.g. data Their violations. rights human LGBT of documentation global growing in the contribute Second; nevertheless,in asIshowed previousthe paragraphs, IRQOand donotsimply IRQR 2009, p.89; Waites 2009,p.140;also look atPateman 1988). (passed in 1948in UN)is shaped by“heterosexuality deeply and heteronormativity” (Hines blind”, with “male family head in mind”, Universal andthe Declaration of Human Rights “gender been has man”, of “rights the on more focus to globally and historically employed been In fact, asfeminist2009). andqueer have pointed out, theorists theconcept human of has rights (Waites documents rights human UN from absent clearly been have issues whose individuals transgender especially people, LGBT of violation rights human the on reporting of lack been has there since organizations, rights human international and UN within se per a progress be might identity gender and orientation sexual on based violations rights human of documentation The 63 CEU eTD Collection of communism. of prove thebankruptcy Union topeople from to grant refugeeSoviet fleeing status of warto cold historical the As judges.US wasalsogenerous earlier,through Idiscussed immigration context lawyers and among UN West Iran/free evil of acceptance imply widespread might the again, once Iranian LGBTpeople, UNHCR towards of news,hear generosity this the to happiness sexual orientation and identity gender have beensuccessful so far. Although I cannothide my UNHCR. All applicationsrefugee from Iranians in Turkey based which to their claims related remindlesbian,beenbisexual transgender acaseof an by whoIranian gay,has rejected or In fact, neither Saghi Ghahreman, the head of IRQO, nor Arsham Parsi, thehead of IRQR, could where homosexuality is illegal” (p. 451). Iran and as Pakistan such from countries claimants to bemore sympathetic “tend to Canada immigrationlawyers judges,or butaccording LaViollete to (2009),theimmigration judges in Morgan on website TheAhmad, of Narrative, Ethics may be”(MuneerI. they problematic 117, 122;cited by p. immigrant and UNHCR judgesby “drawing uponprevailing norms andno beliefs, how matter the of assumptions” and beliefs, values, the with “resonates which narrative a of use make who be are successful grantedthe refugee instatus those whoare to theirseekers (andothers) claims LexisNexis Academic LexisNexis ). I didfind ). I not opportunity interviewingof the UN 64 CEU eTD Collection concepts such as human rights, women’s rights and gays’ rights were all considered as western as considered all were rights andgays’ rights women’s rights, human as such concepts women Shahand anti-gay agendas becausethesecular by dictator supported was US, andthus withpower Islamic inanti- Republic came to chapter, andIargued instance, previous the as for into that, not account does It take other. each andupon regions of dependencies countries political and economic historical, the of deep analysis weakens a It countries. between hierarchies and relations power international paternalistic existing the of examination a critical inherited us from 9/11,discourages Second;times andintensified this after to colonial discourse, one. freeas the West,asthecivilized, the of caricature Iran as evil, as un-free world, as fundamentally differentfrom theWest, and presents a distorted traditional forms offamily” 2004,p.61).(Saiz It gives essentialized descriptions which envision attempts atthe rollback UN to sexual inthename rights and reproductive of defending ‘fundamentalist’ recent of forefront the at been has “US that fact the ignores or West, the itin while Tehran, simultaneously underestimates denies or in persecution the LGBTof people inlifemany recognitioncities Iran,orthearound state by homosexuality of state-linked clinics complexities. doesnot This providespaceinstance,discourse anyfor appreciation the of, gay pluralitiesand and historical takingtheirentities, contextual into account deep without inside people(Iran Iran Itrendersboth others) asmonolithic (and West. and the and West) transgender and bisexuals, lesbians, gays, of lives the of dynamics internal the neglects it First; Orient’ and … ‘the Occident’” (p. 3) has, Iargue, at least three major repercussions: ‘thebetween made whichepistemological distinction an is“based thought” and ontological upon This discourse around Neglect,Backlash Analysis: Reduction, LGBT asylum seekers, or as Said (1977) would say, this “style of 65 CEU eTD Collection many other gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender people inside Iran, and they mightinsidemanylesbians,bisexuals, even gays, andtransgender Iran, people and they other of situation the exacerbate eventually might they intend, what they to paradoxical but, seekers) asylum LGBT Iranian (like people LGBT Iranian certain help might orientalism, be called might discursive in representation issuesLGBTWest Iran fits of withinof theand discourse what whose organizations LGBT international and national other and IRQR, and IRQO Thus, Afghanistan andIraq” need the “liberate women” justify to its to military interventions. context of post 9/11 when in invented) ‘authentic’ isespecially (p.2).This significant cultural the often (though tradition” United States employed theis [as]the standards”defendersby “declar[ing] themselves calledthe“universal rights of discourse of “human whatrights likeoppose authorities where Iran incountries LGBTpeople “backlash”against generated violation in Imperialism. how specific Longthis (2005)argues employment hasof LGBT humanrights Western of part as by Islamic Republic rulers beingconsidered human of concept rights people inthe west,notonly the dichotomy upholds of evil freeIran andbut West, also risks the is also not valid to some extent, LGBT violations,Third; human ofIranian which and IRQR’sdocumentation rights IRQO’s the and the vivid ignorance of the existing persecutions two. the between dependency of LGBT withWest, its reductive and totalizing tendency, the interaction conceals and continuous civilized/free the and Iran evil/un-civilized/un-free of dichotomy The modernities. Western the as in order wasa patients modernity from need of practice learnedIslamic byIranian treatment, heteronormative the into assimilate not people whodo renders in which Tehran, disorder clinics” import homophobia was infactawestern identity of toIran,“gender and establishment the not intodoes as account impositions. It intake I discussed inlength that, chapters, previous the 66 CEU eTD Collection many other voices. I do not offer a solution, but I think there should be a radical change within change radical a be should there I think but solution, a offer not do I voices. other many seekers atthecost of diminishing theinternal of dynamics lifeLGBT inside Iran and silencing IRQR and other international NGOs,upholding thedichotomy of West,evil Iran/free should strategy such be employed byIRQO, it universalizes the experiences a discourse within narratives their locate seekersthemselves asylum some IranianLGBT of specific LGBT asylumIranian LGBT people,and and demonize theculture they society Although which come from. of illustrations stereotypical the reinforce might clients LGBT Iranian their for cases asylum win to NGOs and advocates international and Iranian by employed tactics short-term that suggest I country. inside the manyLGBTpeople of thesituation exacerbate might it seekers, LGBT asylum Iranian certain helps it while and, West, the and inIran both life LGBT of dynamics internal the such undermines I have how representation a largediscursive 9/11. after shown shaped to extent of discourse evil Iran and free within West, theunequal international whichpower, has been in orientalist the embedded thedichotomy inbolsters west the LGBT people whoseekasylum Iranian of representation discursive the that chapter this part of first the through I haveargued Conclusion having authority Orient”,over the over Iran (Said1991 [1978],p. 4). and restructuring, dominating, for Style Western a “as works discourse this world, the of nations un-civilized the civilize to need is a there since 133): p. 2009, (Long war” of idea the “sell 67 CEU eTD Collection so not to feed the narratives of war. relations, international power on advocates among more consciousness and asylum the paradigm, 68 CEU eTD Collection is subjected todominantinterpretations of immigration judges at UNHCR,it opens space for the asylum seekers, Iwill although of argue that language asylumlawthe the it seems when neutral, Invoking the interviews conducted in I that inTurkey summer2010 with Iranian transgender UNHCR. at interviewees transgender my of cases the of outcomes the on framework, rights human LGBT international the by informed partly is which law, asylum international the of definition the of effect the investigate second, Iwill seekers,and, asylum transgender of Iranian asylumprocess the examinein whichthe theways of national concept citizenshipis emergesand through negotiated will I first; directions: connected but distinct two towards analysis my lead will I chapter this In Convention 1951). the avail” Republic (Geneva protection unwillingare “unableto of Islamic themselves or of such fear they to (group transgender owing people), and of lesbians, bisexualsgroup” or gays, social “member a particular of ofbeinga because beingpersecuted” fearof “well-founded have they that prove must seekers asylum LGBT Iranian UNHCR, at session interview and