Table of Contents Welcome to the Journal of Amateur Sport i Mission and Purpose i Call for Papers ii Journal Leadership and Editorial Board iii Foreword: On the Political Economy of Amateur Athletics 1 Joshua I. Newman and Kyle S. Bunds (Guest Editors)

Community Sport Economic View and Strategic Management View toward 12 Understanding Outsourcing in Amateur Sport Seungbum Lee Social Geographies at Play: Mapping the Spatial Politics 39 of Community-Based Youth Sport Participation Amy Chan Hyung Kim, Christopher Coutts, Joshua I. Newman, Simon Brandon-Lai, and Minjung Kim

Public School Sport The Salience of Sport in Cross-Race Friendship Selection 73 Gareth J. Jones, Kyle S. Bunds, Troy A. Carlton, Michael B. Edwards, and Jason N. Bocarro An Examination of Equal Access in Athletic Programs 99 Throughout Public High Schools in the United States Rebecca R. Buchanan, Eleanor Odenheimer, and Tanya R. Prewitt-White College Sport College Athletics Spending: Principals and Agents 119 v. Arms Race Rodney Fort What would the political philosophers do? An exploration 141 of ideological perspectives on ‘athlete-centered’ reform Kadence Otto Sport Discontinuation: An Assessment of Goal 164 Achievement via Empirical Measures John Patrick Marsh, Jeffrey C. Petersen, and Barbara Osborne Not Going Pro: On Seeking Lasting Returns from 188 College Sports Matthew I. Horner, Neal Ternes, and Christopher M. McLeod

Welcome to the Journal of Amateur Sport I am quite excited to release our first Special Issue of the Journal of Amateur Sport (JAS). Our guest editors, Drs. Joshua Newman (Florida State University) and Kyle Bunds (North Carolina State University) did an exceptional job of creating a space where a wide-range of viewpoints on the political economy of amateur sport can be shared. I would also like to commend all the authors who have their work included in the following pages. The quality of the writing and theory advancement speaks to the quality of the call and editing from Drs. Newman and Bunds and I believe the ideas in this issue will have an impact on, and be cited in, a number of fields. I hope you will enjoy reading this issue as much as I have. Jordan Bass, Ph.D., University of Kansas Co-Editor and Founder of JAS

Mission and Purpose The overarching mission of the Journal of Amateur Sport (JAS) is to provide scholars an outlet in which to share scholarship relevant to the amateur sports realm. We define amateur sport as those who participate and govern at the youth, recreational, community, international, and intercollegiate level. We acknowledge the tenuous debate surrounding the amateurism of intercollegiate athletics, thus at this time we welcome examinations that are focused on the less commercialized avenues of college sport participation and governance (especially NCAA Division II, III, and other less publicized governing bodies and settings). Submissions from all disciplines are encouraged, including sociology, communication, and organizational behavior. Similarly, we welcome a wide array of methodological and structural approaches, including conceptual frameworks, narratives, surveys, interviews, and ethnographies.

As an open-access journal, submissions should be of interest to researchers and practitioners alike. In all, the content published in JAS should advance the collective understanding of the participants, coaches, administrators, and/or institutional structures that comprise amateur sports worldwide. We challenge authors to submit

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Leadership i creative and nontraditional manuscripts that are still high-quality in nature. Authors are encouraged to email the editors before submitting if they are unsure if their manuscript is a proper fit within JAS.

Call for Papers Thank you for considering the Journal of Amateur Sport (JAS) for your scholarly work. Please follow the guidelines laid out below when submitting your manuscript to JAS. Visit http://www.jamsport.org and click “Submit Now” to begin the submission process. To aid in the double-blind review process, please include three separate files: (1) a title page with corresponding author information, (2) an abstract of no more than 500 words with no identifying information, and (3) the full manuscript with no identifying information. The manuscript should not have been simultaneously submitted for publication or been published previously. Manuscripts should follow the current Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association with exception to the elements noted below. The document must be double-spaced, in Garamond font, size 14, and utilize one inch margins throughout. Maximum length, including references and figures, is 50 pages. Be sure to include a running header, page numbers, and footnotes (when appropriate). Authors are responsible for receiving permission to reproduce copyrighted material before submitting their manuscript for publication.

There is no charge for submission or publication. Authors will be provided with a free digital and print copy of published articles. JAS is an open-access, online journal and thus strongly encourages the posting and sharing of published articles by authors on their personal and departmental websites, Google Scholar, and e-portfolios once they are posted to the JAS website. Authors should expect a maximum 60-day turnaround time from initial submission to receiving the initial review. Submissions that are determined to be outside of the scope or not appropriate for JAS are subject to desk rejection. If an article is deemed fit for publication, the author(s) must sign a publishing agreement before the article is officially accepted. Submissions will be subjected to a double- blind review from at least two members of the editorial board (or outside reviewers when appropriate).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Leadership ii

Journal Leadership and Editorial Board

Leadership Co-Editors of Special Issue on the Political Economy of Amateur Sport Joshua I. Newman, Florida State University and Kyle S. Bunds, North Carolina State University

Co-Editor and Founder: Jordan R. Bass, University of Kansas Co-Editor: Brian S. Gordon, University of Kansas Associate Editor: Kyle S. Bunds, North Carolina State University Associate Editor: Mark Vermillion, Wichita State University Contributing Executive Council: Earle Zeigler Production Director: Claire C. Schaeperkoetter, University of Kansas

Editorial Board Kwame Agyemang Louisiana State University Emeka Anaza James Madison University Chris Barnhill Louisiana State University Jonathan Casper North Carolina State University Cassandra Coble Indiana University Simon Darnell University of Toronto Travis Dorsch Utah State University Brendan Dwyer Virginia Commenwealth University Travis Feezell University of the Ozarks Rick Grieve Western Kentucky University Marion Hambrick University of Louisville

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Leadership iii

Meg Hancock University of Louisville Cody Havard University of Memphis Timothy Kellison University of Florida Shannon Kerwin Brock University Ryan King-White Towson University Geoffery Kohe University of Worcester Leeann Lower Ball State University Marshall Magnusen Baylor University Brian McCullough Seattle University Chad McEvoy Northern Illinois University Nicole Melton University of Massachusetts Amherst Katie Misener University of Waterloo Joshua Newman Florida State University Calvin Nite Texas Tech University Dawn Norwood Wingate University Julie Partridge Southern Illinois University Ted Peetz Belmont University Ann Pegoraro Laurentian University Adam Pfleegor Mississippi State University Lamar Reams Old Dominion University Steve Ross University of Concordia – St. Paul Michael Sam University of Otago Jimmy Sanderson Clemson University Chad Seifried Louisiana State University Clay Stoldt Wichita State University Sarah Stokowski University of Arkansas Nefertiti Walker University of Massachusetts Amherst Daniel Wann Murray State University Stacy Warner East Carolina University Janelle Wells University of South Florida Craig Williams University of Exeter Masa Yoshida Biwako Seikei Sport College

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Leadership iv

Special Issue Foreword On the Political Economy of Amateur Athletics

Joshua Newman1 Kyle Bunds2

Special Issue Co-Editors 1Florida State University 2North Carolina State University

Joshua Newman (Ph.D., Maryland) is Director of the Center for Sport, Health, and Equitable Development and Associate Professor of Sport, Media, and Cultural Studies at Florida State University. He is also Associate Chair and Director of Doctoral Studies in the Department of Sport Management. He has published two books and over 60 articles and chapters on issues related to social inequalities, cultural (bio)politics, and political economics and ecologies of sport and physical activity. His most recent book, Sport, Spectacle, and NASCAR Nation (Palgrave, with M. Giardina) was awarded NASSS’s Outstanding Book for 2012 and was named as a CHOICE Outstanding Academic Title in 2013. His work has been published in top international journals such as the Sociology of Sport Journal, Body & Society, Qualitative Inquiry, and the Journal of Sport & Social Issues. Kyle S. Bunds (Ph.D., Florida State) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at North Carolina State University, where his research and teaching examines the connection between sport and the environment generally, and sport, water, and air pollution more specifically. His work, predominately grounded in political economic theory, has been published in numerous academic journals, such as Sport Management Review; European Sport Marketing Quarterly; Sport in Society; Critical Studies in Media Communication; Communication, Culture, & Critique; Cultural Studies-Critical Methodologies; and Water Resources: IMPACT. In addition to his guest editorship with JAS, he is currently guest editing a forthcoming special issue on sport, physical culture, and the environment in the Sociology of Sport Journal.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 1 n its most artless definition, political Europe (and beyond). With this newfound economy refers to the study of inter- and sovereignty, nation-states formed various I intra-state transaction—concerned in governance and political systems aimed at large part with the dialectics of state optimizing national economic growth, governance and the population growth, and geopolitical production/consumption functions therein. positionality. As the field developed and Many of us, with varying degrees of evolved—and certainly in the period deliberation, have read the works of following the publication of Alfred forerunning political economists such as Marshall’s Principles of Economics (c. 1890) Adam Smith (c. 1723-1790), David Ricardo through to the rise of a global market doxa (c. 1772-1823), Thomas Malthus (c. 1766- that would come to hold sway over most of 1834), John Stuart Mill (c. 1806-1873), Karl the developed world a century later—its Marx (c. 1818-1883), and Thorstein Veblen practitioners largely focused on the economics (c. 1857-1929). These classic political in political economy; that is, economic economists and their contemporaries shared activity in the national and global a concern for the extent to which land, environment. This economic structure is labor, income, capital, and the population evident in the neoclassical economic derived value from, and maintained theories first envisaged by Austrian School contingency with, state polity. While each theorists such as Ludwig von Mises and diverged from the others in how to best Freidrich von Hayek and further fleshed out organize the State in relation to markets and in the theories of Chicago School exchange activities (and vice versa) so as to economists such as Milton Friedman and optimize the citizenry’s well-being, these the policies informed by those theories and scholars and their contemporaries laid the as put into practice by Ronald Reagan in the foundations for the long-standing field of United States, Margaret Thatcher in the inquiry fixed on exploring how various United Kingdom, Augusto Pinochet in national political systems (democracy, Chile, and Paul Keating and Roger Douglas monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy, etc.), in Australasia (to name but a few). markets, and political and economic This ever-evolving political economy behavior could bring about national has, of course, brought about important prosperity, maximize individual freedom, or initiatives and changes in public policy. This raise collective utility. political economy has helped curb or abet From an historical perspective, the intensive/extensive national growth, timing of the modern political economy inflation and stagnation, multi-scalar project makes sense: the Peace of economic development, population growth, Westphalia (c. 1648) brought national self- national (un)employment, and per capita determination to many nation-states in income. Political economists now draw

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 2 upon advanced analytics to explicate a find sponsorship, sales, or marketing number of politico-market dynamics, from scholars of sport delving into how the the economics of plutocracy to the effects congruence of liberal democracy and of cronyism; from demographic and social supply-side economic praxes influence the economics to how policy affects economic act of consumption; or, to discovery in the behavior among national constituents. Many literature deep explication on the social self-described political economists of the characteristics of the sport-based contemporary academy utilize mathematical commodity-form; or, to run across a study models (e.g. John von Neumann’s game proffering an analysis on the valorization of theory) and “big data” representing market surplus athletic labor (to name but a few activity and population health to analyze or examples). Yet, these and many other predict patterns of income or wealth features of the ongoing and multifarious distribution, assess modes of accumulation, political economy project are critical in or to forecast everything from rents to gross framing how we buy, produce, sell, domestic product. Suffice it to say, political capitalize upon, and find ourselves alienated economy has been and continues to be from or exploited by commercial sport. broad in its scope and definition, in its Equally important, perhaps more so, are the object(s) of analysis and the tools by which banal assumptions scholars often make those objects are analyzed. More concretely about sport’s givenness to and to the point, though, political economy commercialization and commodification. is perhaps as topical—nay, critical—as ever That is, why is it that sporting activities and before. the consumers and athletes involved in Contributors to this special issue of the those activities are assumedly seeking to Journal of Amateur Sport have been charged exchange or produce value? Is sport only with exploring political economy’s breadth always commercial? For some, yes. And for and heuristic potential—toward assembling others, no. a more complex reading of the civic, Quite simply, there is much ground still transactional, and commercial aspects of yet to be covered in the political economic contemporary amateur athletics. This special analysis of sport. In this forum, we seek to issue is important, we believe, as the open some new doors (and some old ones), political economic dimensions of and to cover some of this ground by turning industrialized sport tend to be implied or the contributors’ collective gaze upon overlooked in most sport business research amateur sport and the athletes who play it. - namely that in the interrelated fields of The common endeavor shared by each sport management, sport marketing, sport contribution to this special issue (from an for development, and to some extent even admixture of perspectives) is the pursuit of sport economics. Indeed, it is quite rare to new linkages between sport-based practice,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 3 performance, object, or action and the intersectional politics and economies of broader political economic forces operating contemporary sport. upon those sporting locals. As you will see, we cover quite a bit of ground, canvassing Political Economy of/as Contradiction community-level sport to school based Since its earliest days, political economy sport to intercollegiate athletics. The has been burdened by contradiction. A brief contributors carefully link broader systems survey of some of the field’s key terms of accumulation and governance to reveals political economy’s oxymoronic problems ranging from inequality of access tendencies. Controlled growth. Creative to sport, disparities in sport-based human destruction. Labor power. Market states. capital, the enterprise of intercollegiate Free trade. These and other key constructs athletics, and other important and timely by virtue of their very conjunction bring to topics. Our authors engage a cacophony of praxis contradictions. Take, for instance, interdisciplinary approaches (e.g. controlling growth: in an age of economics, social geography, political entrepreneurialism such as that which we philosophy, neoclassical [family] economics, currently find ourselves living in, how does and political ecology) and utilize a broad the state or even the CEO plan for and range of techniques (e.g. geographic moderate growth? How can those in charge information systems, meta-theory, surveys, of a geopolitical entity or transnational and interviews) in their efforts to corporation predict market activity, regulate problematize both amateur sport/athletics accumulation, or maintain a steady-state of and its effects. increased returns given the unpredictable Before outlining the remainder of the nature of innovation (arguably the key special issue’s contents, we thought it might features of growth)? Or take Schumpeter’s be a good idea to set the stage, so to speak. notion of creative destruction, whereby To do this, we outline some key points of accumulation in capitalist economies (the contradiction that frame our dissonant delta function of capital) presupposes the collection. We do so not to suggest that this annihilation of both wealth and property. lack of consistency in political economic How can we be making and selling stuff, thought in general, or our analyses of sport building wealth through exchange, only to in particular, are compromised by a lack of produce destruction? These and other consensus, but rather to highlight how political economic concepts reveal the something as complex as amateur sport complexity that comes with seeking to needs multiple perspectives and fluid examine governed potenza (potency) and approximations if we are to get somewhere freedom. By virtue of innumerable axes of better in our understanding of the association by which a given political economic order is established (e.g. labor and

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 4 capital, the public and the private, the one First consider the individual athlete. and the many, freedom and government), Here we have the agent of human action (in the questions of political economy are von Mises terms), a rational (if bounded) always already burdened by internal actor who has come into being (as athlete) incongruities. When scholars set out to through a series of choices—to use the theoretically or empirically advance our body to play, to train, to give oneself and understanding of how money converts into one’s time over to the craft or to the team, commodities, or how assets are given value and so on. This individual, from the in an exchange market and yet held neoclassical perspective, will have over time privately, or understand the moment at accumulated the physical or human capital which work in assigned value, things tend to necessary to capitalize upon her investment. get messy. Yet she has little to no control over the Of course, most branches of the social labor market she places her athletic body sciences are replete with contradictions; and her labor power within; no ability to most are messy. However, political shape demand nor to structure the cultural economy presents for the scholar an politics or externalities that might add value interesting series of contradictory relations. to or diminish the value of her labor. As For our purposes—those being the analysis such, the individual athlete is subjugated to of the political and economic collective configurations—to society and/or intersectionalities of and upon the athletic to the market. But what are these collective body in non-professional and pseudo-non- configurations if not amalgamations of professional contexts—we would like to human action? Further still, ontologically briefly outline a few such contradictions and speaking, how does any rational action—say discuss how they shape and give life to our the choice to pick up a basketball instead of agonistic project. We seek not to provide a football—come into being without answers to the quandaries that sport society, without the meanings, values, and introduces to the contemporary political significance swirling about the social world economist, but rather to open new doors to and associated with a given choice, action, the messy metaphysical terrain we now find or experience? Without the representation ourselves seeking to traverse. We start by of the object, the leather sphere itself, or the calling into question how our field tends to socio-cultural significance placed upon each render those who are to be governed, and over time, there is no choice to be made. then turn to questioning how we make All this leads to the question of sense of that which is to be exchanged. determinism. The structural Marxists among us will likely point to base-superstructure The (Sporting) Individual forces to explain much of this. They will explain how systems of athletic labor and

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 5 the mode of (social) production produces the habitus fields upon which the individual The (Sporting) Masses makes choices, usually determining life Further still, continental political chances and stratifying the opportunities of philosophers such as Gilles Deleuze or the individual athlete. The methodological Roberto Esposito might look at something individualists, by contrast, would inevitably like mass sport—both mass participation point out the fact that humans are never sport and mass spectator sport—and find in identical in their taste, practices, or the articulations of the one and the many a preferences—we are a productive engine of series of unexpected political economic multiplicity. As such, the uptake of relationships under-theorized in the sport basketball represents an act of individual research. In the extensive research on free will. “identity” emanating from the sport What is at stake here? If we as scholars marketing sub-discipline, for example, there of sporting praxis assume that the individual is a noticeable gap in how we might best basketball player becomes a basketball player conceptualize the political and economic through choices, absent much consideration conditions upon which the individual forges of the constraints and boundaries that might his sporting identity. Is it merely the case be acting upon rational action, then we that identity is something one builds, buys, might look to individualize our approach to or connects with? Does identity come by promoting sport participation. We would way of purchase (of a jersey representation a then look into the psyche of the individual team with which one affiliates) or to mark out patterns of disposition, signification (waving a national flag, preference, or attitude that are predisposed adorning the Nike swoosh)? Or is identity to be managed, marketed to, coached, or performed in rhythm with the social outputs developed. Conversely, if we take a of the biological masses? Is identity always structuralist approach to understanding the contingent on social location, social basketball player in question, we might constructedness of the author and the instead look to the extend to which reader of its discursive projection? Can capitalism (and its ancillary labor and social identities and the formation thereof be class politics), the state, has actively managed? The point here being: how can repressed the individual or limited her we as scholars chart a political economy of ability to pursue sporting/social activities sport-based identities? What role does the outside of basketball. We would look at the nation-state play in forging the conditions uneven distribution of power in establishing of identity formation (and identification)? the systems by which the individual chooses Does identity come to us and work through what to play, where to play, and/or if play is us in markets (and only in markets)? Are even an option. they inscribed onto our athletic or athlete-

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 6 consuming bodies? Is identity a matter of sport’s capacity for promoting individual population? If so, could the political freedom, institutional structures, and the economies of Georges Bataille or Paolo twin arcs of accumulation and governance. Virno provide new insights? All this is left Such established approaches have tended to largely unstated in the sport marketing look at sport market’s unique qualities— literature. from the supply and demand of athletic Also left under-theorized in the sport labor and sport-based merchandise to the management literatures are the complex exceptional post-Sherman Act cartel interrelationships that come with bringing structure to intercollegiate and franchise sport participants or consumers together in sport organizations’ extraordinary common spaces. While it is clear that once monopsony positions in acquiring labor and congregated—as participants in Kim Il-sung fixed capital (stadia). Sport has an Square in Pyongyang or as consumer- unparalleled place in industrial economic spectators in Neyland Stadium in history for its intermediaries’ ability to avoid Tennessee—the sporting masses produce state regulation and in many cases juridical cultural experiences, commercial activity, process. However, sport is also one of the and surplus value, what is less clear is how most regulation-intensive sectors of the such spatial and corporeal organization(s) of global economy. Its games are foisted upon the masses serves particular political volumes of codes and rules—from the play economic interests and ends. Moreover, in on the field to the administration of the connecting the politics of identity and the events to the governance over commercial politics of spatial distribution, to what activity in and around the stadium. Its extent is a member of a given sport workforce it subject to intensive community indebted to the membership at surveillance, biological, chemical, and large (or to the intermediaries who brought gender testing, and intensified training the community into being)? If the regiments. Its salary structures are artificial intercollegiate athletics supporter highly and closed. In this sense, there is nothing identifies with the university—to the point free about the sport market. Indeed, the where she sees herself in and as part of the contradictory (and inseparable) articulation institution—then to what does she owe the of politics and economics lies at the core of public (that is served by the university)? The contemporary athletics. Here we have the state (that authorized and supports the sporting body—running, jumping, and university)? moving as it does—being simultaneously pushed and pulled by state and market. It is The Market and the State a body that is constrained by training, In this issue, contributors also look to technology, ideology, and polity just as it is more established approaches to exploring set free through ludic motility.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 7 a) the professionalization of the Olympic Amateur Athletics as Contradiction Games, b) the rights of intercollegiate Since we are concerning ourselves with student-athletes to gain remuneration contradictions, it might now make sense to through their economically-productive turn our attention to the focus of this sporting practices, and c) the hyper- special issue: amateurism. Concerned by the commodification of youth sports feature rise of professionalism in sport, and in an largely in many a nations’ public discourse. attempt to protect the sanctity of It has been argued that amateurism serves a amateurism, the famous author and early double function: on the supply side, bicycling aficionado G. Lacy Hillier amateurism produces a system of proclaimed in 1892, “Sport is amusement governance that suppresses wage labor (in solely…The essence of sport is relation to market value) and exacerbates relaxation…The sportsman (sic), then, is the income inequality (allowing those with man who has an amusement which may capital to produce incomes at rates that cost him something, but which must not exceed those producing income through bring him in anything, for an amusement labor); and on the demand side, the which brings him in anything is not a sport structure of amateur sport allows for the but a business” (as cited in Allison, 2001, p. uneven allocation of public resources vii). In the historical present, however, it has dedicated to fostering community become quite clear that sport is now a development and health through sport and deeply privatized and commercialized physical activity. feature of most societies. Considering the widespread The Special Issue: Surfaces, Bodies, development of both mass participant and Institutions, and Markets mass spectator sport over the course of the Given the current environment, there is last 150 years, historians, sociologists, a need for scholarly research and discussion economists, legal scholars, and behavioral on the political economy of amateur sport scientists have in recent decades dedicated in the contemporary (global) market society. considerable effort to the study of how In what remains of this issue, we seek to get political forces and economic logics have closer to answering questions that have infiltrated, and in some ways been longed haunted the sport studies disciplines, remediated by, the function of amateurism questions such as: within sport. Is the athlete a laborer or a commodity? This coupling of sport and business has Is the athlete a free or rational actor? impacted the structure of amateur sport Is it more beneficial for the state or the organizations as well as the ethic of private sector to act as the primary amateurism more generally. Issues such as provider of sport and recreation?

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 8 Are historically marginalized groups Specifically, he analyzes three different sites (based on race, gender, ability, sexuality, in order to examine the motivation of or socio-economic status) outsourcing and what risks are involved Does commercial sport exacerbate, or with outsourcing youth sport programs. In alleviate, income inequality? so doing, he sheds light on a business and Does the reallocation of public sport industry-wide tactic that has seemingly resources to catalyze private sector infiltrated youth sport programming with sport lead to positive economic real practical and theoretical implications. development? Kim and colleagues’ article In this issue our contributors canvass complements Lee’s utilization of youth multiple sites and scales of amateurism to sport programs by mapping travel access to further problematize the political economics youth sport programs along lines of of the contemporary sporting condition. historical socio-economic and racial Given the breadth of the topic at hand, it is segregation and examined participants travel not surprising to note that there are a distances. Utilizing archival data from the number of different approaches taken by Parks, Recreation, and Neighborhood the authors in this special issue. However, Affairs Department in a mid-sized the general tenor of each ranges from Southeastern United States city, Kim et al. community level analyses to K-12 school offer an assessment of five years worth of based inquiry to college athletics. Thus, we demographic and GIS visualization data to organized the articles from the larger show differences in travel and accessibility perspective of community sports first, then to sport programs among different racial move on to the still broad but more and socio-economic demographics. These focused, before ending with four articles two articles offer an introduction to how focusing on college athletics. the structures of amateur sport act upon, In the first two articles, Lee (“Economic through, and within dynamics of sport and Strategic Management View toward participation from a city-wide standpoint. Understanding Outsourcing in Amateur While Kim and colleagues offer a nice Sport”) and Kim, Coutts, Newman, example of the impact that systemic Brandon-Lai, and Kim (“Social Geographies structure holds on accessibility of youth at Play: Mapping the Spatial Politics of sport programs, Jones, Bunds, Carlton, Community-Based Youth Sport Edwards, and Bocarro (“The Salience of Participation”) focus on the political Sport in Cross-Race Friendship Selection”) economic framings of sport at the move the special issue toward a school community level. Lee’s work focuses on based examination. In their analysis on the understand the outsourcing of youth sport impact of sport in cross-race friendships, programs by city-owned recreation centers. Jones and colleagues seek to understand the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 9 impact participating in sport has on one’s Spending: Principals and Agents v. Arms friendships with individuals of a different Race”) leads us into our third and final race. Sport programs claim to offer an section detailing the political economics of opportunity for individuals in different races amateurism in college athletics by and from different backgrounds to be articulating that previous studies examining exposed to different cultures, yet Jones et al. athletic department spending by utilizing the suggest this is only the case in certain arms race explanation have been incomplete situations. at best and naïve at worst. Fort, therefore, Equal access to sporting opportunities utilizes a bevy of research to suggest that is a central underlying issue in the first three researchers should instead use a principal- articles of the special issue and is the main agent explanation that depends on actual thrust behind Buchanan, Odenheimer, and observed budgetary data to examine college Prewitt-White’s examination of equal access athletics expenditure patterns. to sporting opportunities in United States The profoundly grounded insights of public schools (“An Examination of Equal Fort and his focus on athletic administrators Access in Athletic Programs Throughout and budgets lend way to the theoretical Public High Schools in the United States”). musings of Otto (“Ideological Perspectives Specifically, Buchanan and colleagues note on ‘Athlete-Centered’ Reform) who that most opportunities for individuals in considers the role of the student-athlete in public schools are for those who compete in the financially driven big market of college highly competitive sport activities. The athletics. Otto deeply interrogates the authors appropriately question how the classical political philosophers in focus on highly competitive sports impacts questioning how the likes of Marx and opportunities for participation, especially Engels, John Locke, Adam Smith, John when considering equal access across Stuart Mills, and John Rawls can inform genders. college athlete driven reform. In an era All of the first four articles comprising where the individual freedoms and liberties the first two sections on 1. Community of athletes are questions and brought to the sport and 2. Public school sport, examine forefront through events such as the the possibility that sport has not been attempted unionization of student-athletes carefully scrutinized in terms of its at Northwestern University, this timely formation and function. That is, the article helps to theoretically frame the structures in place have been exclusive in arguments of the current-era. parts, and examinations of structures and Building upon Otto’s deeply theoretical the impact of structures on individual submission, Marsh, Peterson, and Osborn choice, freedoms, and action have been (“Sport Discontinuation: A Comparison of incomplete at best. Fort (“College Athletics Stated Goals to Actual Outcomes”) bring

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 10 both the financial aspects and reform to the amateur athletics and become invested forefront through examination of college contributors to ensuring a just structure for athletics programs that had cut at least one equal access and critical analysis of amateur sport from their athletic department sport sport writ large. offering. The authors found that athletics --- departments offered three main reasons for cutting programs, reducing athletic References spending, reallocating resources, and Title Allison, L. (2001). Amateurism in sport: An IX compliance. However, the authors found analysis and defence. Routledge: New that the explained reasons for discontinuing York. a sport do night always fit with the actual processes and outcomes of sport elimination. Finally, Horner, Ternes, and McLeod (“Not Going Pro: On Seeking Lasting Returns from College Sports”) build rather serendipitously upon the previous articles by offering an empirical examination into the lived experiences of graduated, former collegiate student-athletes in order to understand perceived “returns” athletes received through their student-athlete “investments.” This article very articulately utilizes Becker’s discussion of human capital to examine athlete experience and places the athlete within the expanding neoliberal university understanding between students and student-athlete as consumers. In this era of uncertainty for amateur athletics through cuts in public spending on athletic opportunity and privatization of amateur sport, these eight articles offer crucial insight into the workings of amateur athletics across a number of paradigmatic approaches and levels of amateurism. It is our hope that the readership will be exposed to a diverse array of understandings of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Newman & Bunds, 2016 11

Economic View and Strategic Management View toward Understanding Outsourcing in Amateur Sport

Seungbum Lee University of Akron

Outsourcing as a strategic business decision has been a prevalent business practice in the sport industry, and as a result has been receiving increasing academic attention by scholars in sport management. In many cases, the academic attention has been focused on the multi-billion dollar hyper-commercialized sport industry, like professional and intercollegiate sport in the United States. However, outsourcing has infiltrated the world of amateur sport, for instance youth sports programs (YSP), as well. In spite of a growing use of outsourcing as a viable business strategy within a community based sport setting, efforts to understand outsourcing in amateur sport have so far gone unheeded in academia. Accordingly, this study examined outsourcing YSP by city-owned recreation centers (CORC). The motivation of outsourcing and the risk of outsourcing were analyzed using a multiple case study approach. The results of this study argue that combination of both economic and strategic management views are effective ways to understand outsourcing strategies in an amateur sport setting. The findings of this study provide both theoretical and practical implications. Furthermore, to contribute to the body of literature, the findings of this study are compared with previous sport management outsourcing literature to provide a comprehensive understanding of outsourcing.

istorically, youth sport in America to promote youth sports participation has been a popular form of activity across the country (e.g., Gray, 2015; Missal, H (Coakley, 1979), and the youth 2015; Thomas, 2015). This trend by the sport participation for some sports is major sports governing bodies presents a consistently increasing. Many major sports serious competition to many sport governing bodies have started to implement organizations like city-owned recreation and run very attractive initiatives designed centers (CORC), because they also sell

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 12 youth sports programs. Also, CORC are frequently in the context of sport facing huge challenges to be financially management. However, a majority of sustainable against major sports governing published studies focused on a highly bodies that have better financial, physical, commercialized professional (Burden & Li, human, and informational resources than 2009; Lee, 2010; Lee & Lee, 2011) or an CORC. Additionally, many CORC have a intercollegiate sport setting (Bouchert, 2010; relatively small number of full time Burden & Li, 2005; 2003; Burden, Li, Masiu, employees and face a budgetary constraint & Savini, 2006; Lee & Walsh, 2011; Li & as the financial support from cities is Burden, 2004; 2002; Walker, Sartore, & generally decreasing. As a result, many Taylor, 2009; Zullo, 2013a; 2013b), which CORC are forced to adapt in a new and can be characterized by commodification, challenging market place. One of the commercialization, and marketization. notable changes is outsourcing YSP to Scholars are belated to understand independent contractors (Park and outsourcing in the context of YSP by Recreation National Database Report, CORC. It is believed that this study will 2014). The National Alliance for Youth contribute to the body of overall sport Sports (2012) also noticed recent trend management literature in a unique way by addressing that “In recent years there has focusing on the amateur sport context. been a huge shift in youth sports with more Secondly, as Davis-Blake and Broschak and more municipalities outsourcing (2009) argued, outsourcing is a complex, programs to independent volunteer-led multi-dimensional, and heterogeneous organizations.” practice depending on a wide range of While a growing number of the cities variables affecting outsourcing success or are employing outsourcing strategies for failure. The outsourcing decision, as well as their YSP, there has been no academic the operation, is much more complicated effort to understand outsourcing in terms of nowadays, so the traditional “make or buy motivation, risks, and its mitigation decision” is gone. Academic efforts to strategies. Thus, given the paucity of understand outsourcing in areas where little investigation toward outsourcing YSP to exploration and theory exist will contribute better understand current amateur sport to the body of sport management and management, this study seeks to investigate outsourcing literature. Also, to contribute to why CORC outsource their YSP to a third the body of literature, the findings of this party, and what outsourcing risks they have study are compared with previous sport and how they mitigate those risks. management outsourcing literature to Such investigation is necessary for provide a comprehensive understanding of several reasons. First, outsourcing as a outsourcing. subject matter has been examined

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 13 Literature Review studied topics in literature (see Lacity et al., This study has three research questions 2011). Regarding outsourcing motivation, that are developed by previous literature: several motivations have been identified What motivates the outsourcing of YSP?; such as cost reduction, focus on core What are the outsourcing risks to YSP?; activities, access to the resources/skills, And, what are the risk mitigation strategies performance improvement, innovation, and used by YSP? development of employees (see Lacity et al., 2011). There are two major outsourcing Outsourcing Motivation/Risks motivations: cost-driven and performance- Outsourcing as a strategic business driven outsourcing (Kremic, Tukel, & Rom, decision has been used globally for many 2006). Cost-driven outsourcing focuses on a years across many different industries, and cost reduction perspective. Minimization of according to the Statista (2013), in 2013 the indirect costs, such as fewer employees, is a market size of the outsourced service was primary example. Performance-driven close to 83 billion dollars. Busi (2008) outsourcing is an approach from a quality described outsourcing as a business strategy improvement point of view, and many by an organization that contracts out one of organizations expect access to its operations to an external and expertise/resources (e.g., Baldwing, Irani, & independent third party. For years, in Love 2001; Elmuti & Kathawala, 2000; academic literature such as information Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000; Kumar & system, a vast amount of research from a Eickhoff, 2006; Mukherji & Ramachandran, number of different academic fields has 2007) and expect professional development, been accumulated to better understand like knowledge acquisition, through outsourcing. outsourcing (e.g., Barthélemy & Quélin, Academic focus of outsourcing studies 2006; Zach & Singh, 2010). However, more has become more diverse, and scholars have often than not, a combination of these two discussed different aspects of outsourcing motivations seems more common for (see Lacity, Solomon, Yan, & Willcocks, outsourcing motivation. 2011) such as transaction attributes (e.g., Despite the benefits outsourcing brings process complexity, risk, transaction costs, to the organization (Fill & Visser, 2000; etc.), client firms (e.g., client size or age, Kremic et al., 2006), the outsourcing prior firm performance, etc.), relational decision is not a panacea for all governance (communication, relationship organizations as there are always risks quality, etc.), and outsourcing decisions associated with outsourcing. Previous (e.g., make or buy, multi-sourcing, etc.). outsourcing studies identified and discussed Among these, outsourcing motivation and outsourcing risks and the necessary outsourcing risks are two of the most managerial actions to handle them (e.g.,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 14 Aron, Clemons, & Reddi, 2005; Bahli & to the organization as they may have to Rivard, 2003; Earl, 1996; Kremic et al., manage the shrinking situations through a 2006; Willcocks, Lacity, & Kern, 1999). contract amendment, buyout, and so forth. Some of the risks are inherent in that those Eventually, managerial risks incur hidden risks are present in any business, such as a costs meaning that two different types of hidden cost like a search for a service risks are very much affecting each other. provider or contract negotiation with a service provider, a potential loss of Economic View and Strategic control/competence, changing Management View environment, conflict of interest and There are several theoretical relationship issue. Also, outsourcing may perspectives that discuss outsourcing and lead to distrust toward the service provider these theoretical perspectives have been and diminish employee’s commitment proven effective to understand outsourcing. (Bhagwati, Panagariya, & Srinivasan, 2004). According to Cheon, Grover and Teng In addition, other types of risks related to (1995), there are two major theoretical various managerial risks include poor frameworks in outsourcing. The first one is contract details, poor communication, and an economic view based on transaction cost poor monitoring (see Kremic et al., 2006). theory that emerged as a predominating For a risk mitigation strategy, Key theory to explain outsourcing. Economist (1995) suggested a group of experts Ronald Coase introduced the concept of knowledgeable about not only outsourcing transaction cost theory in the 1930s to but its risks should manage a service discuss the cost, including time and effort provider’s performance. In reality, incurred for any economic activity, in outsourcing risks can occur in many making any transaction in the market system different ways. One of the risks as a result (Coase, 1937). Then, it was developed of action by the service provider is called further by Williamson in the 1970s. shrinking (Aron et al., 2005). It is the According to Williamson’s view, any intentional under performance by the organization has two options for its service provider while still claiming a full economic activity; in-house performance or service fee, and it can stem from deliberate market mechanism like outsourcing. Either effort by individuals, option has the cost involved such as untrained/inexperienced staff hiring, and production costs which consists of both under investment in resources by the service direct and indirect cost to produce the good provider to get out of the existing contract or service and other transaction costs or renew the existing contract (Aron et al., needed for economic activity such as 2005; Earl, 1996). Shrinking will cause a operational and contractual costs significant and unexpected financial burden (Williamson, 1975; 1985). The main focus

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 15 of the organization’s decision is controlling financial and physical resources, and some and minimizing transaction costs through are intangible such as human, technological, an external market mechanism if available and reputation. The theory’s underlying rather than internally within the concept is that the organization can exploit organization (Coase, 1937; Williamson, the resources through agreement rather than 1975; 1985). In the modern business world, extending the organizational boundaries it is always important to keep the (Silverman, 1999). With respect to transaction costs minimal, and there have outsourcing, any organizations lacking been many business strategies to achieve it. resources can choose options of purchases, Outsourcing has been proven to be an strategic alliances, or outsourcing to make effective business strategy so much so that up for the resources and capabilities, and many outsourcing studies have been guided that is why this theory can be powerful to by transaction cost theory to explain explain outsourcing (Grant, 1991). Similarly, outsourcing motivation (see Bolumole, any organizations performing below the Frankel, & Naslund, 2007). Therefore, this expected or desired level, outsourcing can framework explains that the organization be a great business strategy to boost the tries to minimize the transaction costs and effectiveness by taking advantage of the transfer the costs to the external third party resources available externally (Teng, Cheon, should the costs arise (Williams, 1975; & Grover, 1995). Whereas these two 1985). theoretical frameworks are different in While traditional outsourcing studies terms of unit of analysis (transaction vs. focused more on economics approaches, resources/capabilities) and criterion other aspects of organizational behavior (minimizing costs vs. creating value), they started to be seriously examined (Silverman, complement each other (Espino-Rodriguez 1999). The strategic management view & Padron-Robaina, 2006). utilizes a resource based theory to discuss how to formulate or implement outsourcing Sport Management Outsourcing Study strategies for successful outsourcing Outsourcing studies in the sport outcomes (Cheon et al., 1995). The theory management field are not as prolific as postulates that an organization is basically a general outsourcing literature, but the field set of resources and capabilities that are has started to receive attention from the treated as strengths (Grant, 1991), and these scholars. The topics include marketing resources and capabilities are important to management (e.g, Burden & Li, 2005; Lee & create competitive advantages for any Walsh, 2011; Walker et al., 2009; Zullo, organization (Cheon et al., 1995). To discuss 2013a), sales management (e.g., Bouchert, the resources, Grant (1992) categorized five 2010; Lee & Pinheiro, 2014; Zulloa, 2013b), different resources; some are tangible like and concession management (Lee & Lee,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 16 2011). Sport management literature shows 2014; Lee & Walsh, 2011), it appears that that performance-driven outsourcing in performance-driven outsourcing is the terms of revenue maximization and the dominating motivation in the context of focus on core competencies are the sport management outsourcing. dominant primary outsourcing motivations. Similarly, sport management studies Burden and Li (2005) also showed the case identified and discussed outsourcing risks. of one Division I athletic department that Not only were inherent outsourcing risks outsources its marketing operations so they discussed previously (Bouchert, 2010; can instead focus on other activities. Burden & Li, 2005; Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee & Recently, Lee and Walsh’s (2011) findings Walsh, 2011), but managerial risks and how from a SWOT and Analytic Hierarchy to mitigate them was also discussed in terms Process (AHP) combined model of communication (Walker et al., 2009) and demonstrated that a selected athletic performance monitoring (Lee & Pinheiro, department in a Division I program 2014; Lee & Lee, 2011). Specifically, Walker employed sport marketing outsourcing et al. (2009) noted some potential downfalls mainly because of performance-driven to outsourced operations such as a outsourcing motivation. They noted that degrading of service, loss of control by the revenue generation through sport marketing client, service provider selection problem, outsourcing is the most important for and ineffective communication, and also outsourcing decision making. Another argued that potentially, these risks may influential outsourcing decision making create an ‘us against them’ dichotomy. factor they identified was the focus on core Overall, outsourcing risks in sport business. By outsourcing, the athletic management studies are very consistent department could and would focus more on with general outsourcing studies, meaning some other activities such as fundraising, that risks existing in outsourcing are quite media relations, and facility operations. In universal. their study, cost control was selected as an Regarding the theoretical frameworks, influential factor, but not as important as strategic view appears to be a dominating revenue generation or a focus on core theoretical perspective due to the fact that a activities. Lee and Lee (2011) also identified majority of previous studies viewed expertise that the service provider can bring outsourcing as a strategic opportunity to is one of the major motivations of deliberately gain resources from the service concession management outsourcing along providers such as financial (Lee & Walsh, with revenue generation and transfer risks. 2011), physical (Lee & Lee, 2011), human So while cost driven outsourcing was also (Burden & Li, 2005; Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee identified as a motivation by some other & Pinheiro, 2014; Lee & Walsh, 2011; studies (Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee & Pinheiro, Walker et al., 2009), and technological