asylumprocess the large, by families. Through own at or society their by state, the persecuted) been already have (or persecuted being of fear have and in Iran rights citizenship their from Each month toTurkey a numberof seek asylum.Iranian LGBT people flee to are deprived They “I amneitherman nor woman. Iamsomewhere Somewherebetween. between earth andsky …” TransgenderIranian AsylumSeekers Trapped a in Paradox EarthandSky:Chapter 4–“GenderOutlaws”between Hamideh, Iranian transgender-identified asylum seeker 69 CEU eTD Collection claims based on their gender identities, they have to prove that they belong to the category of category the to belong they that prove to have they identities, gender their on based claims But, on the other hand, in order meetto other requirements of the definition of refugee and make might be of not experiences as legitimate considered refugee persecution for status. their Because,otherwise, identities andperformances. gender normative desire and heterosexual a woman man or iswith a citizen either who of definition a discreet the to conforming be been/will have they should that argue seekers asylum It means transgender that there. convincedestination this have country, to will time,bediscreet they judges, they that citizens in the live to be eligible to in order and in Iran, indiscreetly too acting not were they that judges tobe deserving persecution addressed by as they haveconvinceUNHCR, to the immigration of experiences their represent to in order hand, one the on situation: paradoxical complicated above Iwill The conjunction in asylum processes, of puts transgender two seekers the a argue, sotoincreasemeritstransgender their ofbeing asrefugee. recognized perform stereotypicallydisciplining andnormalizing tendenciesfor transgender asylumseekers, expecting them to argue that the international law,asylum practices and the of judges, immigration the have also will I interpretations, and asnarratives interviewees’ my to “a referring and Refugees, of Status transgender”the on Convention Geneva International the in refugee of definition the Considering Moreover, and assimilate forto beeligibleorder the refugee status. withinexpects the asylum seeker remainto discreetin the country of destination (USA, Canada, etc.) in hand, the other the on and, rejected, being asylum for claims UNHCR their risks which (Iran), country home definition in indiscreetly acting for seeker asylum the blames hand, one the on dichotomy, This process. of interview theasylum citizen through “discreet”/”non-discreet” of of dichotomy emergent 70 CEU eTD Collection had been the citizengranted unlike status, menthey permitted were not participateto in the entitled citizenship,to to take part in the civic and religious life Athens.of Although free women the lines of gender, sexuality, class and age. Forinstance, slaves, prostitutes andminors were not inhabitantsthe of Athens were shapedand determined by their status citizen/non-citizen along and how the political,sexual shared ruleobligations of city”the and rights (p.99)and social of understanding andAthenian “free, autonomous in citizens wasthatof equal of the participants self- collective the Athens in Classical how discusses instance, for (1990), Halperin city-state. Greek ancient since contestations continuous to subject been have status citizen for is eligible who determining and concept, legal and a political as citizenship, of concept The Debates Rights Human LGBT Politics/International Citizenship/Identity gender identity in UNHCR. Lastly, I will discuss my case study in Turkey. on to discuss the recent move I will seekers inTurkey. myasylum locate Then wantto casestudy of transgender Iranian recognition of asylumconcept of identity citizenship, andpolitics international LGBT Human withinRights, which I seekers claims on the debates theoretical the I will address main First into based parts. three chapter I willdividethe on sexual orientation claims. asylum andtheir situation, asIwill hasshow, at worked discriminating againstsomein transgenders articulating paradoxical asylumlaw. international This by the being might risk astransgender recognized not citizen which presumes a gender binary model. Ifa transgender remains discreet back home, s/he neithermen,nor women,but This transgenders. isin with the contrast ofa definition discreet 71 CEU eTD Collection century, political rights in the nineteenth and social rights in the twentieth. in the rights social and nineteenth inthe rights political century, eighteenth in the rights civil up: built steadily and gradually been have elements three these that Marshall argued 10-11). system) welfare haveeducation, (p. services, to society”right social (to “thelive … to rights life accordinga civilizedbeing the the standards of in to prevailing the political power” (such the right tovote, to be member of parliament), and the social one which is to enjoy justice), the political elementis constituted of “the rights to participate in the exercise of speech, the right freedom” asfreedom of individual for (such necessary “composed rights the of is argued, Marshall element, civil The social. and political civil, elements: three of constituted is citizenship citizenship Marshalll majorthe oneof discussedtheorists, that T. H. as (1950), theories. andsocial in political contemporary concept controversial isalsoapivotal Citizenship deserving thepenalty disenfranchisement(losingof entitlement to citizenship) (p.93-7). citizen body” and “the refusing constitutional safeguard of bodilyhis integrity”, and thus “communalthe solidarity”forfeiting for his autonomy, integrityviolating the“corporate of the rule of the city (i.e. facing “atimia”) (p. 96). That is, he would have been considered abetrayer of himself,citizen prostituted he would lost have hisentitlementparticipateto in democraticthe male forhad instance, a that, holder. argues Halperin imposed status the certain on duties also but rights certain just not itself with carried Athens Classical the during status citizen Moreover, space. interior domestic, large seclusion inthe predicatedlife a of women in on male extent wasto public citizens legal custody of a male relation” (p. 92; emphasisby the author). In other words, participation of minorsstatuary it, they public life, …and “life-longwere, asHalperin since puts 72 always in the in CEU eTD Collection argued, a constellation of rights and rights of a constellation argued, feminists from came of citizenship concept the on discussion Marshall’s of critiques andfirst the very In fact, people of color marginalizing costthe of others. who argue Theideasat of many people rights aroundwereprotecting the by citizenship dominants states. that despitesocial rights in various countries, let alone the lack theof recognition of transgender or homosexualfactmany that Western Marshall’s countries, inhavewhile womenvote still Marshallwastheorizingto theright not did citizenship in1950s, and example, a simple forward put To (and world. the of people parts many in man heterosexual white class others’ of colormiddle- a of privileges and rights the of many enjoying not were are still not/and were middle-classes not enjoyingnon- non-whites, non-heterosexuals, non-males, some, name to just theincluding, groups social same civil,different that know all we rights), same very the enjoy nation-state political a within living people all if (as claims universal andhas it that citizenship of theory Marshall’s with contrast In assumptions. Yet, the critiques werebenefitsaccess to and by (discussed resources” 2007, Hines not limited to imposition of obligations on citizens or its Eurocentric political, civil and social and civil political, obligations (p. recognized by state” 75).Thus,although moreinsistingMarshall the was on the historical specificities, getsits meaning “operatingonly when within asystem of and rights nineteenth understanding centuries with anda Eurocentric with thus of citizenship cultural and Marshall’s tendenciesimposedinstance,for and theobligations it Wilson citizens, (2009) arguesthat on concept of its Criticizing Eurocentric aspects. from faceddifferent critiques Marshall’s discussion citizenship, built upon the social contract theories of eighteenth and rights of citizens, citizenshipis, as Turner and Hamilton (1994) has obligations 73 that “establish political membership and enable and membership political “establish that Sociological Researchonline ). CEU eTD Collection Different scholars have argued that the ideas of citizenship are rooted in certain inassumptions certain are rooted citizenship ideas of the have that argued scholars Different orredefined. rejected in citizenship arecontested, andnuanced turn waythe theories of the new a is there studies, lesbian and gay and sexuality on literature of body growing the with and in least (at movements countries), some of rise decadeswith lesbian liberation the gay three and last in the years,especially In recent theorists. feminists andrace limitednot to are The critiques citizenship (e.g.look at Anthias and Yuvas-Davis 1992). white Eurocentric supremacy, andhowracism interconnect and sexism within the theories of how upon the scholars the ideasof citizenship havealso delineated areracialized,predicated Different salient. incitizenship becomes a way gender which concept the reconceptualization of 391), feminists other (1997) suggest process” (p. structured suchasLister ethnically and citizenshiphighly gendered is a to that“access Walbywhoargues accordance with public sphere”and“depend uponbeing with a worker” instable income(p.384-89).Thus, civil andof social rights which are“historically boundcitizenship, participation upwith in the from usually financially husbands, are full political, their on they dependent deprived access to sinceargued that the“role of iscarer [sic] disproportionately by andwomentaken women” are and isis of concealedto integral theory the public/private She of within citizenship. and practice gender-neutral,but exclusion the from of women publicthe spaceand upholding thedichotomy conceptthe of whichseemingly iscitizenship universalnot for equal offers everybody and rights Walby, for instance, in her classical essay Walby 1997). Lister 1994; problematic sexist racistassumptions underlying and his (their) atPateman theory (look 1989; are there neutral, and race seem gender citizenship on Rawls’ (1971))discussions including Is Citizenship Gendered Is Citizenship 74 (1994), argued that not that argued only (1994), CEU eTD Collection to the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Mosse in George of century Europe. nineteenth eighteenth late parts to the century and early back canbetraced of respectability, citizenship concepts between linkages the The inextricable respectability. of conducts matrix;whoobey theones the heterosexual of boundaries the transgress modelcitizen’”heterosexual citizenThus,of ‘good the not (p.90).good arethe whodo ones marry), a argues, “depend[s]rights-basedto claims asthe fitwith upon right (such which and withinboundaries90), boundaries the of tolerance, the of Hines(2009) … tolerance”(p. that (1998) argues that “lesbians and gay men are granted the right tobe tolerated as long as they stay Richardson claims. specificrights-based make very to only allowed and,second,are rights), deserve their to fulfill to theirmanner obligations (so decent/discreet/normative/respectable actin a to expected first, are, heterosexuality with associated those that other desires and acts sexual express who others and lesbians gays, rights, political and civil enjoy social, to eligible citizens as non-heterosexuals certain recognizes state the evenwhen Yet, deprived from gaining full citizenship rights (p. 20). is but also nation-state to the asathreat seen only not is heterosexuality compulsory of ideology notprostitute,is and theperson infected” conform person whowho HIVdoes any other the to the man, gay the lesbian, the woman, single “the thus and Bahamas, the and Tobago and asa in nation survivalof Trinidad tothe decolonized threat the the isrepresented discursively instance,Alexander (1994), for how the discusses“erosion ofheterosexual monogamy” conjugal 1995; Weeks 1995). atAlexander(look 1994; 1998, 2000;BellRichardson and Binnie2000;Stychin Plummer 1998; heterosexuality procreative ideology compulsory hegemonic inof sexuality, the especially about 75 CEU eTD Collection rights since they do not fulfill their citizenship duties. for citizenship eligible are not whoones bad/non-discreet are prostitutes) (e.g. non-assimilators relatively the same rights as others. But those who transgress the boundaries of respectability, the good/discreet andlesbians, gays asthe assimilators, and are granted citizenthe to enjoy status gays and lesbians who wish to marry or serve in the military(disreputable) ‘bad200; queers’” 1998,p. (Stychin Forcited inHines 90). instance, 2009, p. are discursively constructed as the gays’ a between‘good division and then perpetuates that aconstruction ‘respectability’, may anideal rights gaysembrace of seeking and moralities, “lesbians mannersand respectable with in actdiscreetly accordance citizens andexpects to framework, heterosexuality compulsory entails andboth legal concept, rights itand its obligations, andsince meaning within gets a to affectcitizenship.gays’ lesbians’ Since the concept claim and of asapolitical citizenship, to century first twenty and twentieth the through continued has 2) (p. movement” “bourgeois This sexual (p.1-5). passions” family,heterosexual virtue“[d]ecency … over purity,… modesty, … practice of and control a of maintenance things, other among with, up bound was it and aristocracy”, “profligate middle class tomaintain its status and self-respect against the “lazy lower classes” and movement” primarily which gradually prevailed among by allclasses,wasconstructed the mannersand andasa“bourgeois “’decentandmorals”, indicates correct’ respectability, which that argues Mosse process. that through constructed were abnormality and normality how they affectedideas and eachother, andattitudes how sexuality,towards body,masculinity, and respectability, and nationalism ideology of the between relationship discussed the (1985) 76 CEU eTD Collection citizenshipgroups acknowledgeintotwo divide citizens and male/femaleof andman/woman. models illustrate in of the dominant ways the which institution them enabling citizenship, of to the deconstruct also to theorists gender helped have phenomena transgender the Therefore, andpersonhood, eliminate areofmoreothers” concern 3). (p. operationsviable possibilities simultaneously institutionsproducevarious systems and of that of the reveal phenomena these which in manner the rather “but theorists, gender for interest of onlyfields the not se are phenomena” has per “transgender the (2006) Thus, as argued, Stryker to and informs dominant fortaken granted binaries of male/femalebut andman/woman, howthis show is binary integral social and political dimorphism in culture andhistory Transgender (Herdt 1994), theorists only not challenge the theoriessexual beyond gender and sex of and embodiment the to practicesPointing 2006). (Stryker modernity of contemporaryis more complex than hegemonicthe binary of man/woman has inwhich roots Eurocentricthe societies. along rise with the of queer studiesin gender, 1990s,arguethat is asitthe livedandperformed, Transgender theorists (I mean2003; 2005). those theorizing transgenderism),conform atHines it who which 2007;2009;Monro (look refuse againstthose to to discriminate especially model binary a alsopresumes arebased:gender andpractices citizenship citizenship theories which upon in premise intertwined recentanother challenged exhaustively have yearsscholars studies gay and and lesbian even nor race theorists, nor feminists, neither it that seems theacademia, debated within and documented are well premises, duty-promoting and respectability- and heterosexualized middle-class based, sexist,racist, Eurocentric,its interconnected included against contestations Although the aforementioned criticisms raised against the major theories of citizenship, which 77 CEU eTD Collection Anglo-American context, call for collectivebelongings identities andgain group in to order in1971; Anderson Analogously,identity 1983). rooted politics, ethnicpolitics racialand the of exist at Rawls mightbe“imagined” to (look community nation, although community that called fulfillingandfor asked their duetotheira particulara responsibilities “belonging” to to state, (Conoverincommonal. 802; Wilson et rights 1991,p.cited good” 2009). Citizens aregranted neighbors common traditions and which understandings form basisthe for their public pursuitof their “share they with and areintertwined” lives whose people as“social political and described On one the hand, citizenship theories inform and areinformed byidentity politics. Citizens are is concept linked tothe of citizenship: briefly) very (although two these introduce I way the discussions, above the with connection lose to not order In analysis. further my for them need I and citizenship, on debates aforementioned the with interconnected is which politics, rights human LGBT international and politics identity on introduction brief very a bring to want I in Turkey, seekers asylum transgender Before going anyfurther my tothecase and turning attention study asylum process of of Iranian biological sex and the gender identity underlies and is integral citizenshipto debates. the between relationship immutable of assumption the concludes, Hines Therefore, citizenship. with associated andrights civil social many political, excludedfrom are citizens), respectable toremain inorder andbehaviorsperform masculine/feminine respectively roles to persons bodied male/female asking (e.g. individuals on morals and manners roles, certain imposes which and assimilate (p.96)and person who queens” withindo not anyother thegenderbinary system kings and drag cross-dressers, trans-men, camp trans-lesbians, butch trans-people, “bigendered Hines (2009)argues withinthat model the dominant citizenship many of includingpeople, 78 CEU eTD Collection to the United Nations Commissionissay, isissue; LGBTcitizenship ahuman Nations, rights and to considered that also according for Equality and Human Rights, discourserights is gaining international dominancy level on especially within the United many of the LGBT human innetworks early the (Kollman &Waites1990s Within 2009). thiscontextLGBT that human and 70s in US and western European countries and of collaboration between transnational LGBT lesbian some in is movements gay extentresultidentity liberation the 60s and to of of politics level international on “LGBT” term the of inclusion the that noted be should it politics, identity and citizenship rights, human LGBT international between relationship the