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 17 resources (Lee & Lee, 2011). Thus, dominating in literature instead of amateur outsourcing as a business strategy can be an sports might be possible. One, it is assumed impactful business decision as it can provide that these highly commercialized sports a strategic opportunity for the sport receive mass media attention on a daily organization to obtain competitive basis, so scholars started to look at advantages through resources the service outsourcing as a subject matter in both a provider possesses. Economic view focuses professional or collegiate sport context on cost control for the organization, and (Coakley, 1979). Another possible some studies in sport management explanation might be the fact that amateur outsourcing addressed and/ or investigated sport has not been really operated as a this view (Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee & Pinheiro, business, unlike professional or collegiate 2014; Lee & Walsh, 2011). Although these sport. Outsourcing is viewed as a strategic studies addressed the economic view, all of business decision for an organization (Busi, these studies combined both the economic 2008), and, traditionally, amateur sport has and strategic view to better understand not been operated in such a way because it outsourcing in the context of sport. Thus, probably didn’t need a business strategy for while these two views may have different its operation. Yet, recently, some studies approaches to describe, analyze, and from outside of the United States have understand complex nature of outsourcing discussed amateur sport examples that function, sport management outsourcing outsource physical education or coaching studies do complement each other’s view classes to the third party (Aoyagi et al., point, which is very consistent with general 2014; Whipp et al., 2011; Williams et al., findings of outsourcing studies (Espino- 2011). Williams et al. (2011) found that Rodriguez & Padron-Robaina, 2006). many schools in Australia outsource sport and physical educational work such as Outsourcing Youth Sports Programs outdoor adventure and extra-curricular (YSP) activities. This study found that outsourcing Understanding outsourcing in amateur motivation includes access to sport has been somewhat overlooked. expertise/resources and teacher Therefore, there is not enough academic professional development. That is to say, knowledge regarding why CORC outsource the schools outsource to get access to YSP and how CORC manage outsourcing. specialized skills (i.e., how to run sports Traditionally, many outsourcing cases in programs, etc.) and resources (i.e., facilities, sport focused on professional or information, etc.) which the school can not intercollegiate sport. A couple of access without hiring and working with the explanations why the focus on professional service provider. Whipp et al. (2011) found and collegiate sports outsourcing has been that outsourcing physical education to the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 18 specialized service providers allows teachers case study are all from one state in the to enhance confidence and skills of teaching northeast United Sates. This study examined physical education effectively. As a result, three different CORC that are outsourcing teachers from the schools also receive their YSP. For confidentiality purposes, educational opportunities for their these three CORC will be referred to as professional development by associating Case 1, Case 2, and Case 3. There are two with the service provider. reasons for selecting these particular CORC. The primary outsourcing motivation in Firstly, all CORC have been using an the case of physical education or coaching outsourcing model for years for their YSP appears to be performance-driven operations, which will provide ample outsourcing. This is not inconsistent from information to understand outsourcing other previous sport management motivation, risks, and its mitigation. outsourcing studies that support mainly Secondly, the researcher has relationships performance-driven outsourcing. with the CORC, and it is believed that the relationship would provide quality of data Method through the interview (Eisenhardt, 1989). To understand the contemporary To collect the data, an in-depth phenomenon of outsourcing YSP by the interview, follow up email conversation, and CORC, a multiple case study approach was secondary data (e.g. webpages, brochures, used for this study (Woodside & Wilson, online documents) were used. To solicit rich 2002). Multiple bounded systems (cases) are data to answer the research questions of this explored through research questions of how study, interviews with the manager in charge and why in the context of contemporary of YSPs were conducted. Each interview and real life contexts (Yin, 2003). To be lasted between 30 and 45 mintues. A semi- specific, the interview questions are structured interview with the personnel modified and developed based on Rottman from three CORC highly involved in and Lacity (2008) and Mclvor (2009)’s outsourcing YSP, as well as number of interview questions to understand ‘why’ and other resources, such as documents, ‘how’ questions with respect to outsourcing minutes, and newspaper articles pertaining decision, outsourcing risks, and its to outsourcing YSP, were used for data mitigation strategies. triangulation (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1981). The CORC in this study means a city- owned recreation center managed by a park Case 1 Description and recreation department that promotes Case 1 is a 100,000 square-foot health, health and well-being of the residents fitness, wellness and recreation center that through a wide range of programs for serves the residents of the community. It people of all ages. The CORC used in this offers a variety of sports programs, leagues,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 19 and fitness classes for all ages. The the governing board, which included the recreation center was opened 11 years ago, mayor, city finance director, and legal expert but they have been outsourcing YSP, such of the city. After this presentation, the as basketball, soccer, flag football, tennis, mayor presented the findings to the city and others depending on seasonal demands council. The YSP outsourcing model was using multiple service providers for at least viewed as a viable business option to 5-6 years. Revenue sharing is 75% to the effectively and efficiently run the CORC, service provider and 25% to Case 1. There because the city clearly understood how are only 3 full time employees, including much the CORC was understaffed. Once one administrative assistant, who are all city the service provider was formally selected employees. Furthermore, they have more and contracted, the service provider would than 80 part-time employees who can only do a background check, hire the instructors, work 20 hours maximum per week. As for a advertise YSP, and pay the instructors. selection of the service provider, there is no official request for proposal (RFP) and Case 2 Description bidding process. Historically, a potential Case 2 provided a diverse array of service providers proposed an idea programs that promote fitness, health, informally. For example, ideas such as, “Do enjoyment, and education. Case 2 has you have karate classes?” or “Do you have experienced a huge managerial challenge tennis classes?” were asked. If the Assistant because of an economic slowdown. Five Recreation Facility Manager in Case 1 is years ago, the city stated it would interested, an official meeting will be discontinue financial support to the Case 2, scheduled to discuss the possibility of and it has forced Case 2 to develop a outsourcing internally. Given that Case 1 is different organizational structure and family-oriented in its daily operations and financial plan. While there were no clear examines if there is a fit between the two reasons announced publicly as to why the organizations. The Assistant Recreation city cut the budget for Case 2, it is quite safe Facility Manager said, “They need to to assume that it was to lessen the financial understand what our mission is, what our burden of the city’s general fund. vision is, and how we conduct the Specifically, utility costs increases ranged business…Don’t want to misrepresent who between 50 and 100 percent, and the CORC we are because the (YSP) programs still was in the red for years, which forced the represent us. We are city employees so we city to reconsider its financial support to the represent the city.” Once all three CORC. Besides, a financial investment in employees agreed that certain service the CORC and its YSP is perceived as less providers fit, the Director of the Recreation of a priority by the city. Generally, it is not Center presented the outsourcing plans to surprising to see the local government cut

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 20 spending for the recreation center and its production costs and benefit the programs and transfer its spending to other community by serving its residents.” For local services such as police or fire instance, Case 2 selected the service department (Potkewitz, 2008; Sword, 2009). provider that said “we will also maintain the Therefore, it underwent a huge downsizing, field” for the YSP. Case 2 was able to reducing the number of full time employees significantly reduce production costs. from 20 to only two for the entire department, which forced them to Case 3 Description outsource a lot of their programs including Opened in 2002, Case 3 has an 110,000 YSP. Due to no financial support from the square foot facility that provides city, Case 2 had to generate its own sources recreational spaces. Case 3 CORC, a joint of revenues and, mainly, it heavily relied on project between the city and city schools, program/membership income (90%). The has 6 full time employees. Although they CORC had a record-breaking profit year receive a small financial subsidy from the mainly stemming from increased program/ city, the recreation department is expected membership fees in 2014, sponsorship with to be self-financing so they have to generate a regional hospital and other sources of enough revenue for their operation. Case 3 revenue such as donation, rentals, vending contracted some of its YSP to only two machines, and leases (10%). Since the service providers, both out-of-town sponsorship deal had just expired, it could companies, which is a major difference mean less sponsorship revenue for Case 2. from the previous two cases. Case 3 is Case 2 had a sponsorship with a local working very closely with the Rec Advisory hospital back in 2009 for three years and Board that is responsible for working had another three year sponsorship with collaboratively on the operational and another regional hospital. Case 2 is now managerial matters in accordance with the seeking another three year sponsorship. Operating Agreement between the Case 2 outsources a lot compared to other organization, city, and city schools. Also the CORC as 70% of their programs are Recreation Advisory Committee comprised currently outsourced to multi service of six members (two city representatives, providers. two city school representatives, one Case 2 has two different approaches, president at large, and two members at both formal and informal, for their service large) works closely with the Case 3 as well. provider recruitment and selection. After So many programs including YSP are opening up the RFP locally, about five operated internally. Case 3 has an selected prospective bidders were invited application form available anytime for the for presentations. Case 2 selected the prospective service providers. If there is a service provider that could “minimize the need for certain YSP, and no in-house

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 21 option is available, the employees make a revenue-generating programs (e.g. summer selection of who will run a specific YSP camps). Instead, they handle those based on a number of decision making programs internally to keep the revenue, yet criteria. A revenue sharing model, the they outsource relatively unimportant YSPs. service provider’s previous experience, the Although outsourcing is not a main feeling of trustworthiness toward the business model for YSP for Case 3, still potential service provider are regularly used Case 3 outsources some YSP because of the decision making criteria. expertise that the service provider can bring which Case 3 does not have, and also cost Results reduction. Outsourcing Motivation and Risk Outsourcing motivation between Case 1 revealed that the major general business and sport organizations are motivation for outsourcing YSP was to not inconsistent in that mainly cost driven bring expertise and, at the same time, cost outsourcing and performance driven minimization. A lack of full time employees outsourcing are the main motivation. forced them to heavily rely on external According to the interviewees, outsourcing manpower. Such ideas were represented motivation is focused on financial when it was said, “the city pretty much considerations. According to previous understands the way our office works…We outsourcing studies, many small and can’t really offer any additional programing medium-sized companies in America with our own staff.” Also the experienced outsource their operations partly because of service providers are in charge of hiring the the cost saving (Coward, 2003), and, instructors for each program and running consistently, this case study supports that the YSP. In doing so, Case 1 does not have small organizations in sport also outsource to spend its time and resources on hiring for a cost saving reason. As Table 1 shows, full time city employees and worrying about the number of the full time city employees their pensions and health plans. Both cost- is extremely small to serve the city, so the driven and performance-driven outsourcing size of the CORCs forced them to control motivation were identified in the Case 1 the cost and take advantage of the resource situation. In Case 2, the main outsourcing available outside of the organization. drive is also the combination of two. By Theoretically, this result can be hiring part-timer employees instead of full- understood from both an economic view time employees and by hiring the external (transaction cost theory) and strategic service providers that can bring the management view (resource based theory), expertise in the area of YSP, they can “take and it appears that there is no one pressure off by outsourcing.” The interview dominating theoretical framework to showed that Case 2 does not outsource

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 22 describe outsourcing motivation; rather, it is outsourcing by CORC is explained by the integrated with more than one theory. combination of both economic and strategic To be specific, all three cases expect management view; as opposed to one single both production cost and transaction cost dominating view point. As for transaction reduction by exploiting mainly human cost theory, this study found cost control is resources from the service providers the primary motivation for CORC externally available in the market place outsourcing YSP. Specifically, by through the contracts. collaborating with the service provider Case 1 shared a couple of different specialized in YSP, CORC can minimize the previous situations where outsourcing risks cost of YSP operations. Dyer and Singh of loss of control occurred, but noted that (1998) noted that the use of combined these are quite minor risks for them as it did resources across organizations would create happen very rarely. Case 1 said that “we competitive advantages. To create have problem solving and decision making competitive advantages, CORC employ power”. Case 2 had not experienced outsourcing strategy for YSP operations by outsourcing risks. Case 2 said, “they follow purchasing service provider’s expertise in our rules” and added that they have built cost effective way. Accordingly, it shows and maintained a great relationship with the how two theoretical views are multiple service providers based on mutual interconnected with each other. respect and trust. This helped them to avoid As for outsourcing risks, unlike any potential outsourcing risks. Case 3 also previous sport management outsourcing did not really face any outsourcing risks as studies, this study does not show a huge they created and maintained very good concern of outsourcing risks. The working relationships with the service interviews showed that outsourcing risks, providers. Also Case 3 added that their such as lack of communication, conflict of contract details helped them avoid getting interest, or loss of control, were quite involved with any outsourcing risks. minimal to be a serious managerial concern. Overall, all three cases did not experience Internally, CORC has outsourcing risk any major outsourcing risks, which is a very mitigation plan in place as a form of a interesting result in that it is different from detailed contract. Externally, the size of two previous sport management outsourcing organizations (CORC and service provider) studies that identified a set of outsourcing being so small help them to manage any risks (Bouchert, 2010; Burden & Li, 2005; potential risks through effective Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee & Pinheiro, 2014; Lee communication and trust developed for & Walsh, 2011; Walker et al., 2009). years through mutual respect between two. To summarize, the result of this study showed that the motivation of YSP

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 23 Discussion al., 1999). Knowledge about hidden costs is All the CORC in this study are facing practically important in that the financial challenges as the tax support from organization should not be misguided about the city is decreasing. More than likely this the benefits of outsourcing as there might trend, due to an economic slowdown, be hidden costs involved for successful affected many CORC throughout the outsourcing and, moreover, knowledge country. Like Case 3 expressed during the about hidden costs allowed the organization interview, the fact that a service oriented to develop an outsourcing risks mitigation nonprofit community organization is mechanism. “running a (CORC) business and making One effective outsourcing mechanism money to run the program (YSP)” has that can prevent outsourcing risks from become a major financial and managerial occurring is a dual sourcing strategy (Bahli challenge. This challenging situation forces & Rivard, 2003; Kern, Wilcocks, & Heck, the CORC to create ways to better manage 2002). Dual sourcing is one of the risk their programs including YSP, and the use mitigation mechanisms through a multi- of outsourcing has become a widespread vendor strategy. The multi-vendors strategy strategy. creates a situation where there is a As for outsourcing risks, this case study competitive environment between the found a mixed result. Case 1 showed a low service providers, and it motivates the level of concern over such risks based on service providers to outperform each other. previous incidents whereas Case 2 and 3 did While it may appear these cases use the dual not experience such issues. However, all sourcing strategies with multiple service three cases were aware of the importance of providers, none of the people interviewed outsourcing risks, so working with the addressed or implied a dual sourcing service providers to create mutual benefits is strategy as an outsourcing mitigation taken seriously (Narasimhan & Das, 2001). mechanism. This implies that the CORC It has to be noted that few outsourcing risks had a dual sourcing model for cost examples (e.g., loss of control, conflict of minimization by looking for better fits to interest, etc.) were presented during the find the service providers. Interestingly, interview. Yet, it was not clear from their given no reported serious concern over answers whether or not they were aware of potential outsourcing risks, it appears to be other types of outsourcing risks like hidden working because it is assumed that the or unexpected costs associated with service providers are motivated to perform outsourcing such as contract changes, well and earn repeated service contracts monitoring, bidding process, and others with the CORC. Given that many service (Aron et al., 2005; Bahli & Rivard, 2003; providers for this case study come from Earl, 1996; Kremic et al., 2006; Willcocks et small local organizations, losing the client

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 24 will hurt their business significantly so they outsourcing details, is covered. Contract always have a performance level they have details are important for CORC in that it to satisfy. Previous outsourcing studies can act as a quality control mechanism such found that the size of the service provider as performance monitoring and problem does not affect the performance (Lacity et solving procedures. Contract details are vital al., 2011; Nadkarni & Herrmann, 2010). for any potential disputes or litigation This study supports that notion because because the contract details act as a even though the service providers are managerial guideline for both parties. understaffed, CORC are still very satisfied Overall, as Table 2 shows, all cases reported with the performance by the service that they are highly satisfied with their providers. So the results of this study outsourcing mitigation mechanism. support previous studies about the relationship between the size of the service Comparisons to Previous Sport provider and its performance. While it may Management Outsourcing Research work as a mitigation mechanism, it could Findings of this multiple case study can work better if the CORC know how to be compared with the findings from strategically utilize the benefits of the dual previous outsourcing studies in sport sourcing strategy. Such benefits could management. Since previous sport include how to create friendly competition management outsourcing research focused among the service providers or how to on only highly commercialized professional promote collaborative working relationships or intercollegiate sport, the investigation of with all stakeholders involved in amateur sport focusing on YSP provided by outsourcing. the CORC and its outsourcing strategies will Another potential mitigation plan that provide better understanding about seems to be working very well is the outsourcing. contract details. Previous studies found that There are several outsourcing there is a positive relationship between motivations identified in previous sport outsourcing contract details and outsourcing management outsourcing research: revenue success (Niranjan, Saxena, Bharadwaj, 2007; generation, quality improvement, cost Wullenweber, Beimborn, Weitzel, & Konig, reduction, access to the expertise, a focus 2008). Although all of the cases are on core activities, risk mitigation/sharing, extremely understaffed, they present great mimic behavior and, many times, a examples of taking care of contract details combination of these factors (e.g., Burden which is possible because they are working & Li, 2005; 2009; Lee & Walsh, 2011). for the city. According to the interviews, it Many cases, however, of professional or seems that contract completeness, such as intercollegiate sport seek primarily revenue clauses that address and clarify specificity of maximization or generation through

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 25 outsourcing; accordingly, the result of this addressed. Yet it appears that it is not a study is somewhat different in that revenue major managerial or financial issue for the generation is not the primary outsourcing cases, which is different from previous sport motivation. All cases briefly discussed the management outsourcing studies. One assignment of generating revenue for possible answer is that typically the CORC business, but it is not perceived as a high prefer to hire either local or regional service pressure for the cases. Case 3 reported that, providers with which they have built “I am not sure outsourcing will bring more relationships over the years. This makes revenues to us”, which was implied by the both parties handle the risks in a very other cases. So, it is quite safe to argue that effective and efficient way before it amateur sport organizations providing YSP becomes a serious issue. Another answer are still not a highly business-oriented sport might be the fact that, as addressed earlier, entity in our society. Similarly, Case 2 these service providers are fairly small reported that to be self-supporting without organizations, so it is safe to assume that a tax levy or appropriations from the they want to avoid any potential issues by general fund is important but not revenue maintaining good business and professional generating. Case 2 ended last fiscal year with relationships with the CORC. It might be an a record-breaking profit but it will fund ideal situation for all the cases as they can several repairs and improvements within the avoid outsourcing risks such as relational CORC. Therefore, although there is an governance, financial incongruence, and indication of the need to make money in conflict of interest with the service order to be a self-financing organization, it providers. appears that the operation of the YSP Unlike previous sport management through the CORC is based on fulfilling its outsourcing studies that focus on a mission by serving the city residents, rather primarily strategic view to address revenue than revenue maximization or generation to generation, improved quality, or focus on which professional or intercollegiate sports other activities through outsourcing, this are dedicated. case study can be understood better through While previous sport management the combination of both an economic and outsourcing studies addressed outsourcing strategic management view as opposed to risks (Bouchert, 2010; Burden & Li, 2005; one dominating viewpoint. All cases in this Lee & Lee, 2011; Lee & Pinheiro, 2014; Lee study addressed the importance of & Walsh, 2011; Walker et al., 2009), all three minimizing production and transaction cases reported no major outsourcing risks. costs (economic view) as well as creating It is not clear if the cases did not really resources or developing capabilities experience outsourcing risks or that risks (strategic management view). In other were so minimal that they were not words, it may be insufficient or

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 26 inappropriate to have only one view to fully creating or increasing unexpected or hidden grasp the nature of outsourcing in the costs (Gainey & Klass, 2003; Sabherwal, amateur sport context. 1999). Also, without actual monitoring by the CORC, outsourcing risks, such as Practical Implications shrinking, can be avoided in many cases Based on the results of this study, there because trust-based relationships will act as are several practical implications for the an outsourcing risk mitigation mechanism. manager from the CORC in terms of how Similar to trust building, effective to mitigate risks. If CORC decide to communication is very crucial. outsource, the manager should be Communication has been such an important knowledgeable about and familiar with concept for successful outsourcing as noted outsourcing, outsourcing relationships, and by previous outsourcing literature (e.g., most importantly, risks involved to better Chen & Paulraj, 2004; Gainey & Klaas, understand overall outsourcing 2003; Sen & Shiel, 2006). Sen and Shiel implementation. Trust between service (2006) addressed the importance of provider and client as a key influential factor communication between the leaders from for successful outsourcing, has been proven both the service provider and client to in previous research (Gainey & Klass, 2003; better understand each other. Chen and Oza, Hall, Rainer, & Grey, 2006; Sabherwal, Paulraj (2004) noted the importance of not 1999). Knowledge as well as efforts to only the intra-organizational communication create and promote good trust-based but also inter-organizational communication relationships between employees, full or because all parties involved in outsourcing part-timers, from the CORCs and service should communicate effectively and providers will serve as a foundation of efficiently. Walker et al. (2009) specifically successful outsourcing for the CORCs. To investigated a communication-commitment be specific, more formal collaborative relationship with regards to sport marketing projects between two organizations and outsourcing within the athletic departments further informal relationships, such as golf in the United States. They found that while outings or retreats for both organizations, sport marketing employees perceive sport will create more trust building marketing outsourcing as critical, they also opportunities. In fact, this practical experienced dissatisfaction with the implication is relatively easier to implement frequency, level, and direction of as both the CORC and service providers are communication, which could potentially quite small in terms of staff. As a result, the hurt the business partnership between the CORC might be able to reduce costs for organizations involved in outsourcing monitoring service provider performance (Burden & Li, 2002; Walker et al., 2009). which eventually will minimize the risks of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 27 So as a manager of the CORC, it is quite create the best outcomes out of a dual important to have good communication sourcing strategy. For instance, the CORC skills with the multiple stakeholders. Unlike may employ dual sourcing strategy for YSP many service providers working for the for soccer. Soccer programs for very young athletic departments, all the service players may go to one service provider that providers for this study are very small in specializes in youth skill development, and terms of staff, and it makes the managers the program for older players goes to from the CORC communicate more another service provider that may have effectively and efficiently as they may have more expertise in that age level with more less frequencies, levels, and directions to go advanced skills development. through for communication. Practically, Lastly, while outsourcing YSP is trust and communication will be important perceived satisfactorily by the CORC from the economic view because these two according to the interviews, there have been will significantly reduce transaction costs by no comments about how the service the CORC like service provider search cost, provider’s performance is measured for service provider selection cost, bargaining internal review. It seems, however, that the cost, enforcement cost, and cost of CORC simply assume outsourcing is coordinating work with the service provider working. Having formally structured (Williamson 1975; 1980). performance measure metrics will be helpful Another recommended way of for an outsourcing failure prevention monitoring is better management of dual purpose. sourcing (Bahli & Rivard, 2003). In spite of the benefits of the dual sourcing strategy Limitations and Future Research from the CORC standpoint, it may be Like other studies, this one has its understood somewhat differently by the limitations. Essentially, this study focused service providers. The service providers may on youth sport to understand amateur sport think their business is always in danger of and its use of outsourcing by centering on losing the client, and may have concerns CORC. The results of this study may be about how their performance is perceived different from other amateur sport, like that by the CORC. A multiple service providers of high school or other types of community structure may create a competitive based adult sports leagues. Future research relationship between them. Therefore, the on such other types of amateur sport could CORC may need to inform and discuss the enhance the understanding of outsourcing nature of dual sourcing with the service in amateur sport. In addition, the three providers so that no service providers CORC used in this study are all from the misunderstand the true mission of the dual same northeastern state, so further sourcing strategy. Hence, the CORC can examination of CORC from different states

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 28 with different sizes of population, levels of household income, and a city budget could help to significantly contribute to the body of literature by providing a more comprehensive study of current outsourcing in amateur sport.

Conclusion This case study examined YSP and the contemporary business nature of amateur sport by focusing on outsourcing as a business strategy. Whereas this case study is exploratory, its intent is to create academic attention and promote further examination from a field that has been receiving little to no academic attention. This study provided academic and practical implications for sport managers from the CORC who should be knowledgeable about contemporary phenomenon and future trend as to outsourcing. Certainly outsourcing in amateur sport as a serious academic area of study needs to be researched further, and this study provided initial steps for that journey. ---

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Tables Table 1

City Profile Cases Year 2014 Estimated Population Percentage Median Household Income Population Change (Year 2010 – (Year 2009-2013) Year 2014) Case 1 17,527 -0.3% $54,225 Case 2 34,604 +1.0% $63,924 Case 3 26,523 -0.5% $53,586 Source: United States Census Bureau.

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Table 2

City Profile Cases Outsourcing Risk Outsourcing Risk Outsourcing Mitigation Mitigation Plans Satisfaction Case 1 Low Monitoring, High Communication, Contract Details

Case 2 Extremely Low Monitoring, High Communication

Case 3 Extremely Low Monitoring, High Communication

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 36

Table 3

Example of Case 1 YSP Outsourcing Revenue FY2014 FY2013 FY2012 FY2011 Revenue Revenue Revenue Revenue (% of (% of (% of (% of Revenue) Revenue) Revenue) Revenue) YSP $14,270 $17,344 $17,160 $16,836 Outsourcing (1.07%) (1.19%) (1.19%) (1.17%)

YSP In-House $33,985 $36,924 $26,082 $41,330 (2.54%) (2.53%) (1.81%) (2.88%)

Total $50,369 $56,281 $45,254 $60,177 (3.61%) (3.71%) (3.00%) (4.05%)

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 37

Figures

Figure 1

Economic and Strategic Management View in Amateur Sport Outsourcing

Economic View Strategic Management View

Outsourcing Transaction Motivation Resource Cost Theory in Amateur Based Theory Sport

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Lee, 2016 38

Social Geographies at Play: Mapping the Spatial Politics of Community-Based Youth Sport Participation

Amy Chan Hyung Kim1 Christopher Coutts1 Joshua I. Newman1 Simon Brandon-Lai1 Minjung Kim2 1Florida State University 2East Stroudsburg University

Organized youth sports programs (YSP) provide opportunities for participation in physical activity, and represent an important part of the broader public health agenda in the United States. YSP not only provide physiological health benefits through active participation, but also promote social relationships within communities. In this study, we (1) investigated participants’ travel to access YSP located in neighborhoods historically delineated by an over/under-representation of socio-economic and/or racial homogeneity; and (2) examined the neighborhood demographics for those YSP participants who traveled the most/least to participate. To do this, we analyzed five years of demographic and geographic information system (GIS) visualization data from participants in a publically-provisioned youth sport league network. We found significant differences between the travel distances of participants in different sports, and between the travel distances of participants from neighborhoods with different racial and/or socio-economic composition. This research expands understanding of the potential segregation effects of community-based YSP for various stakeholder groups.

n sport settings, community-based public health and physical activity among youth sport programming—such as participating children (e.g., Small, 2002) and I organized baseball, football, basketball, promote social relationships among volleyball, and soccer—has been posited as community members (e.g., Houlihan & an effective “intervention” to enhance Green, 2008). According to the National

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 39 Council of Youth Sports (NCYS) roughly around the world) have endeavored to build 60 million youth are currently registered to sport-specific programming and participate in organized youth sport infrastructure (community centers, parks, programs across the United States (NCYS, field, etc.) to accommodate the needs of a 2015). The expansion of publicly given population (city, county, region, state) provisioned forms of structured, extra- by reducing barriers to access (Downward curricular (non-school sanctioned) physical & Rasciute, 2010; Wicker, Hallmann, & activity has been a defining feature of the Breuer, 2013; Xiong, 2007). This has broader national public health agenda since resulted in what has become a popular the latter part of the 19th Century (Eitzen & “community-based” approach to delivering Sage, 2009). Local parks and recreation structured sport programming (namely departments, community centers, non- youth sport activities); an approach governmental organizations, and grassroots premised on the idea that to optimize public sport programs have for over a century sport provision in a given area, been charged with maximizing access to, administrators should strategically locate and participation in, these non-elite forms sport facilities and activities in locations that of amateur athletics. would present the fewest proximity (to With concern for maximizing the homes, schools, neighborhoods) barriers benefits of participating in youth sport and engender the greatest sense of programs (YSP), scholars from fields such participatory stakeholdership (Strong, as education, public health, epidemiology, Malina, Blimkie, Daniels, Dishman, Gutin, sociology, and sport management have for & Rowland, 2005). decades examined the positive effects of Research has illustrated that in many community-level sport initiatives and contexts, a community-based approach to programs (e.g., Dishman, Heath, & Lee, youth sport programming has led to both 2013; Finch & Donaldson, 2010; Hill, 1965; positive health outcomes and increased Maxwell & Taylor, 2010; Schulenkorf & social cohesion (Eime & Payne, 2009; Roux, Edwards, 2012) and correlates of Pratt, Tengs, Yore, Yanagawa, van Den Bos, participating in YSP and positive health Rutt, Brownson, Powell, Heath, Kohl III, outcomes (e.g., Biddle, Mutrie, & Gorely, Teutsch, Cawley, Lee, West, & Buchner, 2015; Kahn, Thompson, Blair, Sallis, 2008). Practitioners have developed new Powell, Bull, & Baumann, 2012; Mandic, programs—often at new facilities—that Bengoechea, Stevens, de la Barra, & resulted in increased participation and Skidmore, 2012; van der Horst, Paw, Twisk, enhanced geospatially-defined communities & Van Mechelen, 2007). Likewise, public (i.e. intra-neighborhood communities). New policymakers, administrators, and urban and sport programs have galvanized inter- regional planners across the country (and neighborhood communities, bringing

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 40 together kids from varying socio-economic across these differential and potentially backgrounds and neighborhoods to forge a competing definitional configurations is key. new sport-specific community. This has led In a physical sense, organized youth to the emergence and strengthening of sport—particularly when in a team spatially-defined (often demographically setting—brings people together. Parents and homogenous) communities through sport youth in YSP congregate to share in (i.e. Baltimore’s Roland Park lacrosse cooperative and competitive social bonding community). In addition, youth sport as activities. If the sport community is being acted as a catalyst for the constitution of built around an impetus to strengthen the new inter-neighborhood sport-based demographically- and socially-bounded communities (i.e. the Shelby County youth neighborhood, then organized sport could soccer leagues). serve as an important platform for This community-based approach, both strengthening ties amongst geographically in scholarship and in practice, brings into and socio-economically associated families. question premises and broad conceptions of This presents both potentially positive (e.g., “community.” In some instances, stronger sense of community, better in- “community” refers to citizens or members group relations, ease of access and thus of a particular geo-spatial area (i.e. residents fewer geo-spatial barriers, etc.) and negative within a neighborhood, a town or city, or a (e.g., homophily effects, re-segregation) county or region). In other instances, outcomes. By contrast, sport communities “community” refers to a group bound built around an impetus to bring together together by a shared ethnic, national, or stakeholders from across socio- cultural heritage and practices (i.e. “the demographic or geographic neighborhoods African-American Community,” “the creates a different series of outcomes— Korean diaspora,” or “the Jewish increased inter-neighborhood socialization, community”). Further still, the term diversification of unit (team) socio- “community” is sometimes used in local demographic plurality, more geo-spatial sport contexts to refer to established social barriers, and a loosening of neighborhood networks formed around specific sport ties. organizations or subcultures (i.e. “the North In this study, we explore two simple suburbs soccer community,” “the skating questions: first, who comes together in the community,” etc.). This unfixed meaning is community-based youth sport environment, more than a matter simple linguistic and, second, where do they come from? ambiguity. Understanding how certain Correlates of physical activity have tended sports activities, in particular geo-spatial to be categorized into six essential arrangements, are positioned to produce or categories (i.e., socio-demographic strengthen “community” ties within and correlates, biological correlates,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 41 psychological correlates, behavioral visualization data extracted from five years correlates, socio-cultural correlates, and of youth sport participation in a publically- environmental correlates) (see Biddle et al., provisioned youth sport league network of a 2015, for detailed information). However, mid-sized city in the Southeastern United there is a paucity of research devoted to States. understanding the geographic structuration This research is critical to expanding our and political spatialization of community- understanding of the segregation effects based youth sport. That is, how the spatial community-based YSP might create for environment structures and potentially participating youth, their parents/guardians, influences correlative outcomes. To address and the neighborhoods in which they reside. this gap, we employ geographic information Given a majority of popular sports such as system (GIS) techniques to examine the basketball, baseball, soccer, softball, relationship between the type of program or volleyball, and football are provided within activity and socio-demographic most municipality or county networks neighborhood structuration (of both facility (Dixon & Bruening, 2014), it is important to location and the participating family) by consider the extent to which the location of tracking specified spatial locations (Seifried, YSP practices and games might not only 2011). In this study, we follow Biddle et al.’s present barriers for those with limited (2015) approach by mapping the socio- means of transportation (Atkins, Sallis, demographic correlates (e.g., race, age, Saelens, Cain, & Black, 2005; Owen, Leslie, gender, socio-economic status) and Salmon, & Fotheringham, 2000; Owen, geographic correlates (e.g., facility and Humpel, Leslie, Bauman, & Sallis, 2004, program access) of YSP participation. To Wicker et al., 2013), but also re-entrench or this end, we render a network-wide (within break down established patterns of socio- a county-wide sport league system economic and racial segregation. Although administered by a central governing body) environmental factors such as socio- analysis that maps out: 1) do participants demographic characteristics and travel travel outside of their neighborhood to distance have been considered significant access certain youth sport programs located factors within physical activity literature in neighborhoods historically delineated by (Davison & Lawson, 2006; Gordon-Larsen, an over- or under-representation of socio- Nelson, Page, & Popkin, 2006), few studies economic and/or racial diversity (and are have explored the associations of the facility there differences based on sport-type?), and location and team sport’s broader 2) what are the neighborhood demographics community-building capacities (Balish, for those YSP participant who travel the McLaren, Rainham, & Blanchard, 2014). most or least to play youth sports? To do Ultimately, the present study provides this, we provide an analysis of GIS critical insights for sport administrators to

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 42 make more informed decisions about site motivation and concentration (Lowe location, programming, and access points to Vandell, Shernoff, Pierce, Bolt, Dadisman, places of play. This can be beneficial in & Brown, 2005), 5) decreased likelihood of developing socially and geographically risky behavior such as smoking (Audrain- heterogeneous (and heterogenizing) McGovern, Rodriquez, Wileyto, Schmitz, & practices for encouraging participation in Shields, 2006), and 6) decreased depression YSPs. and suicidal behavior (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Sabo, Miller, Melnick, Farrell, & Review of Literature Barnes, 2005). While definitions of youth Youth Sport Participation: Outcomes sport participation and physical activity and Correlates participation are different, previous studies Sport is an effective and powerful tool note that correlates of both sport and to promote health and well-being for youth physical activity are categorized into similar (Holt, 2008). Despite potential negative schema among youth (Balish et al., 2014; outcomes such as injuries (Khan et al., Dollman & Lewis, 2010; Michaud, Jeannin, 2012) or hazing (Crow & Macintosh, 2009; & Suris, 2006). Yet compared to reviews of Edelman, 2004; Rosner & Crow, 2002), physical activity, only a handful of studies most scholars agree that the positive have reviewed the role of youth sport outcomes surpass these negative effects, and participation. The present study focuses have specifically highlighted the specifically on socio-demographic correlates effectiveness of promoting physical activity and environmental correlates (Sallis, (Alfano, Kleges, Murray, Beech, & Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000). McClananhan, 2002; Barber, Eccles, & A series of studies have identified age Stone, 2001; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, and gender as the most important 2003; Larson, 2000; Mahoney, Larson, & correlates of physical activity participation Eccles, 2005; Peretti-Watel et al., 2003; (e.g., Alfano et al., 2002; Audrain-BcGovern Perkins, Jacobs, Barber, & Eccles, 2004). In et al., 2006; Balish et al., 2014). To be addition, previous research indicates specific, males have reported more physical positive outcomes can also include: 1) activity than females, while children have positive youth development (Barber et al., reported more physical activity than 2001; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; adolescents (Biddle et al., 2015). In addition, Larson, 2000; Mahoney et al., 2005; Peretti- studies on ethnicity have disclosed that Watel et al., 2003), 2) learning skills to White individuals have more physical develop identity and emotion (Hansen, activity than other groups. Such results Larson, & Dworkin, 2003), 3) increased varied depending on geographic location academic achievement (Marsh & Kleitman, (i.e., different countries, different regions 2003), 4) increased levels of intrinsic within one country) (Biddle et al., 2015).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 43 According to Stalsberg and Pedersen (2010), 1993; Yang, Telama, & Laakso, 1996). The 37 out of 60 studies involving same tendencies have been observed among socioeconomic status (SES) confirmed a youth sport participants. For children in positive relationship between SES and socially- and economically disadvantaged physical activity, whereas 20 found no neighborhoods, three patterns have been significant relationship, and only 6 detected identified: 1) children from neighborhoods a negative relationship. In addition, with high SES profiles are more likely to be significant environmental correlates include involved in sports, 2) children from lower travel distance/facility access (Ferreira et al., SES groupings are more inclined to engage 2007; Sallis et al., 2000), outdoor activity in contact sports such as football, and 3) (Hinkley, Crawford, Salmon, Okely, & children from socially- and economically Hesketh, 2008), and crime rate (Davison & disadvantaged neighborhoods tend to Lawson, 2006). The present study participate in sports that demand little investigates two vital correlates ,socio- equipment or that are publicly funded demographic and environmental, to study programs (The Aspen Institute, 2015). YSP participation. In the present study we analyzed the distance parents with varied socio- A Cultural Geography of Play: Socio- demographic profiles (i.e., race, income) Demographic Characteristics, Sport travel to access YSP. We also examined the Types, and Travel Distances in YSP extent that sport types (e.g., volleyball, Parents play a critical role in soccer, football, etc.) mediate willingness to determining what kind of sports their travel farther and/or to play in children participate in and what resources neighborhoods with similar or different SES they employ to access those activities (Welk, profiles. On the surface, this inter- Wood, & Morss, 2003). To be specific, relationship between geographic (travel, studies have confirmed that these decisions neighborhoods), socio-demographic (race, can be affected by SES (Gottlieb & Chen, income), and sport participation factors 1985; Sallis, Alcaraz, McKenzie, Hovell, might not seem of critical concern to the Kolody, & Nader, 1992; Sallis, Nader, political economy of sport and physical Broyles, Berry, Elder, McKenzie, & Nelson, activity. However, as we will make clear in 1993; Yang, Telama, & Laakso, 1996) and what follows, it is those inter-relationships race (Bungum & Vincent, 1997; Garcia, between sporting bodies and space—and Broda, Frenn, Coviak, Pender, & Ronis, the distribution and movement of 1995). Specifically, previous research populations therein—that constitute the suggests SES has a positive relationship paradoxical inter- and intra-neighborhood with the rate of sport participation (Gottlieb capacity for sport-based community- & Chen, 1985; Sallis et al., 1992; Sallis et al., building. Indeed, the social and physical

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 44 health outcomes of community-based youth some areas and underrepresented in sport participation are largely contingent on others, varying on the characteristic of the location where the activity takes place, evenness. They may be distributed so that the production function the sport-specific their exposure to majority members is human movement has played and continues limited by virtue of rarely sharing a to play in segregating fields of social neighborhood with them. They may be interactivity, and the extent to which social spatially concentrated within a very small participants locate themselves in and area, occupying less physical space than amongst spatially- or socially-anchored majority members. They may be members of the broader population. As spatially centralized, congregating around such, we argue that community-based sport the urban core, and occupying a more operates at the confluence of what W. E. B. central location than the majority. DuBois would have referred to as two Finally, areas of minority settlement traditionally “segregationalizing” political- may be tightly clustered to form one large geographic institutions: the neighborhood contiguous enclave, or be scattered and sport. widely around the urban area. (Massey & Denton, 1988a, p. 283) Residential Segregation At its core, their analysis points to the The population health and cultural extent to which social (discrimination, geography scholar Douglas Massey socialization, etc.) and political (public describes residential segregation as “the policy, housing, urban and regional degree to which two or more groups live planning, etc.) practices lead to the separately from one another, in different reproduction of racial and socio-economic parts of the urban environment” (Massey & groupings across the urban terrain. They Denton, 1988a, p, 282). In a series of widely also illustrate the extent to which public cited studies of the urban United States in infrastructural and institutional works often the 1980s, Massey and his colleagues contribute to further clustering where (Denton & Massey, 1988; Massey, 1985; people live, who has access to public Massey & Denton, 1988a; 1988b) explicate facilities, where groups interact, and how the historical and political determinants of they valorize the benefits of public works. inter-neighborhood segregation practices. For our purposes, the concept of They point to a series of associations that residential segregation provides a useful concurrently contribute to reproducing hermeneutic device for exploring the extent segregated neighborhood and housing to which publicly provided sport—when practices: administered at numerous and scattered Minority members may be distributed sites across the city geography—can serve so that they are overrepresented in to reconstitute (based on location, access, or

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 45 activities undertaken on site) or eliminate Notably, greater disparities continue to longstanding residential segregation persist in sports that require special access practices. Indeed, given that youth sports to private clubs or facilities such as golf, tend to bring people together to interact in a tennis, and skiing (Eitzen & Sage, 2009). group environment (as member of the team, Similarly, patterns of racial segregation as one of many spectators) and at a central continue to exist in sport in the United location, who goes where, and interacts with States. African-Americans have been found whom, could hold potential for integrating to participate disproportionately in some members of disparate neighborhoods sports due to the ‘sports opportunity through practices of common interest. structure’ (Frey & Eitzen, 1991). When it Conversely, if the membership of a given comes to sport types, African-Americans team or league at a specific site is are generally under-represented in sports considerably over-represented by that demand facilities and coaching often participants from the same racially- or held in expensive and exclusive clubs (Frey socially-homogenous neighborhood—at a & Eitzen, 1991). As such, scholars have location within that neighborhood—it could surmised that while sport is no longer serve the double function of reinforcing formally segregated by race-based segregative practices (negative) and participation limitations, many sport leagues strengthening community ties (positive). and teams in various cities continue to act as informal segregating institutions. As Glover Sport Segregation (2007) explicates, racism can exist even In the United States, as elsewhere, wide within YSPs that institute “color-blind” disparities and inequalities in economic policies . Indeed, sports such as soccer and resources among different social classes baseball tend to be more popular in most have influenced both access to and social cities over-represented by higher SES and discrimination within sport participation. White participants (relative to the city’s The research has consistently shown that overall demographic profile), and sports both adults and youth from high-income, such as football and basketball continue to high-education, and high-status be over-represented by low SES and occupational groups engage in greater rates minority racial groups (Glover, 2007). and levels of sport participation. A survey Figure 1 serves as a loose framework for across all types of individual and team sport explaining the segregating effects of home activities (e.g., football, basketball, baseball, neighborhood location (neighborhood volleyball, soccer, softball, golf, tennis, demographics, starting point for travel swimming, sailing) reveals strong patterns of distance to access sport facilities, etc.) on association between income and rates of the community-building capacities and sport participation (Eitzen & Sage, 2009). outcomes of YSP. In this study, we utilized

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 46 demographic data and geospatial coding to district or zone based on home address). create statistical and visualization based The information of 6,021 households was analysis of these complex inter- collected for a cross-platform GIS and sport relationships. We then illustrate the extent typology analysis. Demographic data were to which—within the designated acquired at the census block group level community-based youth sport network— using the 2011 American Community specific configurations of sport type and Survey 5-year average. Race, median facility location: 1) bring together income, and employment status data participants from close proximities (while describing the 235 census block groups in others draw in participants from across the which the subjects lived were attributed to city) and 2) attract participants from each observation. The 2011 GIS census neighborhoods with varied SES and racial block group TIGER/Line® shapefiles were profiles. retrieved from the US Census Bureau.