on hand, other the On duties, so to deserve rights. their fulfill to matrix, heterosexual a within be respectable to behaviors, and rules certain follow assimilate, to to ask citizens theories which in citizenship tendenciesembedded assimilatory identity “a resistance ofnormal”of against toregimes (p.xxvi).These criticisms more thorough the politicsnegation of “minoritizing logic of toleration or simple political interest-representation” in favor resonate in contexts or some analysis for acritical calls rather and identities, collective meaning to on exclusion, with, on marginalizationboundaries. instance, Michael Warner(1993),for criticizesfor identity grounding politics itself and of those arewho do notemphasize instability andthe fluidity individual- andof collective-identities and group assimilatefromand it, of tendencies assimilationist and within essentialist the question who thetheorists queer the notably, group which samegives As itisby now discussed, widely have identity been by,politics most debatedandcontested family of, liberalof (Gamson pluralism 1995). contestations includingfor andframework rights, recognition contemporary citizenship rights, the askwithin against 79 CEU eTD Collection interconnected. surprise no of is which shortcomings, same very the has others and Waites by discussed framework when LGBT politics model, international the of andsexbinary by gender construct a western we know, binary system Thus,are still likeupheld (p.142-8). the citizenship which theories informed are as I asexual intersexgranted, and of areexcluded, andessentialistpeople understandings gender brieflydiscusses within how thismodel,instance,for the naturalness of binaryhomo-hetero isfor taken discussed, binary” Wilson &Waites look atKollman Hines2009).Waites (p.138; 2009; 2009; also identities andare defined that desires asingle in exclusively to relation genderwithin this that interpretations model privilege of which abinary sexual behaviors,gender, [privilege] and they informdominant to be “subject to still forward, continues step is a although Principles, Yogyakarta eachWaites emerging internationalargues the that LGBThumanrights in framework andMontreal other gendersbodies, 1990,p.151). arenaturalized” and desires (Butler and are isformatrix” “the grid intelligibility reproduction (p.138)”,that of of cultural which through considerations,for butalso whatWaites (2009)refersas to reproductionthe a heterosexual of contextual and local of lack and origin western its for only not challenged been has RelationSexual itto Orientation hasand GenderIdentity (2007), criticisms.raised model The (2006) and Principles Yogyakarta on Applicationthe of International RightsLawHuman in Montreal of Declaration the passing after especially as UNHCR) (such bodies international within integrated recently been has framework rights human LGBT international the Although cited in Hines 2009,p.88). “cannotbe ( securedbycitizenship” rights expressedunless 80 www.equalityhumanrights.com ; CEU eTD Collection asylum in applicant this category is a recentincident (look at Jenkins 2010) forground “membership in a particular during social group” 1990s,the inclusion of transgender recognized by UN and some other legislative bodies (e.g. U.S., Canada, UK, Australia) as a legal term “members of a particular social group”. While gays’ andlesbians’ sexual orientation was the under by UNHCR seekersarecategorized asylum andlesbian, transgender gay, bisexual, Convention, Geneva inthe identity gender and orientation sexual of mention is no there Since Geneva Convention; country” thatemphasis added). himself/herself (1951 of protection the of a particular of social group fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or Refugees, a “person is isrefugee who a outside thecountry her/his hasof origin,a well-founded of Status the Genevato relating Convention the1951 of articlethe 1(A)(2) According to Background aBrief Identity: and Gender Orientation onSexual based Claim Seekers of Asylum Recognition sexual orientation and gender identity. Then I will move on to my case study. based on violations rights human the in UN regarding recentdevelopments the and seekers, LGBT background oninternationalbrief Initially, to startbygivingasylum a responses Iwill aforementioned critiques of discipliningthe andheteronormalizingtendencies of discourse. this with the analysis resonates my overall and process, asylum the emergesthrough citizen discreet discursiveof the discreet/non- suggestthat dichotomy findings seekers. My asylum transgender It is within these sets of theoretical debates that I would like to locate my analysis of Iranian , and owing suchfearis to unableunwillingavailor to 81 membership CEU eTD Collection to “review, amend, and enact legislation to ensure that a well-founded fear of persecution on Consideringthe LGBT asylum seekers, Principle 23 of the Yogyakarta Principles recommends states genderidentity” Principles (Yogyakarta 2007, p.6) and orientation sexual on based violations rights “human to responses international inconsistent” “fragmented and and address “deficiencies” Principles, to of Yogyakarta introductory part in forthe instance is is,itarticulated as statements and conventions these The aim of Orientation and GenderIdentity 5). (p. by signed ViolationsStatement, aJoint proposed BasedNorway, on onHumanRights Sexual (p. 4-5). Fifty-four statesSexual in OrientationInternational andGender Identity to (2007) RightsLaw Relation Human within the United Nations Application Principlesof onthe andYogyakarta identity discrimination, orientation and gender Human Rights Council sexual forms all of elimination on convention a United Nations of creation the proposed have also recently which Montreal (2006) of the Declaration international documents: in two passing succeeded recently have academicians, and lawyers western mostly of help the with together network, This (Kollman & Waites 2009, p.4). UN the within especially climate, international the in changing contributed which activists” LGBT rights human of network global influential “increasingly an up made Commission) Rights Human Lesbian and Gay International the and Association, Gay and Lesbian during 90s, the gradual the internationalexpansion of LGBT organizations (such as International But, is, 2009); group. social regarded as membersof not that a particular they LaViolette were (Jenkinsgrant refugee 2009, status basis beento UNHCRas have by the recognized not identity gender and orientation sexual to related claims seekers’ asylum however, 1990, to Prior 82 CEU eTD Collection 13 12 people. Each month, transgender them asof percent the thirty than Iranianmore and gays, them of percent fifty Railroad than more 2010, for Queer Refugees (IRQR) states Organization me inperson (IRQO) told numberis tobe on theirthat estimated 104 as Augustof its website not availableAlthough exactnumberofbisexualthe lesbian, andtransgender seekersIranian gay, is asylum on the website( Iranians are whom of majority the identity, gender and orientation sexual their of to related claims UNHCR witnessing, in recentTurkey, years, as the “crossroads for mixed a migrationrise flows from Asiain and Africathe to Europe”, hasnumbersexual identity. to in1990, open claimsand gender cases UNHCRupon orientation been related of asylum seekersyears to prior more compared asylum seekers, to globe, the homophobia around widespread who open cases basedcriminalization of same-sex relationships in than more 85 countries 2007), and(Ottosson the on continuous the UN, within changes positive advances, international recent these Given Asylum Process ofSeeking Turkey in Seekers Asylum LGBT Iranian lesbian,gay, bisexual, transgender and refugee context(UNHCR 2008,p.4) “growing jurisprudence and legal the internationaldevelopments at and regional bodies” in the relating tosexual orientation and genderidentity in address2008 in to order and in contribute the claims note on refugee issueda guidance UNHCR also and 27). (p. asylum” refugee status basis sexual of orientation gender identity or is acceptedas a grounds for recognition the of ORAM http://www.irqr.net/ http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home 2009, p. 1). 