Methods Data Analysis Data Collection The research team employed ArcGIS The researchers retrieved archival data v10.1 to geo-code the observations in order of registration information between 2010 to determine the distances children travelled and 2014 from the Parks, Recreation, and to a facility to participate in their YSP. The Neighborhood Affairs Department of a road network reference dataset was the mid-sized (metro population between Florida Department of Transportation Base 250,000 and 500,000) city in the Map, an extremely robust dataset that is Southeastern United States. Each year, this updated quarterly. The address locator was municipality’s Parks, Recreation, and built within the ArcGIS desktop application. Neighborhood Affairs Department A total of 272 observations were discarded administers eight different types of sport before the geocoding procedure due to programs (i.e., tackle football, flag football, nonresponse or if they provided a P.O. Box volleyball, cheerleading, soccer, basketball, as an address. This left a total of 5,749 baseball/t-ball, and softball) across three observations. The match rate for geocoding seasons (i.e., fall, winter, spring). Worth was exceptional, varying by sport within the noting here, all participating families are free range of 97.3% and 100% at an average of to choose which facility to practice and play 98.41%. 90 observations could not be home matches/games. As such, there is no geocoded and were dropped, and a further artificial administrative mechanism that seven were lost due to them being mediates the relationship between home incorrectly geo-located. This left a total of location and choice of sport facility location 5,652 observations for the analysis. The (i.e. they do not have to play in a certain municipality’s 19 sport and recreation

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 47 facilities were also geocoded using the same The results of the statistic are z-score values reference dataset and address locator. The that are interpreted as standard deviations. 5,652 children were then paired with the Values over 1.96 or under -1.96 are facility at which they participate in YSP. The statistically significant at the p<0.05 level. distance between a child’s home and facility Values over 2.58 or below -2.58 are was calculated using a road network statistically significant at the p<0.01 level. distance. This is considered an This statistic provides a quantitative improvement over an as-the-crow-flies assessment to illuminate those parts of the (Euclidian) distance as it represents actual metro region where participants of YSP travel distances. travelling above and below the mean We employed a series of statistical distances to reach facilities spatially cluster. analysis using StataSE v12.1. A one-way Fixed distance was the conceptualized spatial ANOVA procedure was used to examine relationship for the Gi* test, and the default whether there was a significant difference fixed distance was used. The default fixed among eight different sport types in the distance uses the minimum distance that mean distance travelled to their respective ensures every observation has at least one facilities. We then conducted a univariate neighbor for the analysis. regression analysis with miles travelled as the dependent variable and the percent Results white of the neighborhood in which the Table 1 displays the number of participants participant lives as the independent variable. by facility and sport. As table 1 indicates, in A test of mean significance (t-test) was used general, facilities with more sports had more to examine if there was significant participants . Conversely, there was no difference between female-only sports (i.e., relationship between the number of volleyball, cheerleading, and softball) and participants of a given sport and the other co-ed or male sports (i.e., tackle number of facilities at which that sport is football, flag football, soccer, basketball, played. With respect to average distance baseball/t-ball). travelled, participants who played volleyball A Gettis-Ord Gi* statistic was calculated and softball travelled farther than other using ArcGIS v10.1 for the variable of sports. The mean number of miles travelled distance travelled to facilities. The Gi* for entire sample was 4.8, ranging from 0.12 statistic identifies statistically significant to 32.6 miles. “hot spots” and “cold spots” of spatial As shown in Table 2, the one-way clustering. For statistically significant ANOVA procedure revealed that there was clustering to occur, a feature with a high or a significant difference among eight low value will be found in close proximity different types of sport in the mean distance to features with similarly high or low values. traveled to their assigned facilities (p<0.01).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 48 The sports that deviated the most from the cheerleading were $48,866, and $47,465 mean travel distance for all sports (µ=4.8 respectively. miles) were volleyball (µ=6.8 miles) and As shown in Table 5, the results of a softball (µ=5.9 miles). This may be due to multivariate regression analysis showed that the fact that all volleyball participants played the travel distance to participate in YSP at one facility. Similarly, there were only increases as the percentage of White four different softball facility locations, residents from their home neighborhood second only to volleyball in terms of fewest (census block group) increases. Specifically, number of facilities. Also, it is interesting to controlling for median income and the note that only 0.008% of the sample lived number of persons unemployed, for every within walking distance (0.25 miles) of the 1% increase in the percent white of the facility where they played their chosen neighborhood, the distance they travel to a sport. Almost all YSP participants are facility increases by 0.031 miles (p<0.01). therefore likely to drive, or take some form Figure 2 represents the relationships of limited public transportation, to reach a between travel distance and the percent of given facility. white in neighborhoods. Table 3 and Table 4 present the In this figure, a total of 19 facilities were description of race proportions and median mapped out with graduated symbols. The income of sport participants’. In most of larger the symbol, the farther the average the sports, participants were from YSP participating family travelled to attend predominantly White neighborhoods. The events held there. While it might be blocks comprising of participants of tackle assumed that locations closer to downtown football and cheerleading were racially may have shorter travel distances due to neutral. The mean percent of White and increased residential densities, the result of African-American participants was derived Figure 2 suggests an alternative pattern. from a pool of neighborhood values that Many of the facilities located in suburban ranged from 0 to 100 percent. As a whole, a neighborhoods, namely those over- total of 2,055 participants came from the represented by White residents—drew neighborhoods that were above the mean participants from a wider footprint than percent of African-Americans (25%) for those more centrally located and certainly neighborhoods in the metropolitan region. those located in neighborhoods over- Also, aside from the neighborhoods of represented with minority residents. With participants in tackle football and regard to income and facility travel distance, cheerleading, mean income ranged from the results of a univariate regression analysis $61,146 to $78,323 . Baseball participants’ showed that there was no significant had the highest median income, while relationship between median income of participants of tackle football and neighborhoods of participants and travel

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 49 distance. The results of the t-test showed The contrast in travel distance clustering that there was a significant difference in is evident when comparing sports such as miles travelled by participants that are tackle football (home neighborhoods over- exclusively female (M=5.9, SD=3.8) as represented by non-White participants) and compared to all other sports (M=4.7, flag football (home neighborhoods more SD=3.5) at .01 level. consistent with city’s overall demographic Figure 3 reveals the results of a cluster profile). In tackle football there is no analysis. Red dots represent the participants significant clustering, implying that who traveled greater distances from home participants that live close to one another to reach a facility at .01 level, while blue vary greatly in the distances they travel to dots represent the participants who traveled reach facilities. However, it is also clear that shorter distances from home to reach a participants traveling from neighborhoods facility at .01 level. Only blue dots and red over-represented by White residents are dots represent statistically significant willing to travel farther to play the sport clusters. The results showed that children than are those participants originating from that live out of town were more likely to neighborhoods over-represented by racial play the sport not played at their local minorities. In flag football there is facility. significant clustering of participants Figures 4 to 11 are the maps for the traveling longer distances to reach facilities cluster analysis by sport. As same as Figure (red) and shorter distances to reach facilities 3, red dots represent the participants who (blue), with those traveling shorter distances traveled greater distances from home to clustered on the east side of the city (the reach a facility at .01 level while dark orange location of most of the city’s neighborhoods dots represent the ones who traveled greater over-resented by White residents). It is also distances from home to reach a facility at worth noting that a considerable contingent .05 level. Blue dots represent the of flag football players from the participants who traveled shorter distances northeastern corridor of the city (location of from home to reach a facility at .01 level many of the city’s almost exclusively White while green dots represent the ones who neighborhoods) stayed within their traveled shorter distance from home to neighborhood to play flag football. reach a facility at .05 level. The succession of figures reveals that there is significant Discussion clustering of youth sport participants living Overall, only 0.008% of the sample in close proximity to others who travel lived within walking distance (<0.25 miles) similarly short and long distances to reach of the facility that they participated in YSP facilities, and that these patterns of at. As such, the majority of participants significant clustering shift by sport. need to use public transportation or drive a

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 50 private vehicle to the facilities. A series of promote both because these two resources analyses disclosed the dynamics among are interrelated. In other words, travel distance, sport types, and socio- opportunities can affect motivation and demographic characteristics. First, the motivation can affect opportunities. The results showed that a total of 5,652 study of sport participation has typically participants played at 19 facilities. A total of emphasized individual factors related to nine facilities were used by 373 participants youth’s self-selection out of sport, rather from 16 tackle football teams; whereas a than reduced opportunities (i.e., lack of total of 11 facilities were used by 1,294 sport leagues) (Balish et al., 2014). The participants from 90 flag football teams and results of this study tease out the by 1,374 participants from a total of 123 significance of increasing more soccer teams. As a general trend, what is opportunities. Participants of volleyball and revealed by the GIS visualization analysis is softball tended to travel farther than other that for many sports—namely soccer, flag participants because of the restricted football, and to a lesser extent baseball and number of facilities. The results of one-way softball—parents from racially homogenous ANOVA procedures confirmed that there neighborhoods are choosing to travel was a significant difference in the mean outside of their home neighborhood to distance travelled to facilities among the participate at facilities with a heterogeneous different sports. For instance, only one racial and SES profile. As such, we might facility served a total of 249 participants surmise that sport-based “communities” are from the 21 volleyball teams, and only four being forged more around cultural and facilities served a total of 370 participants social activities associated with the sport for the 37 softball teams. Parents seem to than with a socio-geographic configuration. be overcoming this potential barrier so that Conversely, in sports such as basketball and their child can play a certain girl-only or girl- tackle football, participants are significantly dominant sport. In fact, if parents wanted more likely to stay within or close to their their girls to play this league in the fall home neighborhoods. As such, we might season there was no choice but participate conclude that these sports promote in- in volleyball or softball, because all other neighborhood community building—but sport leagues were male-oriented sports. For possibly at the expense of cultural girls that want to participate in a more integration/desegregation. traditional form of sport, their only choice is Primarily, sport participation entails two to participate in volleyball. Similarly, the types of resources—opportunities to be only option for girls in the spring season is involved in sport programs and motivation softball or male-oriented baseball leagues. to go along with those opportunities. As a Consequently, further investigation is policy maker and YSP organizer, it is vital to needed to determine if this restricted

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 51 number of facilities is a barrier to from public programs. In the former type of participation in female sports. At the same sport programs, participants have more time, more options may be needed for girls’ opportunities to work with a greater YSP participation. This could be achieved number of coaches and play sports at by offering more co-ed friendly recreational facilities with better equipment. sports such as ultimate frisbee or by Consequently, it may be important to encouraging greater female participation in broaden the scope of samples in future existing co-ed compatible sports such as flag studies. football. The role of travel distance in sport participation has been controversial. For Limitations and Future Implications instance, Boiché and Sarrazin (2009) This study used the block data rather claimed that a greater distance may than individual data to investigate socio- influence the decision to drop out of sport demographic information. For future activities. On the contrary, Balish and studies, it may be important to collect self- colleagues (2014) confirmed that sport reported data of individual participants and participants are inclined to travel a greater compare it with block data. This study used distance to sport programs than people who travel distance to reflect the sport discontinued participating in sports. infrastructure influence, but other Although this study disclosed the role of quantitative measurements may have travel distance among sport participants highlighted different components of the related to socio-demographic characteristics spatial environment that also influence and sport types, future studies may need to participation in YSP. For instance, an urban examine the role of distance with people sprawl index was calculated based on who dropped out from the sport programs residential density, land use mix, degree of as well. centering and street accessibility (Ewing, Moreover, while many studies have Schmid, Killingsworth, Zlot, & borrowed eminent theories such as self- Raudenbush, 2003), which might explain determination theory, social cognitive another aspect of environmental factors theory, and the theory of planned behavior focusing on infrastructure conditions to explain predictions of sport participation impacting this study. The sample for this (Balish et al., 2014), these theories have not study used the public community-based been successful at illustrating how YSP. However, as many sport sociologists environmental variables such as facility have contended (Eitzen & Sage, 2009 for location and travel distance may be more information), the nature of sport associated with sport participation and programs offered by private country clubs dropout of sport programs. Future studies or private sport programs is very different may need to bring a modeled conceptual

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 52 framework with theoretical backgrounds to explain the role of environmental variables within organized sport programs more broadly. The concepts and theories surrounding social segregation, social inclusion, and social exclusion may be helpful. ---

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Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 55 for heart health. Social Science & Lowe Vandell, D., Shernoff, D. J., Pierce, Medicine, 21(5), 533-539. K. M., M, B. D., Dadisman, K., & Hansen, D. M., Larson, R. W., & Dworkin, Brown, B. B. (2005). Activities, J. B. (2003). What adolescents learn engagement, and emotion in after- in organized youth activities: A school programs (and elsewhere). survey of self-reported New Directions for Youth Development, developmental experiences. Journal of 105, 121-129. Research on Adolescence, 13, 25-55. Mahoney, J. L., Larson, R. W., & Eccles, J. Hill, A. B. (1965). The environment and S. (2005). Organized Activities as disease: Association or causation? Contexts of Development: Extracurricular Proceedings of the Royal Society of Activities, After-School, and Community Medicine, 58, 295-300. Programs. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Hinkley, T., Crawford, D., Salmon, J., Erlbaum Associates. Okely, A. D., & Hesketh, K. (2008). Mandic, S., Bengoechea, E. G., Stevens, E., Preschool children and physical de la Barra, S. L., & Skidmore, P. activity: A review of correlates. (2012). Getting kids active by American Journal of Preventive Medicine, participating in sport and doing it 34(5), 435-441. more often: Focusing on what Holt, N. L. (2008). Positive youth development matters. International Journal of through sport. London: Routledge. Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). 9, 86-94. Comparative elite sport development. Marsh, H. W., & Kleitman, S. (2003). In B. Houlihan & M. Green (Eds.), School athletic participation: Mostly Comparative elite sport development: gain with little pain. Journal of Sport Systems, structures and public policy. and Exercise Psychology, 25(2), 205-228. Oxford, England: Butterworth- Massey, D. S. (1985). Ethnic residential Heinemann. segregation: A theoretical synthesis Khan, K. M., Thompson, A. M., Blair, S. and empirical review. Sociology and N., Sallis, J. F., Powell, K. E., Bull, F. Social Research, 69(3), 315-350. C., & Bauman, A. E. (2012). Sport Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1988a). and exercise as contributors to the The dimensions of residential health of nations. The Lancet, segregation. Social Forces, 67(2), 281- 380(9836), 59-64. 315. Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1988b). of positive youth development. Suburbanization and segregation in American Psychologist, 55, 170-183. US metropolitan areas. American Journal of Sociology, 94(3), 592-626.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 56 Maxwell, H., & Taylor, T. (2010). A culture young adulthood. Youth and Society, of trust: Engaging Muslim women in 35, 495-520. community sport organizations. Rosner, S., & Crow, B. (2002). Institutional European Sport Management Quarterly, liability for hazing in interscholastic 10(4), 465-483. sports. Houston Law Review, 39(2), Michaud, P.A., Jeannin, A., & Suris, J.C. 276-300. (2006). Correlates of extracurricular Roux, L., Pratt, M., Tengs, T., Yore, M., sport participation among Swiss Yanagawa, T. L., Van Den Bos, J., . . . adolescents. European Journal of Buchner, D. M. (2008). Cost Pediatrics, 165(8), 546-555. effectiveness of community-based NCYS. (2015). About NCYS. Retrieved physical activity interventions. Journal from of Preventive Medicine, 35(6), 578-588. http://www.ncys.org/about/about.p Sabo, D., Miller, K. E., Melnick, M. J., hp Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G. M. Owen, N., Humpel, N., Leslie, E., Bauman, (2005). High school athletic A., & Sallis, J. F. (2004). participation and adolescent suicide: Understanding environment A nationwide US study. International influences on walking: Review and Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 5- research agenda. American Journal of 23. Preventive Medicine, 27(1), 67-76. Sallis, J. F., Alcaraz, J. E., McKenzie, T. L., Owen, N., Leslie, E., Salmon, J., & Hovell, M. F., Kolody, B., & Nader, Fotheringham, M. J. (2000). P. R. (1992). Parental behavior in Environmental determinants of relation to physical activity and physical activity and sedentary fitness in 9-year-old children. behavior. Exercise and Sport Sciences American Journal of Diseases of Children, Review, 28(4), 153-158. 146(11), 1383-1388. Peretti-Watel, P., Guagliard, V., Verger, P., Sallis, J. F., Hovell, M. F., Hofstetter, C. R., Pruvost, J., Mignon, P., & Obadia, Y. Elder, J. P., Hackley, M., Caspersen, (2003). Sporting activity and drug C. J., & Powell, K. E. (1990). use: Alcohol, cigarette and cannabis Distance between homes and use among elite student athletes. exercise facilities related to frequency Addiction, 98, 1249-1256. of exercise among San Diego Perkins, D. F., Jacobs, J. E., Barber, B. L., & residents. Public Health Report, 105, Eccles, J. S. (2004). Childhood and 179-185. adolescent sports participation as Sallis, J. F., Nader, P. R., Broyles, S. L., predictors of participation in sports Berry, C. C., Elder, J. P., McKenzie, and physical fitness activities during T. L., & Nelson, J. A. (1993).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Kim et al., 2016 57 Correlates of physical activity at Rowland, T., Trost, S., & Trudeau, F. home in Mexican-American and (2005). Evidence based physical Anglo-American preschool children. activity for school-age youth. The Health Psychology, 12(5), 390-398. Journal of pediatrics, 146(6), 732-737. Sallis, J. F., Prochaska, J. J., & Taylor, W. C. The Aspen Institute. (2015). Facts: Sports (2000). A review of correlates of Activity and Children. Retrieved from physical activity of children and http://www.aspenprojectplay.org/th adolescents. Medicine and Science in e-facts Sports and Exercise, 32, 963-975. van der Horst, K., Paw, M. J. C. A., Twisk, Schulenkorf, N., & Edwards, D. (2012). J. W. R., & van Mechelen, W. (2007). Maximizing positive social impacts: A brief review on correlates of Strategies for sustaining and physical activity and sedentariness in leveraging the benefits of youth. Medicine and Science in Sports and intercommunity sport events in Exercise, 39(8), 1241-1250. divided societies. Journal of Sport Welk, G. J., Wood, K., & Morss, G. (2003). Management, 26, 379-390. Parental influences on physical Seifried, C. (2011). Sport facilities as a activity in children: An exploration of broadcast studio for human potential mechanisms. Pediatric extensibility? Geographic information Exercise Science, 15, 19-33. system-based diagrams of a high- and Wicker, P., Hallmann, K., & Breuer, C. low-identified sport fan. Journal of (2013). Analyzing the impact of sport Sport Management, 25, 515-530. infrastructure on sport participation Small, E. (2002). Kids and sports: Everything you using geo-coded data: Evidence from and your child need to know about sports, multi-level models. Sport Management physical activity, nutrition, and good health - Review, 16, 54-67. a doctor's guide for parents and coaches. Xiong, H. (2007). The evolution of urban New York, NY: Newmarket Press. society and social changes in sports Stalsberg, R., & Pedersen, A. V. (2010). participation at the grassroots in Effects of socioeconomic status on China. International Review for the the physical activity in adolescents: A Sociology of Sport, 42(4), 441-471. systematic review of the evidence. Yang, X., Telama, R., & Laakso, L. (1996). Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Physical activity, socioeconomic Science in Sports, 20, 368-383. status and education as predictors of Strong, W. B., Malina, R. M., Blimkie, C. J., physical activity and sport among Daniels, S. R., Dishman, R. K., children and youths: A 12 year follow Gutin, B., Hergenroeder, A. C., Must, up study. International Review of the A., Nixon, P. A., Pivarnik, J. M., Sociology of Sport, 31, 273-294.

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Tables Table 1

Number of Participants by Facilities and Sport

Total # sports Sport participants by by facility Facility facility BB/T TF FF VB CL SC BK SB B 1 24 0 0 23 0 0 0 0 47 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 112 0 0 112 1 3 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 1 4 0 104 0 0 135 0 122 47 408 4 5 0 222 0 0 17 0 239 0 478 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 60 1 7 50 27 0 30 9 58 0 0 174 5 8 0 87 0 0 110 0 125 0 322 3 9 0 60 0 0 62 0 0 0 122 2 10 23 331 0 20 535 0 380 237 1,526 6 11 71 0 0 39 120 0 0 0 230 3 12 24 0 249 13 0 89 0 0 375 4 13 0 127 0 0 125 0 133 0 385 3 14 85 111 0 47 149 0 136 29 557 6 15 0 114 0 0 69 89 0 0 272 3 16 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 1 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 57 1 18 0 69 0 0 0 185 84 0 338 3 19 55 42 0 8 43 0 0 0 148 4 Total participants 373 1,294 249 180 1,374 593 1,219 370 5,652 by sport # facilities 9 11 1 6 11 6 7 4 by sport # teams by 16 90 21 14 123 61 81 37 443 sport Avg dist (miles) by 4.8 4.3 6.8 4.6 5.1 5.0 4.4 5.9 sport Min dist .14 .12 .69 .16 .12 .16 .14 .18

Max dist 26.7 22.1 24.3 19.9 27.0 32.6 25.5 31.0

Notes. TF = Tackle Football, FF = Flag Football, VB = Volleyball, CL = Cheerleading, SC = Soccer, BK = Basketball, BB/TB = Baseball/T-ball, SB = Softball

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Table 2

ANOVA: Mean Distance Traveled to Assigned Facilities by Sport

Source df SS MS F p Between groups 7 2157.44 308.21 25.61 .00

Within groups 5,644 67917.87 12.03

Total 5,651 70075.31

Table 3

Racial Profiles of Blocks of Participants by Sport Types

African-American Sport White (%) Difference (%) Total(%) (%) Tackle Football 52.7 41.4 11.3 94.1 Flag Football 68.7 25.1 43.6 93.8 Volleyball 70.9 22.9 48 93.8 Cheerleading 47.9 47.0 0.9 94.9 Soccer 70.0 23.9 46.1 93.9 Basketball 61.4 32.7 28.7 94.1 Baseball 76.2 17.3 58.9 93.5 Softball 73.6 20.1 53.5 93.7 Mean 65.2 28.8 36.4

Table 4

Median Income of Block of Participants by Sport Types

Sport Median Income Tackle Football 48,866 Flag Football 71,713 Volleyball 70,691 Cheerleading 47,465 Soccer 71,772 Basketball 61,146 Baseball 78,323 Softball 77,125 Mean 65,888

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Table 5

Multivariate Regression: Travel Distance to Participate in YSP and Percentage of White Residents from Home Neighborhood

B Std. Error t p Percentage of white residents 0.031 0.003 11.09 0.00 Income -0.000 0.001 -5.8 0.002 Unemployment 0.002 0.001 3.17 0.00 R2 0.02

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Figures

Figure 1

A Theoretical Sketch of the Complex Relations of Neighborhood, Sport Participation, and Community-Building

Mediating Factors Demographic Profile Strengthen Inter-Neighborhood Sport Community Geographic Location Strengthen Intra-Neighborhood Sport Type Social Community Distance Travelled to Facility (greater/fewer distance barriers) Neighborhood of Facility Home Location Community- Neighborhood Building Outcomes

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Figure 2

Visualization of Travel Distance of Each Facility and r Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 3

Aggregated Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Traveled to YSP Facilities in Relation to Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 4

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Tackle Football and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 5

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Flag Football and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 6

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Volleyball and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 7

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Cheerleading and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 8

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Softball and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 9

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Baseball/T-ball and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 10

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Soccer and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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Figure 11

Cluster Analysis Visualization of Distance Travelled for Basketball and Travel Distance and Neighborhood Race Demographics

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The Salience of Sport in Cross-Race Friendship Selection

Gareth J. Jones Kyle S. Bunds Troy A. Carlton Michael B. Edwards Jason N. Bocarro North Carolina State University

In response to growing racial concerns, stakeholders have called for programs that facilitate positive cross-race interactions. Adolescence has been targeted as the most effective life stage to initiate programs promoting relationships. Since schools are one of the primary social influences on adolescent development, they have been emphasized as a particularly important setting for promoting intergroup contact. Sport plays an important role in the experiences of students, and contributes to intergroup relations within a school. The purpose of this study is to examine the unique effect of sport participation on cross-race friendship selection. Using data from Wave I of The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), mixed-effects regression models and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to assess the effects of sport participation on friendship heterogeneity. Overall, participation in sport activities did not significantly influence the racial heterogeneity of adolescent’s friendship networks.

he importance of promoting civil social infrastructure of dense networks of society has been magnified in recent face-to-face relationships that cross-cut T years, with Edwards and Gaventa existing social cleavages such as race, (2013) suggesting it is the “essential task” of ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, and the 21st century (p. 1). While any singular gender” (Edwards, Foley, & Diani, 2001, p. definition of the term would fall short of 17). Although progress has certainly been capturing its multifaceted nature, a civil made on this front, most societies remain society can broadly be characterized as “a deeply divided along one or more of these

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 73 social cleavages. Such schisms not only United States is fragmenting rather than inhibit the development of civil societies, integrating (Lichter, 2013), causing political but also contribute to the prevailing social and cultural discord that severely inhibits order, which perpetuates inequality through the progression of a civil society. various forms of overt and latent In response to these concerns, discrimination (Bourdieu, 1986; Weber, numerous politicians, policymakers, and 1957). scholars have called for programs that In the United States, racial dimensions facilitate positive cross-race interactions. of inequality are particularly salient due to While promoting these relationships is the deep-rooted history of racism in germane at every age level, adolescence has American history, culture, and politics. been targeted as the most effective life stage Although the presidential election of Barack to initiate such programs (Watkins, Larson, Obama in 2008 led many to conclude the & Sullivan, 2007). Adolescence is a period U.S. was entering a “post-racial” era, racial of considerable psychological growth, yet it inequalities have persisted and in many is also when the formation of strong social cases deepened throughout the country cliques can magnify perceived inter-group (Omi & Winant, 2015). The social differences (Brown, 2004). While they prejudices that accompany these possess the mental dexterity to develop a inequalities, combined with visual better understanding of various out-groups, categorizations of race, contribute to the many adolescents incubate themselves in largest divide in social networks in the same-group relationships which enable United States (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & discriminatory attitudes and behavior Cook, 2001). Strong racial homophily is (Hamm, Brown, & Heck, 2005; Killen, Lee- evident in just about every social relation Kim, McGlothlin, & Stangor, 2002). As a one encounters, from marriage (Kalmign, result, adolescence is considered a 1998) to work associations (Ibarra, 1995). “significant turning point” (Watkins et al., For example, a nationally representative 2007, p. 381), where individuals either sample in 1985 found that only 8% of adults develop the competencies to form cross- “discussed important matters” with a group relationships, or contribute to the person of another race (Marsden, 1987), and further fragmentation of society. while the overall racial heterogeneity of the Since schools are one of the primary American population has increased social influences on adolescent development markedly since this time, recent studies (Brown & Evans, 2002), they have been suggest the salience of race in social emphasized as an important setting for relations has remained constant (Smith, promoting intergroup contact (Hewstone et McPherson, & Smith-Lovin, 2014). This al., 2015). After the Supreme Court’s trend has led to growing concerns that the watershed ruling on Brown v. Board of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 74 Education in 1954, various techniques have integration have produced inconsistent been employed to promote cross-group findings, with some concerned sport may interactions in schools (Rivkin, 2000). While actually intensify racial segregation in the results of these efforts have been largely schools (Chu & Griffey, 1985; McPherson, mixed (Reardon, Grewal, Kalogrides, & 1976; Sargent, 1972). While sport has helped Greenberg, 2012), extracurricular activities facilitate positive cross-group interactions in have been highlighted as an especially viable certain instances (Clotfelter, 2002; Harris, mechanism for promoting positive 1998; Skinner, Zakus, & Cowell, 2008; intergroup contact (Crain, 1981; Eccles, Stodolska & Alexandris, 2004; Tonts, 2005), Barber, & Stone, 2003; Knifsend & it has also been a context for racial and Juvonen, 2013; Scott & Damico, 1984). For cultural dissonance (Hawkins, 2013). example, Moody (2001) found that Clearly, more work is needed to understand interracial friendships were more likely in the factors and conditions that help schools with racially diverse extracurricular facilitate this process (Cunningham, Bopp, programs, while Crain (1981) found that & Sagas, 2010; Lyras & Welty Peachey, schools with high extracurricular 2011). participation had greater interracial contact This paper examines how sport and stronger bonds between students. participation is associated with cross-race As the most popular extracurricular friendship selection in schools. After activity in terms of participation (Fredricks controlling for key structural and social & Eccles, 2006), sport plays a particularly characteristics of schools that are known to important role in the experiences of influence race relations, the friendship racial students and contributes immensely to heterogeneity of sport participants was intergroup relations within schools compared with other extracurricular (Clotfelter, 2002). Ideally, sport provides participation categories (e.g., academic, active goal-oriented settings for teammates performing arts, other). Key social structural to work together towards common characteristics of student’s extracurricular objectives (e.g. winning), which helps profiles were then analyzed to examine reduce prejudice and promote acceptance these differences and further explicate the among players (Miracle, 1981; Pettigrew, association between sport and cross-race 1998). This process has received friendship selection. Finally, key considerable support from school characteristics between specific sport administrators and is romanticized with activities were assessed to highlight their great effect in various forms of sport media potential influence on cross-race friendship and movies (Leary, 2013; Rowe, 2004). selection. However, empirical studies assessing the impact of sport participation on racial

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 75 Theoretical Background Turner, Hewstone, Voci, Paolini, & Christ, Allport’s (1954) contact theory is the 2007). predominant framework guiding initiatives Despite a strong theoretical base for that address issues of racism, prejudice, and contact theory, empirical studies of discrimination through intergroup contact. intergroup contact have produced mixed According to Allport (1954), cross-group results, with some suggesting intergroup contact is positive and effective only when contact can actually intensify schisms four conditions are met: (1) equal status of between groups (Pettigrew et al., 2011). the groups in the situation, (2) common These studies highlight additional factors goals, (3) intergroup cooperation, and (4) such as the characteristics of the contact support from the authorities, laws, and setting, the individuals and groups being customs. If these conditions are present, targeted, and the conflict(s) under study intergroup contact is hypothesized to which can influence intergroup interactions reduce prejudice and mitigate conflicts (Patchen, 1999; Pettigrew et al., 2011; between groups (Pettigrew, Tropp, Wagner, Stephan, 1987). In addition, since effects & Christ, 2011). Recently, scholars have (positive or negative) are the product of a highlighted the importance of a fifth specific set of conditions that may not be condition, friendship potential, which has replicable in other settings, it is difficult to been added to Allport’s initial model generalize beyond the immediate situation (Pettigrew, 1998; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). (Pettigrew, 1998). Consequently, while From this perspective, situations that positive intergroup relations may be provide close interactions between produced in a particular setting, these participants facilitate friendship-developing sentiments do not automatically extend to mechanisms (e.g. self-disclosure) that broader social relations. This highlights a enhance positive contact effects (Pettigrew need to understand how the structural et al., 2011). By promoting what Allport arrangement of social situations may (1954) described as intimate contact, it is influence the clustering of ties amongst posited that friendship inherently evokes the adolescents, particularly in schools. four conditions that promote positive Blau’s (1977) macrosociological theory intergroup relations (Pettigrew, 1998). In is a common framework for this analysis, addition, since friendship entails prolonged and highlights two predominant factors that interactions that extend beyond the influence intergroup contact (Blum, 1985; immediate situation, the likelihood that Floyd & Shinew, 1999). First, the positive effects will generalize to other probability of intergroup relations is social contexts and outgroups is increased inversely related to the size of one’s in- (Pettigrew, 1998; Pettigrew et al., 2011; group, such that those with smaller in- groups have greater interaction with out-

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 76 groups, while those with larger in-groups relationships (Pettigrew, 1998). Due to the have less interaction with out-groups (Blau, high social status of sport within schools, 1974, 1977). The size of the overall the positive out-group perceptions formed population is also an important by athletes are also expected to diffuse consideration related to this factor, since across the broader school network faster larger populations afford more potential and more efficiently than those formed in relations from which students can select other activity types (e.g. performing arts, similar ties (Blau, 1994). Second, the more academic clubs) (Schaefer, Simpkins, Vest, heterogeneous a population is on any & Price, 2011). Moreover, the prominence nominal characteristic (e.g. race), the more and popularity of Black sporting celebrities likely individuals are to engage in cross- has led to a widespread belief that sport is group relations based on that characteristic “colorblind” (Winograd, 2011), and offers a (Blau, 1977). This is perhaps the most prime opportunity for racial self-expression straightforward of Blau’s arguments, as (Dyson, 1994; Jarvie & Reid, 1997), with opportunities for adolescent cross-race several studies indicating sport participation friendship formation depend upon racial has improved race relations within schools mixing opportunities (Echols & Graham, (Hartmann et al., 2012; Schaefer et al., 2013; Graham, Munniksma, & Juvonen, 2011). 2014; Simpkins, Schaefer, Price, & Vest, The association between sport 2013). participation and positive intergroup contact When these factors are applied to the is supported by studies examining racial school context, it is important to consider (Hartmann, Sullivan, & Nelson, 2012), that the social dynamics of student bodies cultural (Lyras & Welty Peachey, 2011), and are much more malleable than general class-based (Skinner et al., 2008) divides. populations, since students interact within a The theoretical rationale is grounded in relatively bounded setting and various Feld’s (1981) focus theory, which suggests institutional policies may influence individuals participating in activities interracial mixing opportunities. Among organized around similar foci are more these, school sport activities have been likely to form interpersonal relationships. highlighted as one of the most effective This viewpoint proposes that in addition to policies for promoting positive interracial the direct impact of similarities across contact (Eccles et al., 2003; Knifsend & categorical attributes, shared relations to a Juvonen, 2013). Well-directed athletic teams foci (i.e., sport activity) can indirectly are thought to provide a safe and influence students through mutual autonomous environment for interracial interactions (Feld, 1981). From this teammates to work together towards perspective, since the clustering is focused common goals and build positive around the purpose or objectives of the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 77 sport, rather than the socio-demographic 2011; Goldsmith, 2003; Phillips, 1976), and profiles of participants, sport activities offer strong racial connotations remain associated ideal settings for cross-race interactions that with certain sport activities and specific might otherwise be considered incongruous athletic positions (e.g., stacking) (Sack, given the racial composition of the school Singh, & Thiel, 2005). In addition, factors or community (Crain, 1981; Hansen, influencing what Phillips (1976) described as Larson, & Dworkin, 2003). Although the “sports opportunity structure” continue categorical attributes remain salient in sport to perpetuate imbalances by limiting settings, Feld (1981) suggests that “unless participation among certain demographics the similarities of attitudes, attributes, and (p. 48). For example, the cost, time, and social positions are translated into the resources needed to play certain sports has structuring of focused interaction, their been shown to inhibit participation among selective effects on tie formation will be low-income and minority students (Casper, overwhelmed by structural features that do Bocarro, Kanters, & Floyd, 2011; Edwards focus the interaction.” (p. 1019). et al., 2011; Goldsmith, 2003; Lee, Yet involvement in organized sport Burgeson, Fulton, & Spain, 2006), and can activities does not inherently facilitate lead to drastically different racial profiles positive cross-race interactions (Chu & among different sports. Griffey, 1985; Rees & Miracle, 1984). The confluence of these factors Different sport activities offer unique influences the association between sport structural and social contexts that can create and cross-race friendship by creating status discrepancies among participants settings that are not conducive to positive based on race (Floyd, 1998; Floyd & cross-race interactions. In addition, racial Shinew, 1999). These discrepancies imbalances within sport settings may create influence participation rates among different status differences that reduce the likelihood races (Floyd, Shinew, McGuire, 1994; of forming cross-race friendships among Philipp, 1994, 2000; Shinew, Floyd, adolescents (Floyd & Shinew, 1999). While McGuire, & Noe, 1995; Shinew, Floyd, & previous research has focused primarily on Parry, 2004) and significantly impact cross- characteristics of sports that are thought to race interactions within sport settings (Floyd contribute to cross-race friendship & Shinew, 1999). In the United States, the formation, such as teamwork and identity status value of race is especially salient in (Lawrence, 2005), there has been less work sport (Carrington, 2013; Frey & Eitzen, examining the broader social structural 1991; Pitts & Yost, 2013). Minorities are features of sport activities. This limitation is overrepresented in some sports yet noteworthy considering the racial and social drastically underrepresented in others characteristics of sport settings play an (Edwards, Bocarro, Kanters, & Casper, important role in providing the conditions

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 78 necessary for cross-race friendship Health is a nationally representative sample formation. In addition, it is important to of students from middle schools and high consider how the association between sport schools throughout the United States and cross-race friendship formation (grades 7-12). Schools were systematically compares to other extracurricular activities selected with probability proportional to (e.g., academics, performing arts, other), enrollment from a list of 80 sampling strata, since school administrators must which were delineated by factors such as understand how different combinations geographic location, school size, and grade influence cross-race relations between their span. Surveys were administered to the students. complete student population within these The purpose of this study was to schools to gather information on a variety examine the association between sport of health and behavioral constructs. In participation and cross-race friendship addition, global friendship network data was selection among middle and high school collected by asking students to nominate up students. The analysis was guided by three to five male and five female friends from a primary research questions: roster of students enrolled in either their 1. After controlling for key structural school or a sister school. Interviews were and social characteristics of the school also conducted with administrators, which context, do sport participants have provided information related to the more racially heterogeneous friendship organizational features of the school. networks than participants in other The data for this particular study comes extracurricular activities (e.g., academic, from the adolescent in-school questionnaire, performing arts, and other activities)? which was collected during Wave I in 1994- 2. Do Blau’s (1977) structural principles 1995. Wave I is the only iteration of this influence the association between study with global network information, and extracurricular participation and cross- contains the largest sample of adolescents race friendship, and what is the relative and schools. Since this study required both effect of sport? school level and individual level data, only 3. How do these structural factors vary schools that completed both the across different sport activities, and is administrator interviews and the student this variance consistent across races? survey were included. In addition, to ensure the reliability of global network measures, Methods only schools with over 50% response rates Data were included. The final sample consisted of Our analysis utilized secondary data 126 schools and 49,820 students who from The National Longitudinal Study of responded to all variables of interest. Adolescent Health (Add Health). Add

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 79 Measures economic status (SES), and friendship According to the model of contact network size. Gender was measured with a theory outlined by Pettigrew and Tropp binary dummy coded variable (1=female, (2006), interactions that facilitate friendship 0=male), and SES was measured on a 4- formation enhance positive contact effects. point ordinal scale of maternal education From this perspective, someone who ranging from 0 (Less than high school) to 3 perceives an individual from another group (College degree or higher). The size of (e.g. race) as a friend must possess a certain friendship networks was measured using level of acceptance for that group Bonacich centrality, which measures a (Pettigrew, 1998). In addition, this student’s centrality weighted by the friendship implies that positive perceptions centrality of their nominated friends are more likely to be generalized across (Bonacich, 1987). Bonacich centrality was other social contexts and outgroups as well chosen because it accounts for both the size (Pettigrew et al., 2011). Since this process is of a student’s friendship network and that guided by the perception of friendship, not of their friends. Race was included as an necessarily its reciprocation, we focused on individual level variable, and classified into the racial heterogeneity of a student’s send- four categories: 1) Black, 2) network (e.g., adolescents nominated by Hispanic/Latino, 3) Other/Mixed, and 4) ego). This measure represents the racial White. heterogeneity of the friendship network To control for the influence of key identified by ego, and ranges from 0 (all structural and social factors at the school friends are the same race as ego) to 1 (all level, we adapted several measures from friends are a different race than ego). Moody’s (2001) study of institutional factors The homophilizing effects of gender that influence friendship segregation. The and SES have been noted in previous structural measures included the number of research, as adolescents are generally more students enrolled in the school, racial busing likely to select friends who are similar on (1 = racial busing, 2= no racial busing), a these characteristics (Brown & Larson, public/private distinction (1= public, 2= 2009; Schaefer et al., 2011). In addition, private), and two measures of geographic adolescents with larger friendship networks region (1=South, 2=Non-South; 1= urban, are expected to have more opportunities to 2= suburban, 3= rural). The social measures establish cross-race friendships than included gender and grade friendship adolescents with smaller friendship segregation, relative density, racial networks (Simpkins et al., 2013). To composition, and the racial in-group size. account for the potentially spurious effects Following Moody (2001), Freeman’s (1972) of these individual characteristics, we segregation index was used to as an included measures for gender, socio- indicator of gender and grade segregation,

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 80 an adjusted relative density measure was performing arts activities only (Performing used to account for the limited selection Arts Only), 5) other activities only (Other criteria (e.g., only up to 10 friendship Only), 6) combination of other non-sport nominations), and racial composition was activities (Other Combo), and 7) no measured using a generalized heterogeneity extracurricular activities (None). An measure which can be interpreted as the interaction effect was also included to likelihood that any two students chosen at determine if these associations were random are of a different race. Racial in- dependent on race. group size was measured as the proportion The second model assessed specific of the overall student body that was the features of student’s extracurricular same race as ego. repertoires that may influence friendship Analysis heterogeneity, and included several Data were analyzed using Statistical additional variables to represent key Analysis System (SAS) software version 22. structural features based on Blau’s (1977) The first two research questions were principles. The size of a student’s answered using mixed-effects regression extracurricular repertoire was measured as models. This technique was chosen due to the average size of the extracurricular the sampling design of the Wave I dataset, activities they participated in (Size). The which was based on a stratified selection of racial heterogeneity of a student’s schools. Since the variance between extracurricular repertoire was measured individual responses within schools was using the same generalized heterogeneity expected to be correlated, we incorporated formula that was used for the school-level these correlations into our model by variable (Heterogeneity). Racial in-group expressing measures related to key structural was measured as the proportion of and social features as fixed effects, and participants in their extracurricular measures corresponding to individual repertoire that was of the same race (Racial responses as random effects. The first In-group). An interaction effect between model assessed the association between these two variables (Heterogeneity*Racial sport and friendship heterogeneity relative In-group) was included to assess their to other extracurricular activities (e.g., interdependency. Finally, the relative effect academics, performing arts, other). To allow of sport was examined by including for meaningful comparisons between variables for the number of extracurricular groups, seven discrete participation activities (Number of Activities) a student categories were created: 1) sport activities participated in and the proportion of these only (Sport Only), 2) sport in combination activities that were sport (Proportion Sport). with other activities (Sport Combo), 3) To answer our third question, we academic activities only (Academic Only), 4) utilized a one-way analysis of variance