12 , the head of the Toronto-based Iranian Queer Iranian Toronto-based the headof the 83 13 , CEU eTD Collection 14 of Refugees Status the inAnkara.andhassigned Turkish Since not UNHCRgovernment the1967 RelatingProtocol to Afterin arriving Turkey,apply asylum all seekers must Turkish to Ministry of (MOI) Interior in from contact). seekers Iran (personal are Turkey gay,lesbian,more bisexual population percent of transgender whole the than of and90 asylum asylum. Despite the lack of statistics,it is estimated by Saghi Ghahreman, the head of IRQO, that at leastfive new Iranian gay,lesbian,bisexual or individualstransgender Turkey enter seekto information or do not reach a final decision, the second instance interview will be scheduled. The denialor As of refugee status. sometimes happens,should judges immigration need more grant the for basis the as plays and interview registration the after months some happens which interview, instance first a and country, home her/his left she/he why and herself/himself about interview, in intervieweewhich immigrantjudges the basic the provides very the information determinationThe UNHCR’s refugee includes status atleastinterviews:two registration a short into consideration. taken destination is usually decided by immigrantthe judges, but the applicants’ priorities will also be including NordicAustralia, Thecountry countries, andsometimes Countries. US,Canada, of from take toseveral six months liveyears –thepersonwillbe from resettled Turkey in to other might –aprocess which status refugee the begranted theperson UNHCR, and at thus accepted be case seeker’s anasylum Should of their cases. result the announces Turkey UNHCR until Ministry of allowsInterior non-European asylum liveseekers to legally but temporarily in Available here Available http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/protocolrefugees.htm 14 , it does not grant refugee status to non-Europeans. But the Turkish the But tonon-Europeans. status refugee notgrantit does , 84 [last access: June 6th 2011] CEU eTD Collection person Bita, who had left Iran two years before I met her and had been recently as yearshadaccepted recently beforeher been Imet left had and who two Iran Bita, person For instance, when I asked the 29-year post-op male-bodied (now female-bodied) feminine after realizing that the person is not able to contribute in reproduction, and more. from their in partners harassment segregation gender Iran, of because strict the swimming pools or gyms attending of impossibility the service, military compulsory in the violence irresistible environment of the work unbearablethe family pressurefrom getmarried, the to highlydisciplined the tough and place,society, in the the harassment verbal and sexual prevalent them, of some name to including, reasons, various stigmatization out pointed they Iran left they reasons the of seekers asylum transgender my asked of I When transgender people in Iran, theCitizen ofDiscreet/Non-Discreet TheReproduction Fear ofBeingPersecuted: in parts of concludingthe chapter. the paragraphs particular social group. I will analyze each one separately,and I will integrate the analysis of two resultedfrom havebeen person’smembershipof the a previous experiences persecutions of the or potential persecutions back the second, person and home, shouldthe go persecution fearis of awell-founded first, there refugeebe status; the granted to in prove things two order inmust LGBTasylumseekertheworld)any seekers other Iranian (and asylum transgender months. years leavemust two for new three within and case Turkey a open cannot she/he isdeniedtwice, seeker’s case case.If an asylum a rejected examination of first decision judgesimmigrantof is final not Thus each applicant canask for one-time re- 85 CEU eTD Collection deprived from deprived from her citizenship rights. thus andshe was fulfillingher responsibilities, wasnot citizen, respectable from a discreet acting sum, not expected as it was ofrespectability.was Bita In moral understandings police’s established of order theirinstitution; and her“so much make up” and “blond hair”irritated the the about were worried who officials school instance, for gazeof, come the under her to caused of heterosexuality andcommonness naturalness inIranand the taken-for-granted segregation which amale-bodied expected masculinity; person embody perform and gender to the strict order heteronormative the conforming to not because of by society the has beenpersecuted she account, is clearinher Asit interviewees. mostmy of of that with resonates narrative Bita’s she said, Turkey seek asylum,come to and haddecidedto she livein reasons of the Canada, refugee to difficulties … difficulties havespeaking,not Idid major but I was any problem, minorstruggling with asea of one of thefeminineI was a voice,like men,weneedyou But voice. woman. women’s speak Iwas most beautifulproblems continued. My employer …Even operation after the the being aresuspected aprostitute makeYou of up. atmuch so thehave you workand hair, women blond place have you tall, dismissedare you said they why asked I When me from inmy job. He thesaid me.was. Iwasnever behind amaskarrested hiding myself in wedding …Moral street the police me participatelet not ceremony did there trainer the but class, Karate me to sent They … there harassed was in theof competitions.my ifworkthought heme in sent to acarmanufacturing Iwould workshop be cured.ButI sister Theyin… Franklya waywere to sayingseduceyour nails?Why you changethe color of your hair? Why you walk and talk and behave boys?you are… My notparents The school for you everything. blamingme officials were They were saying why grow a man were… I knewagainst dare violence.friends.to reportthe Idid not harassed byso-called school andbeaten and attacked who was I school high sex the In I you. to attracted changeare boys is why that lot a laugh you me operation.told He smiling. of because me beat official the school secondary the In Myproblems. fatherhad always I But woman. a normal than less nothing have I dreams. my reach not was notIt possible melive for to in anymore environment the restricted of Iran. Icould 86 CEU eTD Collection marriage heterosexual of possibility the identity), sexual and gender with it match for to body the “fixing” a transsexual, andis at aims maintain order meantto heteronormative the chapter, as Iarguedintheprevious and transsexuals’The judgeImmigration has permission the that presumed of sex change in surgery Iran (which, recognition by Islamic Republic as legitimate might find better men. Haleh described her interview experience at UNHCR as follows, suspiciousleavemight she that himbecausebecoming of a“complete woman” she and thus yearstwo after operations the atage because, of 27 asshesaid,herhusband hadbecome a newShegotdivorced ID. surgery and her got ageof sex-change she completed at the 25 when times, had marriedunofficially aman when madeshe was 18, but it by official (approved state) leaving she Iran, underoperations for six hadgone experience session. Before intheinterview I asked the 28-year old post-op male-bodied (now female-bodied) feminine person, Haleh, of her citizen has reemerged. dichotomy the discreet/non-discreet of by were posed judgesimmigration through in interviewthe session IfiguredUNHCR, that out toremainorder citizens. I askedmyinterviewees When kind of discreetof they questions the But thisis notonly Islamic whichforces Republic assimilate people withinheteronormative to a prostitute. Idonotwant tobeaprostitute. said I wanted to work and thereI session]. interview UN [at exaggerating started So I ID. new ishad the neither marriage, no option for a transsexual in enough? Sexnot hadstoppedthe continuous had surgery harassments, neitherIranchange live inas a woman Iran.What’s your problem?’ And me. thisfrustrated Was that you got married, and you have also been issued a new ID by Islamic Republic, so you can you did so,andyou arewoman can marrywho beand by supported your husband, and immigration judge] said,‘butyou areallowed toundergohe [the sex changein surgery Then and Iran, night. one even comfortably me sleep letting not were that problems all of of the perception family, from pressure the of of a society school, high and who thinksin elementary we are harassments of perverts, childhood, of unemployment, and you know, from I started had So me leftIran. judge whyI immigration asked I remember the that 87 except becomingexcept a CEU eTD Collection (Eshaghian, 2008) (Eshaghian, 15 transsexuals” for is aparadise “Iran of narrative Haleh tostay isin say, That Iran. to judge immigration the Islamic hasboughtthe Republic convinced have should gender), new their indicating ID new a (with women or men of categories either the of belongtranssexuals to post-opted that perception Republic’s andcitizens, Islamic LGBT asylum claims because, as discussed by Angela Mason the patron of the UK Lesbian and inmany UK,includingthatof have beenrejected Iranians, of non- comparedwith 73 the percent 2008, p.91).In another example,more than of 98 percentall lesbian and gay claimsfor asylum in avoid O’Leary (cited harm” to [in Columbia] your homosexuality canconceal gay applicant] the summary of his refusal a instance seeker’s isgay Columbian by in case denied was asylum US because,asit indicated letter, “[t]he Secretaryaforementioned dichotomy is not only upheld Iranian for transgender asylumseekers. For of State is of view that thatthe suggests world the casesthroughout LGBT My enquiry asylum other through you [the Columbian law. asylum within international regimes the heteronormative fosters interviewsession,the which citizen through non-discreet discreet/non-deserving it opens of space for(Jenkins dichotomy the emergence deserving the of p. 91), 2009, themisconceptions of society” the judges“mirror immigration of who interpretations the although lawAs itillustrated, tothe is UNHCR seemsneutral,is it asylum when subjected (Richardson,1998). man/woman withnormative genderexpressions considered aheterosexual is “deserving” who citizen ofthe conceptof with critiques the This approach resonates perceptions. DrMir-Jalali, the Iranian leading specialist in sex reassignment surgery, said in Documentary ‘Be Like Others’ 88 15 , contributing to its heteronormative its to contributing , CEU eTD Collection session at UNHCR, she said, Marjan, of male-bodiedto thisresponse her feminine the person, during interview the question old 24-year asked the When I future. the life plansfor their judgesof immigration asked by the The reproduction of this dichotomy through applicants’ narratives occurs when the applicants are citizens. be discreetgoing to are they because rights citizenship enjoy and country destination the in live to deserve they that social and civil rights, the applicants themselves reproduce this dichotomy through their claim political, from benefit and avoid persecution to backhome so enough discreet not were they byimmigration judges.reproduced only Whileimmigrationjudges askwhy refugeeapplicants not is citizen disrespectable respectable/non-discreet thediscreet of dichotomy the But her/his for responsible protection. state, the not and applicant, the holding by (ibid) Convention” Refugee the of aim the “subvert[s] protection’, This byexercising ‘self-restraint’” (p. 393). Millbank approach, as asserts, expectation that persons should, to the extent that itis possible, co-operate in their own Within this discourse, as Millbank (2009)argues,the judges immigration of “’ think a reasonable Luibheid 2004,andher discussion on heteronormativity immigration and scholarship). abuse they have experienced” (Millbank 2009,Melbourne University Law Review;look at also being of as “dangerthe deserving of whichincreasesthe rejected be “transgressive,to repellent” in Hirsch 2010). Andbeingmeans discreet “pass to as heterosexual” and (Morgan 2006, p.5), not … “(cited back men be‘discreet’ can and lesbiansgo and gay that on applications grounds the Gay Immigration Group, “[i]t seems that the Home Office [in UK] are routinely refusing 89 CEU eTD Collection interview session this way, the described partner, male her with living now but husband her from divorced recently feminine person, Afsaneh,In another tellingwho, account, the forty-two-year-old as herself post-op male-bodied (now female-bodied) said, had been men. or a women prostitute for a long heterosexual normal time, asother rights same enjoy the soto order, heteronormative the within and had by many intervieweesmy for wish recognition expressedtheir and assimilation of transgender want benefit to from equally institutionsthe such as “marriage, family and (p.391-2), military” they heterosexuals “normal” like and original) in (emphasis difference’” in ‘equality than rather mainstream society” are those who make “demands for equality on the grounds of ‘ of forthe equality grounds make those whoon “demands mainstream society” are into integration and “inclusion deserve and citizens” good “normal, as considered are “normal lifelike gaysthat Parallel with andlesbians who others”. Richardson’s (2004) argument completecountry: to theirmarry,a surgery, start heterosexual family, study, work, and havea in destination the future for their plans same expressed participants transgender My other exchanging clients,givingnumbers, supporting You each know! other. Like aband! I band, a were We in Tehran. transsexuals of most with in contact was I body. my him the truth. I said there was no [in told my Iran].been I meeting costs Ihad mehow judge] asked The guy [immigration way other than prostitution. I mean, you know, selling like other women. Icould not do itin Iran. immigrationat judge[the UN] translator andthe I wanttolive life anormal like others, them told I awoman. of responsibilities the knows who one is the woman Real woman. real a am I son. future our for name the chosen even have partner] male [her Abbas feelings and you. instincts Andthan shewassurprised how Iplay herwith baby.Iand maternal more have I that sister] her [i.e. her telling was I and a child had sister my Iran dream my life is of become pregnant.Iam nothingto impossible.sure When isin I was like surgery,insex change not a complete undergo the ones surgery, The biggest Iran. Well, I said what I really want to do there [in Canada]. First and foremost I want to 90 sameness ’ CEU eTD Collection identities outside the gender binary (e.g. not to be cross dressers, bi-gendered trans people). bi-gendered trans dressers, notbe to cross (e.g. binary gender the identities outside construct their to not and be prostitutes) to not (e.g. respectability boundaries of the “transgress” to not transgenders cause country, destination the of citizen bediscreet a to expected is who refugee, eligible an of and law asylum international the of interpretations dominant the analysis), Hines’ in GRA through (and process asylum the through facilitated be may - order assimilate within whoa heteronormative to wish those and surgery” who“have undergone that while the claims to citizenship (GRA)passed inUKwhoseaimwasthe people, civilrecognition of Iargue (2005) transgender (and to refugeeIn parallel with and (2009)whohas analyzed Hines the criticized status) of some transgender peoplecontributingin dichotomy this upholding along the lines of gender and sexuality. - those arealso refugeestatus claims to seekers’ transgender asylum butcitizens, discreet/non-discreet not immigration only judges questions whose areboundup with reproduction the of jobs such andas prostitution, as sexuality perceives matter.a family Thus,and private these are disrespectable and non-normative into not is man/woman, of categories the of one to belongs is heterosexual, citizen, who adiscreet of thediscourse within narratives locate their to trying unconsciously) were(consciously or of a prostitute, status from disrespectable disconnecting feelings,maternal and expressing heterosexual having intimate relationship, operation, I suggest that Marjan andby, Afsaneh,instance,for insisting oncompleting sex change asylum seekers. I care about the honor of my of partner. about honor the I care asylum seekers. transsexual other with contact any have not do I Turkey in even that him told I life. my past of being regretful with intranssexuals, contact Isaid of male Iam tired partner]. bedthe of another? itIsn’t rape? He asked ofmy future. And I toldhim Kiarash of [her it bewhat from rape mean?enough givenand does bed taken the Isn’t to to one guy of seekasylum?And been raped to Ihave been Isaidshould had raped. He askedif ever I them. of all know I And work. in this are Tehran in transsexuals of percent twenty think 91 Gender RecognitionAct Gender CEU eTD Collection to contestations. On the one hand, rendering members of a particular social group as ones who ones as group social aparticular of members rendering hand, one the On contestations. to parallel with critiques the identity of thepolitics, definition of particularsocial is subjectedgroup identitiescollective for call which politics identity by informed is and with resonates definition This and group belongings3; emphasis (p.added). rights” human theexercise of one’s or conscience in order to ask for recognition and rights. Accordingly, in will often be one which is characteristic bysociety. The as agroup whoare perceived or being of persecuted, their risk http://www.socresonline.org.uk/12/1/hines.html “a particular social group is a group of is“a of a particulargroup social personswhogroup defined as follows; isUNHCR According a particular Protection Guidelinessocial on International to (2002), group hirprove a belonging to to“hir” related byWhittlexii) 2006,p.genderidentity sexual (suggested or orientation, should refugee’s definition,membershipa particular of social group a transgender asylumfounded seeker fear who of wishesbeinghas awell- she/he that prove should seeker an asylum law, asylum international to According topersecuted seek asylum for basedreasons on claimsof race, Transgender? Membership ofaParticularSocialGroup: Who is religion, nationality, political opinion or judges (Hines 2009, citizens’” who, Iadd,risk by asnon-eligible beingconsidered forrefugee status immigration the as Transgressors, “remainHinesmargins argue, onthe citizenship,residingas‘non-of the particular social group innate, unchangeable, Sociological Research Online, Research Sociological . Since there is no indication of gender or sexuality in sexuality or gender of indication no is there Since . 92 ). ; thatis groupof tothe transgender people. orwhich is otherwise share acommoncharacteristic fundamental toidentity fundamental available at other than , CEU eTD Collection asylum applicants “quite questions dubious and improper” - suchasname barsin of gay Sydney shows how thisnew hasopened trend spacefor subjective interpretations judges of who ask isinclined more now determining to whether theperson law Australian backrefugee home),the harm applicantby can avoid the discreet (i.e. remaining shiftfrom lesbian,rejecting andbisexual gay asylum cases on basisof the “discretion” reasoning basis of sexual orientation in Australia and UK since 1990s. She argues that while there is a clear inrefugee determination analysis,In another on the general Millbank(2009)examines the trends judge] was supposed tobelieve he wasgay hewas when ‘not feminine inany way’” (p.146). immigration judge him told during theasyluminterview session, “how she immigration [the of Mohammad, whonotfitisdo those Morganwithinbe in135-8). whatthecase gay torefers meant US(p. to an“upper-class white malenorms of behavior”, at discriminating work against andmarginalizing Iraniansexual stereotypes and culturally notionsspecific homosexuality” which a privilege certain gay asylum on “based racialized which are identity homosexual of understandings common stereotypical seeker,gays’ in asylum cases US, Morgan (2006), for instance, shows how immigration judges’ the highlighted normalizing forces embedded in international the asylum law. Analyzing the whose casePrevious was studies deniedidentification” (Waites 