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 81 (ANOVA) model with Bonferroni post-hoc selections (B= .043, p< .001), indicating analysis to compare the racial distribution students with larger overall friendship and heterogeneity of different sport networks selected more racially activities to the overall school population. heterogeneous friends than students with Two measures were calculated from the sparser friendship networks. SES was also total sample for this analysis. First, a relative significantly related to friendship in-group ratio was calculated for each racial heterogeneity, and indicated increases in category by dividing the proportion in- SES were associated with significant group within a sport activity by the decreases in cross-race friendship selection proportion in-group in the entire school. A (B= -.005, p< .001). In terms of race, measure under 1 indicated that the racial in- Hispanic/Latino (B= .072, p< .001), and group proportion within an activity was less Other/Mixed (B= .037, p< .001) race than the proportion in the overall school. A students had significantly more racially measure over 1 indicated that the racial in- heterogeneous friendship selections than group proportion within an activity was White students. There was no significant greater than the proportion in the overall difference in friendship heterogeneity school. If a particular race was not between Black students and White represented in a school, the ratio was set as students.. a missing value. Second, a relative racial The main effects for extracurricular heterogeneity ratio was calculated by participation indicate that White students dividing the racial heterogeneity of each participating in sport and other activities sport activity by the racial heterogeneity of (B= -.018, p< .001), other activities only the overall school. A measure under 1 (B= -.019, p< .05), and a combination of indicated the racial heterogeneity of an other activities (B= -.012, p< .05) selected activity was less than the racial heterogeneity significantly less racially heterogeneous of the overall school, and a measure over 1 friends than White students participating in indicated the racial heterogeneity of an no extracurricular activities. The interaction activity was greater than the overall school. between extracurricular participation and race indicated Black (B= .038, p< .001), Results Hispanic/Latino (B= .027, p< .01), and Table 1 displays the individual-level Other/Mixed race (B= .019, p< .01) results from the first mixed-effects students participating in sport and other regression model (the full model can be activities had significantly more racially found in Appendix 1). Increases in heterogeneous friendship selections than Bonacich centrality were associated with same race students participating in no significant increases in the racial extracurricular activities. There were no heterogeneity of students’ friendship other significant associations related to

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 82 other participation categories (p> .05). significant differences between White and These findings indicate that there is an Black students (p> .05). Increases in the association between participating in sport overall size of a student’s extracurricular and other activities and friendship repertoire were associated with significant heterogeneity, but that the association is decreases in racially heterogeneous influenced by the race of the student. friendship selections (B= -.030, p< .01). Specifically, there is a negative association The interaction between racial heterogeneity for White students, and a positive and racial out-group was significant (B= - association for Black, Hispanic/Latino, and .116, p< .001), indicating that the influence Other/mixed race students. of racial heterogeneity was dependent on This may be attributable to key the size of a student’s racial in-group. structural characteristics of extracurricular Specifically, the racial heterogeneity of a activities. According to Blau’s (1977) student’s extracurricular repertoire was principles, the number of participants, size positively associated with friendship of one’s racial in-group, and racial heterogeneity, but this influence was heterogeneity of an activity influence contingent on the size of their racial in- opportunities for cross-race contact. Since group. Finally, the effect of the number of students often participate in multiple extracurricular activities a student activities that structure their social relations, participated in and the proportion of these the second model assessed these activities that were sport was not significant characteristics across the breadth of (p> .05). student’s extracurricular repertoires. The Table 3 displays the results of the one- individual-level results are displayed in way analysis of variance (ANOVA) model Table 2 (the full model can be found in comparing relative racial in-group ratios Appendix 2). between different sport types. For Black Once again, increases in Bonacich students, there were significant differences in racial in-group ratios between sport types centrality were associated with significant (F= 4.788, p< .001, n2= .036). On average, increases in the racial heterogeneity of the relative proportion of Black students student’s friendship selections (B= .044, p< participating in basketball was significantly .001), and increases in SES were associated higher than the relative proportion of Black with significant decreases in the racial students participating in field hockey (p< heterogeneity of friendship selections (B= - .05), ice hockey, (p< .01), soccer (p< .01), .005, p< .001). Hispanic/Latino (B= .069, and swimming (p< .05). Similarly, the p< .001) and Mixed/Other (B= .046, p< relative proportion of Black students .001) race students had significantly more participating in track was significantly larger racially heterogeneous friendship selections than the relative proportion of Black than White students, and there were no students participating in field hockey (p<

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 83 .05), ice hockey (p< .01), soccer (p< .01), also significantly lower than basketball (p< and swimming (p< .05). The relative .05), football (p< .05), and track (p< .05). proportion of Black students participating in football was significantly larger than the Discussion and Conclusion relative proportion of Black students Sport activities have become one of the participating in ice hockey (< .05). There most popular extracurricular options were also significant differences in racial in- available to school administrators to group ratios between sport types for White enhance cross-race contact opportunities students (F= 2.645, p< .01, n2= .018). The for students, and are commonly believed to relative proportion of White students promote positive cross-race interactions participating in ice hockey was significantly within schools (Chu & Griffey, 1985, larger than the relative proportion of White Clotfelter, 2002). The widespread belief in students participating in dance (p< .05), this narrative, among other generalized basketball (p< .01), field hockey (p< .05), assumptions, has led many administrators to football (p< .01), swimming (p< .05), track invest significantly in school sport facilities, (p< .01), volleyball (p< .01), and wrestling often at the expense of other academic, arts, (p< .01). There were no significant and vocational clubs (Ripley, 2013). Yet our differences between sport types for results suggest administrators should Hispanic/Latino students (p> .05), and carefully consider these decisions. The first although the variance in racial in-group multi-level regression model indicated that ratios between sport types was significant the influence of sport participation was for Other/Mixed race students (F= 1.899, dependent on race, with negative influences p< .05, n2= .013), pairwise comparisons for White students and positive influences revealed no significant difference between for Black, Hispanic/Latino, and specific sport types (p> .05). Other/Mixed students. However, after There were also significant differences controlling for key structural characteristics in the relative racial heterogeneity of of student’s extracurricular repertoire, there different sports (F= 5.802, p< .001, n2= was no significant association between sport .038). The relative racial heterogeneity of participation and friendship heterogeneity. field hockey was significantly lower than This indicates the structuring of dance (p< .01), baseball (p< .01), basketball extracurricular activities (i.e., size, racial in- (p< .001), football (p< .001), soccer (p< group, racial heterogeneity) may be more .05), swimming (p< .01), track (p< .01), salient than sport/non-sport distinctions. volleyball (p< .01), wrestling (p< .01), and Rather than prioritizing sport over other other sports (p< .01). Similarly, the relative activities, school administrators should racial heterogeneity of ice hockey was consider providing extracurricular policies significantly lower than basketball (p< .01), that encourage positive racial mixing football (p< .01), and track (p< .01). The opportunities, regardless of the activity type. relative racial heterogeneity of tennis was Blau’s (1977) macrosociological theory provides a useful framework to inform these decisions. While Blau’s principles

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 84 suggest cross-race contact is influenced by to highlighting important concerns key features of the school setting, our regarding sport opportunity structures and results indicate these principles are socioeconomic disadvantages, racial applicable to extracurricular activities as imbalances may influence the nature of well. Students who were exposed to larger cross-race interactions within certain sport segments of the school population through contexts (Shinew et al., 2004). In particular, extracurricular participation had less sport and leisure scholars delineate between heterogeneous friendships than students leisure practices that facilitate true racial exposed to smaller segments. In addition, integration and those that simply absorb students exposed to a larger proportion of minorities in mainstream culture (Floyd, same race students in their extracurricular 1998; Hylton, 2010). This literature has repertoire had less heterogeneous uncovered the potential negative impact of friendships than students exposed to a “color-blind” policies on race relations, and smaller proportion of same race students. specifically highlights the ramifications of Finally, increases in extracurricular racial institutionalized white privilege (Glover, heterogeneity were significantly associated 2007). This is an especially important with increases in friendship heterogeneity, consideration for school administrators with yet this association was contingent on the less racially heterogeneous student size of one’s racial in-group. These results populations, as they must not only consider indicate that in addition to providing the interactions between races, but also the settings that are appropriate for cross-race status discrepancies involved in these contact (Allport, 1954), sport administrators interactions (Floyd et al., 1994; Shinew et should also consider the structural al., 2004). characteristics of their activities. In order to These findings should be considered in facilitate positive cross-race contact, sport light of several limitations. First, our analysis activities must be intentionally designed and focused on only Wave I of the Add Health managed to do so (Lyras & Welty Peachey, dataset, and is cross-sectional in nature. 2011). This not only involves intentional While several intriguing trends were programming to promote positive identified, causality between sport interactions within the activity, but also participation and cross-race friendship intentional management and administration formation cannot be implied from these to create settings that are most conducive to results. Second, aside from distinctions those interactions. between sport participation categories, there This may be especially important in the were no variables available to assess sport context, as previous research has additional features of the sport revealed ongoing racial imbalances between environment, such as competition level or different sport activities (Edwards et al., participation intensity and breadth. These 2011; Goldsmith, 2003; Phillips, 1976). are critical features of sport settings that can These imbalances were evident in our study significantly influence the experiences of as well, even after controlling for racial students and the likelihood for cross-race distributions at the school level. In addition friendship formation, but are not controlled

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 85 for in this study. Third, students typically features that characterize the setting. As participate in a number of different sport such, administrators, coaches, and other and other extracurricular activities, making it sport personnel should monitor the racial difficult to isolate the effects of one and social patterns of their sport activities, particular activity. Although we captured and consider alternative activities to unique characteristics of each particular diversify participation. Understanding sport activity, the relative influence of these in relation to the broader school activities on participants is not known. environment is critical to understanding Finally, the Wave I dataset is from 1994- how sport activities can be intentionally 1995, so the different school- and managed to facilitate positive cross-race individual-level variables may not be relations among students. Future research representative of the current population. should be directed to not just understanding However, since the focus of this analysis what effects sport can influence, but also was the on the effect of these variables on the context, conditions, and processes that friendship heterogeneity, not estimating contributed to this process. their distribution across the population, these findings are applicable to present-day Acknowledgement administrators. This research uses data from Add Health, a Recent public protests and riots in program project directed by Kathleen Baltimore, Ferguson, and New York Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard underscore mounting racial tensions in the Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen United States. Despite notions of a post- Mullan Harris at the University of North racial America, it is clear that race continues Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant to segregate social networks. As one of the P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy most influential settings in adolescent Shriver National Institute of Child Health development, schools offer a unique and Human Development, with cooperative opportunity to shape the racial perspectives funding from 23 other federal agencies and of future generations. Understanding how foundations. Special acknowledgment is due different mechanisms structure social Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle relations in these settings is critical to for assistance in the original design. No promoting positive cross-racial contact and direct support was received from grant P01- friendships amongst this demographic. HD31921 for this analysis. Sport is the most popular extracurricular --- activity among students, and has become a popular tactic for administrators to promote racial integration in schools. However, the References effectiveness of sport is not inherent. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Although sport activities may promote Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. cross-racial friendships in certain instances, these effects must be understood within the Bergerson, A. A. (2003). Critical race theory context of important social and structural and white racism: Is there room for

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Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Jones et al., 2016 91 Adaptation of First Generation Immigrants in the United States. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(3), 379- 413. Tonts, M. (2005). Competitive sport and social capital in rural Australia. Journal of Rural Studies, 21(2), 137-149. Turner, R. N., Hewstone, M., Voci, A., Paolini, S., & Christ, O. (2007). Reducing prejudice via direct and extended cross-group friendship. In W. Strobe, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (pp. 212–255). Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press. Watkins, N. D., Larson, R. W., & Sullivan, P. J. (2007). Bridging intergroup difference in a community youth program. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(3), 380-402. Weber, M. (1957). The theory of social and economic organization. Glencoe, Il: Free Press. Winograd, K. (2011). Sport biographies of African American football players: The racism of colorblindness in children’s literature. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 14(3), 331-349.

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Tables

Table 1

Mixed-Effects Regression Model 1

Effect B (SE) t Intercept .137 (.05) 3.01** Individual

Bonacich Centrality .043 (<.01) 10.12*** SES -.005 (<.01) -4.90*** Female -.003 (<.01) -1.12 Black -.020 (.01) -1.81 Hispanic/Latino .072 (.01) 6.63*** Other/Mixed .037 (.01) 3.25** Extracurricular Participation

Sport Only .001 (<.01) .30 Sport Combo -.018 (<.01) -3.91*** Academic Only -.011 (.01) -1.62 Performing Arts Only .009 (.01) 1.42 Other Only -.019 (.01) -2.72** Other Combo -.012 (.01) -2.09* Race*Extracurricular Participation

Black*Sport Only -.001 (.01) -.12 Black*Sport Combo .038 (.01) 4.21*** Black*Academics Only .007 (.01) .53 Black*Performing Arts Only .013 (.01) .96 Black*Other Only .021 (.01) 1.43 Black*Other Combo .023 (.01) 1.90 Hispanic/Latino*Sport Only .002 (.01) .22 Hispanic/Latino *Sport Combo .027 (.01) 2.96** Hispanic/Latino *Academics Only .003 (.01) .25 Hispanic/Latino *Performing Arts Only .008 (.01) .58 Hispanic/Latino *Other Only .028 (.02) 1.89 Hispanic/Latino *Other Combo .011 (.01) .86 Other/Mixed*Sport Only .006 (.01) .56 Other/Mixed *Sport Combo .019 (.01) 2.09* Other/Mixed *Academics Only -.010 (.01) -.73 Other/Mixed *Performing Arts Only .007 (.01) .51 Other/Mixed *Other Only .006 (.02) .40 Other/Mixed *Other Combo .000 (.01) .03 AIC -25289.0 BIC -25144.3 Pseudo R2 .219 Note 1: * denotes p < .05, ** denotes p < .01, *** denotes p < .001 Note 2: AIC of unconditional model = -17334.2

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Table 2

Mixed-Regression Model 2

Effect B (SE) t Intercept .093 (.05) 1.99* Individual

Bonacich Centrality .043 (<.01) 10.33*** SES -.005 (<.01) -4.86*** Female -.003 (<.01) -1.09 Black -.010 (.01) -1.31 Hispanic/Latino .069 (.01) 8.29*** Other/Mixed .046 (.01) 5.56*** Extracurricular Participation Number of Activities -.001 (<.01) -2.21* Proportion Sport .002 (<.01) .61 Size .000 (<.01) -2.80** Heterogeneity .122 (.01) 10.70*** Racial In-group -.038 (.01) -4.20*** Heterogeneity*Racial In-Group -.128 (.03) -4.22***

AIC -25464.3

BIC -25362.2

2 .220 Pseudo R Note 1: * denotes p < .05, ** denotes p < .01, *** denotes p < .001 Note 2: AIC of unconditional model = -17334.2

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Table 3

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of In-Group Proportions by Sport Type

Sport Black Hispanic/Latino Other/Mixed White Race Het Dance 1.13 (.15) .67 (.12) 1.65 (.19) .95 (.04) .92 (.04) Baseball .78 (.07) .61 (.04) 1.60 (.20) 1.06 (.03) .94 (.03) Basketball 1.74 (.10) .71 (.04) 1.72 (.25) .82 (.02) 1.06 (.03) Field Hockey .49 (.12) 1.27 (.41) 3.05 (.50) .91 (.09) .64 (.06) Football 1.51 (.12) .84 (.08) 1.74 (.21) .87 (.02) 1.06 (.05) Ice Hockey .34 (.10) .95 (.08) 2.95 (.67) 1.53 (.38) .76 (.06) Soccer .42 (.06) .67 (.22) 2.43 (.34) 1.13 (.06) .88 (.04) Swimming .60 (.07) .82 (.07) 2.15 (.31) .98 (.04) .95 (.05) Tennis .73 (.16) .53 (.14) 2.29 (.31) 1.10 (.12) .82 (.06) Track 1.79 (.22) .63 (.09) 2.06 (.38) .90 (.08) 1.05 (.04) Volleyball .95 (.09) .89 (.05) 1.89 (.27) .92 (.03) .95 (.05) Wrestling 1.51 (.71) .86 (.14) 2.08 (.23) .88 (.04) .90 (.05) Other Sport .73 (.13) .62 (.16) 1.86 (.19) 1.06 (.04) .90 (.04) Total .99 (.07) .77 (.04) 2.08 (.09) 1.01 (.03) .91 (.01) F 4.788 1.718 1.899 2.645 5.802 Sig. <.001 .057 .03 .002 <.001 n2 .036 - .013 .018 .038 Note 1: Figures reported as mean (SE)

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Appendices

Appendix 1

Full Mixed-Effects Regression Model 1

Effect B (SE) t Intercept .137 (.05) 3.01** School

Busing -.036 (.02) -1.89 Urban .029 (.01) 1.99* Suburban .023 (.01) 1.83 South -.017 (.01) -1.82 Public -.016 (.02) -1.01 School Size <.001 (<.01) 2.71** Relative Density .171 (.05) 3.19** Gender Segregation Index .119 (.08) 1.42 Grade Segregation Index .115 (.04) 2.75** Racial Heterogeneity .101 (.03) 3.53*** Teacher Heterogeneity -.025 (.03) -.95 Proportion In-group -.269 (.01) -21.32*** Individual

Bonacich Centrality .043 (<.01) 10.12*** SES -.005 (<.01) -4.90*** Female -.003 (<.01) -1.12 Black -.020 (.01) -1.81 Hispanic/Latino .072 (.01) 6.63*** Other/Mixed .037 (.01) 3.25** Extracurricular Participation

Sport Only .001 (<.01) .30 Sport Combo -.018 (<.01) -3.91*** Academic Only -.011 (.01) -1.62 Performing Arts Only .009 (.01) 1.42 Other Only -.019 (.01) -2.72** Other Combo -.012 (.01) -2.09* Race*Extracurricular Participation

Black*Sport Only -.001 (.01) -.12 Black*Sport Combo .038 (.01) 4.21*** Black*Academics Only .007 (.01) .53 Black*Performing Arts Only .013 (.01) .96 Black*Other Only .021 (.01) 1.43 Black*Other Combo .023 (.01) 1.90 Hispanic/Latino*Sport Only .002 (.01) .22 Hispanic/Latino *Sport Combo .027 (.01) 2.96** Hispanic/Latino *Academics Only .003 (.01) .25 Hispanic/Latino *Performing Arts Only .008 (.01) .58

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Hispanic/Latino *Other Only .028 (.02) 1.89 Hispanic/Latino *Other Combo .011 (.01) .86 Other/Mixed*Sport Only .006 (.01) .56 Other/Mixed *Sport Combo .019 (.01) 2.09* Other/Mixed *Academics Only -.010 (.01) -.73 Other/Mixed *Performing Arts Only .007 (.01) .51 Other/Mixed *Other Only .006 (.02) .40 Other/Mixed *Other Combo .000 (.01) .03

AIC -25289.0 BIC -25144.3 Pseudo R2 .219 Note 1: * denotes p < .05, ** denotes p < .01, *** denotes p < .001 Note 2: AIC of unconditional model = -17334.2

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Appendix 2

Full Mixed-Effects Regression Model 2

Effect B (SE) t Intercept .093 (.05) 1.99* School

Busing -.044 (.02) -2.24* Urban .029 (.02) 1.94 Suburban .028 (.01) 2.18* South -.018 (.01) -1.94 Public -.016 (.02) -.97 School Size <.001 (<.01) 2.77** Relative Density .191 (.06) 3.40*** Gender Segregation Index .122 (.09) 1.40 Grade Segregation Index .108 (.04) 2.50* Racial Heterogeneity .106 (.03) 3.61*** Teacher Heterogeneity -.014 (.03) -.51 Proportion In-group -.212 (.01) -16.86*** Individual

Bonacich Centrality .043 (<.01) 10.33*** SES -.005 (<.01) -4.86*** Female -.003 (<.01) -1.09 Black -.010 (.01) -1.31 Hispanic/Latino .069 (.01) 8.29*** Other/Mixed .046 (.01) 5.56*** Extracurricular Participation Number of Activities -.001 (<.01) -2.21* Proportion Sport .002 (<.01) .61 Size .000 (<.01) -2.80** Heterogeneity .122 (.01) 10.70*** Racial In-group -.038 (.01) -4.20*** Heterogeneity*Racial In-Group -.128 (.03) -4.22***

AIC -25464.3

BIC -25362.2

2 .220 Pseudo R Note 1: * denotes p < .05, ** denotes p < .01, *** denotes p < .001 Note 2: AIC of unconditional model = -17334.2

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An Examination of Equal Access in Athletic Programs Throughout Public High Schools in the United States

Rebecca R. Buchanan1 Eleanor Odenheimer2 Tanya R. Prewitt-White3 1Emory & Henry College 2Southern Methodist University 3Adler University

The mission of the U.S. Department of Education is “to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access” (www.ed.gov). As an extension of U.S. public education institutions, secondary afterschool programs involving physical activity are theoretically designed to enhance and support the educational mission of public schools. Yet, due to the hyper-commodification of youth sports, “equal access” in sport and physical activity is becoming increasingly limited to parameters grounded in highly competitive environments reflecting broader sport trends in society. An interesting paradox emerges in public school settings where the importance of physical activity for adolescents is also emphasized. However, in reality, the majority of public tax dollars funding extracurricular opportunities to be physically active are only for those who are highly competitive, physically literate and have the financial means to assist in the funding of their sport experiences. There are also issues related to gender in terms of who is being served. Therefore, it is important to examine how public resources relating to physical activity and health are being unequally allocated in the public school setting.

he mission of the U.S. Department access” (www.ed.gov). As an extension of of Education is “to promote student U.S. public education institutions, secondary T achievement and preparation for afterschool programs involving physical global competitiveness by fostering activity are theoretically designed to enhance educational excellence and ensuring equal and support the educational mission of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 99 public schools. Yet, due to the hyper- in a gendered, political economy within the commodification of youth sports, “equal sporting landscape. We center our access” in sport and physical activity is discussion on the nexus of economy, sport, becoming increasingly limited to parameters access, and gender. grounded in highly competitive environments reflecting broader sport A “Brief” History trends in society. An interesting paradox An old cliché states that you can’t emerges in public school settings where the understand the future unless you understand the importance of physical activity for past. This cliché has relevance to public adolescents is also emphasized. However, in education in the United States in relation to reality, the majority of public tax dollars how sport and physical education became funding extracurricular opportunities to be embedded as part of the educational physically active are only for those who are process. High school sports initially began highly competitive, physically literate and as a student led initiative to create have the financial means to assist in the opportunities for participation. As funding of their sport experiences. There interscholastic sports evolved into a more are also issues related to gender in terms of adult-directed and controlled experience, who is being served. For example, in the original mission and purpose focused on Virginia during the 2012-13 academic year, promoting “pure amateur sport”, which only 40% of females participated in high supported the educational mission of school athletics (NFSHSA, 2015; NCES, schools (NFHS, 2015b). Yet the rapid and 2015). The rates of participation are even intensified commercialization of sport in lower among Black and Latina females as advanced capitalist societies has permeated well as those from low-SES families educational institutions to the point that (Johnston, Delva, & O’Malley, 2007). engagement in sport often results in a Therefore, we argue that it is important hyper-commodified experience in which the to examine how public resources relating to teams and athletes are viewed as commercial physical activity and health are being products to be packaged and promoted. unequally allocated in the public school This section provides a brief overview of setting. For the purposes of this article, we this process beginning with the nineteenth will focus on gender inequity within high century. school athletic programs. To contextualize As a result of industrialization, the current issue, we discuss a brief history organized youth sports grew exponentially of sport and physical education in the between 1880 and 1920 (Rader, 2009). This United States, while focusing on the growth was due in large part to concerns commercialization of youth sport. As such, that young males were no longer being the hyper-commodification of sport results involved in productive work and moral

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 100 development at home or through body (Wuest & Fisette, 2015). Eventually, apprenticeships (Mechikoff, 2013). As more competitive athletic competitions items became available for purchase in the resembling modern day sport grew in marketplace, there was less interaction popularity and number. Justification for between young males and their fathers in sport participation throughout the urban settings where many fathers began nineteenth century included values working away from home. Of similar surrounding the benefits of concern was the lack of apprenticeship, competitiveness, health, manliness, and vocational-based opportunities that declined strength/power as related to religion as a result of societal reliance on machinery. (Anderson, 2010). During this time, laws were passed which At the same time that youth sport was extended the length of the school term from increasing in popularity, the field of physical four months to nine months and impacted education began to evolve. As an academic the age at which adolescents should attend field in higher education, there were school and enter the work force (14 and ongoing discussions regarding the pros and older) (Rader, 2009). In addition, there was cons of Swedish vs. German gymnastics a push by middle- and upper-class parents (Wuest & Fisette, 2015). During this time, for their children to further their educations professionals were also debating the to secure white-collar professions such as calisthenics system developed by Catherine doctors and lawyers. As a result of these Beecher. Discussions involved medical changes, youth spent more time with their professionals as well as physical educators peers in spaces unsupervised by adults. Of as they struggled to develop a solid additional concern was the ways in which theoretical framework specific to physical males could continue to maintain a strong, education (Mechikoff, 2013). physical, and aggressive presence in an According to Anderson (2010), the first increasingly industrialized nation in which interscholastic sports in public high schools physical dominance was not necessitated. were actually student-led and directed. After the Civil War, the Young Men’s Toward the end of the 19th century into the Christian Association (YMCA) offered 20th century, students formed the first classes in gymnastics and calisthenics to athletic associations as well as managed all generate interest among young men and to administrative aspects of competition such encourage males in their spiritual journeys as game schedules and finances. As football (Lumpkin, 2011). As part of the “muscular grew in popularity and a “win at all cost Christianity” movement, Luther Halsey mentality” took root, undesirable student Gulick Jr. stressed the foundation of a outcomes, such as a loss of academic focus, strong spiritual life was grounded in the and unethical behaviors, such as the “use of uniform development of both mind and ‘ineligible’ players,” resulted (Rader, 2009, p.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 101 114). In 1920, educators created the (Walsh & Giulianotti, 2007). This concept is Midwest Federation of State High School discussed in the next section. Athletic Associations (MFSHSA) to provide parameters and authority over Hyper-Commodification of Youth interscholastic sports. Specifically, the Sports purpose of the association was “to protect Over the past few decades, there has the athletic interests of high schools been a shifting cultural emphasis on sport in belonging to the various state associations society. This emphasis, largely focused on and to promote pure amateur sport” professional sports, has permeated (NFHS, 2015b, p. 18). In 1923, this institutions of higher education as well as organization was renamed to its current public high schools. Many would argue that name, the National Federation of State as a result, educational priorities have been High School Athletic Associations (NFHS, compromised as sporting endeavors 2015b). generate more publicity and revenue. The “comprehensive” secondary school According to DeSensi (2014), ideology evolved into an experience that The current status of intercollegiate continued to emphasize academics. athletics has experienced a However, vocational knowledge was also transformation in the role it appears to emphasized in addition to social values. have played throughout history to the Many leaders and social educators present time. The educational value of subscribed to the notion that extracurricular developing the body, mind, and spirit of activities such as sports could teach social students, has been transformed into values and also serve as a means to manage campus, state, regional, national, and student behaviors. Additionally, educators global entertainment, money making also believed that an esprit de corps could ventures, and spectacles. (p. 59) result in a more cohesive student body and The authors, along with others, argue that community as a whole. While social the emphasis now placed on professional as educators touted the benefits in relation to well as collegiate sports has compromised social development and a sport-for-all the mission and value of sports in public philosophy, school boards and communities high schools throughout the United States formed an ideology focused more on the (Budig, 2007). According to DeSensi and development of strong varsity programs. Rosenberg (2010), school and community Along with the expansion of competitive sports are more than ever before being varsity programs, increases in the intensified modeled after professional sports where market relations in sport have led to a athletes have become important hyper-commodification of youth sports commodities. Yet, in contrast to professional sports, school and community

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 102 sports are considered “amateur” and defined as “both the substantive increase in involve “those who participate and govern the range and number of goods that are at the youth, recreational, community, bought and sold as well as the international, and intercollegiate level” intensification of market understandings (Journal of Amateur Sport, n.d., para. 1). and attitudes towards sport itself” (Walsh & As one considers aspects relating to Giulianotti, 2007, p. 14). There are four hyper-commodification, it is important to main concepts related to this term: distinguish similarities and differences of 1) The transformation of clubs and this term as related to commodification. systems into corporations, According to Giulianotti (2015), 2) The emergence of large numbers of “commodification” can be described as the highly paid sportspeople, “process by which an object or social 3) The advent of large scale advertising practice acquires an exchange value or and merchandising in sport, and market-centered meaning” (p. 250). A 4) The ‘venalisation’ of the ethos of similar definition states that sport commodification is “the transformation of a (Walsh & Giulianotti, 2007, p. 14) thing with only use-value to a good with The first concept, “the transformation of both use-value and exchange-value” (Walsh clubs and systems into corporations”, & Giulianotti, 2007, p. 12). From a more revolves around a sporting industry in critical viewpoint, commodification in sport which the moral atmosphere has shifted to a can also refer to social structures in which concern with profits over any other “the individual is viewed and treated as an considerations (Walsh & Giulianotti, 2007, object to be manipulated, bought, and sold” p. 14). Impersonal, corporate entities of (DeSensi & Rosenberg, 2010, p. 13). For power, often on a globalized scale, have those who subscribe to a philosophy of replaced what were once local community amateurism, commodification in sport is clubs and organizations. The involvement problematic because it compromises goals of wealthy investors as well as media such as the pursuit of excellence and the corporations provides an additional layer of intrinsic value derived as a result (Walsh & influence in relation to the hyper- Giulianotti, 2007, p. 14). commodification process. The connection Although some may argue that with this concept begins long before commodification and the exchange-value in students enter high school. The emergence sport has always existed, Walsh and of professional training facilities and year- Giulianotti (2007) argue that the term round travel teams for youth is indicative of “hyper-commodification” provides a more a shift in which adult-directed athletic accurate description of modern sport. The endeavors have a targeted financial goal in term “hyper-commodification” can be mind. The targeted financial goal for year-

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 103 round travel teams is a college scholarship 2014). Young athletes are learning and being for the athletes, which in turn benefits told that college coaches are not going to parents. This goal also provides credibility their high school games because the coaches for coaches in relation to fees charged for will have to wade through the talent. their services. The targeted financial goal for Instead, they are most likely to recruit at professional training facilities, such as larger venues such as AAU basketball indoor batting cages, is ensuring a tournaments, legion baseball and tennis consistent revenue stream through open tournaments where the talent is more encouraging year-round participation. plentiful (Drotar, 2015). The issue is Interestingly, the single sport year-round complex in that many of the privatized model does not align with research programs require an even greater financial indicating that there are greater benefits to and time investment than required of high diversification (Lumpkin, 2011). school programs. Therefore, many parents The next aspect to consider is the want to take full advantage of their “emergence of large numbers of highly paid investment. The result in terms of a lack of sportspeople” (Walsh & Guilianotti, 2007, equal access is two-fold. First, athletes p. 14). Prior to the 1960s, athletes were whose families have financial capital to pay often loyal to the communities and teams for more specialized coaching and training they represented and vice versa. However, expertise are more likely to earn positions the professionalization of sport has led to a on their high school teams instead of being breakdown of this loyalty in all respects. cut. Secondly, the result is a reproduction in Interestingly, a similar phenomenon has also high school sports of economic inequalities happened with students participating in high evident in larger society (Lumpkin, 2011). school sports. Instead of being loyal to the The third aspect relates to “the advent communities and teams where they attended of large scale advertising and merchandising elementary and middle school, some high in sport” (Walsh & Guilianotti, 2007, p. 14). school athletes move to a rival school with From stadium fences to game broadcasts, the rationale that the athletic program (not marketing, advertising, and merchandising academics) is better (Sondheimer, 2014). are a core component of modern sport. Their rationale is often based on the Although a mainstay for professional sports, premise that to earn a Division I merchandising opportunities in high school scholarship, they must attend the school sports have been explored with a mixture of with the best athletic program and coaching positives and negatives. As educational staff. Similar concerns are also evident in funding continues to be reduced, many high regards to loyalty of athletes and their school athletic programs are actively seeking families to club / AAU / travel teams over solutions to the funding deficits. One their high school teams (“What effect,” option is merchandise sponsorship through

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 104 companies such as Under Armour and (Sepulvado, 2014). In Florida, each team Nike. This option can provide substantial would receive $12,500 as an appearance fee funds and discounts for athletic equipment and another $25,000 in merchandising fees. and is considered a standard practice in However, some are concerned that this states such as California (Donaldson, 2013). would exploit the young athletes at a However, the result in some areas is a vulnerable time in their development. “keeping up with the Jones” mentality in In summary, this section has outlined athletic equipment and apparel where the shifting emphasis of sport in society as schools feel pressure to provide the same related to hyper-commodification. This shift high standard of quality as other schools in has not only impacted professional sports, their area. but also collegiate and high school sports. There is also additional pressure related The next section outlines participation to the contract in which the overall win-loss numbers and issues related to participation record in high school becomes paramount (or lack of). to continuing a contract with a particular apparel company. For those amateur Equal Access athletes who become professional, As referenced earlier, the U.S. sponsorship agreements can also be Department of Education’s mission is “to problematic. When athletes are contractually promote student achievement and obligated to a particular company, they may preparation for global competitiveness by have less control over their competition fostering educational excellence and schedules and other aspects of their lives. ensuring equal access” (www.ed.gov). This aligns with earlier definitions of Afterschool programs at public schools are commodification in sport where individuals provided as an extension of the educational become objectified in the quest for financial mission and therefore should provide equal gain (DeSensi & Rosenberg, 2010). access. Yet, an examination of 9th-12th grade The final aspect of hyper- athletic participation rates throughout commodification is “the ‘venalisation’ of the public schools in the United States indicate ethos of sport” (Walsh & Giulianotti, 2007, that in every state and the District of p. 14). Venalisation refers to a mindset Columbia, the rates are lower for females where money is the central focus and than males (Table 1) (NCES, 2015; NFHS, predominates all other considerations. “All 2015a) and in over half the states, female other considerations” include a lack of participation rates are less than fifty percent. concern for student-athletes. For example, A further understanding regarding how the some media companies are attempting to participation numbers are calculated reveals negotiate contracts to develop and televise even more imbalance. Participation high school football playoff games numbers are even less than indicated in

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 105 Table 1 because student-athletes who play illustrates this point in relation to sporting multiple sports are counted more than once. opportunities for females. There is an Therefore, one individual could be counted abundance of sporting opportunities three times if he or she played three sports available for females in comparison to during the academic year. Even more availability prior to Title IX. However, concerning are data indicating that certain Cooky (2009) points out that although the demographic subgroups of females engage number of opportunities has risen in lower rates of physical activity. Overall, significantly, the outcomes related to ethnic minority females are less active than participation are still linked with ideologies white females (Staurowsky et al., 2015). situated within competition and dominance. Latina females, the fastest growing female Yet many females (and some males) prefer ethnic minority group in the U.S., engage in an “atmosphere of cooperation in which less physical activity than any other major everyone achieves a common goal” as demographic subgroup (Larsen, Pekmezi, opposed to “an atmosphere in which the Marquez, Benitez, & Marcus, 2013). success of some is dependent upon the Another way to approach equal access is failure of others” (Buchanan, 2011, p. 25). in terms of outcomes associated with the According to Staurowsky et al. (2015), sporting experience. Are all students the enthusiasm exhibited by high school afforded equal access to a variety of females in physical education was outcomes other than just the win-loss dependent upon the types of offerings. For record or the type of sports in which they example, many preferred fitness-based participate? One important aspect to physical activity as opposed to sport units. consider in relation to female involvement The rationale provided included an in sport and physical activity is how females emphasis on health, fun, and something interpret their experiences and the meanings they could do beyond school. Research they derive as a result. This interpretive findings from the Tucker Center for process can greatly influence student choice Research on Girls and Women in Sport as related to their involvement (or lack of) found similar findings in that the most in sports. prevalent reason girls give for participating The overall quality of the experience in sport is having fun (Kane & LaVoi, can be diminished when there are “outcome 2007). These experiences mirror a “pleasure discrepancies” (Buchanan, 2011, p. 108). and participation” sport model as opposed Outcome discrepancies refer to “the to a “power and performance” model intended or preferred outcomes of (Coakley, 2015, p. 686). The power and participants as compared to the teacher, performance sport model, which coach, or other individuals in positions of encourages competition and dominance, has power” (p. 108). Research by Cooky (2009) historically been the most popular form of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 106 sport in the United States and appeals to organizations (Bourdieu, 1984)” (as cited in those in positions of wealth and power. In Odenheimer, 2012, p. 11). contrast, pleasure and participation sporting In athletic programs, social capital could models are not as often supported when refer to the type of sport a person chooses compared to power and performance based on his or her existing social models (Buchanan, 2011). This section has relationships. There are four aspects relating outlined issues with equal access as related to financial and social capital included in to participation numbers and varying this discussion. Those aspects relate to 1) experiences in terms of the overall outcome. athletic equipment, mileage, and gate fees, The next section continues this discussion 2) health insurance, 3) fundraising, and 4) in relation to economic and financial capital. alternate activities. In terms of financial capital, there are Financial / Social Capital various costs associated with athletic The hyper-commodification of equipment. The following numbers and professional and college sport has trickled information are based off expenditures of down into school sport to the point that it is one author whose son is currently playing becoming an extracurricular option mainly high school football. The initial costs for those with financial and social capital. associated with playing football at a high As Odenheimer (2012) stated, “economic or school in a rural area of Virginia includes financial capital refers to monetary assets the following: $80 for football cleats and and income. Socio-economic position partly $55 for a Spirit Pack which included shorts determines a person’s economic capital and a t-shirt required for two-a-day (Bourdieu, 1984) and thus what sports they, practices. During the parent meeting, the or their children, have access to” (p. 8). coach did point out that parents could That is to say, the amount of wealth and touch base with him in the event they were economic capital a person has impacts the unable to pay for the Spirit Pack. Prior to type of sports (e.g. sailing vs. running) the season beginning, there were also someone engages in and at what level of mileage costs related to summer practices participation (e.g. local vs. international). which athletes were expected to attend. Odenheimer (2012) went on to explain that, Once the season starts, there are mileage “people use their economic capital to costs related to driving to/from the school accumulate other forms of capital, namely on a daily basis to pick up students after social and cultural” (p. 8) and “in simplest practice. Additionally, the cost to attend terms, social capital refers to one’s social games ranges from $5-$6 / person, network or social relationships, formal or including children. Therefore, a family of informal, with other people, groups, or five would pay $20-$24 / week to support their son or daughter. Throughout the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 107 course of a month, the cost would be $80- and the coverage would be secondary to any $96 per month. If he or she was involved in other insurance (WCPS, 2015). Of the basketball or volleyball, there are often two various injuries which can occur, knee games per week which would then result in injuries rank among one of the most $160-192 / month. This does not include common. The cost for a knee injury costs associated with more than one child requiring ACL surgery and rehabilitation participating or driving to/from the home can be up to $17,000 (Frisch, Croisier, school and/or away games. Granted, Urhausen, Seil, & Theisen, 2009). families do not have to attend each game. Therefore, the cost for a family without Yet as indicated above, social capital insurance other than what is provided includes those in one’s social networks. As through the school would be $7,000. If a such, part of the modern-day era of family has a high deductible insurance plan, parenting for many middle and upper-class they could be responsible for the first families is that parents feel obligated to $10,000-$12,000, depending on the plan. support their children as “good” parents by Interestingly, on the same page that outlines being highly involved in all aspects of their insurance coverage, the student athletic sport participation, including being present handbook also states “there is a risk of for competitions, which is a physical serious injury which may result from athletic expression of social capital (Coakley, 2015). participation” (WCPS, 2015, p. 3). The second aspect of financial Due to concerns relating to sport inequality is related to health insurance. An injuries, those who lack good health HBO Real Sports episode recently insurance may be better off by participating highlighted collegiate student-athletes and in non-contact activities such as aerobics the medical bills they acquired as a result of and walking (Coakley, 2015), which injuries sustained in their respective sports connects back to the concept of economic (Real Sports, 2015). It is understood that capital and its impact on sport choice. injuries can occur at any point throughout However, many schools do not provide the season. However, similar to the concept funding for extracurricular options such as of worker’s compensation, many assume these. The result is that children who are that an injury an athlete sustains as part of not as socioeconomically advantaged are his or her school-sponsored involvement not afforded opportunities to participate in would be covered by the respective school any type of extracurricular physical activity, system. Yet further examination reveals that whether traditional sports or non-contact this coverage is very limited in high school. activities. According to one high school student The third aspect of financial inequality athletic handbook, there is a $10,000 is related to various fundraisers conducted maximum benefit to cover athletic injuries to raise money for the athletic program. In

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 108 the county where one author’s child attends brands, or products with schools and high school, discount cards to local teachers [or coaches], which are trusted restaurants are currently used as a main institutions and role models for children” fundraiser for various sports such as (p. 3). Advertising and promoting fast food football and baseball. Athletes are asked to directly contradicts school wellness policies sell 20 cards at a cost of $20 per card. The which limit fast foods being brought into assumption by school administrators, the schools. This represents yet another athletic directors, and coaches is that example of how advertising and student-athletes have enough social capital merchandising in sport on a large scale has in relation to one’s social networks or social permeated the amateur environment of high relationships to sell the cards. In some school athletics. instances, student-athletes are encouraged The fourth financial aspect to consider to sell a specified number of cards by a is the type of extracurricular opportunities certain date in order to be excused from a that may appeal to females. Many of the portion of the physical conditioning session. most popular physical activities for females This is problematic in that it mirrors the are not offered through public school common practice in some sports of systems and are limited to families with directing students to run as a type of financial resources. Due to the emphasis on punishment when they fail to perform traditional competitive sports, afterschool adequately in either practice or competition. opportunities to be physically active such as Yet in this particular instance, a lack of ballet, yoga, dance, gymnastics, archery, etc. acceptable performance is linked to issues are usually not offered. Interestingly, these relating to socioeconomic status and social are also forms of physical activity in which capital. In terms of hyper-commodification, females are often equal to or more this represents the venalisation of sport in physically literate than males. which money supersedes all other According to Whitehead (2010), a considerations (Walsh & Guilianotti, 2007). physically literate individual possesses the Another issue specific to the card fundraiser “motivation, confidence, physical is the focus on advertising and promotion competence, knowledge and understanding of eating at fast food restaurants. Along to maintain physical activity throughout the with associated costs of eating out, most lifecourse” (p. 5). This definition expands cards include discounts to dining what is often considered athletic establishments with limited healthy options. competence limited to traditional sports. According to the Center for Science in For example, Buchanan (2011) found that the Public Interest (2007), “school-based male students in a high school physical marketing adds credibility to marketing education class which included non- efforts by associating a company’s name, traditional sports were surprised to find that

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 109 females in the class were often equally or The Paradox of Sport Participation vs. more competent in certain sports such as Physical Activity (Why It Matters) archery. Yet involvement in these types of There is a plethora of research available activities often require financial capital as regarding the benefits of physical activity well as social capital and are not currently (Bocarro et al., 2014; Pangrazi & Beighle, offered as extracurricular options at most 2010; Ratey, 2008). Specifically for females, public high schools throughout the United a physically active lifestyle can lower the risk States. When alternate programs are offered, of breast cancer, illicit drug use, and instructors often volunteer their time or depression (Staurowsky et al., 2015). Yet a seek alternate ways of receiving recent report released by the Women’s compensation such as through grants or Sports Foundation indicates that in the sponsorships. United States, only 25% of females age The inequalities included in this section eleven and under are getting the are directly influenced by the power and recommended levels of physical activity performance ideology which “explains and (Staurowsky et al., 2015). According to the justifies economic inequalities as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention natural order of things” (Coakley, 2015, p. (CDC) (2015), youth ages 6-17 should have 66). Broader than actual sport participation, 60 minutes of physical activity each day. Yet many dominant political ideologies are by age 15, levels of physical activity drop to reproduced through sport. Just as much of 17%. This trend is continuing even though the U.S. political arena is influenced by required health and physical education money, so too are high school sports. Those classes stress the importance of physical who have more financial capital have greater activity on a regular basis. Recent research access and influence than those who do not. also indicates that along with health For example, a recent analysis of high benefits, physical activity provides school athletics in North Carolina found significant neurological benefits, which can that the number of state championships was positively impact the learning process higher in schools with lower free and (IOM, 2013; Ratey, 2008). According to the reduced lunch percentages (Stevens, 2015). Institute of Medicine (2013), incorporating The meritocratic ideology often goes physical activity throughout the school day unquestioned and results in less can influence the success of academic participation by those with financial endeavors. Pontifex et al. (2013) also found limitations. The next section offers insight that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise into an interesting paradox in public schools positively impacts students diagnosed with regarding sport participation vs. physical ADHD, which contributes to their on-task activity. behavior and academic success in the classroom.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 110 Due to research regarding the Athletes are often asked to follow the “no importance of physical activity, federal pain, no gain” philosophy to win at all costs. legislation was passed to support initiatives However, research indicates that the in public schools. For example, as a result healthiest types of physical activity are of the Child Nutrition and WIC (Women, noncompetitive and rhythmic (Buchanan, Infants, and Children) Reauthorization Act 2011). of 2004, all U.S. school districts receiving Another paradox arises when federal funding for school meals were considering intramural sports offerings in required to develop and implement relation to varsity sports. In contrast to comprehensive wellness policies (Pangrazi interscholastic varsity sports, which limit & Beighle, 2010). The policies were to be participation and are highly competitive, approved and in place by the 2006-2007 intramural sports offer a more inclusive academic year and were specifically designed alternative. Research has indicated that to address nutrition and physical activity. schools with intramural sports programs Although many schools included references and policies have higher student to a range of opportunities to be physically participation rates than those which offer active, the majority still relies on traditional only varsity sports (Drake et al., 2015; sports programs as a way to comply with Kanters, Bocarro, Edwards, Casper, & the federal legislation. For example, one Floyd, 2013). The intramural sports model county’s wellness policy states “students provides opportunities for students who shall be given opportunities for physical may have lower levels of physical literacy activity through a range of after-school which limit their opportunities to participate programs” (Wellness program, n.d., p. 10). on varsity sport teams even though they still Yet the after school programs involving enjoy traditional sports such as basketball. physical activity at the high school level are The intramural sports model also provides limited solely to the competitive sports options for students interested in athletic teams. As a result, public funding is being experiences beyond traditional competitive used for coaches and predominantly male sports. students who are more physically literate in Yet intramural programs are often traditional sports than their peers. dependent upon a school’s “size, budget, This continuing trend is disturbing and geographic location” (Drake et al., given the benefits of physical activity, 2015). There are obviously great benefits to regardless of the competitive or non- those who participate in high school sports. competitive nature of the activity. Herein However, if there are also benefits to being lies the paradox. As referenced earlier, physically active unrelated to the competitive sport brings the inherent risk of competitive varsity sports model, then how injury that can range from mild to severe. can public schools continue to justify using

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 111 public dollars to support only a small extracurricular offerings in public schools. segment of the student population focused The expansion should include consideration on a power and performance model? for varying levels of physical literacy, accommodating gender preferences for Conclusion activities as well including types of Research regarding involvement in experiences from broader, more diverse youth sport and physical activity highlights perspectives. For example, research has benefits derived as part of participation. indicated that in some instances, students Those benefits include improved self- are more physically active in an intramural confidence and self-esteem (Wann, Belva, sport setting in contrast to an interscholastic Armstrong, Weaver, & Ladd, 2015). sport setting (Bocarro, Kanters, Edwards, Directly related to academic endeavors are Casper, & McKenzie, 2014). In efforts to data indicating that there are significant enable sport to be a more inclusive space neurological benefits specific to academic with learning and engagement of our youth achievement when students are physically as the paramount goal, the authors suggest active (IOM, 2013; Ratey, 2009). Yet due to considerations for program implementation the hyper-commodification of sport, many which challenges the “win at all cost students are not afforded equal access to mentality.” Suggestions include physical activity in public high schools opportunities informed by child throughout the United States. According to development research such as the Aspen Wiggins (2013), modern day youth sports Institute’s Sport and Society Program have evolved into “a system that places Project Play (www.aspenprojectplay.org). more importance on winning than a sound Other suggestions include after school educational experience” (p. 72). In a similar opportunities modeled after programs such fashion, DeSensi and Rosenberg (2010) as Girls on the Run (www.girlsontherun), state Ready, Set, Run (www.nays.org), and If a main program objective is to GoGirlGo! provide sport for all, then limitations on (www.womenssportsfoundation.org). participation cannot be coherently and Rather than focusing on winning, these ethically sustained. Similarly, the types programs provide a different type of of activities offered, the quality of experience in which physical activity is instruction and supervision, and the combined with an educational component ways in which programs are funded fall or character-based curriculum. Given the within the realm of social responsibility. plethora of benefits associated with a (p. 10) physically active lifestyle, a reconsideration Recommendations for change include of resources in the public school setting providing funding to expand the current

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 112 should be a priority in the realm of public education. ---

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Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 115 Rader, B. G. (2008). American sports: From the Sepulvado, J. (2014, October 17). In age of folk games to the age of televised context: The big business of high sports (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, school sports. Marketplace Economy. NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Retrieved from Ratey, J. J. (2008). SPARK: The revolutionary www.marketplace.org. new science of exercise and the brain. New Walsh, A. & Giulianotti, R. (2007). Ethics, York, NY: Little, Brown and money and sport. New York, NY: Company. Routledge. Real Sports. (2015, March 24). The Wann, D. L., Belva, B., Armstrong, S., wreckage. Retrieved from Weaver, S., & Ladd, S. (2015). http://www.hbo.com/real-sports- Investigating the impact of team with-bryant-gumbel/episodes/0/216- identification on the willingness to episode/synopsis/march-on-real- commit verbal and physical sports-with-bryant-gumbel.html. aggression by youth baseball Sondheimer, E. (2014, August 14). spectators. Journal of Amateur Sport, Unfortunately, changing schools is 1(1), 1-28. the norm for prep athletes. Los WCPS (2015). Student Athletic Angeles Times. Retrieved from Handbook.Wellness program (n.d.) http://www.latimes. com/ Retrieved from sports/highschool/la-sp-transfers- http://www.wcs.k12.va.us sondheimer-20140803-column.html. /sites/default/files/district/healthwe Staurowsky, E. J., DeSousa, M. J., Miller, K. llness/regulations.pdf. E., Sabo, D., Shakib, S., Theberge, What effect do AAU/travel ball teams have N., Veliz, P., Weaver, A., & Williams, on sport participation at the high N. (2015). Her Life Depends On It III: school and middle school level? Sport, Physical Activity, and the Health (2014). JOPHERD, 85(7), 46-47. and Well-Being of American Girls and Whitehead, M. (Ed.). (2010). Physical literacy: Women. East Meadow, NY: Women’s Throughout the lifecourse. New York, Sports Foundation. NY: Routledge. Stevens, T. (2015, July 25). Analysis finds Wiggins, D. K. (2013). A worthwhile effort? ties between wealth, winning in NC History of organized youth sport in high school sports. The News and the United States. Kinesiology Review, 2, Observer. Retrieved from 66-75. http://www.newsobserver. Wuest, D. A. & Fisette, J. L. (2015). com/sports/high- Foundations of physical education, exercise school/article28720411.html science, and sport (18th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 116 Tables Table 1

U.S. Public high school enrollment numbers and athletic participation rates (2012-13)

State Total Total Percent Male Male Sports Percent Female Female Sports Percent Enrollment Participation Enrollment Participation Enrollment Participation Grades 9-12 Alabama 217,203 91,965 42% 110,518 61,833 56% 106,685 30,132 28%

Alaska 38,420 22,037 57% 19,732 11,882 60% 18,688 10,155 54%

Arizona 321,634 126,219 39% 164,237 73,839 45% 157,397 52,380 33%

Arkansas 138,428 49,807 36% 70,145 30,987 44% 68,283 18,820 28%

California 1,965,168 777,545 40% 1,008,790 456,317 45% 956,378 321,228 34%

Colorado 246,051 130,891 53% 125,626 72,667 58% 120,425 58,214 48%

Connecticut 170,245 118,067 65% 87,460 61,667 71% 82,785 49,390 60%

Delaware 38,022 27,684 73% 19,209 15,634 81% 18,813 12,060 64%

District of 17,577 3,440 20% 8,527 2,178 26% 9,050 1,262 14% Columbia

Florida 799,602 243,397 30% 406,066 138,969 34% 393,536 104,428 27%

Georgia 481,043 193,722 40% 243,352 116,779 48% 237,691 76,943 32%

Hawaii 51,069 33,735 66% 26,440 19,842 75% 24,629 13,893 56%

Idaho 82,631 45,148 55% 42,395 26,100 62% 40,236 19,058 47%

Illinois 624,679 339,944 54% 318,519 200,270 63% 306,160 139,674 46%

Indiana 316,329 152,577 48% 160,244 91,094 57% 156,085 61,483 39%

Iowa 144,784 140,939 97% 74,607 83,584 100%+ 70,177 57,355 82%

Kansas 137,855 103,649 75% 70,639 62,547 89% 67,216 41,102 61%

Kentucky 193,961 99,233 51% 99,424 53,919 54% 94,537 45,314 48%

Louisiana 186,111 100,405 54% 92,907 60,961 66% 93,204 39,444 42%

Maine 57,815 53,634 93% 29,732 28,858 97% 28,083 24,776 88%

Maryland 256,836 125,431 49% 130,635 71,798 55% 126,201 53,633 42%

Massachusetts 287,506 221,628 77% 145,832 124,467 85% 141,674 97,161 69%

Michigan 492,272 304,438 62% 251,729 174,429 69% 240,543 130,009 54%

Minnesota 262,041 230,421 88% 134,437 120,109 89% 127,604 110,312 86%

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 117 Mississippi 133,809 110,417 83% 66,753 66,756 100%+ 67,056 43,661 65%

Missouri 270,370 172,722 64% 138,658 103,745 75% 131,712 68,997 52%

Montana 42,089 31,746 75% 21,752 17,902 82% 20,337 13,844 68%

Nebraska 88,073 77,107 88% 45,371 45,894 100%+ 42,702 31,213 73%

Nevada 131,953 43,471 33% 67,043 26,092 39% 64,910 17,379 27%

New 60,805 44,434 73% 31,408 23,833 76% 29,397 20,601 70% Hampshire

New Jersey 400,875 270,423 67% 202,954 158,052 78% 197,921 112,371 57%

New Mexico 97,242 47,571 49% 49,821 26,247 53% 47,421 21,324 45%

New York 825,972 389,475 47% 419,073 215,447 51% 406,899 174,028 43%

North 438,375 210,186 48% 223,725 124,299 56% 214,650 85,887 40% Carolina

North Dakota 30,116 25,291 84% 15,401 14,681 95% 14,715 10,610 72%

Ohio 518,617 327,919 63% 264,139 194,330 74% 254,478 133,589 52%

Oklahoma 176,812 99,794 56% 90,288 56,593 63% 86,524 43,201 50%

Oregon 178,239 98,638 55% 91,848 56,915 62% 86,391 41,723 48%

Pennsylvania 557,464 315,492 57% 285,823 169,198 59% 271,641 142,294 52%

Rhode Island 44,672 28,854 65% 22,838 16,567 73% 21,834 12,287 56%

South 208,648 96,465 46% 107,071 61,436 57% 101,577 35,029 34% Carolina

South Dakota 37,267 28,052 75% 19,122 16,195 85% 18,145 11,857 65%

Tennessee 281,971 107,075 38% 143,739 68,795 48% 138,232 38,280 28%

Texas 1,387,513 798,333 58% 711,511 484,030 68% 676,002 314,303 46%

Utah 169,077 59,134 35% 87,050 35,011 40% 82,027 24,123 29%

Vermont 27,557 14,719 53% 14,214 8,049 57% 13,343 6,670 50%

Virginia 375,975 174,518 46% 193,085 101,081 52% 182,890 73,437 40%

Washington 327,134 164,998 50% 168,204 93,918 56% 158,930 71,080 45%

West Virginia 80,673 36,091 45% 41,302 21,079 51% 39,371 15,012 38%

Wisconsin 265,682 192,400 72% 136,544 113,020 83% 129,138 79,380 61%

Wyoming 26,243 19,286 73% 13,439 10,949 81% 12,804 8,337 65%

Total 14,710,505 7,713,577 52% 7,513,378 4,490,854 60% 7,197,127 3,222,723 45%

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Buchanan et al., 2016 118

College Athletics Spending: Principals and Agents v. Arms Race

Rodney Fort University of Michigan

It is widely held that collegiate athletic directors are trapped in an expenditure arms race. But the arms race explanation completely omits the actual consideration of the university budgeting process. In its place, the arms race logic imposes strained assumptions about the cooperative setting and the naïveté of university administrators, along with a curious distinction of one type of revenue to reach its conclusions. And the interpretation of the data on spending and benefits from college sports has not been done particularly well in the past. This paper presents an alternative principal-agent explanation that is based on the observed actual financial (budget) relationship between university administrators and their athletic department and consistent with the entirety of the aggregate-level data on college athletics finance. Empirically discerning between the two models is crucial since each generates decidedly different policy implications.

t is commonly held that college athletic spending on college academic programs. directors (ADs) are trapped in an And inherent in that observation is that I expenditure arms race. This arms race such spending is in excess of the value explanation (ARE) is so pervasive that it is created. now invoked casually in academic work and This paper offers an alternative invoked in nearly every policy discussion of principal-agent explanation (PAE) on college athletics spending. The direct observed college athletics spending. Where evidence taken in support of an arms race is the ARE ignores the university budgeting rapidly escalating spending compared either process entirely, instead choosing to cast to the general increase in prices or (and ADs trapped in an arms race via a set of especially) compared to increases in assumptions, the PAE is based directly on

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 119 the actual relationship between university the PAE is in operation, following the administrators (UAs) and their ADs. dictates of the ARE and cutting spending The inspiration for this line of thinking can only reduce the values that college came from two distinct literatures. Early sports creates 1) across campus, 2) for on, there was a rejection of the ARE of college sports consumers, and 3) for predator-prey interaction in behavioral students competing in college sports. biology (Abrams, 1986). Later, Weingast & This is not to argue that the level taken Moran (1983) and Weingast (1984) rejected as given in this comparison is necessarily the models following Niskanen (1971) that cast socially preferred level. However, that level “runaway” bureaucrats in control of their should be determined by its values and own spending. costs, not some possibly incorrect view that Of course, if strained assumptions give whatever level is determined, the process at us the most analytical leverage over the the university will result in spending that is observed outcome of college sports then too high to achieve it. Determining which they may be worth it. However, the PAE explanation, ARE or PAE, is in operation is also turns the ARE observation that college essential to hitting whatever is the agreed sports are a net drain on the university upon target of college sports output. budget on its head. Budget allocations by This paper proceeds as follows. In UAs to the athletic department are not “bail Section II, the ARE as it currently is applied outs” but, instead, comparatively small to college sports spending is presented. The investments in values across the rest of descriptive PAE is offered in Section III. campus that both suit UA objectives and Section IV summarizes the comparison of cover their costs. the empirical veracity of the alternative Whether the ARE or the PAE is explanations. Policy implications operative is critical because each dictates accompany the conclusions in Section V. entirely different policy approaches. For any given level of college sports output, the The Arms Race Explanation ARE dictates that wasteful spending is Edwards’ (1984, p. 7) reference to an occurring to achieve that level. The policy athletic arms race in the recruiting and prescription is to cut the wasteful spending development of college athletes is the and still achieve the same level of sports earliest I could find but an overview of just output. On the other hand, for that same the most recent college sports “issues” level of college sports output, the PAE journals reveals that the ARE is often now dictates that the budget of the athletic simply taken for granted. Weight, Navarro, department, including the infusion of funds Huffman, & Smith-Ryan (2014, p. 394), in from the university budget, is sufficient to their paper on shifting governance and the insure that level of sports output for UAs. If

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 120 value of participation, provide the most KCIA), and in popular media reports. The extensive statement: earliest statement I could find among this This formal governance shift is variety of adherents puts it clearly enough troubling to some who believe it will (KCIA, 2001): hasten the arms race of extravagant The most glaring elements of the expenditures…The arms race of problems outlined in this report – expenditures represents a win-at-all- academic transgressions, a financial arms costs phenomenon wherein athletic race, and commercialization - are all administrators outspend one evidence of the widening chasm another…The arms race has been between higher education's ideals and pursued at all levels of intercollegiate big-time college sports… [Italics athletics but some of the most added.] detrimental effects of the spending are A time-series cross-section sample of the most clearly evident at the Division I pervasiveness of this acceptance since then Power Five level… [Italics added.] is KCIA (2009, 2010a, 2010b); Women’s In that same journal, just in the most recent Sports Foundation (2008); Fuoco (2010); volume, similar use of the arms race as a Stafflord (2010); Gurey (2014), and Drake motivation for research is in Brewer, Group (2015). McEvoy, & Pops (2014, p. 76); Sanderson, Analytical support of this view followed Hardin, & Pate (2014, p. 127); Huml, a few years later when KCIA commissioned Hancock, & Bergman (2014, p. 425); and Frank (2004) to provide an academic Cooper, Cavil, & Cheeks (2014, p. 325). treatment (general economic coverage of Some of these cite the earlier work by arms races can be found in Arce & Sandler, Tsitsos & Nixon (2012) and Weight, 2005, and Dixit, 2006, and their extensive Weight, & Schneider (2013). Moving to the reference sections). Frank started his most recent issue of other sports “issues” presentation with what is surely the clearest journals, the list grows to include Sagas & motivation of the ARE, Shubik’s (1971) Wigley (2014, p. 49); Lanter & Hawkins dollar auction game. An auctioneer (2013, pp. 87-88); Staurowsky, Murray, enforces a non-cooperative setting with no Puzio, & Quagliariello (2013, p. 111-112); talking among participants. Then the Sparvero & Warner (2013, pp. 123, 136); auctioneer holds up a dollar bill and and Hoffer & Pincin (2016, p. 84). announces that it will be sold to the highest The ARE is also now gospel at the bidder and that the auctioneer will also collect the National Collegiate Athletic Association bid of the second highest bidder. The result is (NCAA), among watchdogs like the Drake over-bidding relative to the size of the prize. Group and the Knight Commission on Since the second highest bidder will receive Intercollegiate Athletics (henceforth, nothing in return, it is always in their best

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 121 interest to raise the bid even when the Frank (2004) concludes that if all bidding exceeds one dollar. I can personally athletic departments were to simultaneously attest that the game produces precisely this reduce and cap spending, exactly the same result having used it for years myself as a college sport outcomes would be achieved, teaching device. in quantity and in quality. Then KCIA Chair Frank (2004) then makes the William Friday (President Emeritus, UNC- assumptions required and applies Shubik’s Chapel Hill) said of Frank’s findings (KCIA, (1971) logic directly to collegiate sports 2004), “His study points to the need for an spending. College sports are assumed a non- overall ‘stand down’ in the athletic funding cooperative endeavor and Frank (2004) pays ‘arms race.’” particular attention to the naïveté of UAs in estimating the probability of obtaining The Principal-Agent Explanation future values. Frank (2004) also assumes This section presents a descriptive that all are chasing a fixed revenue prize and model of the PAE. A model is just an all are spending to chase it. According to abstraction that can be compared in its Frank (2004), in such a setting it should be explanatory value to other models. In true expected that more would be spent than the economic fashion, the model here is neither value created by college sports. The over- heavily documented nor judged closely by spending is pure waste since the same prize its bearing on reality (although my limited could be had with less spending. experience suggests it does so). Indeed, Frank (2004) offers empirical support of the those interested in testing the model in ways ARE in two steps. First, he shows that the different from the tests in this paper may typical athletic department result is spending succeed in replacing it with something else. in excess of “generated” revenues. But for now, the model offered here offers “Generated” revenues include everything both interesting insights and alternative except the direct allocation by UAs from policy prescriptions. the general university budget to the athletic While there will be variations, a department budget. This latter allocation is generally descriptive model of UAs and typically referred to separately as ADs can be based on the following “institutional support”. Second, he surveys elements of the observed nature of their the work of others at the time and environment. ADs operate in their concludes that the returns college sports university structure, their conference generate across the rest of the university structure, and as one of the representatives (on-field success, student applications, or of their university to the NCAA. In this general giving to the university) cannot setting, the relevant actors are UAs and cover “institutional support”. their overseers (e.g., board of regents) and ADs. The process could be easily extended

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 122 to include conference commissioners and This operational environment suggests a NCAA administrators. All care about setting that is well known to economists, income and upward mobility that, in turn, namely, UAs are “principals” to the enhances their future welfare. In the context “agents” in departments across campus of their environment, enhanced welfare (Ross, 1973; Jensen & Meckling, 1976). The depends upon the performance of their agents are academic leaders and non- respective organizations in the eyes of their academic leaders like ADs. The president of hierarchical overseers. the university in consultation with the board However, and this is a critical of regents (most typically, but with some component, there can be areas of conflict exceptions) controls the AD’s employment between the goals of UAs and the self- and pay subject to market forces and the interested pursuits of ADs. The welfare of costs of monitoring. Along this well-known UAs depends on the performance of their line of reasoning, UAs have every incentive agents along well-known dimensions— to create and manage institutional designs research, teaching, and service. While the that harness the self-interested behavior of definition of research and teaching are ADs to the enhancement of UA welfare. transparent, service may not be. Members This is the essence of the PAE. of the university are engaged in free If output is predictable and observable outreach, information to the press and at discrete points in time, direct, hierarchical participation in press events, and monitoring is possible and effective. If not, entertainment. On the latter, some might incentive compatible devices where the think of fine arts offerings, especially music agent shares in specified, direct ways (e.g., and dance. College sports are clearly another profit sharing) may prove more effective. In entertainment, also offered by members of the university case, apparently output is the university. predictable and observable since UAs The ability of UAs to overcome handle all of their principal-agent conflicts with their agents in the provision relationships through hierarchical oversight of research, teaching, and service will with only trivial incentive compatible depend on two things. First, ADs will mechanisms (e.g., performance bonuses to consider the net value of independent ADs). UAs organize the university into action that is possibly detrimental to the departments so as to facilitate the welfare of UAs; the higher that net value, comparative advantages of each department the more often UAs will expect ADs to along the lines of research, teaching, and attempt that independent course of action. service as well as to facilitate monitoring. Second, the costs of monitoring to UAs will The athletic-academic department temper the oversight mechanism choice and design comparison is as follows. All of the the level of that oversight. assistant coaches in a given sport are

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 123 specialists in different areas just like at least, and demotion or unemployment at individual faculty on the academic side (e.g., most, when they don’t. in football, strength and conditioning, Some doubt the power that overseers position coaches, offensive and defensive have over UAs or, in turn, the power that coordinators). These specialists are UAs have over ADs because of observed organized under the head coach similar to major oversight breakdowns such as the an academic department and its chair. The Southern Methodist University football collection of sports is organized into the program death penalty imposed beginning larger unit, the athletic department, similar with the 1988 football season or the recent to schools or colleges on the academic side. Penn State sexual predator scandal. But the To keep the analogy truly complete, we PAE explains this contingency—as long as could refer to this as the “school of monitoring is costly, and overseers act athletics” since, at the top of the athletic economically, there will be some department, the AD is the equivalent of an transgressions that will not be caught until academic dean (at least in terms of oversight after the fact (if at all). We can all wish that and authority). The AD has associate ADs it were not so, but it is. So just finding to handle the day-to-day operations of the holes in any oversight process is not department, freeing the AD to see to fund evidence against the PAE. And focusing on raising and external relations for the athletic the holes misses the greater point—by and department. The AD answers to the large the oversight process works. President (rather than the Provost on the If ADs do not contribute to UA goals, academic side) and up the ladder to the or if the athletic department becomes costly board of regents and governor. to the university in embarrassing ways, then The ultimate result of this principal- UAs have recourse. For one, budget agent structure is money and political allocations to the athletic department can support that is useful to UAs pursuing their simply be reduced. Numerous examples goals. Services from all areas of the where ADs reduced their budgets to meet university flow out, under the three major university-wide reduction mandates by UAs headings of research, teaching, and service, during the recent economic downturn are and money and political support come back presented by Cross (2015). Experience also to UAs. In turn, hierarchically, through reveals that budget cuts occur even without Deans and directors, including athletic financial exigency. At the limiting extreme, directors, UAs allocate rewards back to there are interesting current and historical departments. As is the typical principal- observations where King Football has agent result, agents including ADs are simply been closed down altogether by rewarded when they contribute to UA goals UAs. But a careful case-by-case reading and face the prospect of reduced resources

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 124 shows that it was never going belly-up in an that this had anything to do with being arms race that was the cause. pushed to absurd spending levels and finally Historically (tracking through the throwing up their hands a la the ARE. college football conference listings at the There also are other dramatic actions respected sports-reference.com), 6 Football familiar to all who follow collegiate sports Bowl Subdivision (FBS, Division I-A prior that can be taken by UAs. Episodes of to 1978) football programs have been unsatisfactory performance and AD firings abolished—University of Chicago in 1939, or forced resignations are well known and Villanova in 1980 (although it returned a program quality blind. Just recently at two few years later at the Football college sports icon programs, ADs David Championship Subdivision, or FCS, level), Brandon (Michigan) and Steve Patterson CSU-Long Beach, CSU-Fullerton, and (Texas) began searches for new University of the Pacific in the 1990s, and employment. Some might argue that the Alabama-Birmingham in 2014. The Ivies sway of coaches over the process is being and a few departments from the Southern glossed over. But if they hold such sway, it’s Conference and Southland Conference also interesting that the good ones change jobs moved to the FCS in 1981. often and are seldom happy with the actions Football was abolished at 54 FCS of their UAs (historically, Bear Bryant; colleges (Division I-AA prior to 1978) recently, Urban Meyer). And let’s not forget starting in the 1920s and the most recent that their tenure is beholden to their UAs— examples prove instructive of what causes a nice way of putting that they also are fired this at this level of play. UAs at on a regular basis. Northeastern University cut its football As with all things, not all departments program in November of 2009 and UAs at are equally adept at each of the research, Hofstra University followed suit the next teaching, and service areas and an effective month. The official stance at Northeastern organizational structure would take this into was, “The decision is consistent with the account. Among academic departments, university's strategic approach to prioritize some are more about teaching and others programs and invest in signature strengths” are more about research. Compared to (ESPN.com News Services, 2009a). At academic departments, the mix is different Hofstra, UAs stated flatly that football was still for the athletic department. Although eliminated because of a general lack of arguably there can be a research mission, interest among students and alumni, and a there clearly is teaching (student athletes desire to spend the money to greater populate the coaching ranks and advantage on academic programs professional sports). But athletic (ESPN.com News Services, 2009b). No departments truly shine in service public mention can be found in either case (entertainment).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 125 The PAE also puts an entirely different Members of the athletic department, spin on “institutional support”, that is, the from the AD through the associate ADs, on budget allocation to the athletic department. down to coaches and assistants, and finally First, from the PAE perspective, all the athletes themselves, provide revenues to the athletic department are entertainment services enjoyed by millions. “generated,” some at the gate and The returns to UAs include the direct attendance related (parking and money payment that comes through the concessions), some from TV, some from tuition component of grants-in-aid to booster contributions (alumni and others), athletes. More typically, the benefits not and still others in terms of the budget found in the athletic department bottom allocation from the university. It is rational line include (Fort & Winfree, 2013): for UAs to allocate these rewards to highest • Greater giving by alumni and other possible return among all departments boosters to the general university including the athletic department. Second, fund. there is no difference in the purpose of • A larger and better set of student budget allocations to the academic side and applicants. the allocation to the athletic department. All • Favorable general budget treatment “agents” compete on the basis of their by legislators. relative success in the eyes of their UA • Better faculty and administrators. principals. Athletic departments receive Value added to athletes, some of who their share, as do all departments, through a • would not be at the university competitive budgeting process at the without athletics. university level. The upshot of all of is a set of questions One final note concerns the actual whose answers can separate the PAE from functioning of budgeting. In all of the the ARE that are addressed in the next deliberations that lead to the final budget section: decisions of UAs, the purpose of the 1. Do ADs operate in a non-cooperative allocation is completely clear. As they do in setting? all areas, UAs are attempting to see to the 2. Are UAs and ADs naïve? funding of an athletic department of 3. Is it tragic to come in second? optimal size and scope for their purpose. 4. Does spending always rise to meet revenues? UAs then expect all departments to spend 5. Does the value created by the athletic their entire budget to make good on the department across the university provide a promises made during the battle for their reasonable return on the instutional support budget share. As in all units on campus, it is investment? expected that spending should equal all revenue, including the UA allocation.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 126 Arms Race or Principals and Agents? economically competitive urges that cannot Do ADs operate in a non-cooperative be controlled by members in conferences setting? alone. The member institutions of the While incentives can be in conflict at NCAA created the amateur requirement, the university, cooperative behavior recruiting restrictions, required letters of abounds at all levels of college sports intent, the one-year sit out rule, and all rules organizations. Examples include AD governing practice time. The office of the cooperation through their conferences in President of the NCAA enforces these determining membership, setting schedules rules. and rules, hiring officials, and designing Given this extensive structure of conference championships. Cooperation of cooperation, it simply strains any sense of this nature is required in order to define and reality to suppose that ADs and their UAs brand conference play. Cooperation act non-cooperatively. through conferences also results in conference TV contracts to the economic benefit of its Are UAs and ADs naïve? members and, more recently, the creation of Frank (2004) simply states that UAs are conference sports networks (e.g., the ACC naïve, based on findings in unrelated Network, Big Ten Network, the SEC research that some people have been observed to be Network, and the Pac-12 Networks). naïve in some situations. However, to date, Moving up one level, in all sports except nobody has actually analyzed whether or FBS football, ADs cooperate through their not this is true of actors in collegiate sports conferences and on up to the NCAA to and there is plenty of prima facie evidence determine national champions. The College to the contrary. All UAs and ADs “come up Football Playoff that determines the FBS through the ranks;” they must satisfy national champion is also a marvel of relentless selection mechanisms. The result cooperation among “Power 5” conference of such intense selection would typically be commissioners that represent their participants keenly aware of their individual conference members (Atlantic environment and well trained for the job at Coast Conference, Big 12, Big Ten, hand. Southeastern, and Pacific-12), the sports UAs are seasoned administrators and network ESPN, and bowl organizers. observers of the collegiate sports scene. The NCAA controls applications to ADs are astute students of business, many advance to higher divisions. The NCAA are lawyers, and all cut their teeth on the also is a cooperatively designated marketing collegiate sports scene. While first hand manager of many sports properties (videos, management at the top level will be new to image use in video games). Finally, the all at first, and mistakes are human, the idea NCAA is used cooperatively to reduce the that they are naïve seems far-fetched.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 127 None of this would appear to the The UAs and ADs at these 8 recent entrants knowledgeable observer of sports would all have to fall into the same trap management personnel to suggest any under the ARE; that they were about to naiveté at all. jump in to a long-established arms race situation, destined for tragedy. Is it tragic to come in second? There is nothing at all to suggest that There is nothing at all to suggest that the fundamental underpinning of the ARE, the fundamental underpinning of the that is, coming in second is truly tragic, ARE—that is, coming in second is truly characterizes college sports spending. tragic—characterizes college sports spending. “Tragic” in the ARE context Does spending always rise to meet means that all bidders pay but only one earns revenues? any return. While it is true that there is only The PAE tells us ADs should spend all one conference champion, and only one of their budgets, including allocations from subsequent national champion, this is not UAs, so that revenues equal expenses. “winning” in the ARE sense. All of the rest There would be no reason to expect any of the ADs also generate revenues and budget deficits other than for the usual kudos for their competitive performances. mistakes under uncertainty because these Life is pretty good even for coaches and would be in nobody’s best interest. It ADs at FBS institutions that seldom win should be noted in passing that annual their conference championship, let alone see operations ignore the possibility of an arms post-season play. Nearly all of the athletic race in capital, a possibility raised by Orszag departments in Table 1 come in “second” & Orszag (2005a, 2005b). But the spending nearly all the time but the revenue results arms race is taken at large as a general appear to be far from tragic (shortly, it is explanation of spending. made clear that there is nothing special The NCAA commissions an ongoing about 2013-14 in this regard). survey of operating revenues and expenses Indeed, there is demand to enter the top for athletic departments in the different levels of competition where the arms race divisions of college sports (most recently, should be most heated, rather than avoid it. Fulks, 2015). The data are presented in two Four schools earned bona fide FBS forms in the original documents, the median membership in 2013—South Alabama, report (average report before 2004) and the Texas State, Massachusetts, and Texas-San largest report. In any given year, neither of Antonio. Four more will establish full FBS these reported aggregates necessarily membership rights in 2015—Old matches up to the same athletic department; Dominion, Appalachian State, Georgia the average revenue reported does not Southern, and North Carolina-Charlotte. necessarily come from the same athletic

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 128 department that reports the average correlation between revenues and expenses expenditure. But the NCAA finds this type is 0.97. Unlike their “average” counterparts, of characterization of “average” and “large” the “largest” athletic departments don’t programs useful so it is carried along here spend quite everything they bring in, but it Simply combining the revenue and is close. The interesting dip in reported expense data for the FBS into Figure 1 (I largest spending from 2001-2003 and the first found this useful in Fort, 2010) slighter deviation over the last five years presents an aggregate picture of collegiate could do with further analysis. Expenses sport revenues and expenses that is entirely exceed revenues only once in 1997 by 0.2 consistent with the PAE, but not the ARE. percent. First, at the average report through 2003, In passing, it is easy to see why some revenues and expenditures both grew at the might view the increase in spending with same 4.6 percent real (inflation adjusted) alarm. The real annual growth rate in annual rate. At the median report from 2004 spending just noted at both the “average” on, revenues and expenses grew at the same and “largest” reports are large relative to the 5.6 percent real annual rate. Second, the typical real growth rate in the economy. correlation between revenue and expenses They are also large relative to the growth in during the period of average reports is 1.00 spending on the academic side. However, and 0.99 during the period of median worries about some form of collapse appear reports. Essentially, “average” athletic misplaced (Fort, 2010). The real annual departments have enjoyed tremendous growth rate in the average report of revenues, revenue growth and spend every dollar they of course, matches the growth in expenses. bring in. Consistent with the budget process on It is difficult to make any call on “net” which the PAE is based, the median- and revenue since the revenue and spending largest-reports show ADs spending all of reports are not necessarily from the same their revenue, including institutional department. In addition, there can be as support. Of course, this level of aggregation much as a decade between the earliest begs a more disaggregated examination. reports (an examination across individual That may be had using the USAToday departments appears below). In any event, (2015) data on individual department the largest excess of spending over revenue revenues and expenditures. This is a data is 3 percent in 2014, at the median reports base of high integrity, generated by of the two. Freedom of Information Act requests of For the largest reported values, the real individual athletic departments. annual growth in revenues and expenses The results are in Tables 2 and 3. (both are reported from 1985 on) is 5.5 Immediately, the correlations in Table 2 percent and 5.1 percent, respectively. The across all FBS departments tell the same

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 129 story as the correlations over time for the an alternative test and the associated median and largest reports in Figure 1. empirical work. Essentially, departments spend every dollar they take in and this is true despite the Does the value created by the athletic broader variation from negative net department across the university provide revenues to positive. The only possible a reasonable return on the instutional exception would be 2005-06, when support investment? Oklahoma State recorded the largest Frank (2004) read the literature on non- contribution in the entire data set, revenue values from college sports one way, $211,023,155, nearly twice the next largest on a few dimensions (on-field success, (Oregon, $124,927,474 in 2013-14). When student applications, or general giving to the that outlier is removed, the correlation university), and found them small at best. climbs again to the usual level in Table 2, Without any formal comparison, he 0.983. concluded that such small returns did not As one would expect in cross-section, justify the level of institutional support. there is substantial variation around either Fort & Winfree (2013, Chapter 3) detail the mean, median, or mode in any year. how Frank’s appeal to past work on the While the mode is always $0, only more values of college sports at the university was detailed analysis of the position of every cursory at best. The latest data available to department in the distribution over time can them was for 2010-11, and for “Automatic tell the story from that perspective on the Qualifier” (AQ) schools at the time of the propensity to break even. However, data reviews. The AQ schools included revealed in Table 3, between 21% and 33% what is now the FBS Power 5 plus the Big of the departments are within a quarter of a East Conference. There were 54 AQ reports million dollars of $0 in any of the tabled in the popular source they used. The Power years. 5 would of course be the object of future Granted, revenues equal to expenditures analysis at this level. They demonstrate that could also be consistent with some other the tuition part of the grant-in-aid to model of college sports outcomes not student athletes that is paid to the university compared here. For example, Hoffer, provides ample return in all but six AQ Humphreys, Lacombe, & Ruseski (2015) cases. model athletic department spending and For those remaining six, values across find that athletic departments spend all the rest of the university did not have to be revenue and practice “non-price” very large, relative to the institutional competition in their spending decision. But support investment, in order to generate this paper is long enough and a test of other even a 5 percent return. A similar exercise models awaits both the specification of such revealed that the proportion of the rest of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 130 the FBS departments that needed to rely on values may be small, in total the direct the values across the rest of the university money payment via the tuition portion of was larger than for the AQ case. However, grants-in-aid, plus the values across the rest the level of these values required to generate of the university, are large enough to justify a reasonable return was only an issue at a the institutional support investment made very few schools. In addition, and contrary by UAs. to some perceptions, the FCS ADs actually All of this is completely consistent with run their programs much more on a break- the level of institutional investment even basis, program by program, than do generating sufficient return consistent with their FBS counterparts. the PAE but not with the ARE. Fort and Winfree (2013) also show that the variety of values created across the rest Conclusions and Policy Observations of the university was much broader than The principal-agent explanation Frank (2004) examined, even in the outperforms the arms race explanation both literature available to him at the time of his in terms of its description of the actual writing. For example, the survey and process (rather than strained assumptions) extension in Goff (2004) revealed a broader and in its application to data on college array of values as well as some work touting spending outcomes. As always, one study higher values than those found by Frank never decides any issue and additional work (2004). In addition, Fort and Winfree exploring these competing explanations is in (2013) point out that work since then has order. revealed that this value is also much higher Formal development of the rigorous than Frank concluded. implications of the principal-agent Humphreys & Mondello (2007), Tucker explanation is surely needed in order to (2004, 2005), Tucker & Amato (2006), and hone empirical propositions on college Smith (2008) showed values from giving to sports. The explanation should also be the university rather than just the athletic tested in other arenas. For example, the department. Tucker (2004, 2005) also found same type of data on revenue and expenses football success increased the SAT scores of are available for Division II and Division entering freshmen and enhanced graduation III. Similar analysis to that done here for rates. Humphreys (2006) found that FBS FBS universities can be done there in order football participation generated an 8 percent to determine whether a principal-agent larger annual state appropriation than those explanation generalizes to college sports without such programs. It should come as where, ostensibly, big revenues appear not no surprise, then, that Fort and Winfree to be the goal. In another spending area, it (2013) reach the opposite conclusion of could be that arms race logic is operational Frank (2004). Even though each of the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 131 in other contexts such as capital investment behavior of their agents, revealing that the covered by Orszag & Orszag (2005b). stance of critics is not about oversight, but The principal-agent explanation should about the preferences of principals in the also be useful in university-athletics first place (Weingast & Moran, 1983, and relationships beyond just the spending Weingast, 1984). If so, there is no principal- outcome. Surely a catastrophic failure of agent problem. Instead, and completely oversight led to the tragic sexual violence legitimately, others can only disagree with scandal at Penn State and the complete the preferences, not the process. This is capture of the university vis a vis athletics in especially insightful to those constantly the SMU football death penalty episode. monitoring the mix of university outputs. But the principal-agent logic also adds But there are important policy another consideration for the reform- observations in this context as well. If the minded, namely, assessing how to improve oversight process were working effectively, those monitoring processes. then instead of reducing waste, spending If it stands later scrutiny, the principal- cuts and caps would produce a social loss. agent explanation offered here changes the This loss would be in the form of reduced focus of policy intervention from remedies values created across the rest of the aimed at outcomes, like spending reductions university, reduced satisfaction for those and caps, to institutional design. One that enjoy the games, and, paradoxically, important lesson from application of this reduced satisfaction and future earnings for explanation to bureaucratic processes is that those students whose participation in principal-agent mechanisms afford college sports would be reduced. This may principals chances to credit-claim and or may not be what critics seek, but it will blame-shift (Weingast & Moran, 1983; be true nonetheless. Weingast, 1984). On this dimension, blame This is not to argue that the level of shifting could be the explanation for survey college sports output is necessarily the reports by university administrators that socially preferred level. However, that level they “feel powerless” to change collegiate should be determined by its values and sports (Knight Commission on costs, not by applying an arms race view Intercollegiate Athletics, 2009). This claim that whatever level is determined, rings hollow in the face of a history replete overspending will occur. Determining which with examples of them doing just that, but explanation is in operation, arms race or is consistent with blame shifting. principal-agent, is essential if the institution Another important principal-agent of college sports is to produce whatever is institutional design lessons is that effective the agreed upon level of college sports oversight can generate complete alignment output. between the preferences of principals and the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 132 According to the principal-agent explanation, if there is any problem with the level of athletic spending, it will be found in the “slack” in these levels of oversight—the choice of the level of spending on athletics by UAs is not at the level preferred by their overseers and/or there is a fundamental weakness in the oversight relationship between UAs and their AD principals. From the principal-agent perspective, one might see spending run away, but it is not “runaway spending” resulting from an arms race. And altering spending (after all, ineffective oversight might also allow overseers to underspend on athletics) would be only part of the remedy. Without meaningful reform of the oversight process itself, any problem with the level of spending will not be solved. For example, while hierarchical monitoring and oversight work for academic deans, perhaps there are better approaches with ADs. Other incentive compatible approaches may be more valuable to university administrators, on net. ---