2009,p.147). on the effectbecause, blurred andunitary “notions of of argued, identity conceptions over a clear, coherent, exhaustively of have theorists queer as theprivileges, identity” to fundamental or … unchangeable definition as the be tendencies characteristics“innate, hand,other perceiving on to of and, definition, the those of refugeenormalizing and disciplining assimilationist, the indicates characteristic” common “share a on LGBT asylum seekers have 93 is gay,lesbian bisexual.Millbankor CEU eTD Collection affirmation from one of the two NGOs of an may get applicants The clinics. issuedby aforementioned the certificate limited to the only not identity is theirtransgenderby But the seekersprove Iraniantransgender ways asylum which each other. and reconfigure how andthey affect international processes, and national between it Besides, asIdiscussedinagain interactions all emphasizes, chapters, the of previous the function which thoughtforwas not Gender clinics Identity Disorder byIslamic Republic. a cases; asylum of transgender success the facilitate might they framework, heteronormative a within individuals assimilating at aim two, in chapter discussed already have I as clinics, these While significance. of think, I is, process asylum their for in Tehran Clinics Disorder issued byGenderIdentity certificate of the employment seekers’ asylum transgender Iranian isthat person the fromsuffering patient “gender dysphoria”. indicating inTehran Clinics Disorder Identity Gender from taken a certificate present usually seekers Iranianthe asylum transgender of particular group people), transgender to the social prove thatthey to order In seekers. asylum transgender Iranian mylocate for Iwantlesbianto gay,and case bisexual applicants, and process of study asylum Within debates these which highlight thedisciplinary and normalizingforces of asylum the law asylum atseekers look McGhee 2003; O’Leary 2008). presumed incompatibility Catholicism of and gayness (p.400-4)(for more discussions on LGBT – or refer to their own prejudices – such as rejecting a Catholic gay asylum case due to the said, the head of IRQO, of the process through which she decides whether a person is transgender. She Iranian QueerOrganization (IRQO), indicating they indicating are transgender.asked Saghi they Ghahreman, (IRQO), I Iranian Railroad for Queer Refugees Railroadfor Iranian 94 are transgender (i.e. they belong they (i.e. transgender (IRQR) or CEU eTD Collection particular group of transgender, which was a necessary step in their asylum claims. intobe the fitted thatthey headare eligible to judges of IRQO and convincing immigration in successful were they Thus, bodies. sexed their from directly developed not and with they identity compatiblethey expressinga believed, not which,were gender as themselves was performances their with since transgender, of category particular the to belong they that proving in problem have not did interviewees my of most that seems it Therefore, 5). (p. sex” assigned stating that transgender “refers to men and women whose Guidance Note Refugeeon Claims SexualRelating to gender andOrientation Gender Identity (2008), identity does not align to their Saghi’s is definition also partly compatible with definition the of intransgender UNHCR desire. heterosexual understandings infrom my with accordance and,stereotypical wereperforming “wrong”observation, ones, of masculinitysex intendedchangedo so surgery in or to destinationthe country, perceived theirbodies as undergone either had They orientation. sexual and identities gender bodies, their over (ifconcerns they were Nine my outof eleven intervieweesof sharedsameideas with expressedsame and Saghi, FtM) and femininity (if they were MtF), with - Then the person is not transgender. She/he is gay or lesbian. or is gay She/he transgender. not is person the Then - - Sowhatif not wantone does sex toundergo change operation? in body.are entrapped wrong the they think both men, are they think MtFs women, are they think MtFs bodies. their hate bodies.have love people Transgender not thisproblem. their They soil.”the do But gays they are MtF they say that “even if I die, please first cut my penis and then bury me under about oneself, willbe instantaneously she/he and precisely categorized astransgender.If inproblem is determining whetheraperson When transgender not. a transgender or talks if figure UN alsoeasily nothavesomeone is Thelawyersat out do pretending. any hidden nothave Straightpeople gender. can information transgenders, do soone about - It is very clear. Even if they are MtF but with beard and mustache you can easily see the 95 CEU eTD Collection gender and sexuality. said, S/he fromliterature Tehran University, hir of hirfeelings towards body, and hir understanding ofhir whohad inEnglish PhD yearold Hamideh, I askedthethirty-one transgender-identified operation. change sex have to going not are they that saying in explicit were whom of some transgender, being of inwhom experiences their Turkey described I spoke to people some of transgender-identified the even activism nor atValentine ways (look 2007), the in grassroots transgender some contexts to nor tothe in awhile), debates withindrawon (which theacademia on I will transgender identityalign genderwhose not existingdoes are sympathetictheirto neither assigned sex”) to identity who hates his/herUNHCR, way the Saghi (somebody person represents atransgender with a hidden gender body) and the way in havebeen successful people mostly transgender-identified all Iranian Saghi -thecasesof UNHCR defines transgenderhas issued for allcertificate of her transgender-identified and applicants, although – according to (“men and women -Saghi IRQO established colleagues and her isyears Saghi since four -that thelast throughout male/female for andman/woman granted(look atStryker 2006; 2009).AlthoughHines imposing adisciplining definition on transgender-identified people andtaking the binariesof of must transgender bechallengedbecause of both Saghi’s andUNHCR’s definition Yet, feelings. I am attracted to some Wewomen. areBut not sexually.not likeYou LGBT. inof know. category the us all of believe inputting not sick. Ido They are are perverts. I like them. flirting with I havefeminine feelings.Some mornings feel I haveI masculine feelings … Iam not gay. Gays sexual relationshiphave …Sometimes I earth between [laughing] and sky between. Somewhere somewhere man.with menBut onlyI feel Sometimeswhen I amI haveI feelwoman likeitin mybody todosurgery … femininein US.ButI wanted I woulddo thatone If day, Iran. I I whenam a man. I amLike Islamic Republic usmoneygives undergo to surgeonsoperation.in But arenot professional when love. I am in a I fight.am neither You know fighting man likenor a woman. I am 96 CEU eTD Collection not been considered byimmigration judges as tofiteligible within category the of transgender (I enough examining of married caseof married the experience Inother word, a FtM. the FtM had had not had of transgender, group fits social particular the within decide applicant whether the interview after the firstrejected in said,judges, whoshould 2008because,asSaghi eventually caseshad been me FtM whose of a married caseof informed the Saghi be might transgender, who of judges immigration of interpretations subjective the of example illustrative another In masculine/feminine. and man/woman, male/female, of lines binary the along ways in immigration judges,basedwhich Guidance Note,perceiveon their a person transgender interviewhircorresponded guess tothe had duringsession Hamideh’s account that not at UN immigration judgesask UNHCR at to them about Hamideh’s might asylum reasonably case, one the to access have not did I Although frustrated. been already had s/he hir, with interview been waitingintervieweestransgender had been given refugee status in less than 14 months, Hamideh had for the myoperated of many While aspect. outcome another from significant is also narrative Hamideh’s of her case forgender and sexuality. more than of experiences ofhirinterwoven account gave buta complicated heterosexual, nor asgay, hirself two years. When hirnorms behavior of feminine, expressions and asalways gender nor described masculine or I conductednor considerssurgery, hirselfbelongingeither to man/woman, of categories the of explained nor the transgender-identified Hamideh describedintends hirself.S/heneither undergosex to change way complex very the ignore UNHCR, and Saghi’s of that as such definitions, Transgender completely in middle.the Iam 50/50. am gender. walking I the edgeof menthan Iam …Ithink really on andwomen them … Ithink people trans humanare the third beings. kind of Ithink wearesmarter 97 CEU eTD Collection five minutes a week or as much as a life-long commitment to reconfiguring the body matchreconfiguring a five minutes asmuch tobody the to alife-longweek or commitment as littleyourlife living, upas as dressing, permanentcross-dressing of …take cross-gender and morecross- frequent occasional or beingqueer, with expectations, role discomfort “encompass becan itidentity easily defined; cannot Whittle transgender according (2006)the to But male/female,masculine/feminine, andman/woman, in defineorder to identity. transgender and theNGOsworkingfield, in make the assumptionstheir alongbinaries upholding the of judges,seeker sorecognize asylumlawitself, the to immigration astransgender. The him/her norms of