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Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 136 http://www.ajc.com/sports/college- the psychological benefits of sports-arms-race-273700.html. intercollegiate athletics participation. Staurowsky, E.J., Murray, K., Puzio, M., & Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, Quagliariello, J. (2013). Revisiting 7, 390-409. James Madison University: A case Weight, E.A., Weight, M.A., & Schneider, analysis of program restructuring R.G. (2013). Confronting the arms following so called “Title IX” cuts. race: Conference commissioner Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 6, 96-119. perspectives on spending within Tsitsos, W., & Nixon, H.L. (2012). The Star intercollegiate athletics. International Wars arms race in college athletics: Journal of Sport Management, 14, 441- Coaches’ pay and athletic program 461. status. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, Weingast, B.R. (1984). The congressional- 36, 68-88. bureaucratic system: A principal Tucker, I.B. (2004). A reexamination of the agent perspective (with applications effect of big-time football and to the SEC). Public Choice, 44, 147- basketball success on graduation rates 191. and alumni giving rates. Economics of Weingast, B.R., & Moran, M.J. (1983). Education Review, 23, 665-661. Bureaucratic discretion or Tucker, I.B. (2005). Big-time pigskin congressional control? Regulatory success. Journal of Sports Economics, 6, policymaking by the Federal Trade 222-229. Commission. Journal of Political Tucker, I.B., & Amato, L.T. (2006). A Economy, 91, 765-800. reinvestigation of the relationship Women’s Sports Foundation. (2008). between big-time basketball success Dropping men's sports - The and average SAT scores. Journal of Division I football/basketball arms Sports Economics, 7, 428-440. race is the culprit in the cutting of USAToday (2015). NCAA finances. men's Olympic sports: The Retrieved from foundation position. Retrieved from http://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/fin http://www.womenssportsfoundatio ances. n.org/home/advocate/title-ix-and- U.S. Department of Education Office of issues/title-ix- Postsecondary Education (2015). positions/football_basketball_arms_r The equity in athletics data analysis ace. cutting tool. Retrieved from http://ope.ed.gov/athletics. Weight, E., Navarro, K., Huffman, & Smith-Ryan, A. (2014). Quantifying

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Tables Table 1

Top 25 Revenues, 2013-14

Department Total Revenue Texas (Big 12) $161,035,184 Alabama (SEC) $152,588,651 Ohio State (Big Ten) $143,718,564 Michigan (Big Ten) $135,869,791 LSU (SEC) $132,828,429 Oklahoma (Big 12) $129,220,692 Wisconsin (Big Ten) $124,928,916 Auburn (SEC) $120,699,075 Florida (SEC) $118,860,545 Penn State (Big Ten) $117,590,993 Notre Dame (Indep) $114,843,522 Stanford (Pac 12) $110,240,490 Southern California (Pac 12) $106,528,649 Iowa (Big Ten) $105,508,954 Florida State (ACC) $104,420,339 Tennessee (SEC) $103,542,112 Georgia (SEC) $103,495,587 Minnesota (Big Ten) $100,707,642 Washington (Pac 12) $100,275,186 South Carolina (SEC) $98,439,097 Kansas (Big 12) $97,681,067 Arizona (Pac 12) $97,630,769 Arkansas (SEC) $96,793,972 Nebraska (Big Ten) $94,797,692 Kentucky (SEC) $92,842,049

ACC 1 Big 12 3 Big Ten 7 Indep 1 SEC 9 Pac 12 4 Total 25

Source: Total revenue data are from U.S. Department of Education Office of Postsecondary Education (2015).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 138

Table 2

FBS Net Revenues and Descriptive Statistics, 2004-05 through 2013-14

Year NOBS Bottom Dept Top Dept Ave Dept Median Dept S.D. Cor(TR,TE) 2004-05 98 -$7,887,618 Cal $23,854,329 Georgia $1,036,137 Colo. St. $212,796 E. Mich. $3,796,348 0.984 2005-06 97 -$10,328,595 Houst. $161,063,918 Ok. St. $2,925,221 Ohio St. $283,016 C. Mich. $16,791,840 0.849 2006-07 97 -$9,448,172 Iowa St. $15,669,822 Florida $1,489,534 Colo. St. $315,605 Akron $4,460,433 0.988 2007-08 97 -$6,206,372 N. Texas $19,470,624 Auburn $2,039,345 S. Carol. $472,461 LA-Laf. $4,232,118 0.991 2008-09 98 -$20,029,043 Ok. St. $20,309,228 TA&M $531,060 S. Carol. $50,755 UTEP $4,097,565 0.990 2009-10 99 -$6,903,058 N. Texas $44,538,251 Oregon $3,065,298 Ore. St. $527,994 W. Mich. $7,022,244 0.982 2010-11 98 -$8,374,016 Flor. St. $23,398,586 KS St. $2,999,663 Utah St. $1,245,060 Utah $5,302,547 0.990 2011-12 98 -$16,261,224 Missouri $37,910,104 TA&M $2,348,193 BGSU. $553,646 LA-Mon. $7,211,448 0.982 Flor. 2012-13 102 -$7,993,152 Colo. $27,168,637 Alabama $2,594,777 Atl. $361,951 Maryland $6,136,687 0.990 VA 2013-14 104 -$13,714,440 Wash. St. $85,651,966 Oregon $3,175,279 Tech $427,851 Ohio $10,468,298 0.969 Source: USAToday (2015). Notes: The mode of the distribution of net revenues is always $0. Departments listed for the average and median are the ones closest to those values. Besides the following exceptions, the “Contributions” category was always less than $50,000: Oklahoma St., $211,023,155 (2005-06); Oregon, $73,809,775 (2009-10); Texas A&M, $53,388,379 (2011-12); and Oregon, $124,927,474 (2013-14).

Table 3

Distribution of FBS Net Revenues, 2004-05 through 2013-14

Year NOBS (Bottom, -$250K) (-$250K, $0) $0 ($0, $250K) ($250K, Top) (-$250K, $250K) 2004-05 98 20% 6% 7% 19% 47% 33% 2005-06 97 29% 3% 4% 13% 51% 21% 2006-07 97 21% 6% 6% 14% 53% 27% 2007-08 97 21% 6% 6% 9% 58% 22% 2008-09 98 34% 4% 8% 16% 38% 29% 2009-10 99 14% 7% 11% 11% 57% 29% 2010-11 99 14% 6% 6% 12% 62% 24% 2011-12 99 21% 3% 7% 11% 58% 21% 2012-13 102 24% 10% 5% 9% 53% 24% 2013-14 104 19% 5% 9% 14% 53% 28% Source: Author’s calculations on the data cited in Table 2.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Fort, 2016 139

Figures

Figure 1

Operating Revenues and Expenses (2009)

Source: From the NCAA revenues and expenses data, most recently Fulks (2015). Notes: Largest Reported Total Revenue omits 2006 ($260.7 million $2009). In personal correspondence, the NCAA Research Department reported it was due to a very large gift. However, that should have nothing to do with annual operations.

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What would the political philosophers do? An exploration of ideological perspectives on ‘athlete-centered’ reform

Kadence Otto Western Carolina University

In this paper I explore how the values inherent in the political philosophies of libertarianism, capitalism, utilitarianism, and egalitarianism are manifest in big-time college athletics reform which places athletes’ rights as its highest value. The initial intent of the paper focuses on the use of Marx and Engels’ dialectical materialism as a way of framing the historical relationship between the NCAA and the athletes. Next, I turn to the main thrust of the paper which is to utilize the ideological inquiry approach to explore the overarching values inherent in the perspectives of John Locke, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls in an attempt to see more clearly how their perspectives are manifest in ‘athlete-centered’ reform. Lastly, I put forth that, based on the values inherent in the perspectives of the political philosophers, ‘athlete-centered’ reform begins with liberty for the athlete, which is assured by right, just, and democratic institutions, and is secured by an athlete association.

olitical economy…belongs to moral Adam Smith instructs that morality philosophy… and is considered as a should guide leaders as they make decisions P branch of the science of a statesman that profoundly affect the well-being of a or legislator…to provide a plentiful society. For this paper, “a society” is revenue or subsistence for the defined as the National Collegiate Athletic people…or to enable the people to Association (hereinafter, “NCAA”) member provide a revenue or subsistence for themselves. (Adam Smith, Wealth of institutions in the power five conferences Nations in Morrow (Ed.), 1969, p. 60) (ACC, SEC, Big 10, Big 12, and PAC 12) and Notre Dame as an independent in

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 141 football. “The leaders”, as Smith points out, political philosophers are manifest in are those in positions of power (the NCAA ‘athlete-centered’ reform. and its members as a governing collective) who have the solemn duty to morally Theoretical Foundation: Dialectical legislate. Because the play of the athletes Materialism (primarily male athletes in the sports of A historical exploration of moral values football and basketball) is the product calls for an awareness of the economic, which the schools, conferences, and NCAA political, social, and religious context and an commercially exploit by way of television understanding of the process of change. contracts, gate receipts, and merchandise Change, according to Hegel, is grounded in sales, to what degree is morality guiding the ideas; namely, “every idea…bred its leadership in their decision making such that opposite and the two merged into a the athletes are provided a revenue or are synthesis which in turn produced its own enabled to provide a revenue for contradiction…and history was…the themselves? While the power five expression of this flux of conflicting and conferences have made recent progress on resolving ideas” (Heilbroner, 1967, p. 129). this front (i.e., voting to increase the Marx and Engels refined Hegel’s work scholarship to cover the full cost of realizing that in order to understand the attendance (Hosick, 2015)), it is fruitful to process of change, and to actually affect explore the overarching values that are change, history needed be interpreted from manifest in an ‘athlete-centered’ college the perspective of dialectical materialism. sports system. Toward this goal, I explore “Dialectical because it incorporated Hegel’s how the values inherent in the political idea of inherent change, and materialism philosophies of John Locke, Adam Smith, because it grounded itself not in the world John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls are of ideas, but…the social and physical manifest in reform which places athletes’ environment” (Heilbroner, 1967, p. 130). rights as its highest value. To begin, Marx Dialectical materialism, then, focuses on and Engels’ dialectical materialism is how capitalism (thesis) is socially and presented as a way of framing the historical economically untenable (antithesis) and how relationship between the NCAA and the a fundamentally different system emerges athletes. Next, I utilize the ideological when the workers gain class consciousness inquiry approach to explore the overarching and overthrow the owners (synthesis) (Marx, values inherent in the political philosophies 1932, p. 10, in Eastman (Ed.)). Here, Marx in an attempt to see more clearly said values and Engels revealed that “…socialism was are evident in ‘athlete-centered’ reform. no longer an accidental discovery of this or Lastly, by way of model creation, I discuss that ingenious brain, but the necessary the ways in which the values held by the outcome of the struggle between two

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 142 historically developed classes—the nearly $1 billion (NCAA Membership, 2015; proletariat and the bourgeoisie” (Engels, NCAA Consolidated Financial Statements, Socialism: Utopia and scientific, in Tucker (Ed.), 2014). Even before its founding, however, 1972, p. 622). the economic interest in college sport In the same sense, and on the topic of existed when, in 1852, the prize for winning this paper, the existing NCAA system is also a rowing match between Harvard and Yale socially and economically untenable. Indeed, “was a pair of expensive black-walnut oars” it is safe to say that the process of big-time and “no one complained that…a railroad college sports reform has not always been a owner sponsored the event” (Smith, 1985, rational attempt to achieve justice and p. 223; Smith, 1993, p. 432). With Harvard fairness; rather, it has been a relationship of and Yale leading the charge, in the early strife wherein the NCAA has sought to 1900’s, Harvard spent $300,000 to build its maintain the status quo and athletes and football stadium and Yale followed “…by reformers have sought to change it. This constructing a stadium with a seating relationship is untenable because it capacity of 75,000…” (Sack & Staurowsky, embodies a contradiction wherein the 1998, p. 31). By 1908, concerned that economic interests of the NCAA and the athletes would exploit their talent for pay athletes are fundamentally at odds. To give during the summer, Amos Alonzo Stagg of the reader a sense as to how the material the University of Chicago supported the dialectic frames and informs this development of a definition of amateurism. relationship, the historical narrative that In fierce opposition to such a restriction, follows underscores the ongoing economic J.P. Welsh of Pennsylvania State University strife between the NCAA and the athletes stated, “The student in good collegiate and reformers who seek to change the standing…needs to be let alone in the full, system. free, untrammeled exercise of his American citizenship, which entitles him to life, liberty The NCAA System through the Lens of and the pursuit of happiness, which Dialectical Materialism sometimes means money” (Hawes, 2000, Founded in 1906 as a way to curb the para. 32). Despite such protest, in 1916, violence in football, in 1910 the NCAA members agreed to insert a Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the definition of amateurism into its bylaws: United States became the National “An amateur athlete is one who participates Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in competitive physical sports only for the (Crowley, 2006). With just 39 colleges and pleasure and the physical, mental, moral and universities in its impetus, the non-profit social benefits directly derived therefrom” NCAA currently has more than 1,200 (Hawes, 2000, para. 35). members and boasts an annual budget of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 143 With World War I having ended, college aid standards; unfortunately, adherence was sports were becoming an integral part of short-lived as the competition to secure the higher education as a business operation most talented athletes proved too great with expanding stadiums, national radio (Byers, 1995). broadcasts, and extensive travel (Smith, By the 1950’s, with higher education 2000). So too, the locus of control over transitioning to the business-model, college athletics shifted “…from an activity corporate language began to permeate the that was internally controlled for internal walls of the academy; students became purposes to an activity that had the customers, and academic programs became entertainment of external constituents as its products (Sack, 2008). As institutions began purpose” (Gerdy, 1997, p. 32). By 1922, the to adopt a more entrepreneurial model, they NCAA was already modifying its definition realized that athletics was an effective way of amateurism to read: “An amateur to promote and market the product of sportsman is one who engages in sport higher education (Stoke, 1954). Further, solely for the physical, mental, or social with Americans enraptured by the benefits he derives therefrom, and to whom television, colleges had the perfect mode the sport is nothing more than an through which to sell their product. Sack avocation” (Sack & Staurowsky, 1998, p. (2008) refers to this period as the era of 35). And, in 1929, The Carnegie Foundation “academic capitalism” wherein “…high- issued a scathing report of college football profile athletic teams are presumed to give noting that rampant professionalism, universities an edge in attracting new commercialization, and exploitation were students, creating revenue streams, corrupting college sports and, by extension, and…enhancing a university’s brand…” (p. academic institutions (Savage, Bentley, 48). McGovern, & Smiley, 1929). With television contracts propelling the Prior to the end of World War II, NCAA’s revenue stream into the millions, President Franklin Roosevelt enacted the the colleges realized that they had to unite Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944 on the issue that college sports still were (i.e., the “G.I. Bill”) (Reimann, 2004). With only for ‘amateurs’. So, in 1956, “colleges, the massive influx of male students, many acting through the NCAA in the name of of whom were athletes, college football ‘amateurism,’ installed their own pay system realized a direct benefit. As competition to called the athletics grant-in-aid or athletics recruit the best athletes increased, under- “scholarship” (Byers, 1995, p. 65). The fear the-table payments increased as well. In an was that the “…athletes could be identified attempt to reign in these excesses the as employees”; thus, the NCAA “…crafted NCAA passed the Sanity Code in 1948 the term student-athlete, and soon it was which aimed to establish uniform financial embedded in all NCAA rules and

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 144 interpretations as a mandated substitute for vital role in enabling … a product to be such words as players and athletes” (Byers, marketed which might otherwise be 1995, p. 69). In addition, NCAA rules unavailable” (Bd. of Regents, et al., 1984, p. capped financial inducements to athletes by 102). universities, limited player mobility through By 1998, the free market for coaches’ transfer rules, and in 1967 “the NCAA salaries broke wide open when assistant passed a rule allowing athletic scholarships coaches successfully challenged the NCAA’s to be taken away from athletes who restricted earnings rule (Law v. NCAA, 134 voluntarily withdrew from sports” (Sack, F.3d 1010, 10th Cir. 1998). Indeed, currently 2008, p. 70). This “fraudulent over 100 college football and men’s misrepresentation rule” gave coaches the basketball coaches earn $1 million or more authority to more easily get rid of unwanted (Nick Saban, head football coach at the players and it was no coincidence that the University of Alabama, tops the football list rule was passed “during the period when making more than $7 million/yr. and Mike athletes on some college campuses were in Krzyzewski, head men’s basketball coach at revolt” (p. 70). Duke University, makes $9.6 million/yr.) By 1981, NCAA television rights totaled (USA Today NCAA Salaries, 2015). With the $31 million/year; a 77% increase from 1977 free market operating for the NCAA, (Byers, 1995, p. 145). With so much money conferences, institutions, coaches, and to be had, in 1984, the colleges and athletic administrators, the athletes, under universities demanded the right to control the guise of ‘amateurism’, remained the lone the lucrative market of televised football party being denied the fundamental right to (NCAA v. Bd. of Regents of the University of be economically free. Oklahoma and University of Georgia Athletic Now, over a century later, the athletes Association, 104 S. Ct. 2948, 1984). While the are gaining class consciousness, recognizing NCAA lost the right to monopolize the that their relationship with the NCAA is football television market, Judge Bork’s economically untenable. In 2001, former comments in Bd. of Regents, et al. (1984) gave University of California Los Angeles considerable assist to the NCAA by (UCLA) football player Ramogi Huma solidifying the necessity of ‘amateur’ college founded the National College Players sports. Indeed, Judge Bork noted that in Association (NCPA) “to provide the means order to maintain the integrity of the for college athletes to voice their concerns product (i.e. amateur sports), the principle and change NCAA rules” (NCPA, Mission, of amateurism must be perceived as secure; 2015). One of the NCPA’s biggest victories and, this product integrity “cannot be came in 2006 when the court granted class preserved except by mutual agreement [of certification for football and men’s the colleges]…[t]hus, the NCAA plays a basketball players in White v. NCAA. White

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 145 argued that the NCAA and its members petitioned the National Labor Relations violated antitrust law by engaging in a Board to be recognized as employees under horizontal agreement to cap the financial aid the law (Region 13, Case 13-RC-121359, award. Ultimately, the suit was settled and Mar. 26, 2014). And Jenkins v. NCAA (2014) the NCAA was ordered to create a $10 seeks to allow athletes to sell their services million educational fund to assist athletes to universities in a free-market system (Case (NCPA, Victories, 2015). Stemming, in part, 3:33-av-00001, U.S. Dist. N.J. Mar. 17, from the athletes success in White, in 2006 2014). Additionally, faculty formed the late-president Myles Brand reaffirmed the College Athletes Rights and Empowerment NCAA’s position when he stated, Faculty Coalition in support of the athlete’s “‘amateur’ defines the participants, not the in their quest for justice (CARE-FC, 2015). enterprise”…the NCAA need “…not be Even the U.S. Congress took note, calling ambivalent about doing the business of two separate hearings pertaining to the college sports” (Brand, 2006, p. 1). relationship between athletics and But the athletes were just getting academics and the potential consequences started. In 2009, former UCLA basketball of athlete unionization (Senate Commerce, star, Ed O’Bannon filed a class action Science and Transportation Committee, lawsuit against the NCAA alleging antitrust 2015; Berkowitz, 2014). This brings us to violations in relation to ownership rights of the present day wherein, as a result of former athletes’ likenesses and images mounting legal, congressional, and (O’Bannon v. NCAA, C 09-03329, N.D. Cal., organizational pressure, NCAA institutions July 21, 2009). In 2013, the NCPA backed in the power five conferences passed a the Collegiate Student Athlete Protection measure, which allows schools to cover the Act (CSAP Act), which aimed to provide athletes’ full cost of attendance (Hosick, much needed protections for the athletes 2015). Is this concession free from moral (H.R. 3545, 2013). And in 2013, researchers contradiction? (Otto & Otto) offered assist when they The successes of the athletes are due, in exposed the logical flaw in Brand’s large part, to a common consciousness, definition of amateurism, pointing out, that which has manifested itself in collective “…in certain commercial contexts, an social, political, and legal action. But, as the implication of the common definition of the material dialectic has revealed, it is actually word ‘amateur’—together with the common the NCAA that is responsible for the rise of definition of ‘exploitation’—runs headlong the athlete collective. Indeed, Marx pointed into conflict with a clear requirement of out that NCAA Bylaw 2.9” (p. 261). [T]he development of Modern In 2014, Northwestern University Industry…cuts from under its feet the football players, also backed by the NCPA, very

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 146 foundation on which the bourgeoisie In applying the Marxist ideology to produces and appropriates products. sport, Rigauer (1981) noted that “…the What the bourgeoisie therefore athlete is the producer, the spectators the produces, above all, are its own grave consumers. The athlete’s achievement is diggers. Its fall and the victory of the transformed into a commodity and is proletariat are equally inevitable. (The exchanged on the market for its equivalent Communist Manifesto (1848), in Eastman value, expressed in money” (p. 68). In the (Ed.) (1932), p. 334) case of the NCAA, however, the existing Thus, it is because the athlete is still ideology requires the athlete to enter into economically bound that change is on the definite economic, political, and social horizon. For this reason, an exploration into relations, which includes being classified as how the values inherent in the political an “amateur”, who, according to the philosophies are manifest in reform which NCAA, cannot be paid. Still, payment for places athlete’s rights as its highest value is services rendered does not dissolve the necessary. relationship between owner and laborer. Rather, it brings a sense of economic Ideological Inquiry Approach Part I: fairness to the relationship. Indeed, Hoch Ideological Perspectives (1972) noted that while professional athletes Ideology generally refers to a set of values, have a union and are paid handsomely, they meanings, and beliefs. Viewed negatively or are still viewed by the owners as workers positively, ideology can “…give birth to who produce the product known as the massive social illusion or…inspire a…group “spectacle-of-competition” (p. 119). In this or class in the pursuit of political sense, sports leagues, operating as legalized interests…” (Eagleton, 2007, p. 43 & 44). In monopolies, “…sell a product whose main The German Ideology, Marx understood that ideological function is to perpetrate the “the production of ideas and conceptions, belief in competition” (p. 121). of consciousness…is…directly interwoven Thus, the ideological-oriented approach with the material activity…of men…” “…is determined by the framework within (1932, p. 9). It is the economic structure of which one is operating and the findings are society that is the real foundation on which interpreted…from the perspective of that the legal and political superstructure arises, theory” (Patton, 1990, p. 86). Recall that we shaping social consciousness. Indeed, “it is began by using Marx’s material dialectic as a not the consciousness of men which way of understanding the historical determines their existence, but on the relationship between the NCAA and the contrary it is their social existence which athletes. Now, we turn toward positive determines their consciousness” (Marx, in ideological inquiry so as to explore how Eastman (Ed.), 1932, p. 11). political philosophies of John Locke, Adam

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 147 Smith, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls can be allowed to interfere with the freedom may serve to inspire the NCAA in pursuit of another…” (p. 56), Locke recognized of political interests judged to be desirable. that in order to live together in peace This approach aims to answer: How is (x) “…firmly sanctioned principles…” must be [where (x) is an ideological perspective] established to form a civil society (p. 57). It manifest in (y) phenomenon [where (y) is appears that Locke’s philosophy resides in athlete-centered reform]? To this end, we Kohlberg’s (1963) post-conventional begin by exploring the ideological morality, social contract; namely, a ‘good’ perspectives. society is one which individuals respect each other’s right to life, liberty, and the pursuit Review of Ideological Perspectives of happiness. This review takes the reader from the Foreseeing the necessity of a shift from mid-1600’s through the late-1900’s wherein the monarchy of the late 1600’s to a some of the great political philosophers democratic system of government, Locke used logic and reason to determine how held that the stability of governments are best to care for society. These thinkers dependent on the will of the people. In fact, rationally and morally measured one value it was Locke who had a profound influence against another toward the goal of a ‘good’ on John Hamilton, James Madison, and society. What follows, broadly, is Thomas Jefferson as they constructed the continuous rational dialogue wherein these Declaration of Independence with liberty as thinkers sought to refine the work of their the bedrock principle. Pertaining to predecessor. It should be noted that this property rights, in Two Treatises of Government, review does not attempt to provide a Locke noted that initially everything was comprehensive analysis of each of the held in common by all men “…but when a political philosophies, since, as one reviewer man by his own effort has changed a thing noted, this is too large an undertaking; from the state in which nature made it, that rather, this is but an exploration into the thing from being common becomes the overarching values inherent in each of the property of him that mixed his labour with perspectives. it” (Morris, 1931, p. 59). With capitalism yet to take hold, Locke, perhaps, did not John Locke (1632-1704) foresee the extensive problems that would Regarded as the father of modern soon develop as it pertained to property liberalism, Locke valued the freedom of the rights since, in discussing man’s property individual stating, “just and true liberty, rights he said “…it requires no government equal and impartial liberty, is the thing we to establish it, nor can any government take stand in need of” (Fraser, Locke, in Morris, it away” (Morris, 1931, p. 59). Locke’s 1931, p. 54). While holding that “…no man theory of the origin of the right of property

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 148 served to establish the fundamental his own interest must not be allowed to principle of the science of wealth, shaping hinder another in the same pursuit. future political ideologies, including Marx’s Above the activity of self-interest critique of the capitalist system (Morris, restrained by justice there is a higher 1931). ethical principle, benevolence, which rules in the more intimate sphere of Adam Smith (1723-1790) personal relationships...[and] thus Born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland during represents the fullest degree of human British industrialization, moral philosopher excellence. (Morrow, 1969, p. 8) Adam Smith extended the work of Locke. Smith understood that the wealth of a As a result of excessive regulations of the nation is a consequence of the productivity French mercantilists, Smith viewed laissez- of its labor and that industry is more faire as a moral imperative; namely, that productive when there is a division of labor, people have the natural right to be free—to noting that specialization gives the laborer be economically “let go of” (Morrow, 1969, meaning, a purpose, and a sense of dignity p. 63). To this end, Smith held that the (Morrow, 1969, p. 60). Since class divisions “…duties of the state [should] be restricted cannot be dissolved, industry serves the to defending the society against external interests of bettering the lot of life of the aggression, administering justice, and worker. This inequity is a fundamental maintaining…public works…” (p. 63). aspect of capitalism, creating a competitive In Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the environment where “…workmen desire to Wealth of Nations (1776) Smith contemplated get as much, the master to give as little as the motivation of humans (self-interest) possible” (p. 67). Smith sought the within the context of industrialization. In advancement of a system that was both this sense, Smith’s focus was not exclusively profitable and civilized wherein the economic but rather “a broad study in social leadership, guided by virtue, would ensure welfare” (Morrow, 1969, p. 59) as he sought that revenues are distributed to the worker to understand the ethical motivations of and to public services. humans inside a capitalistic system. Virtue, Smith argued, is the common thread— John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) virtue, consisting of prudence, justice and British philosopher John Stuart Mill was benevolence. influenced by John Locke and Adam Smith Prudence (self-interest) is an essential and so was in agreement that individual characteristic of a good man, which is liberty is foundational to any just society beneficial in the economic sphere and is and should not be interfered upon except in to be restrained only by the principle of cases of self-protection or to prevent harm justice. One individual in the pursuit of to others (Mill, 1955). Although class

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 149 divisions were fragmenting society (i.e., John Rawls (1921-2002) workers sold their labor to owners), Mill Moral and political philosopher John could not reconcile one voluntarily selling Rawls brought the discussion more acutely himself as a slave for in so doing “he back to the foundation that Locke and abdicates his liberty…he defeats …the Smith had so vigorously advocated for purpose the justification of allowing him to hundreds of years prior when he reaffirmed dispose of himself…The principle of the necessity of the moral imperative in his freedom cannot require that he should be 1971 work A Theory of Justice. Rawls coined free not to be free” (Mill, 1955, p. 152). the phrase ‘justice as fairness’ noting that Freedom of thought, speech, and the starting point for any society must be expression and economic freedom had to be that of agreed upon principles of right and ensured since it was freedom that motivated justice and that any social institution that individuals to better their lives. Because of fails to ensure that individuals are treated this, Mill brought to the forefront trade and justly needs to be abandoned or reformed craft guilds, collectives, and associations. (p. 11). Such principles, Rawls pointed out, Influenced by David Hume’s notion of can only be established when people ‘utility’, Mill, along with his mentor, Jeremy operate behind the ‘veil of ignorance’ (i.e., Bentham, put forth the notion that the impartially) (p. 136). greatest good should be sought for the In The Law of Peoples, Rawls (1999) greatest number of people. They reasoned that peace and justice can be understood that “…nature placed mankind achieved in a society of liberal and decent under the governance of two sovereign peoples. “Liberal” meaning a reasonably just masters, pain and pleasure” and that “the constitutional democratic society (p. 12). principle of utility recognizes this subjection” “Decent” generally describing “societies (Bentham & Mill, 1961, p. 17). Under this whose…institutions meet certain… line of thinking, there must be a consensus; conditions of political right and justice” (i.e., namely, a group of individual interests “the right of citizens to play a substantial become the interests of a community (i.e., role…in making political decisions and lead guilds, collectives, associations). From their citizens to honor a reasonably just law individual liberty, “…follows the liberty…of for the Society of Peoples”) (p. 3). combination among individuals…the Stemming from Rousseau’s inquiry in The freedom to unite…no society in which Social Contract, Rawls’ position was that these liberties are not…respected is “reasonable pluralism” is possible but relies free…and none is completely free in which on “actual laws of nature and the stability they do not exist absolute and unqualified” those laws allow for the right reasons” (p. (p. 18). 12) and “its…principles…be workable and

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 150 applicable to ongoing political and social the following protections for the athlete: arrangements” (p. 13). scholarship security (the athlete will not Similar to Locke, a just society is one have his scholarship revoked for any athletic which liberty is paramount in that primary reason and it will extend to graduation); goods are afforded to all citizens (“basic freedom from academic exploitation (See rights and liberties, opportunities, income McCants & Ramsey et al., v. NCAA & the and wealth, and…self-respect”) (p. 13), and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, similar to Smith, a just society requires Class Action Complaint, 15 CVS 1782, Jan. virtuous conduct of its citizens. While a free 22, 2015); tutoring services are offered for citizen (by extension a collective of free athletes who would benefit from such; and, citizens) determine(s) the moral culture, a lastly, the athlete has total freedom to society “…must have political and social transfer just like any other university institutions that effectively lead its citizens student. Optional education is the to acquire the appropriate sense of justice” opportunity for the athlete to attend college (Rawls, 1999, p. 15). Rawls’ position or not, and just like any other prospective maximizes liberty, values equality for all student, their admission is dependent upon (with the ‘difference principle’ exception, meeting university standards. wherein inequality is justifiable if it leads to Economic options for the athlete are a better situation for the disadvantaged also two-fold: access to the “Derivative group), and affords all citizens a fair Value Trust” (hereinafter, “DVT”) (Otto & opportunity to acquire goods. Otto, 2013, p. 265) or employee status. The DVT is part of an attachment to a proposed Ideological Inquiry Approach Part II: scholarship upgrade; it would be jointly ‘Athlete-Centered’ Reform owned (athlete and institution) and would Having reviewed the ideological take effect in the athlete’s post-playing perspectives, we now turn to the second years, and depending on the commercial part of the inquiry approach—the value of the athlete they would reap a fairly phenomenon: what is ‘athlete-centered’ negotiated percentage of the profit from reform? Otto (2014) identified four major commercial exploits such as television deals, categories of “athlete-centered” reform (p. video games, merchandise, etc. (Otto & 189) which can be used as a starting point to Otto, 2013). Should the athlete not be “…develop ethically sound frameworks…to interested in attending college or not be advance principled collegiate athletics qualified for admission, the athlete, if reform” (p. 202) (see Figure 1). talented enough, can apply for employment Categories include two educational with an institution as, say, a basketball or options—scholarship education or optional football player. This employment situation education. Scholarship education includes would be the same as any other standard

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 151 employer-employee relationship and the Creation and Interpretation of market would assist in determining Ideological Models appropriate salaries. John Locke’s position on liberty serves Health, safety, and well-being to inform the foundation of ‘athlete- (hereinafter, “HSWB”) and legal protections centered’ reform; namely, every athlete are the baseline provisions and protections ought to have the same rights, privileges, for all athletes. Based on Otto’s (2014) and freedoms which are guaranteed to all categories of ‘athlete-centered’ reform, four citizens. These protections, along with overarching considerations were developed: constitutional rights and legal protections, 1) economic freedom; 2) education; 3) legal can only be assured by a democratic protections; and, 4) HSWB provisions. government operating in accordance with The next step was to explore how the the will of the people. In this case, the values inherent in the ideological athlete owns himself and the labor of his perspectives of Locke, Smith, Mill, and body (property rights). Once the athlete Rawls inform ‘athlete-centered’ reform puts forth effort so as to change a thing considerations by developing a model for from its natural state it becomes the each perspective. In the models that follow, property of him whose effort (labor) the values of the political philosophers are changed it. The example that Locke set forth in the left column. The right side provides in Two Treatises of Government is of each of the models serves to explain the instructive. It is the case of an Indian killing way in which each of the perspectives are a deer. Locke explains that the deer is the manifest in ‘athlete-centered’ reform. A few common right of every one, but when the notes will assist the reader in understanding Indian bestows his labor upon it, killing it, the models: A hard dot at the beginning or the deer becomes the property of the end of a line represents the starting point or Indian. In applying this case to that of the ending point, respectively. A hard line athlete we begin with the athlete owning represents an outcome that is likely to be himself and his labor as his property. Once manifest in ‘athlete-centered’ reform. A the athlete engages his effort in, say, playing broken line represents an outcome that is in a basketball game, the game becomes his dependent on ability, effort, or desire. A property (at least in part) because he mixed long dash dot dot line represents equality of his labor with it. This is no different from opportunity; therefore, the outcome is the music student who engages his effort in optional (dependent on choice). An arrow composing a symphony—the symphony illustrates the effect of, outcome of, or becomes his property (at least in part) relationship to. A thorough explanation because he mixed his labor with it. immediately follows each of the models. Extending the work of Locke, Smith held that individual economic liberty is

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 152 paramount. Here, the athlete’s economic allow the athlete to engage in endorsement liberty is assured. Smith’s call for a non- contracts with business entities since the intrusive government is instructive as a NCAA’s market reach would be extended number of steps would need to be taken to and it would also reap significant financial unravel, and ultimately change, existing gains from its intellectual property rights. If NCAA legislation and bylaws which violate the amateur restrictions were lifted then the the athlete’s economic liberty. Additionally, NCAA, in contractual relationship with the Congress would need to act virtuously so as players, could exploit the economic to not infringe on athlete’s rights, and the potential of the athletes in areas that are courts would need to rule from a place of currently off limits (i.e., EA Sports video virtue so as to ensure justice for the athlete. games, merchandise identifying the player, Indeed, Smith highlighted the fact that if etc.). As Smith pointed out, this give-and- virtue does not undergird the actions of the take between the industry and the laborer leadership then society cannot function in a serves the interests of both parties (i.e., the civil and just fashion. laborer’s lot in life is improved and the As it pertains to property rights, the owner’s market expands). athlete is free to sell his labor in open John Stuart Mill countered Smith’s self- markets. Here, the athlete is bound by a interested individual because he realized the class division. The inequality that exists is significant imbalance of the class system due, primarily, to the fact that he is a laborer was beginning to fragment society. Mill’s and that his market worth is dependent on contention was that while individual liberty merit. Because of this the outcomes are not is essential, it is only when individuals act equal. Based on merit, the athlete could collectively that the ‘greatest good for the either operate within the scholarship greatest number’ is realized. Thus, Mill’s education model or the employee model. position (i.e., social liberty) would inform An additional insight is Smith’s the development of an athlete guild (i.e., recognition that an industry is only as good collective or association) which would, by as its laborers. This being the case, it would rational consensus, determine what should be in the economic interest of the NCAA to be of greatest value. In establishing a offer additional benefits to the athlete so as hierarchy of values, the athlete association to improve production. Additional offerings would use its collective status to push the would include HSWB provisions to the NCAA, conferences, and institutions to degree that they improve the product, and implement its reforms (e.g., the NCPA has legal protections to the degree that they give made progress in this regard). the athlete a sense of protection such that Still, because it is a collective, the they continue to labor for the NCAA. It association could be restrained in would also be in the NCAA’s interest to advocating for advancements in each of the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 153 areas in so far as the reforms would result in Having had the benefit of time, John the greatest ‘good’ for the greatest number Rawls was able to see the values and of athletes. Under the utility calculation, it is systems that worked best toward achieving likely be that the DVT would result in the the goal of a ‘good’ society. Drawing on the greatest ‘good’ for the greatest number of works of Locke, Smith, and Mill, Rawls’ athletes since all athletes (to include athletes position begins with the requirement that who otherwise would not merit the benefits “any institution that fails to ensure that of the DVT) would benefit from the DVT individuals are treated justly need to be while only a few who merit more than the abandoned or reformed” (1971, p. 11). In DVT (i.e., the star athletes who have market other words, college sports reform begins value) would be exploited. But it is also with ‘justice as fairness’ for the athletes. The possible that within the collective the starting point is that, guided by natural law athletes would agree to differing outcomes and virtue, right and just institutions ensure based on varying degrees of achievement, that the rights of the athlete are honored. and therefore could negotiate for different Once this occurs athletes would be free benefits and privileges (as is the case in the to maximize their liberty and all athletes professional sports leagues). If the would have the same opportunity to acquire association shares the values of justice and social goods (this is where the long dash dot fairness based on achievement, then it is dot lines come in representing equality of conceivable that the members would be opportunity; therefore, the outcome is amenable to different economic options. dependent on choice, or optional). This As for legal protections and HSWB opportunity, however, can only occur if provisions, these would be afforded in full during the establishment of right and just for all athletes since this would indeed result institutions, the leadership (guided by in the greatest ‘good’ for the greatest natural law and virtue), acts behind a ‘veil of number of athletes. Finally, Mill’s ignorance’. This impartiality requirement commitment to individual liberty may serve lays the groundwork for people to be on an to shed light on the consideration of equal footing (i.e., all athletes would have education. Of course, making education the same opportunity to realize their necessary for play serves the greatest ‘good’ academic potential). Consider that if a for the greatest number since the benefit for family, school, or community does not value the athlete is two-fold (education and education for the athlete at a young age then athletics), but perhaps it need not be it is likely that the athlete will be at a requisite, rather it could be a choice since disadvantage in realizing his academic the requirement that the athlete be a student potential (i.e., in 2014 CNN reporter Sara is unrelated to the athlete’s labor and Ganim revealed that some college athletes arguably violates his liberty. are illiterate). Rawls’ intent was to attempt

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 154 to remove individualistic factors that that these are basic protections which are to currently serve to differentiate people (i.e., be afforded to everyone. socio-economic status, merit, need, competence, etc.). In order to accomplish Discussion this John Rawls calls upon right and just It is clear that the foundational value institutions to intervene in an attempt to inherent in the perspectives of Locke, mitigate these disadvantages on the front Smith, Mill, and Rawls is liberty. The way in end. Rawls’ (1999) call may serve to inform which we see liberty manifest in ‘athlete- the issue of special admissions for athletes centered’ reform is in a step-wise at the university level. If elementary and progression. Locke begins with individual secondary schools renewed their liberty. Smith extends Locke’s requirement commitment to ensuring that all students to include economic liberty. Mill recognizes are afforded a genuine opportunity to be the necessity of social (collective) liberty. educated, and universities did away with Lastly, Rawls stresses the importance of “special admissions” for athletes, then it is political liberty (i.e., justice as fairness). In likely that we would not have athletes at our brief, all of these thinkers held that liberty is universities who are illiterate. paramount and that any system that denies The economic offerings would include an individual his liberty is unjust and must the choice between the DVT or employee be abandoned or reformed. It is largely the status. Rawls (1999) advocated for case today that while athletes are often minimizing inequality on the front end and viewed as having privileged status (and they then allowing for inequality on the back end do receive a number of benefits and are if it could be shown that the inequality afforded special treatment), it is also the resulted in a better situation for the case that, under the control of the NCAA, disadvantaged (i.e., the ‘difference principle conferences, member institutions, and exception’). Here, both economic options coaches, they are restricted from otherwise could be defended since the most talented enjoying the freedoms and protections athletes (i.e., those who could command a guaranteed under the Constitution (e.g., salary in a competitive college sports some universities bar athletes from using market) aid in the maintenance of a high certain words (Wolverton, 2012)). In level product—but for these athletes the addition, as the dialectic revealed, the opportunity may not exist for the other NCAA has used, and continues to use, athletes to reap the benefits of the carefully crafted terms (i.e., ‘amateurism’ scholarship and the DVT. HSWB and legal and ‘student-athlete’) as the way to bar protections would be granted absolutely athletes from financially capitalizing on their since right and just institutions recognize athletic talent—this in violation of the athlete’s liberty (i.e., property and economic