behavior, gender performances,results, asit clearinmy in study,judgesfor creating case was look for achecklist specific who or sexual desires andin This and (p.662). sexual,participate categories” producing’ cultural gender, racial, class, acts on the parts of the asylum law, asylum the immigration Isuggestthat and “its mechanismofsocial control ‘actively process Along through on constructionthe with Berger’s (2009) argumentthe groups social of process. asylum the through andconstructed been articulated 666) have p. domination” (Berger2009, male under live to are women that believe who companions, male Guatemalan with intimately identity” or,interestingly (p.77), enough, “Guatemalan have beeninvolvedwomen who sexual identities in (Jenkins Mexico” 2009, p.76),“homosexual male a with deep female female such men “gay with as howgroups social show on seekers LGBT asylum Literature boundaries of particular of the determining, andsetting social people. transgender group the asylumTherefore, the process judgesand immigration in themselves contribute defining, one). and previous section the this of analysis the integrate to want I when conclusion, in the example this to back refer will 98 CEU eTD Collection also because it puts because also it in puts the situation: asylum transgender seekers a paradoxical is partly derived from problematicthe definition of refugee in internationalthe law,asylum but interpretations ofimmigration judges and their is arbitrary of decisions who transgender, which married. Thisis example of importance, I great think, notjust because it to points subjectivethe had got person the because in UNHCR casewasrejected FtM whose an caseof the discussed I situation. a paradoxical seekersin asylum put transgender twotrends of these The conjuncture male/female andman/woman so toincrease theirmerits ofbeing recognized asrefugee. transgender” and assimilatewithin the UNHCRdefinition transgenderof along the binary of “a as stereotypically perform to them expecting seekers, asylum for transgender tendencies practicesthe andmisconceptions immigration judges,of have the disciplining normalizing and Moreover, I have discussed how the roles. gender normative with relatively matrix remainis withina heterosexual to definition of refugee withinon the other hand, expects the asylum seekerremain to discreet in the countrythe of destination, that asylum law together in home she/hebeenshould actingof seeker’s experiences and, country, indiscreetly persecution with disregard asylum the to one hand,tends the on Thisdichotomy, citizen reemerges. discreet” “discreet”/”non- of dichotomy the asylum process the through that chapter in this I haveargued Conclusion multifaceted. are acts and desires sexual and expressions, and identities gender bodies, sexed whose FtM) and moremany and married the (like Hamideh transgender-identified, drag queens,non-operated include thevariety kings, ofbigenderedtrans-people,of butchtrans-lesbians,drag experiences innerthe self” (p.xi).Itis bynomeans easy possible)define(or to atransgender community to 99 CEU eTD Collection global interactions, they they global interactions, have acquirednew meanings, usesand configurations. assimilateto individuals but,subjected to the IslamicRepublicheteronormative within order, was function main their established, were Iran in clinics Disorder Identity Gender While forces. heteronormalizing international and national between interaction this of examples illustrative two are transgender, are they that prove to UNHCR at interview asylum the through Tehran in clinics Disorder Identity Gender by issued certificate the of employment seekers’ asylum toseekasylum,not Iraniantransgender people which transgender Iranian should convince and justification asareasonable in surgery Iran change theof sex permission judges’ referring to sexuality is recognizable which and canbe intraced international asylum Immigration process. and gender of politics international of that and Republic Islamic of forces heteronormalizing the between interaction on-going an is there that chapter this through argued also have I therefugeebe status. granted to eligible and not thus transgender, of social group particular memberthe of as a anymore perceived not they are behavior, discreet married) asaresult they homebut, (e.g. haveback of judges, got that been acting discreetly workmight at discriminating those againstas ittransgenders is who, by expected immigration judgesasrecognized marriage. byimmigration a“transgender” after This situation paradoxical being mightrisk not leastmarried FtMs) (at people FtM, transgender married caseof the rejected the of example the from is clear it as Yet, persecution. avoid to so women, and men “normal” family, other resemble aheterosexual and marry, to start things, other among mean, which they backhomeboth toremain asylum andin transgender discreet seekers country, by destination the of myIn inimmigration discussions firstpartjudgesthe this chapterIdiscussed that expect 100 CEU eTD Collection and in homosexual as “perverts” need of punishment. Islamic ones,renderingtranssexuals as“patients” inneed of psychological orsurgical treatment, by surgeries isshaped and a setof of scientific confluence the classical western discourses criminalized, Ihave shown how informing dominantthe discourse permission the of sex-change are same-sex relationships in areallowedRepublic and While Islamic change operations sex p.43). of andhomosexualswhich people emerged distinct“species”transgender (Foucault as 1990, context within the order social heteronormative a byestablishing heteronormalization of process that accelerated Republic of Islamic rise andelites. The powers western with relationships increasing along with the (1925-1979) Dynasty Pahalvi through continued as Ihave discussed, Thisprocess, andEuropeans. of modernists Era Qajar between in interactions early isthe rooted Dynasty Ihave heteronormalizing shown (1794-1925), the that sinceQajar in Iran andpolitics relations sexual of and gender transformation Tracing the relations. power international mutual within has this Nevertheless, occurred hierarchical contextconstitution of the western (and modernities other) have informed and havebeeninformed by each other. and Iranian but relationship, one-way a been not has interaction This West. the of that and Iran ongoing mutual constitution betweenand interaction politicsdominant of gender andsexuality in an been has there years hundred two last the throughout that thesis the through argued have I Conclusion 101 process of Iranians’ sensibilities CEU eTD Collection modernities. Western and Iranian between interactions of consequences the about us tell would again it what and West, in the experiences lived their shaped have identity transgender and nationality, Iranian status, their frictions:of how refugee such locate global context within the to ethnography I like etc. and context, new the in made have they groups and bonds new of kind what identities, new has social and context political shaped their of self-perception their gender andsexual their how for, looking were they what reached have if they know to eager am I destination. of in country interviewees the inmeeting my interested mytransgender researches,Iam future For man/woman. and male/female of lines binary the along citizens transgender discreet Iranianagainst those not transgenderwhodo fit asylum seekers within dominant the definition of also informed byIslamicRepublic politics of gender and sexuality, atdiscriminating works international level, is have disciplining trend on which working this ground. Iarguedthat onthe tendencies in embedded judges’asylum international law, immigration the and NGOs prejudices, asylumthe processof Iranian transgenderpoint people to disciplining the out normalizing and have entity, civilized/modern/free and I Westasthe examined as theuncivilized/pre-modern/evil Iran depict which legacies, orientalist and colonial by affected still are press world by the West major bodies Although present of international within Iran and suchUNHCR. representations clearly is but Republic, Islamic to limited all at not are politics heteronormalizing the Yet, 102 CEU eTD Collection Collinson, Sarah.“Visa Carrier 1996. Requirements, Sanctions,'Safe Third Countries' and Routledge. Butler, 2006. Judith. Lesbian andGaysStudiesReader( Butler, Judith. 1993. “Imitation and Gender Insubordination” in Henry Abelove et.al. (eds.), no. 3:659-85. doi:10.1086/593380. States." United Asylum in of the Discourses Susan Berger, Legal in Sexuality and Gender of Reproduction "Production and 2009. A. Benjamin, Harry. 1966. [ Awhadi, Behnam. 2005. Policing in the Islamic Republic of Iran." of Republic Islamic in the Policing Bahreini, Publishing. Raha. 2008. "From Perversion to Pathology: Discourses and Practices of Gender Anderson,1983. Benedict. 48, The NewPolitics of Sex and pp. State, the 5-23. Sexuality inand Postcoloniality Trinidadand Tobago and Bahamas”the in Alexander, M. Jacquil. 1994. “Not Just (Any) Body Can Be a Citizen: The Politics of Law, Faq Afary, Janet. 2009. Janet. Afary, Gender and theSeductions Islamism of KevinAfary, Anderson, Janet, andFoucault. Michel 2005. Press. Institute ofInstitute British Geographers Ɩ Press. 'Readmission': The Development of 'Readmission':of 'Buffer Asylum Development The an Zone'inEurope Abrahamian, 1982. Ervand. 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