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 155 rights to own oneself and to own the professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, product of his labor). NHL, and MLB) all have players unions. The next value inherent in the political They have a system of shared governance philosophers’ perspectives which is manifest and built in market controls (i.e., salary caps, in ‘athlete-centered’ reform is the drafts, free agency, luxury taxes, etc.) to prescription that right, just, and democratic ensure the success of the league as a whole. institutions virtuously lead in accordance The players associations have also agreed to with their duty to morally care for society. unequal economic outcomes based on Smith pointed out that for the free market varying levels of achievement. to flourish self-interested individuals must The final values manifest in ‘athlete- act from a place of virtue. When people fail centered’ reform are ‘equality of to act virtuously, as the dialectic also opportunity’ and ‘justice as fairness’. Can revealed, rules are broken, corruption the consideration of unequal opportunity to flourishes, and exploitation takes hold. As a acquire social goods (i.e., education, starting point the NCAA would need to rid economic benefits) be rectified? Rawls itself of all legislation that violates the attempts to minimize this concern by athlete’s liberty. The courts would need to advancing the notion of equality of advance justice for the athlete (noting that opportunity. This is a much more difficult current precedent in Bd. of Regents (1984) has issue to tackle since it requires a universal legitimized the NCAA’s operations). U.S. value set and major institutional and and state congresses must pass legislation in programmatic interventions and corrections. support of athlete’s rights (noting that For example, as it pertains to improving the legislators have moved to bar athletes from opportunity for children to realize their unionizing (e.g., Michigan House Bill No. academic potential, as an initial step, 6074, Dec. 2014)). scholastic-level schools could renew their Once liberty is assured for the athlete commitment to educating all students, and through right, just, and democratic NCAA member institutions could send a institutions, what is the next step? The next message to elementary and high schools that value manifest in ‘athlete-centered’ reform is it too values education for all students and the freedom to unite (i.e., collective liberty). so is doing away with special admissions Here, Mill’s notion of community good vis- exceptions for athletes. à-vis the establishment of a guild or We now turn to the conception of association is a secure tack. Professional ‘justice as fairness’. Here, the athlete sports provides an instructive example of association is called upon to deal fairly with how an athlete association could result in each of the athletes as it pertains to liberty for the athlete while also ensuring the economic value or worth. Recall that Rawls stability of the league. The ‘big-4’ ‘difference principle exception’ allows for

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 156 inequality if it can be shown that the evolved to such an extent, it should be inequality resulted in a better situation for noted that in developing these models I the disadvantaged. On this basis the athlete worked from the values held by the association can negotiate varying deals principal contributors (John Locke, Adam depending on each of the athlete’s merit Smith, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls). which will result in economic fairness (not Additionally, this paper was an exploration (a to be confused with equality) for all of the beginning point) as to how the values of athletes. these thinkers are evident in an ‘athlete- centered’ college sports system. Recommendations for Future Research Exploring the ideological perspectives Conclusion of Locke, Smith, Mill, and Rawls served to As is often the case, the present mirrors shed much needed light as to how their the past wherein over a century ago J.P. values are manifest in an ‘athlete-centered’ Welsh so aptly stated that the athlete, like college sports system. Going forward, I everyone else, deserves liberty first-and- would recommend that future researchers foremost: conduct a comprehensive analysis into each The student in good collegiate of the political philosophies in order to standing…needs to be let alone in the sharpen and deepen our understanding as to full, free, untrammeled exercise of his the way in which their values are manifest in American citizenship, which entitles ‘athlete-centered’ reform. Additionally, it him to life, liberty and the pursuit of would be prudent to examine existing happiness, which sometimes means regulations, policies, standards, and laws, money. (Hawes, 2000, para. 32). which are applicable to other industries It seems that the difficulty in leaving the (business, law, healthcare, etc.), with the student alone in the full, free exercise of his goal of tailoring the requirements such that American citizenship is due to the distorted they can inform the policy development of notion that it is acceptable to deny these an ‘athlete-centered’ college sports system freedoms to a student who participates in (overarching laws and requirements such as athletics. Perhaps now is the time for the work policies and standards, employment athletes to put forth a Constitutional law, contract law, Constitutional law, health argument; namely, that in order to play a and safety codes and regulations, etc.). sport at an NCAA member institution the athlete must abdicate his liberty. He is no Limitations longer free. Due to the fact that the political On September 30, 2015, the U.S. Court philosophies of libertarianism, capitalism, of Appeals “vacate[d] the district court’s utilitarianism, and egalitarianism have judgment and permanent injunction insofar

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 157 as they require the NCAA to allow its secure by mutual agreement. Thus, if the member schools to pay student-athletes up athlete's liberty is assured by mutual to $5,000 per year in deferred agreement, then 'amateur sports' is perceived compensation” (O’Bannon et al., v. NCAA et as secure. al., 2015, p. 63). An initial aspect of this In sum, based on the values inherent in ruling, which is troubling, is the court’s the perspectives of John Locke, Adam continued use of the term “student-athlete” Smith, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls, which, late-NCAA president Walter Byers ‘athlete-centered’ reform begins with liberty admitted, was deliberately crafted to avoid for the athlete, which is assured by right, the possibility that athletes could be just, and democratic institutions, and is identified as employees (Byers, 1995, p. 69). secured by an athlete association. Additionally, the court relies on Judge --- Bork’s comments in Bd. of Regents (1984) in which he noted the importance of maintaining the integrity of the product (‘amateur sports’). It appears that the court permitted the values of preserving the product based on an if; namely if consumer demand decreases if the athlete were paid, then the athlete cannot be paid. This if effectively served to trump the mandate of liberty which is guaranteed to the athlete under the United States Constitution. Finally, this court disregarded the mutual interest amongst the power five conferences to grant the athlete up to $5,000 in deferred compensation. In striking down the requirement permitting the NCAA to allow its members to grant compensation, is not the court violating the economic liberty rights of the member schools? Indeed, a careful reading of Judge Bork's comments suggests that Bork was not opposing the payment of monies to 'amateur' athletes. Rather, Bork was merely pointing out that that the product integrity of 'amateur sports' must be perceived as

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 158 References Eagleton, T. (2007). Ideology: An introduction. Bentham, J. & Mill, J.S. (1961). The New York, NY: Verso. utilitarians: An introduction to the Eastman, M. (Ed.) (1932). Capital The principles of morals and Communist Manifesto and other writings by legislation; Utilitarianism; and, On liberty. Karl Marx. New York, NY: Random Garden City, NY: Dolphin Books. House. Berkowitz, S. (2014, May 8). House panel Ganim, S. (2014, January 7). Some college grills college leaders on unionization. athletes play like adults, read like 5th- USA Today. Retrieved from graders. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/spo http://www.cnn.com/2014/01/07/u rts/ncaaf/2014/05/08/house- s/ncaa-athletes-reading- education-workforce-committee- scores/index.html northwestern-football-labor- Gerdy, J.R. (1997). The successful college athletics union/8846329/ program. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx. Brand, M. (2006, September 11). President’s Hawes, K. (2000, January 3). Debate on message – Call for moderation is a amateurism has evolved over time. complex message, not a mixed one. The NCAA News. Retrieved from The NCAA News Online. Retrieved http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/NCAANew June 23, 2010 from sArchive/2000/association- http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/nc wide/debate+on+amateurism+has+ aahome?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTE evolved+over+time+-+1-3-00.html XT=/ncaa/NCAA/Media+and+Eve Heilbroner, R.L. (1967). The worldly nts/Press+Room/News+Release+A philosophers (3rd ed.). New York, NY: rchive/2006/Official+Statements/N Simon and Schuster. CAA+President+Delivers+State+Of Hoch, P. (1972). Rip off the big game: The +The+Association+Address exploitation of sports by the power elite. Byers, W. (1995). Unsportsmanlike conduct: Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Exploiting college athletes, Ann Arbor, Hosick, M.B. (2015, January 18). Autonomy MI: The University of Michigan. schools adopt cost of attendance College Athletes Rights & Empowerment scholarships. NCAA.org. Retrieved Faculty Coalition (2015). Retrieved from from http://care-fc.org/Collegiate www.ncaa.org/about/resources/med Student Athlete Protection Act. H.R. ia-center/autonomy-schools-adopt- 3545 (2013, November 20). cost-attendance-scholarships Crowley, J. (2006). In the area: The NCAA’s Jenkins v. NCAA, Case 3:33-av-00001 (U.S. first century. Indianapolis: IN: NCAA. Dist. N.J. Mar. 17, 2014).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 159 Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of NCAA Membership (2015). Retrieved from children’s orientations toward a http://www.ncaa.org/about/who- moral order. I. Sequence in the we-are/membership development of moral thought. Vita NCAA v. Board of Regents of the Humana, 6(1/2), 11-33. University of Oklahoma and Law v. NCAA, 134 F.3d 1010 (10th Cir. University of Georgia 1998). Athletic Association, 104 S. Ct. 2948 McCants & Ramsey et al., v. NCAA & the (1984). University of North Carolina at O’Bannon v. NCAA, No. C 09-3329 (N.D. Chapel Hill, Class Action Complaint, Cal. July 21, 2009). 15 CVS 1782 (Jan. 22, 2015). O’Bannon v. NCAA, No. C 09-3329 CW Mill, J.S. (1955). On liberty. Chicago, IL: (N.D. Cal. Aug. 8, 2014). Henry Regnery. O’Bannon v. NCAA and Electronic Art, Michigan House Bill No. 6074. (Dec. 2, Inc.; Collegiate Licensing Company, 2014). D.C. No. 4:09-cv-03329 CW Morris, C.R. (1931). Locke Berkeley Hume. (U.S. Ct. App. 9th Cir. Sept. 30, 2015). London: Oxford University Press. Otto, K.A., & Otto, H.R. (2013). Clarifying Morrow, G.R. (1969). The ethical and economic amateurism: A logical approach to theories of Adam Smith. New York, NY: resolving the exploitation of college Augustus M. Kelley. athletes dilemma. Sport, Ethics, and National College Players Association (2015). Philosophy, 7(2), 259-270. Retrieved from Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative and evaluation http://www.ncpanow.org/more?id= and research methods (2nd, ed.). Newbury 0004 Park, CA: Sage. National Labor Relations Board, Region 13, Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Case 13-RC-121359 (Mar. 26, 2014). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. NCAA Consolidated Financial Statements Rawls, J. (1999). The law of peoples. (2014). National Collegiate Athletic Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Association and Subsidiaries. Reimann, P.A. (2004). The G.I. Bill and Deloitte Independent Auditors’ collegiate football recruiting after Report. World War II. International Sports NCAA Division I Manual (2013-14). Journal, 8(2), 126-133. Retrieved from Rigauer, B. (1981). Sport and work. New http://www.ncaapublications.com/p York, NY: Columbia University. roductdownloads/D114.pdf Sack, A.L. (2008). Counterfeit amateurs: An athlete’s journey through the sixties to the age of academic capitalism. University

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 160 Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State Stoke, H.W. (1954, March). College University. athletics: Education or show Sack, A.L. & Staurowsky, E.J. (1998). College business? Atlantic Monthly, 46. athletes for hire: The evolution and legacy of Tucker, R.C. (Ed.). (1972). The Marx-Engels the NCAA’s amateur myth. Westport, reader. New York, NY: Norton. CT: Praeger. USA Today NCAA Salaries (2015). Savage, H.J., Bentley, H.W., McGovern, Retrieved from J.T., & Smiley, M.D. (1929). The http://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/sal Carnegie Commission Report. aries/ The Carnegie Foundation. Retrieved White v. NCAA, CV 06-0999-RGK (2006 from U.S. Dist., Oct. 19, 2006). http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Wolverton, B. (2012, August 20). 2 publications/pub.asp?key=43&subke universities bar athletes from using y=990 hundreds of words on Twitter. The Senate Commerce, Science and Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved Transportation Committee. (2015). from Hearing on college athletes and http://chronicle.com/blogs/players/ academics. Retrieved from u-of-kentucky-louisville-ban-athletes- http://www.c- from-using-hundreds-of-words-on- span.org/video/?320346-1/hearing- twitter/31096 college-athletes-academics Smith, R.A. (1985). The historic amateur- professional dilemma in American college sport. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 2(3), 221-231. Smith, R.A. (1993). History of amateurism in men’s intercollegiate athletics: The continuance of a 19th-century anachronism in America. QUEST, 45, 430-437. Smith, R.K. (2000). A brief history of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's role in regulating intercollegiate athletics. Marquette Sports Law Review, 11, 9-22.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 161

Figures

Figure 1

Categories of “Athlete-Centered” Reform

Figure 2

John Locke

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 162

Figure 3

Adam Smith

Figure 4

John Stuart Mill

Figure 5

John Rawls

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Otto, 2016 163

Sport Discontinuation: An Assessment of Goal Achievement via Empirical Measures

John Patrick Marsh1 Jeffrey C. Petersen1 Barbara Osborne2 1Baylor University 2University of North Carolina

Collegiate athletic teams are being eliminated at an alarming rate; however, empirical research of athletic spending and participation after these cuts occur is lacking. This study compared whether the proffered rationales for discontinuing teams were consistent with the measurable budgetary and participation outcomes. From a sample of NCAA Division I institutions that discontinued at least one team between the academic years 2000-01 and 2008-09 (N = 125), a total of 49 schools with documented cut rationales were identified. The EADA cutting tool was then used to examine athletic revenues, expenses, and participation numbers from the year prior and the year after the cuts to determine, via descriptive statistics and paired t-tests, if the stated objectives were met. The three reasons primarily cited for the program elimination included: reducing athletic spending (44.9%), reallocating resources (42.9%), and Title IX compliance (18.4%). Statistical analysis revealed that only institutions citing reallocation of athletic resources were able to achieve their stated goals. Institutions citing efforts to reduce athletic spending had significant increases in athletic expenses and none of the institutions citing Title IX compliance achieved substantial proportionality. These results show a troubling disconnection between the sport elimination rationale and the budgetary and participation outcomes.

he decision to discontinue a many student-athletes and coaches. Thus, it collegiate athletic team is one of the is of the utmost importance that these T most difficult decisions that an decisions be made with the best information athletic administrator must make. Such a available. Currently, when the decision to decision has life altering implications for discontinue an athletic program is made

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 164 there is a great deal of analysis and prolonged economic recession and discussion leading up to the decision, but consequently revenues often began to run very little follow-up to determine the results far short of projections (Associated Press, of the discontinuation. The lack of follow- 2010). Given such a challenging set of up studies to examine the results of such circumstances, what action can be taken by cuts hinders the ability of future athletic Division I athletic departments? administrators to make the best decision in When revenues come up short, schools future situations. must seek ways to contain expenses. Cost The American economy is always in cutting measures such as reducing travel per flux. In light of the recent significant diems, taking longer bus trips rather than economic downturn and facing uncertainty fly, and scheduling opponents closer to about the breadth of the recovery, college home are becoming prevalent in college athletics programs are facing tough athletic departments. None of these questions about their economic futures. All measures, however, take into account the but one of the NCAA Division I two largest expenses associated with institutions, Grand Canyon University, are collegiate athletics, coaching salaries and non-profit institutions (New, 2014). This scholarships (Brady, 2009). While means that there is little incentive to having scholarships and salaries account for the expenses greatly lagging behind revenues. two largest expenses for NCAA Division I Most athletic departments align their athletic departments (Fulks, 2013), they can spending to utilize nearly every dollar that be very difficult to control or reduce due to they make and in most cases institutions are legislative or legal constraints. From a unable to generate enough revenue to cover legislative perspective, the NCAA bylaws all of their expenses. In 2009, only 14 of the for Division I member schools include 120 NCAA Division I Football Bowl requirements to provide certain minimum Subdivision (FBS) schools reported athletic levels of financial aid to student-athletes revenues in excess of athletic expenses as (NCAA Division I Manual, 2015). The opposed to 25 programs in 2008 (Fulks, scholarships costs are also subject to the 2010). This type of economic uncertainty current trends of tuition costs for all and challenge for athletic departments is not students, and the cost of college tuition is only a long-term issue, but something that increasing at a rate four times faster than the can rapidly change on a year-to-year basis. consumer price index (Jamrisko & Kolet, In 2011 and 2012, 23 FBS athletic programs 2014). Prior efforts to control escalating reported generating revenues in excess of coaching costs have been met with legal their expenses; however, it was not the same action, when United States District Court 23 schools in both years (Fulks, 2013). Judge, Kathryn H. Vratli, ruled that any Collegiate athletic departments typically plan organized structural restriction on the for future expenses based on projections of compensation of coaches violated the revenues several years in advance. In the Sherman Antitrust Act (Law v. NCAA, face of the economic crisis of 2008, most of 1995). Given these constraints related to these projections did not account for a making reductions in the number of athletes

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 165 or in coaches’ salaries, other solutions to the Revenues and Expenses in financial challenges must be considered. Intercollegiate Athletics Programs When an athletics program’s expenses The factors leading to the far outweigh its revenues, one possible discontinuation of collegiate athletic teams solution is to cut teams, as this measure can have been documented in both academic simultaneously address expenses in both the research and in the media. In a recent study scholarship and salary budgetary examining the decision making process in components while sidestepping the intercollegiate athletic departments when aforementioned concerns. From 2007 eliminating multiple varsity sport programs, through 2009, more than 227 varsity athletic four main factors were cited for eliminating teams at NCAA institutions across all teams: an athletic department budget divisions were cut (Watson, 2009). In every shortage, broader institutional financial instance, the decision to cut an athletic constraints, the financial strain of individual program was a complex one that affected teams, and Title IX and gender equity the lives of numerous people. implications (Skolnick, 2011). The first three The elimination of collegiate athletic of these factors relate strictly to budgetary teams is a process that often draws public or economic issues while the Title IX factor attention and at times criticism. Therefore, relates to compliance with federal the announcement of such cuts is often legislation. publicly communicated with a clear Several recent incidents of Division I rationale for the cuts as noted in the program cuts exemplify these rationales. At examples above. However, there has not the conclusion of the 2009-2010 academic been specific investigation made after these year, Cal State Fullerton announced the cuts to see if the budgetary or gender equity termination of its wrestling and women’s outcomes align with the previously stated gymnastics teams as a cost saving measure rationales for the program cut. Therefore, (“Wrestling, Gymnastics Programs this study was developed to document the Terminated”, 2011). In March of 2011, stated rationale for cutting teams at the Liberty University announced that they NCAA Division I level, and then to would be reclassifying their wrestling examine these programs after the cuts from program from a fully funded varsity sport both a budgetary and gender equity program to club status. According to perspective in the year preceding and the Liberty Director of Athletics Jeff Barber, year after the cuts were made. In order to this move was made in an effort obtain better understand the nature of athletic cuts compliance with Title IX (“Liberty to and the financial and gender equity Reclassify”, 2011). At the conclusion of the constraints in collegiate sport, a brief review 2013-2014 academic year, Temple of pertinent literature of these topics is University eliminated five athletic programs provided. in an effort to produce a “more sustainable experience” for their student-athletes (“Temple Reduces Varsity Sports”, 2013).

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 166 The decision to discontinue an athletic and expenses for each subdivision can be team inherently has financial ramifications. found in Tables 1-3. In order to better understand these The main sources of revenue for decisions, it is important to analyze the athletic departments vary greatly across economic climate in which these decisions Division I. FCS and non-football Division I are being made. The recent economic members rely much more on institutional recession affected nearly every industry in support for revenue, while FBS institutions our nation, including college athletics, and receive institutional support at levels similar the recovery from recessions is becoming an to their revenue generated by ticket sales, increasingly lengthy process (Olney & contributions from alumni and others, and Pacitti, 2015). The fluctuations in the NCAA and conference distributions. The American economy are reflected in the top expenses, however, are very similar fluctuations in collegiate athletic budgets. across all three subdivisions. Salaries and Daniel Fulks (2010, 2013) of Transylvania benefits are the top expense in each division University released two comprehensive and student-athlete grant-in-aids are the reports spanning the 2004-2012 fiscal years. next greatest expense in each subdivision. A These reports provided valuable insight into summary of top sources of revenue and the changing fiscal environment in which expenses are noted in Table 4. intercollegiate athletics programs operate. NCAA Division I is divided into three Title IX subdivisions for football, yet, compete as a When athletics administrators decide to whole in all other sports. The financial eliminate teams and thereby participation resources for Football Bowl Subdivision opportunities for student-athletes, the legal (FBS) institutions are much greater than requirements of Title IX of the Education those of Football Championship Amendments of 1972, forbidding sex Subdivision (FCS) institutions and Division discrimination in any program conducted by I institutions without a football program. a federally funded educational institution, The large disparity in financial resources should be considered. Title IX, as applied to amongst Division I institutions creates a athletics, requires schools to provide equal unique competitive landscape in which opportunities in three areas: scholarships (or these institutions must operate. Despite the financial aid), treatment, and participation. stark differences in financial resources, In 1979, the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) fluctuations in athletic budgets is a common issued a Title IX Policy Interpretation, theme among all three subdivisions. While which introduced a three-part test to revenues increased each year from 2004- measure participation compliance. If an 2012, the percent increase varied greatly institution is in compliance with any one of from year to year (Fulks, 2013). This creates the three prongs then that institution is a significant challenge for administrators deemed to be effectively accommodating that project budgets years in advance the interests and abilities of its student (Associated Press, 2010). Mean revenues athletes. The three-pronged test is structured as follows:

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 167 1. The competitive opportunities are for the discontinuation of athletic provided in numbers substantially teams? proportionate to the respective 2. What are the financial and enrollment of each sex. participatory outcomes of the 2. The institution’s current and discontinuation of athletic teams? historical practices of program 3. Do the financial and participatory expansion are responsive to the outcomes of the discontinuations athletic interests of the align with the publicly stated reasons underrepresented sex. given by the athletic departments? 3. The institution accommodates the interests and abilities of the Methodology underrepresented sex in the current In order to compare reasons and goals athletic program (Policy given for the discontinuation of athletic Interpretation, 1979). teams in publicly released statements with While compliance with any one of the three actual participation and financial prongs allows an institution to be compliant information, multiple methods were with the law; the proportionality test garners employed, including content analysis of the most attention. The proportionality test primary sources for rationale determination has been described by the courts as a “safe and statistical analyses of the financial data harbor” for compliance (Cohen v. Brown and student-athlete participation data. University, 1992). The population of this study included all The discontinuation of athletic NCAA Division I institutions that have programs is an all too common occurrence discontinued at least one varsity athletic and the process leading up to these program between the 2001-2002 and 2008- discontinuations is relatively well 2009 academic years. The original documented. There is, however, a lack of timeframe desired for this analysis was the research examining the outcomes of these entire decade of the 2000s; however, one discontinuations. The purpose of this study key data source was not archived before was to compare whether the proffered 2001. reasons and goals for discontinuing athletic The data for this study were collected teams expressed in the news media were through a variety of sources by a single consistent with the actual measurable primary researcher. First, a list of outcomes observed after the discontinued athletic teams was obtained discontinuation of the teams related to through correspondence with the NCAA. budgetary and gender equity considerations. From that list, Division I institutions having Based upon the identified problem and discontinued at least one athletic team purpose, three primary research questions between the 2001-2002 and 2008-2009 were developed to structure the study: academic years were identified. An extensive 1. What are the primary, publicly stated Internet search for news articles regarding reasons given by athletic departments the discontinuation of the identified athletic teams was conducted. Identified institutions

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 168 and athletic teams were searched using The collected data included the male to Google. The searches were conducted using female ratio of the student body and the the institution name, the discontinued male to female ratio of student-athletes. sports identified, and the following This was used to assess the loss in keywords: discontinued, eliminated, and cut. participation opportunities and compliance Content analysis of the obtained news with Title IX through proportionality. articles was used to identify the publicly- Financial variables assessed included total stated reasons for the respective athletic revenues and expenses, and the total discontinuations. The articles were read, revenues and expenses for football (when content analyzed, and coded based upon applicable), men’s basketball, and women’s key words, phrases, and other textual basketball teams for the year prior to the elements to determine the publicly stated discontinuation, the year of the reasoning for the discontinuation of each discontinuation, and the year after the program. discontinuation. These variables were The methods for research question two chosen to analyze the financial impact of required the collection and analysis of the discontinuations. Football and financial data and sport participation data basketball were specifically chosen due to for the institutions that discontinued athletic their status as both primary revenue teams. Using the United States Department producers and top spectator sports. It is of Education Equity in Athletics Data important to note that revenues and Analysis Cutting Tool, data for the expenses are being analyzed separately from institutions having been identified as having one another. Analyzing revenues and discontinued at least one athletic team and expenses as a combined variable, profit, is for which a news article was obtained was not appropriate for this study as all of the collected. In 1994, Congress enacted the institutions in this study are non-profit Equity in Athletic Disclosure Act (EADA), institutions. Division I athletics is not a to determine if institutions were in traditional business environment where compliance with Title IX requirements. The increased profit is the goal for shareholders, EADA requires that co-educational but rather a generation of revenue to allow institutions of postsecondary education that for more spending on the sport enterprise participate in a Title IV, federal student itself. financial assistance program, and have an IBM SPSS version 21.0 and Microsoft intercollegiate athletic program, prepare an Excel were used to analyze the data. annual report to the Department of Descriptive statistics and primary Education on athletic participation, staffing, frequencies were analyzed to determine the and revenues and expenses, by men's and primary reasons given for the women's teams (Equity in Athletics discontinuation of athletic teams and to Disclosure Act, 1994). The EADA cutting examine the financial and participatory data. tool provides public access to the data that Paired sample t-test analyses were used to is archived back to the 2000-2001 academic assess changes in financial and participatory year. data from the year prior to the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 169 discontinuation of an athletic team to the changes in webpage archiving practices year after the discontinuation. caused the recovery of articles from earlier For the final research question, data years to be more difficult. Table 6 shows the from the year prior to the discontinuation breakdown of the number of programs of the athletic team(s) was compared to the eliminated per institution. A total of 40 year following the discontinuation. The (81.6%) of the institutions in the study observed changes in financial measures of eliminated either one or two programs; revenues and expenses along with however, as many as 10 programs were participation rates for men and women were eliminated at one (2.0%) institution. then compared to the publicly stated Three primary reasons and five reasons and goals for the discontinuation to secondary reasons for the discontinuation determine if the empirical data was of athletic teams were identified in the news consistent with the rationale. articles. The three primary reasons identified for the discontinuation of athletic teams Results were efforts to reduce athletics spending, Description of the Sample the reallocation of athletics resources, and A total of 125 Division I institutions Title IX compliance. The five secondary were identified as having discontinued at reasons identified for the discontinuation of least one athletic team between the 2001- athletics teams were the lack or loss of a 2002 and 2008-2009 academic years. Of the conference to compete in, poor academic 125 institutions, news articles about the performance of the team, lack of discontinuation were obtained for 49 of the competitiveness of the team, lack of institutions (39.2%). Of the 49 institutions facilities for the team, and poor experiences for which data was obtained, 14 (28.6%) provided to the team’s student-athletes. were Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) Efforts to reduce athletics spending was members, 20 (40.8%) were Football the most frequently stated reason for the Championship Subdivision (FCS) members, discontinuation of athletic teams having eight (16.3%) were non-football playing been stated by 22 of the 49 institutions members, and seven (14.3%) were FCS (44.9%). The reallocation of athletics members eliminating their football resources was a stated reason for the programs. discontinuation of athletic teams by twenty- As shown in Table 5, the 49 institutions one (42.9%) of the institutions. Title IX for which data was collected combined to compliance was a stated reason for the eliminate 95 programs. Of these 95 discontinuation of athletic teams in nine programs, 66 (69.5%) were men’s programs. (18.4%) of the institutions. Of the five This shows that men’s programs were being secondary reasons for the discontinuation eliminated at more than twice the rate of of athletic teams, the lack or loss of a women’s and co-ed programs combined. conference to compete in was stated by five Table 1 also appears to show an increase in (10.2%) institutions, poor academic the number of programs being cut over performance of the team was stated by two time, but it is important to note that (4.1%) of the institutions, lack of

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 170 competitiveness of the team was stated by From the sample, 22 institutions cited two (4.1%) of the institutions, lack of efforts to reduce athletic spending as a facilities for the team was stated by two primary reason for the discontinuation of (4.1%) of the institutions, and poor athletic teams. These institutions had experiences provided to the team’s student- statistically significant increases in total athletes was stated by one (2.0%) institution. athletic revenue (t(21) = 4.027, p = .001), and It should be noted that multiple rationales total athletic expenses (t(21) = 4.019, p = were recorded for many schools resulting in .001). It is important to note that while both cumulative percentages greater than 100. revenues and expenses increased significantly, total revenues (17.2%) Participatory and Financial Data increased at a greater rate than total The 49 institutions in this study saw a expenses (11.8%). Men’s basketball significant mean loss of 35 male student expenses (t(21) = 2.129, p = .040) also athletes from the year prior to the increased at a statistically significant rate and discontinuation to the year after the while the increase in men’s basketball discontinuation, t(48) = 4.499, p < .001) The expenses was 35%, this was not found to be mean losses of male student athletes for significant at the .05 level. Summary each of the three sub-groups of primary financial data for institutions citing efforts reasons for the discontinuation of an to reduce athletic spending can be found in athletic program were also statistically Table 9. significant. Neither the 49 institutions as a Twenty-one institutions cited the whole nor any of the three sub-groups saw reallocation of athletic resources as a statistically significant changes in female primary reason for the discontinuation of student athletes. The complete participatory athletic teams. Statistically significant data can be found in Table 7. increases were found for both the mean

When the 49 institutions included in total revenues (t(20) = 3.920, p = .001) and this study were examined as a whole, total mean total expenses (t(20) = 3.580, p = .002) expenses (t(48) = 6.215, p < .001), football for these institutions. Increases in mean expenses (t(35) = 3.377, p = .002), men’s football expenses (t(13) = 2.489, p = .027), basketball expenses (t(48) = 5.148, p < .001), mean men’s basketball expenses (t(20) = and women’s basketball expenses (t(48) = 4.512, p < .001), and mean women’s 4.266, p < .001) increased at statistically basketball expenses (t(20) = 3.739, p = .001) significant levels from the year prior to the were also statistically significant. It is also discontinuation of athletic teams to the year important to note that from the year prior after the discontinuation. Total revenue (t(48) to the discontinuation of athletic teams to = 3.866, p < .001), football revenue (t(25) = the year after the discontinuation, these 3.036, p = .005), and women’s basketball institutions saw an increase in mean athletic revenue (t(48) = 2.359, p = .022) also expenses of $2,111,141. Of this, $1,277,215 increased at statistically significant levels. (60.5%) consisted of increases in football The complete financial data for the sample and men’s basketball expenses. The as a whole can be found in Table 8. financial data for institutions citing the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 171 reallocation of athletic resources can be for the discontinuation of an athletic team found in Table 10. reported a mean increase in total athletic

Nine institutions identified Title IX expenses of $2,015,476 (t(21) = 4.019, p compliance as a primary reason for the =.001). Such an increase in expenses is not discontinuation of athletics teams. In the consistent with effective reductions in year prior to the discontinuation, these spending. The 21 institutions citing the institutions had a mean of 44.67% male reallocation of athletic resources as a students and a mean of 58.22% male primary reason for the discontinuation of an student athletes. In the year following the athletic team reported mean increases in discontinuation, these institutions had a total athletic revenues of $2,221,507 (t(20) = mean of 45.11% male students and a mean 3.920, p = .001) and $2,111,141 (t (20)= of 54.00% male student athletes. Of the 3.580, p = .002) in total athletic expenses. nine institutions citing Title IX compliance, The similarity in the increases in both total none achieved direct substantial revenues and total expenses following the proportionality, two (22.2%) came within discontinuation of an athletic team is two percentage points of direct substantial indicative of the reallocation of athletic proportionality, five (55.6%) came between resources. Of the nine institutions citing five and ten percentage points of direct efforts to become compliant with Title IX, substantial proportionality, and two (22.2%) none achieved direct substantial did not come within ten percentage points proportionality. Additionally, from a of direct substantial proportionality. financial perspective on gender equity, 56% Among the nine institutions citing Title of the increase in total athletic expenses IX compliance as a primary reason for the were allocated to football and men’s discontinuation for athletic teams, mean basketball programs. These participatory total athletic revenue (t(8) = 3.052, p = .016), and financial outcomes are not consistent mean total athletic expenses (t(8) = 3.011, p with Title IX compliance. = .017), mean men’s basketball revenue (t(8) = 2.781, p = .024), and mean men’s Discussion basketball expenses (t(8) = 3.069, p = .015) The results of this study are valuable in were all statistically significant. Increases in supporting prior research identifying football and men’s basketball expenses from rationales for athletic cuts at the Division I the year prior to the discontinuation to the level. More importantly, the assessment of year after the discontinuation totaled specific participation and financial $1,717,742. This accounts for 56.0% of the indicators pre and post-discontinuation $3,065,492 increase in total athletic provide empirical measures of the outcomes expenses. Table 11 shows the complete of sport elimination that have not been financial data for institutions citing Title IX reported in the past. The direct comparison compliance as a primary factor for the of the measured outcomes with the discontinuation of athletic teams. originally stated rationales for the program The 22 institutions citing efforts to cuts raises many questions due to the lack of reduce athletic spending as a primary reason consistency between the rationales and

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 172 observed outcomes. Indeed, the disconnect news articles in this current study were between the stated rationales and the consistent with the top reasons provided by observed outcomes indicates not only the athletic administrators in the prior research. inability of sport discontinuation to achieve While Title IX compliance was one of the stated goals, but also a possible political the primary reasons given in media reports, staging of rationales to provide a more it was not the second most prevalent reason palatable rhetoric to the public. A more given, as it was by the athletic thorough discussion of these results administrators in Skolnick’s (2011) study. structured upon the three research The second most prevalent reason found in questions of this study provides valuable media reports was the reallocation of insight into these cuts. athletics resources, which was cited nearly as often as reductions in athletic spending. Primary Reasons for the This is consistent with the athletic Discontinuation of Athletic Teams administrators citing the financial strain of For research question one, the findings individual programs found in the Skolnick from this study of three primary cut (2011) study. Title IX compliance was the rationales (reducing athletic spending, third most prevalent factor cited in media reallocating resources, and Title IX reports in this study and was cited much less compliance) aligned well with the prior often than efforts to reduce athletic research of Skolnick (2011) that cited four spending and the reallocation of athletics influential reasons in rank order of Athletic resources. Department Budget Shortage, Institutional The most interesting finding in regard Financial Constraints, Title IX/Gender to the primary reasons for the Equity Implications, and Financial Strain of discontinuation of athletic teams was the Individual Programs. An assessment of the difference in the prevalence of Title IX two most prevalent responses from compliance in the media reports in the Skolnick revealed that both involved the current study and in the responses from reduction of spending. For the purposes of athletic administrators. Title IX compliance the present study, no distinction was made and gender equity implications were between the reasons for budget constraints, reported by athletic administrators at very and this would in effect combine the first similar rates as athletic department budget two categories of the Skolnick study. shortage, institutional financial constraints, Institutions seeking to reduce athletic and financial strain of individual programs related spending due to athletic budget (Skolnick, 2011). In media reports, however, shortages and those due to institutional Title IX compliance was cited less than half budget constraints were all grouped as frequently as efforts to reduce athletic together. As expected, this was the most spending and the reallocation of athletics often reported reason for discontinuation in resources. There are several possible media reports (44.9%) for this study. explanations for this difference. One Therefore the primary reasons reported for possible explanation is a difference in the discontinuation of athletic teams in population. The athletic administrators

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 173 surveyed were all at institutions that losses at institutions specifically citing Title discontinued at least three athletic teams IX compliance as a reason for cuts, signifies while news reports were examined for a regression in efforts to provide women institutions that discontinued at least one with opportunities that have historically athletic team. Another possible explanation been lacking. relates to small sample size. The most intriguing possible explanation, however, is Stated Reasons vs. Actual Results a reluctance of athletic administrators to Institutions Citing Efforts to Reduce publicly report Title IX compliance as a Athletics Spending reason for the discontinuation of athletic A total of 22 institutions identified teams. This could relate in part to a 2003 efforts to reduce athletics spending as a report from the Office of Civil Rights that primary reason for the discontinuation of called the practice of discontinuing men’s athletics teams. These institutions athletics teams to achieve Title IX experiences multi-million dollar increases in compliance a disfavored practice (“Further total athletic expenses after the Clarification”, 2003). discontinuation of athletic teams. This is certainly not indicative of a reduction in Participatory Data athletic spending, however, a comparison to Anytime athletic programs are national trends revels some slight success in eliminated, some student-athletes are going frugality. In his report, Daniel Fulks (2010) to lose their opportunity to participate in shows that athletics expenses are increasing intercollegiate athletics. What is clear from at a higher rate than revenue generated by the data in this study is that men are athletics. The 22 institutions citing efforts to disproportionately affected by these cuts. reduce athletic spending reported a Among all 49 institutions in this study, the percentage increase in mean athletic mean loss of opportunities for men was revenues of nearly twice the percent more than three times that of women. As increase in mean athletic expenses. This is a expected, the most drastic difference is stark contrast to the national trend reported found in institutions citing Title IX by Fulks. While these institutions were not compliance as a primary reason for the able to reduce their spending, their ability to discontinuations. Despite the Office of Civil reduce the rate of budget growth should be Rights’ classification of opportunity noted. elimination for men a “disfavored practice,” It is also interesting to note that the (“Further Clarification”, 2003) these mean increase in total athletic revenue was institutions experienced drastic losses of $912,268 more than the mean increase in athletic opportunities for men. It is also total athletic expenses. With nearly important to recognize that these are the $1,000,000 in newly generated excess losses of current opportunities. Title IX was revenue, was the discontinuation of the enacted to address the lack of opportunities athletic teams necessary? Could the athletic for women, and the loss of opportunities department have maintained the team or for women shown in this study, including teams and still met their bottom line? Where

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 174 is this excess revenue going? At the same Institutions Citing Title IX Compliance time, the increases in revenue generated by A total of nine institutions identified the football, men’s, and women’s basketball Title IX compliance as a primary reason for programs all outpaced the increases in the discontinuation of athletics teams. expenses for each respective program. Although schools have three ways to prove Perhaps these institutions were just looking they are in compliance with the effective for a little budgetary breathing room, but is accommodation requirement, this study it worth sacrificing the student-athlete focused on the substantial proportionality experience for the people affected? test for Title IX compliance. Previously described as a “safe harbor,” the Institutions Citing Reallocation of proportionality test is a way that institutions Athletic Resources can show mathematically that they are not All but one of the NCAA Division I discriminating between men and women. It institutions included in this study, Grand is assumed that if the ratio of female student Canyon University, were non-profit athletes closely mirrors that of the ratio of institutions (New, 2014). This means that females in the student body that gender there is little incentive to having program equality in participation opportunities is expenses lagging behind revenues. Most being met, even if there are significant athletic departments align their spending to numbers of women denied participation utilize nearly every dollar that they make. (Carpenter, 2013). While institutions When an institution makes the decision to identifying Title IX compliance as a primary eliminate one or more of its athletic factor for the elimination of athletic programs, the money not being spent on programs have made progress in the area of the eliminated programs is going to be spent substantial proportionality, the progress elsewhere within the athletic department. made still leaves the institutions well short This was evident in the consistency in the of compliance. None of the institutions increases in total revenue and total expenses achieved direct substantial proportionality. shown by the institutions in this study. The Based on these findings, institutions seeking question then becomes to where is the Title IX compliance through the money being reallocated? discontinuation of athletic teams were Among the 21 institutions citing the consistently failing to meet their stated goal. reallocation of athletic resources, over 60% It is also important to note that schools that of the increase in total athletic expenses was chose to cut men’s teams but did not satisfy allocated to football and men’s basketball proportionality are also not likely to show programs. This shows that the primary Title IX compliance under the second beneficiaries of the discontinuation of prong for showing a history of program athletic teams are often the primary revenue expansion of opportunities for the producers and spectator attractions. underrepresented sex. Although cutting men’s teams helped to reduce the proportionality gap by an average of four percent, nothing about cutting men’s teams

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 175 actually increased opportunities for women end result is reallocation of resources and in this sample. that typically means more resources for the Of the nine institutions citing Title IX revenue producers. compliance as a factor for the elimination of athletic teams, five were FBS programs and Limitations four were FCS programs. All nine Although this current investigation institutions had football programs and the revealed numerous areas of significant presence of a football program makes findings, there are several limitations within achieving Title IX compliance through the design of this research that should proportionality very difficult as it would temper the application of the results. First, take approximately 5-6 women’s teams to this study was conducted using information equal the number of participation and data from news outlets and the EADA opportunities provided by a football Cutting Tool. It was assumed that the program. These challenges to achieving information reported in the media was direct proportionality are also exemplified accurate. To further bolster sources related by Fulks (2013) noting that from 2004-2012 to that assumption only reports from FBS programs averaged 330 (55.0%) male institutional websites or news reports with student-athletes and 270 (45.0%) female quotes from university officials were used; student-athletes. FCS programs averaged however, it is not possible to be completely 287 (56.9%) male student-athletes and 217 certain that all of the news reports were (43.1%) female student-athletes and accurate. All of the financial and Division I programs without football participatory data was collected from the averaged 167 (49.4%) male student-athletes EADA archives. The EADA does not and 171 (50.6%) female student-athletes. require standardized accounting practices It is also of note that institutions and the accuracy of the data is reliant upon identifying Title IX compliance as a primary the accurate reporting from each institution. factor for the discontinuation of athletic This study was also limited by the loss of teams saw large increases in their football archived information on websites. During and men’s basketball related expenses. The the time frame of the study, many increases in football and men’s basketball institutions changed the platform for their spending accounted for more than half of athletic webpages and in many cases this all new spending. This means that the resulted in the loss of archived stories. This institutions were neither becoming made retrieving information about the proportionate in participation numbers nor stated reasons for the discontinuation of the were they spending a higher percentage of athletic teams more difficult for the older their budgets on women’s programs. These discontinuations. outcomes are not in line with the letter or the spirit of Title IX. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that The decision to discontinue an athletic regardless of the publicly stated reasons for team is difficult and complex, particularly the discontinuation of athletic teams, the during uncertain economic times. When

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 176 making these decisions, it is important that rationale for team elimination and administrators have as much information as measureable outcomes, these results do possible. It is important to evaluate the provide an important basis for additional outcomes of previous cuts to enhance the study. Future research should focus on ability of athletic administrators to make examining the rationales and outcomes of future decisions. This study showed that the the discontinuation of athletic teams at discontinuation of athletic teams for the differing levels such as NCAA Division II, purposes of a reduction in athletic spending Division III, or the National Association of or trying to achieve Title IX compliance was Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) not effective. The most likely outcome from institutions. Research also needs to examine the discontinuation of one or more athletic the outcomes of discontinuations on a sport teams was an increase in the football and by sport basis that may identify specific basketball budgets and this appeared to be trends and unique factors that may be tied the desired result for many of the athletic to specific sports. By examining the programs in this study. The results of this discontinuation of athletic teams by sport, study calls into question the validity of the researchers could also identify the financial publicly stated rationales for the impact of eliminating each sport. This discontinuations. Are these institutions would provide administrators with valuable simply failing to achieve their desired information in the process of determining outcomes or are they providing rhetoric in which sport(s) to discontinue. Additionally, the media to deflect attention from the relationship of the discontinuation of unpopular decisions? In any situation where athletic teams to the level of institutional the possibility of discontinuing an athletic support received by the athletic department team is present, it is vitally important that should be examined. The elimination of administrators understand the likelihood of sport programs and participation achieving the desired outcome. It is opportunities for individuals is indeed a important that the outcomes of these difficult and often controversial process, difficult decisions are closely examined by and the development of research findings administrators at each school as well as by that can better inform those decisions is academicians across a broader scope of critical. multiple schools. The outcomes should not --- only be evaluated, but the results should be shared in order to make future decisions of program elimination more informed. The loss of opportunities for student-athletes is too great a price to pay for misinformed or uninformed decisions.

Future Research As this study serves as the initial inquiry to assess the connection between the

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 177 References intercollegiate athletics programs report. A Policy Interpretation: Title IX and Lexington, KY. Intercollegiate Athletics; Federal Further clarification of intercollegiate Register (1979) Vol. 44, No. 239. athletics policy guidance regarding Associated Press. (2010). NCAA report: Title IX compliance, (2003, July 11). Economy cuts into sports. Retrieved Retrieved from from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/l http://sports.espn.go.com/ncf/news ist/ocr/title9guidanceFinal.html /story?id=5490686 Jamrisko, M., & Kolet, I. (2014). College Brady, E. (2009). Recession forces colleges tuition costs soar: Chart of the day. to find ways to cut spending. USA Bloomberg Business. Retrieved from Today. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/a http://www.usatoday.com/sports/co rticles/2014-08-18/college-tuition- llege/2009-02-18-colleges-economy- costs-soar-chart-of-the-day cover_N.htm Law v. NCAA, 134 F.3d 1010 Carpenter, L. J. (2013). Gender equity: (10th Cir. 1998). Opportunities to participate. In D. Liberty to reclassify wrestling program. Cotton & J. Wolohan, Law for (2011). Retrieved from Recreation and Sport Managers, 6th ed. http://www.libertyflames.com/index (pp. 526-534). Dubuque, IA: Kendall .cfm?PID=10869&NewsID=6907 Hunt Publishing Company. National Collegiate Athletic Association. Civil Rights Restoration Act (1987). U.S. (2015). Division I Manual 2015-2016. G.P.O Supt. of Docs. Washington Indianapolis, IN. D.C. New, J. (2014). NCAA limits on for-profits. Cohen v. Brown University, 991 F. 2d 888, Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from 896 (1st Cir. 1993). https://www.insidehighered.com/ne Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act (1994). ws/2014/08/14/ncaa-hopes-create- 20 U.S.C. § 1092; 34 C.F.R. §§ 668.41 profit-classification and 668.47; Olney, M., & Pacitti, A. (2015). The rise of http://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/res services and the lengthening of ources/athletics/eada.html economic recovery. Berkley Economic Fulks, D. (2010). NCAA revenues & expenses History Laboratory. Retrieved from 2004-2009: NCAA Division I http://behl.berkeley.edu/files/2015/ intercollegiate athletics programs report. 07/Olney-and-Pacitti-2015_WP2013- Lexington, KY. 04-.pdf Fulks, D. (2013). NCAA revenues & expenses Skolnick, J. (2011). Trimming teams: An 2004-2012: NCAA Division I examination of decision making processes in

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 178 intercollegiate athletic departments when multiple varsity sport programs are eliminated (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC. Temple reduces varsity sports from 24 to 17. (2013). Retrieved from http://owlsports.com/news/2013/1 2/6/GEN_1206130910.aspx?path=g eneral Watson, G. (2009). Programs in precarious position. ESPN. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/espn/print?id=4 313320&type=story Wrestling, gymnastics programs terminated. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.fullertontitans.com/spor ts/m-wrestl/spec- rel/040811aab.html

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Tables

Table 1

Revenues and Expenses for Division I Football Bowl Subdivision Institutions

Year Revenues Change Expenses Change 2012 55,976,000 6.2% 56,265,000 10.8% 2011 52,715,000 9.1% 50,774,000 8.8% 2010 48,298,000 5.7% 46,688,000 1.7% 2009 45,698,000 11.2% 45,887,000 10.9% 2008 41,088,000 9.4% 41,363,000 5.5% 2007 37,566,000 6.1% 39,192,000 9.6% 2006 35,400,000 7.6% 35,756,000 14.9% 2005 32,849,000 16.6% 31,128,000 7.4% 2004 28,214,000 N/A 28,991,000 N/A Note: Adapted from “NCAA Revenues & Expenses 2004-2012: NCAA Division I Intercollegiate Athletics Programs Report.” by D. Fulks, 2013.

Table 2

Revenues and Expenses for Division I Football Championship Subdivision Institutions

Year Revenues Change Expenses Change 2012 13,761,000 2.5% 14,115,000 6.8% 2011 13,425,000 1.8% 13,218,000 1.0% 2010 13,189,000 8.9% 13,091,000 8.9% 2009 12,111,000 0.3% 12,019,000 -0.8% 2008 12,080,000 14.8% 12,115,000 14.9% 2007 10,527,000 9.2% 10,541,000 11.1% 2006 9,642,000 7.1% 9,485,000 9.6% 2005 9,007,000 15.9% 8,655,000 10.8% 2004 7,770,000 N/A 7,810,000 N/A Note: Adapted from “NCAA Revenues & Expenses 2004-2012: NCAA Division I Intercollegiate Athletics Programs Report.” by D. Fulks, 2013.

Journal of Amateur Sport Special Issue: Political Economy Marsh et al., 2016 180

Table 3

Revenues and Expenses for Division I Institutions without Football

Year Revenues Change Expenses Change 2012 12,756,000 7.8% 12,983,000 8.8% 2011 11,831,000 6.8% 11,930,000 3.2% 2010 11,077,000 6.7% 11,562,000 10.1% 2009 10,382,000 3.0% 10,502,000 1.5% 2008 10,082,000 8.6% 10,347,000 10.0% 2007 9,281,000 5.8% 9,403,000 5.4% 2006 8,771,000 9.1% 8,918,000 12.4% 2005 8,036,000 10.4% 7,931,000 11.0% 2004 7,281,000 N/A 7,147,000 N/A Note: Adapted from “NCAA Revenues & Expenses 2004-2012: NCAA Division I Intercollegiate Athletics Programs Report.” by D. Fulks, 2013.

Table 4

Top Revenue Sources and Expenses for Division I Institutions

FBS FCS D-I Non-Football Top Revenue Sources Institutional Support 19% 70% 77% Ticket Sales 22% 5% 4% Cash Contributions 21% 8% 6% NCAA/Conference 18% 5% 4% Distributions Top Expenses Salaries and Benefits 34% 31% 32% Grant-in-aids 15% 26% 29% Note: Adapted from “NCAA Revenues & Expenses 2004-2012: NCAA Division I Intercollegiate Athletics Programs Report.” by D. Fulks, 2013.

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Table 5

Eliminated Programs by Gender

Year Number of Eliminated Eliminated Eliminated Total Schools Men’s Women’s Co-Ed Eliminated Programs Programs Programs Programs 2001-2002 3 4 2 0 6 2002-2003 3 6 2 1 9 2003-2004 5 6 1 0 7 2004-2005 4 7 2 0 9 2005-2006 6 5 1 0 6 2006-2007 7 16 6 1 23 2007-2008 8 8 2 0 10 2008-2009 13 14 10 1 25 Total 49 66 26 3 95

Table 6

Eliminated Programs by Number of Programs Eliminated at Each Institution

Year Schools Schools Schools Schools Schools Schools Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating 1 Program 2 Program 3 Programs 5 Programs 6 Programs 10 Programs 2001-2002 1 1 1 0 0 0 2002-2003 1 1 0 0 1 0 2003-2004 3 2 0 0 0 0 2004-2005 0 3 1 0 0 0 2005-2006 6 0 0 0 0 0 2006-2007 3 1 1 1 0 1 2007-2008 7 0 1 0 0 0 2008-2009 5 6 1 1 0 0 Total 26 14 5 2 1 1

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Table 7

Mean Participation Numbers

All Institutions Citing Citing Reduce Citing Title IX (n = 49) Reallocation Spending Compliance (n = 21) (n = 22) (n = 9) Male S-As 235 200 262 261 Year Prior

Male S-As 200 177 225 209 Year After

Change 35 23 37 52

t-Value 4.499 ** 2.461* 3.332** 3.003*

Female S-As 173 140 191 187 Year Prior

Female S-As 163 137 183 181 Year After

Change 10 3 8 6

t-Value 1.346 0.726 0.562 0.614 Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01

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Table 8

Mean Revenues and Expenses for All Institutions

Year Prior to Year After Change t-Value Discontinuation Discontinuation Total Revenue $15,041,638 $17,187,893 $2,146,255 3.866 **

Total Expenses $14,618,807 $16,721,937 $2,103,130 6.215 **

Football Revenue $5,558,307 $6,744,686 $1,186,379 3.036 **

Football Expenses $4,546,505 $5,300,145 $753,640 3.377 **

Men’s Basketball $1,616,900 $2,062,250 $445,350 1.842 Revenue

Men’s Basketball $1,460,571 $1,657,990 $197,329 5.148 ** Expenses

Women’s Basketball $618,735 $742,070 $123,335 2.359 * Revenue

Women’s Basketball $979,239 $1,125,063 $145,824 4.266 ** Expenses Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01

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Table 9

Mean Revenues and Expenses for Institutions Citing Reduction in Athletic Spending

Year Prior to Year After Change t-Value Discontinuation Discontinuation Total Revenue $17,021,087 $19,948,831 $2,927,744 4.072 **

Total Expenses $17,085,735 $19,101,211 $2,015,476 4.019 **

Football Revenue $7,201,048 $8,589,761 $1,388,713 2.296 *

Football Expenses $5,503,368 $6,090,360 $586,992 1.758

Men’s Basketball $1,961,083 $2,648,044 $686,961 1.315 Revenue

Men’s Basketball $1,637,668 $1,762,056 $124,388 2.192 * Expenses

Women’s Basketball $685,315 $919,914 $234,599 2.801 * Revenue

Women’s Basketball $1,106,266 $1,211,724 $105,458 1.744 Expenses Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01

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Table 10

Mean Revenues and Expenses for Institutions Citing Reallocation of Athletic Resources

Year Prior to Year After Change t-Value Discontinuation Discontinuation Total Revenue $10,932,644 $13,154,151 $2,221,507 3.920 **

Total Expenses $10,841,581 $12,952,722 $2,111,141 3.580 **

Football Revenue $3,510,298 $4,917,340 $1,407,042 2.188 *

Football Expenses $2,996,502 $4,009,217 $1,012,715 2.489 *

Men’s Basketball $1,148,843 $1,455,796 $306,953 2.454 * Revenue

Men’s Basketball $1,133,116 $1,397,616 $264,500 4.512 ** Expenses

Women’s Basketball $507,102 $582,237 $75,135 1.105 Revenue

Women’s Basketball $740,268 $906,211 $165,943 3.739 ** Expenses Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01

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Table 11

Mean Revenues and Expenses for Institutions Citing Title IX Compliance

Year Prior to Year After Change t-Value Discontinuation Discontinuation Total Revenue $19,523,742 $22,729,100 $3,205,358 3.052 *

Total Expenses $19,427,520 $22,493,012 $3,065,492 3.011 *

Football Revenue $4,936,797 $6,818,007 $1,881,210 1.922

Football Expenses $5,174,567 $6,641,705 $1,467,138 2.095

Men’s Basketball $1,921,448 $2,315,823 $394,375 2.781 * Revenue

Men’s Basketball $1,923,573 $2,174,177 $250,604 3.069 * Expenses

Women’s Basketball $899,373 $1,042,358 $142,985 1.028 Revenue

Women’s Basketball $1,355,854 $1,599,984 $244,130 2.211 Expenses Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01

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Not Going Pro: On Seeking Lasting Returns from College Sports

Matthew I. Horner Neal Ternes Christopher M. McLeod Florida State University

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) clearly states there are many favorable qualities derived from sport participation that benefit those “who go pro in something other than sports.” However, the ability of collegiate athletics to deliver on the promise of attributable long-term value is rarely questioned. In this study involving former NCAA Division I student-athletes, the authors examined whether participation can be regarded as an investment and how student-athletes perceive the returns thus derived. Adapting and extending Becker’s (1962) theory of human capital investment to sport participation, the authors probed participants’ experiences for evidence of investment thinking and lasting benefits in corporeal, economic, social, and cultural varieties. The findings support the notion that participation in collegiate athletics can be broadly defined as investment, but not in accordance with the claims made by the NCAA or the long-term utility maximizing rationale assumed by neoclassical economists. Furthermore, much like their non- athlete counterparts, high costs of participation, inherent uncertainty and risk, and unreliable information confound athletes’ decision-making and blur the distinction between consumption in the present and investing for the future.

n 2007, the National Collegiate Athletic critics of college sport alike: “There are over Association (NCAA) launched a 380,000 student athletes, and most of us go I branding campaign comprised of pro in something other than sports” several public service announcements (NCAA, 2007). Architects of the campaign (PSAs) and a new website. The televised indicated they were specifically targeting PSAs included a tagline that has since potential student-athletes and their parents become quite well-known to advocates and with the new marketing strategy. According

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to Penny Baldwin, managing director of military intrusion into the research and Y&R—the marketing firm hired by the educational prerogatives of public NCAA, the goal of the campaign was to universities. The sum total of the policies of highlight the “many intangible qualities higher education’s present political milieu student-athletes gain from their NCAA has been a depreciation of educational experience that stay with them throughout quality for students despite rapidly inflating their lives” (NCAA, 2007). Dennis Cryder, costs for undergraduate studies (Aronowitz, then the NCAA senior vice-president for 2000; Giroux, 2007; Tuchman, 2009). branding and communications, added, Caught in this morass is the student body, “many people do not realize the profound treated as a disposable commodity in the positive effects that college sports have” race to accumulate private wealth through (NCAA, 2007). higher education (Giroux, 2014). Although the wording has changed, the At the same time when the corporate refrain endures in the NCAA’s current university is giving less to students, the marketing materials. The following phrase NCAA and popular discourse are telling was recently taken from the NCAA’s students that tertiary education and website: “For the rest [not going pro], the extracurricular activities are investments. experiences of college athletics and the life College athletes are uniquely positioned in lessons they learn along the way will help this strange relationship in the sense that them as they pursue careers in other fields” they do not just consume college life, but in (NCAA, 2015a). The narrative espoused by many ways produce it: in terms of the the NCAA suggests that college sports “public goods” of college teams, the definitively endow participants with certain surpluses from revenue-generating sports, favorable qualities. and the elusive “Flutie effect” of increased, The NCAA’s statements are voiced in a post-victory, student applications (see Bass, time when universities are facing retrenched Newman, & Giardina, 2013; Sperber, 2000). funding from state and federal sources, and Moreover, Wolverton, Hallman, Shifflett, are increasingly turning towards austerity and Kambhampati (2015) observed that policies and competitive profit-generating over the last decade, increased subsidies for strategies to make ends meet (Aronowitz, NCAA Division I athletics were primarily 2000; Giroux, 2013; Washburn, 2008). The generated from higher student fees paid by cumulative outcome of such an approach to non-athletes despite the reality of climbing higher education has been the emergence of tuition and deteriorating educational quality. what Henry Giroux (2007) called the The aim of this study is to extend the “corporate university model” and its line of critical inquiry by interrogating the concomitant effects, including: skyrocketing contemporary practice of college sports in costs in undergraduate education, the order to understand the real utility provided substitution of on-the-job training for to participants and reconcile the enthusiastic education, an increased reliance on non- claims made by the NCAA. To target the tenured faculty and graduate students as actual long-term value afforded to instructors, and increased private and participants, former NCAA Division I

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student-athletes are interviewed. Former future income. Consequently, the concept student-athletes are important because they of human capital was born. can elucidate both the experience of being a The shift in thinking about the body as college athlete and life after college sports. a form of capital opened up previously Drawing from the concept of human private matters of the self and the family to capital investment as theorized by the a host of economic analyses and sparked a Nobel Prize winning economist Gary debate about the consequences of such Becker (1962), as well as critiques of the thinking. Paraphrasing Foucault’s homo economicus model offered by the French (2004/2008) conception of the neoclassical historian and political philosopher Michel position, human capital is inseparable from Foucault (2004/2008), the participants were the person who possesses it—the capacity asked to evaluate the treatment of athletic to work, a skill, or an ability is participation as a type of personal indistinguishable from the person who is skilled investment and describe their perceived and can do a particular thing. In other words, return on investment (ROI) attributable to labor as capital is instinctively human. sport. Our findings support the relevance of Furthermore, because a worker has a ROI analysis to college sport, but also lifespan and length of time in which his or elucidate problems with using criteria that her labor can be used in a productive do not account for the equivocal returns of capacity, human capital itself ages and has participation. Furthermore, our analysis an eventual obsolescence. Therefore, the prompts us to question the statements made modern worker is a sort of machine, by the NCAA and the role of intercollegiate producing a stream of earnings over its athletics within the corporate university lifespan. It is in this “machine-stream model (Giroux, 2007). ensemble” that the worker is conceived not as the subject of labor-power as Marx Corporeal Investment argued, but rather as a conception of and Productive Capital “capital-ability”—that is, the worker as a In the early 1960s, Theodore Schultz sort of “enterprise for himself (sic)” (1961) and Gary Becker (1962) sought to (Foucault, 2004/2008, p. 224-225). explain why people work. Both scholars Accordingly, a worker can be viewed as concluded that the objective of work is to an entrepreneur—no longer merely a earn a wage. This wage is the return on subject of capitalist power over labor, but a one’s labor—an income (or interest) on a worker as a rational enterprise in and of particular form of capital. Schultz (1961) himself or herself. From useful abstraction and Becker (1962) reasoned that the capital to wayward economic model, a variety of of which the wage is the income is the set of notable scholars including John Stuart Mill, physical and psychological factors, which Thorstein Veblen, Max Weber, John make someone able to do a particular kind Maynard Keynes, Karl Polanyi, Michel of work. Thus, labor is a kind of capital, Foucault, and many others have referred to embodied as skill and ability, representative this self-sustaining, omnipotent of the potential for work and the source of entrepreneur-of-the-self as homo economicus.

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The treatment of laborers not as individual or dives into a swimming pool does so people, but as commercial enterprises by not necessarily to become, or be made neoclassical economists allowed for the into, a consumer (or a commodity, a rationalization, systematization, and celebrity, or a brand). (p. 611, emphasis quantification of a society and an economy in original) (see Foucault, 2004/2008; Miller & Rose, Indeed, college student-athletes may not 2008). The shift in thinking, regarding the regard themselves as commercial body as a site of potential capital enterprises, but under the collegiate model accumulation, alters the way an education, of marketized sport, which has existed for at skill, or ability figures into the micro- least the last 50 years (Oriard, 2012), such a economies of individuals and families, and state may be unavoidable. When the market explains how these traits (or the pursuit reality of modern-day college sport is thereof) can be quantified and evaluated in coupled with the popular discourse terms of a cost/benefit or risk/return. concerning participation, application of homo In order to conceive of human skills, economicus to the student-athlete as an attributes, and capacities as capital, it abstracted ideal-type appears almost natural. presupposes that human activity and Instead of fighting this idealization, we training are investments. In economics, embrace the notion that student-athletes investment is understood as forgoing may regard participation as a form of consumption in the present in order to personal investment and turn our focus realize consumption in the future. In sport, towards evaluating the promise of investment has commonly been significant and lasting benefits. conceptualized as practice, whereby short- The investment decision is crucial to term sacrifices of time and physical effort assessing the verity of investment as a are necessary to prepare for athletic framework for understanding college sport performances in the future. For instance, participation. In order for a decision to be Ericsson (2007; Ericsson, Krampe, & classified as an investment, the actor must Tesch- Römer, 1993) has written extensively have some sense of information, on deliberate practice—a task that requires uncertainty, and risk (Black, 1986; Callon, effort, has no monetary rewards, and is not Lascoumes, & Barthe, 2001/2009). More inherently enjoyable, but is required for specifically, if investment is consumption achieving expertise in sport. delayed into the future, then the actor who Extending and broadening investment invests is one who confronts the uncertainty analyses to sport participation is not of the future, and therefore the uncertainty uncommon nowadays, although it has of their future consumption. elicited some lamentations. For instance, To deal with this uncertainty, an actor Newman (2014), commenting on the acquires information. Information allows an economization of sport, stated: actor to treat the uncertain future as risk; Business and markets did not create that is, investors use information to make running and jumping, they valorized uncertainty calculable and actionable. The them. A young child who swings a bat quality of information, and the manner with

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which information is sourced and given, is classic investment techniques and financial therefore of central importance to assessment tools. Treating sport as a form investment in sport. of investment, economists have applied marginal revenue product (MRP) Personal Investment in Sport calculations, labor marketability Physical activity, exercise, and sport assessments, and reviews of long-term have been approached by scholars as a type economic well-being to assess the economic of personal investment from a variety of value of elite athletes at the high school, perspectives and disciplines including college, and professional levels (Barron, physiology, psychology, sociology, and Ewing, & Waddell, 2000; Beamon, 2008; economics. Together, this research spans Eide & Ronan, 2000; Ewing, 1995, 1998, the physical and social-psychological effects 2007; French, 2004; Long & Caudill, 1991; of sport participation as well as some of the Sack & Thiel, 1979; Staurowsky, 2013). many macro-/microeconomic aspects of Other participation-related topics studied by marketized sport. Physical education, economists include player compensation kinesiology, and health studies researchers, strategies and management relations (e.g., for instance, have studied the investment of Fort & Quirk, 1995; Rosen & Sanderson, time and effort against the ability of various 2001), social determinants (e.g., Hoffman, forms of physical activity to generate Ging, & Ramasamy, 2002), industrial favorable physiological and psychological organization (e.g., Neale, 1964; Szymanski, effects for participants (see Duda & Tappe, 2003), economic impact (e.g., Baade & 1988; Ostrow, 1984; Smith & Serfass, 1981). Matheson, 2001; Siegfried & Zimbalist, In this vein, some scholars have explored 2000), and the practice and influence of the motivations, extent, and meaning sports gambling (e.g., Forrest & Simmons, ascribed to participation (Gray-Lee & 2003; Zuber, Gandar, & Bowers, 1985). Granzin, 1997), while others have focused Upon review of the cumulative body of on elite sport participation and the ideal mix literature, it is apparent there has been a of training to bring about superior shift in thinking concerning the assessment performance (Wall & Cote, 2007). Still, of value derived from sport participation. others contend that social well-being as an Thinking of sport as an investment, outcome of participation is under- especially when the corporeality of sport researched compared to other fields in the participation is converted into economic health sciences (see Fox, 1997, 1999; Miller units of analysis, introduces (a) a rationale & Hoffman, 2009; Reinboth & Duda, requiring ROI analysis to justify the 2006). expenditure of resources (similar to other Participation, particularly in elite types of financial investments), and (b) a organized sports, is increasingly viewed as a particular set of criteria against which to personal economic investment where costs measure ROI. The ROI metric is most and value are treated as pecuniary variables. often accredited to an extension of Indeed, economists have approached sport Kirkpatrick’s (1977) taxonomy for training as a new (and unique) frontier to apply program evaluation, later solidified by

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Phillips (1997) as a way to calculate pay-off sports themselves” (Oriard, 2012, p. 4). and demonstrate accountability by However, as Oriard indicates many of the “following a logical, rational approach” (p. protocols enacted as a result of reform have 2). In other words, by emphasizing the ultimately shifted institutional concern for financial costs of training and development student-athletes away from their long-term programs (as investment), the need arises to well-being in favor of operational flexibility attribute direct returns to the expenditure of and short-term profitability. those resources. Institutionalization of the near- Thinking in terms of cost/benefit sightedness plaguing collegiate athletics has necessitates the fabrication of evaluative been assisted by the establishment of criteria so that ROI analyses may be academic progress and graduation metrics conducted. Unfortunately, the criteria which have drawn considerable criticism for selected are often arbitrary, vague, or cater being poorly designed, inadequate, and easy to special interests, challenging the creation to manipulate (Cusack, 2007; LaForge & of an unbiased or objective ROI assessment Hodge, 2011; Oriard, 2012; Wolverton, sought in the first-place. Although ROI 2007). The metrics used by the NCAA analysis may be applicable to sport today—namely, the Federal Graduation participation, some resources invested (e.g., Rate (FGR), Graduation Success Rate time, effort, and talent) are not easily (GSR), and Academic Progress Rate quantifiable and the returns for non-premier (APR)—to measure the scholastic success athletes often lack attributable economic of student-athletes focus exclusively on impact. For instance, it is more feasible to “academic progress” with a terminal limit calculate the financial pay-off for those who set at graduation. can see a direct effect of their investment Though parading as academic reform, (e.g., elite or professional athletes who these gestures overwhelmingly favor the generate measurable financial returns for an interests of university athletic departments organization or earn a wage for their as employers of student-athlete labor— participation) than the majority of those labor with only four-years of useful whose economic returns from sport productivity defined by NCAA eligibility participation are more subtle or uncertain. rules. Under the current regime, administrators need to be near-sighted to Short v. Long-Term Returns focus on academic progress, leaving Efforts made by the NCAA and student-athletes’ long-term well-being to the member institutions to incorporate amorphous “merits of participation.” protections for student-athletes—in other Effectively, athletic departments that profit words, to guarantee long-term returns— from student-athlete labor are only required have missed their mark (Smith, 2011). to “progress” them towards an academic Indeed, NCAA reform is nothing new as degree and are relieved of any substantial “criticism of priorities and practices in responsibility for their long-term well-being. intercollegiate sports, and thus an implicit LaForge and Hodge (2011) argue that call for reform, is nearly as old as college APR and GSR make it possible for

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universities to adopt a “hands-off” or and money are the most obvious resources passive approach to student-athletes, using needed to transform an energetic youth into the metrics in ways that were never a college student-athlete. While talent is intended. While this treatment seems to put difficult to quantify, the costs of student-athletes on equal footing with the participation in terms of time and money rest of the student-body, the student-athlete are more visible. must still reconcile their massive investment Although there is much variation, youth in extracurricular athletic activities. sport participants, especially those most Troubling still, with the enormous pressure likely to compete in college, spend several of superior athletic performance levied on hours each day (sometimes more than once student-athletes and those on whom they a day, six or seven days a week) at practice depend most for support and guidance or in competition. In economic terms, the (namely, coaches and administrators), a cost of coaching and equipment fees alone quality academic experience is often the first (not including travel and specialty training thing to be compromised. Student-athletes camps) run between one-hundred to nearly may progress towards degree completion or one-thousand dollars per month (Kids Play even graduate from college, but the value of USA, 2015). Private lessons push this figure the degree conferred, relevance of the upwards and, though most sports have a experience conveyed, and utility of the skills primary season, participation is likely to mastered cannot be assumed. In sum, such span all twelve months of the year. It is a near-sighted concern for eligibility, difficult to avoid the stress caused by such a academic progress, and quantitative metrics high-value investment, notwithstanding the work together to obfuscate the true value of opportunity costs associated with the collegiate student-athlete experience, commitment to competitive sports, especially when projected over an extended emphasizing the need for participants to period of time. make the investment pay off. Institutional protections for student- Although there may be a need to justify athletes are further handicapped by the various costs, the developmental aggressive recruiting practices, year-round potential of sport participation (especially at athletic schedules, and scholarships limited the elite level) is increasingly uncertain and to one-year renewable contracts, each of contingent (Coakley, 2006, 2011). which inundate the utility of participation Moreover, there is a tacit escalation of with uncertainty. Today’s student-athlete is commitment corresponding with higher- in a precarious position—although they may levels of athletic competition (see Oriard, be the functional unit of college sports, they 2012; Smith, 2011; Watterson, 2005). In are given no guarantees for their efforts. Division I college sports (the highest level That being said, it is no small feat to count of non-professional athletic competition in oneself among the ranks of NCAA Division the U.S.), both the direct costs of I student-athletes as only 6% of high school participation and indirect (opportunity) athletes go on to compete for NCAA costs of forgone value provided by schools (NCAA, 2015a). Talent, practice, alternative investments are likely to be high.

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Thus, given the high total cost of capital. Human capital is created by training investment, questionable developmental and people to improve or acquire skills and vocational potential, and contradicting capabilities that enable them to perform in institutional and popular discourses new ways (Becker, 1962; Coleman, 1988; concerning participation, an investment Schultz, 1961). Cultural capital refers to analysis (with particular concern for ROI) is learned norms and values (signified by especially relevant. What we hope to qualifications, customs, and artifacts) contribute to the research on college sport acquired through education, group participation through this study is an memberships, and organizational essential understanding of the long-term associations (Bourdieu, 1986, 2005). In the value afforded to participants who invest Marxist tradition, economic capital is the value immensely in their discipline, but whose achieved by owning the means of contributions are not easily quantifiable— production, either in a monetized or namely, college student-athletes “who go commodified form (Bourdieu, 1986, 2005). pro in something other than sports.” Social capital refers to the quality and totality of relationships between actors (via group Assessing ROI after College Sports membership and social networks) and the The challenge of ROI analysis is to link mutual cognition and recognition of the the pay-off to the investment. Although the reciprocal nature of those relationships formula can become quite complicated, the (Bourdieu, 1986, 2005; Coleman, 1988). basic method for calculating ROI is to Furthermore, Bourdieu (2005) argued subtract the cost of an activity from the that what makes capital valuable to its direct benefits of the activity (Grant, 2012). possessor is its ability to be transformed or However, difficulty arises in precisely exchanged for something else. Therefore, defining the costs and benefits, which can we anticipated that our participants may be vary depending on what criteria are selected able to reflect on costs and returns from for the analysis. In the case of sport participation in two ways: (a) direct participation, this complexity is manifest in accumulation or dispossession of human, the myriad ways to conceptualize cultural, economic, or social capital from investment, multiple currencies of exchange, sport participation, or (b) indirect and subtle types of returns. The ROI criteria transformation of sport participation and used in this study were drawn from an capital derived from sport participation into expanded version of the homo economicus other forms of capital. model of human capital investment, accounting for a broad spectrum of possible Method outcomes. In order to understand the ways in Drawing from the works of Becker which student-athletes perceive their college (1962), Bourdieu (1986, 1989, 2005), and sport participation as a form of personal Coleman (1988), four types of capital were investment (or on the contrary, the reasons used as theoretical moorings for our inquiry, they do not), we designed a qualitative including: human, cultural, economic, and social phenomenological study during which nine

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former NCAA Division I athletes were participants to think about the different interviewed. Because return on investment ways they could have paid for and received is a contentious issue and the returns are returns from participation (social, economic, difficult to identify, we opted for a cultural, and physical costs and returns). humanistic, phenomenological approach Additional questions explored the notions (Markula & Silk, 2011). That is, we sought of uncertainty, risk, and access to to understand how former athletes made information related to their participation. sense of their experiences and the returns Given the humanistic and they received; importantly, this meant the phenomenological design of this study, we athletes could identify, in their own terms, prompted participants to answer questions what was a cost and what was return. by reflecting on their experiences. We also, Following Lincoln, Lynham, and Guba as stated above, encouraged the participants (2011), the interviewers positioned to critically evaluate the concepts of themselves as co-constructors of knowledge investment and their relevance to college in offering heuristic devices such as athletics and post-athletic life. For instance, “investment,” “information,” “risk,” and all participants were asked a version of, “returns” with which the participants could “What do you think of evaluating college affirm, discount, or negotiate based on their sport participation as an investment?” own perspectives. In this way, we aimed to give “investment” to the former athletes, so Sample Selection that they could deconstruct it, in a direct Initial participants were invited to join affront to popular discourse that gives the the study from the researchers’ existing athlete to investment. Through this social networks and then snowball sampling phenomenological perspective, the present was used to connect with additional study offers commentary on and participants. Participants were recruited and compliments the NCAA’s GOALS study interviewed in semi-formal private settings (Growth, Opportunities, Aspirations and until an exhaustive description (i.e., thematic Learning of Students in college) first saturation) was achieved (Creswell, 2007; conducted in 2010 and then again in 2015 Moustakas, 1994). Saturation was reached (NCAA, 2015c). when emerging meaning units (i.e., “investment as cost,” “coaches as holders Interview Guide and givers of information,” etc.) became A semi-structured interview guide was stable; in other words, new participants created and revised after two pilot spoke to the same themes articulated with interviews. Interview questions addressed regards to different contexts (such as whether participants believed their own different sports, different life events, and student-athlete experience was an unique subject-positions) (Creswell, 2007; investment and what types of returns they Moustakas, 1994). received from that investment after college. Participants were selected on the basis We used Bourdieu’s approach to convertible of having at least one-season of college capital as a heuristic framework to prompt sport experience (mean experience was 3.4

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years) and were at least one-year removed more than half of the student-athlete from college (mean time since participation population are women and the revenue was 8.0 years). The participant group was sports (predominantly men’s sports) are the comprised of six women and three men of clear minority (NCAA, 2015b). In general, varying race and ethnicity who participated we found that there was little difference in a number of different sports (cross- between the responses provided by athletes country (1), football (2), Nordic skiing (1), in more visible sports than those in less rowing (1), soccer (1), swimming (1), and publicized ones; the same was true between track and field (2)) for schools men and women. A possible explanation of geographically dispersed across the United this phenomena given during several of the States. Participants held a variety of athletic interviews was that it was difficult for scholarships during their student-athlete respondents to completely isolate their tenure (full, partial, and non- personal experiences from the greater social scholarship/walk-on status), some passing experience of living, training, and attending through all types of scholarship. Three classes with other student-athletes (of participants attempted to transition to the varying demographics, sports, and athletic professional-level after college, although backgrounds). In sum, because our none were able to do so as their sole source objectives in this project were idiographic in of employment and all had withdrawn from nature, avoiding nomothetic conclusions, professional competition at the time of the we believe the final sample was appropriate study. for the task. Our participant group demonstrated considerable heterogeneity according to Analysis gender, ethnicity, sport, and scholarships. Each interview was electronically Given the epistemological framework and recorded and transcribed by hand. goals of this study, we feel this variability Following Creswell’s (2007) was important for acknowledging the phenomenological approach, from these multiple and subjective experiences of transcripts a list of significant statements college athletes (Manning, 1997). However, was created, paying particular attention to there are two characteristics of the research non-repetitive, non-overlapping statements sample that deserve reflection: over- and giving each statement equal worth. representation of lower-profile sports and Statements were grouped into themes and women athletes. We reflect on the then a textural and structural description implications of these over-representations in followed to describe what each participant the conclusion, discussing how, precisely experienced and how that experience because of the composition of our sample, occurred (Cresswell, 2007). The final our findings are particularly well positioned description was constructed by reorganizing to illuminate some current debates the coded material to form a credible regarding college sport participation for representation of the cumulative narrative some, but less so for others. For now note: (Tracy, 2010) that preserved the authenticity of the 23 sports governed by the NCAA, of the participants’ experiences.

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College Sport as an Investment this study, when speaking about the Research participants characterized decision-making process itself, they all participation in college sport as a personal identified similar experiences and anxieties. investment, with real opportunity costs and Information and risk were identified as two risk, from which they expected a return. important themes in the interviews. While ROI is discussed in the following Participants used information from section, here we focus on how college sport family, coaches, or administrators to decide became an investment for the participants. to invest in college sports. These informants Although all of the former athletes were told them that they could get a free or able to consider college sport participation reduced-cost education while participating as an investment, there were some nuances in a sport they enjoyed and at which they in why each athlete was pursuing this excelled. Many of these information sources investment and what they hoped to get were never participants in NCAA sports, from it in return. Specifically, some, such as meaning that their knowledge of what it is Participant 2, expressed a socio-economic like to be a student-athlete was second- need to attain a college scholarship: hand. It became clear through the I come from basically a single parent interviews that many of the risks in college home. My mom pays for everything and sports were not discussed with participants I didn’t want her to struggle for me to during their initial investment decision. For be in college. Also, I didn’t want to get instance, Participant 2 explained how a lack into debt, but that didn’t turn out to be of information about what it is really like to the case. I don’t think I could have be a year-round student-athlete and some withdrawn voluntarily. I say that misinformation from her coach, lead her to because I don’t know how I would have make a decision that she later regretted: paid for school. Had it not been for I ended up having to take out student sports, I would probably have more loans. I was given a full-ride scholarship debt than I do now. (Participant 2, to go to college and upon time to re- Personal Communication, 2015) sign, my coach gave me the proposition This perspective can be contrasted with that, “You know you’re covered and those offered by other participants who you get government aid as well, would pursued college sport for the value of you be okay with us giving some of competing and challenging himself or your money to another student-athlete herself at the next level. Despite the to help them out?” I’m thinking I’d be apparent differences, each of our covered, but I wasn’t. I didn’t realize participants vocalized some combination of that for collegiate athletes you only get socio-economic need and competitive desire paid for the school year, so over the motivating their investment decision. summer, if you don’t know how to manage your money, well you’re Risk and Information basically struggling or you’re taking out While there was some variation in the a student-loan. So I ended up giving up goals among the former college athletes in some of my scholarship. So I wouldn’t

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have done that and I would have got this malicious use of uncertainty and more information about the process of information asymmetry prompted her to what it means to be a full-ride athlete. transfer to a different university. (Participant 2, Personal By fabricating the notion of an infinitely Communication, 2015) deep recruiting pool, coaches exaggerated As Black (1986) posits, the validity and their information superiority and comprehensiveness of information is accentuated the uncertainty of the returns perhaps the riskiest component of any perceived by their athletes. At other times, investment decision. That is, although commitment to the team was used as a information is proffered and accepted as point of leverage. Calling attention to the expertise, it is sometimes simply erroneous importance of “the team” above individual data misconstrued as knowledge. interests, coaches and administrators The most pervasive sources of devalued other academic, vocational, or information for our respondents were their extracurricular pursuits. coaches and athletic administrators. Some When benefits achieved through group coaches used information to manipulate success are over-emphasized, individual their athletes. In the case of Participant 4, risks inherent in the pursuit of team goals the coach played on the uncertainty of can be masked (Alhakami & Slovic, 1994; scholarships and used their information Finucane, Alhakami, Slovic, & Johnson, superiority about whether certain athletes 2000; Slovic, 1999). By exaggerating the were replaceable: economic value of an athletic scholarship or At any track meet, if I didn’t do well my the social benefits of team sports (or coach wouldn’t talk to me. I could feel a conversely, demonstrating that these things sense of anger; I could just sense it. On can be taken away), coaches and the bus ride home my coach would be administrators obscure the real tensions and like “if we don’t get our act together we opportunity costs of investing in athletics. will lose our scholarships.” I could have Six participants were required by their left [the team], but I wanted to finish coaches or their practice schedules to select school and I wanted to leave with a certain majors over others. They were also degree. (Participant 4, Personal required to do so much training, travelling, Communication, 2015) and competing that their studies suffered Similar tactics were reported by a number of considerably. Participant 9 expressed regret participants whereby coaches used the for buying into a team culture that treated threat of replacement and/or loss of academics as a second-class investment: scholarship to influence the level of The reason I felt the academic stuff was commitment of their athletes. As a worth letting go was because I felt that consequence, athletes felt pressure to put the only person I was letting down then more time and effort into their athletic was me. My grades, yeah they got me training and performances to ensure their ineligible for a damn season, but the spot on the team. For one of our team still existed. There were other girls respondents, the environment created by on the team and I believed enough in

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them to think that we would be ok. an obvious risk of sport participation. For (Participant 9, Personal instance, Participant 3’s statement is Communication, 2015) characteristic of our respondents’ What our interviews illuminated that other experiences of injury: studies have not is the motivation to So my first injury happened right at the increase one’s commitment to sport or team beginning of my college career. I had a activities caused by the threat of losing the stress fractured third metatarsal that I opportunity to seek a ROI from sport (i.e., didn’t recognize and I ended up losing a scholarship or being cut from the breaking that foot and missed the first team). That is, the treatment of college three months of competition of my athletics as an investment by their coaches, college career. It healed completely and their administrators, their families, and I redshirted that year because of that. It popular discourse actually lead athletes to was rapid rehab with pool workouts escalate their commitment. and running on the alternate gravity Interestingly, the uncertainty of treadmill the whole time I was hurt, “opportunity lost” can even outweigh more but that injury didn’t linger with me at concrete risks inherent in directing one’s all. My next injury was a neuroma in time away from other activities (e.g., my foot, like a swollen nerve. That one committing to a team bonding activity was a pretty quick fix. That was my instead of studying for a midterm). By junior year of college. Then my senior investing time in sport or other team-based year I again had a stress fracture in my activities, student-athletes lost opportunities foot. It was a different bone. It to realize value elsewhere. For instance, happened right at the end of my indoor Participant 4 talked about the challenges she track season and I didn’t notice it. I faced upon college graduation with little was running well and I was training professional experience, stating, “A lot of really hard to have a good outdoor my classmates were doing interviews and track season. I was actually on the track doing internships. I feel like what employers for my first practice when I broke it. It are looking for are people with experience just broke. The experience rehabbing and I really didn’t have experience” from that was a little different because (Participant 4, Personal Communication, as a senior, they gave me the boot and 2015). Furthermore, when student-athletes all that, but there was no rehab. Since I rely on coaches and administrators as sole wasn’t coming back they told me I providers of information concerning the didn’t have to aggressively rehab that. ideal management of their time, they allow (Participant 3, Personal for possible overrepresentation of athletic Communication, 2015) department interests in their personal Initially, physical injury and associated investment strategies. suffering might be interpreted as a cost of The manifest uncertainty in student- being a student-athlete. As Participant 3 athlete time demands was also acutely described, injuries are an expected aspect of corporealized in the form of physical injury, elite-level training and competition.

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However, what is also interesting for the of athletic performance and/or team current analysis of investment is the extent success. Long-term healing or preventative to which injuries and sufferings last after care were eschewed in favor of quick-fixes intercollegiate competition has ended. For to keep student-athletes productive. In example, Participant 2 reflected on her short, the risk of physical injury, uncertainty lasting injuries from being a college field caused by time demands, and near-sighted athlete: institutional interests worked together to Javelin tore my elbow and shoulder up. obfuscate student-athlete investment One of my teammates had rotator cuff decisions and negatively impact personal surgery. I didn’t have to experience that, ROI. thank god, but the throbbing every now Those few who cited predominantly and again that I get in my arms, my positive assessments of their college sport lower back, I still don’t even know how experience acknowledged the role of that happened. I got stuck bending over coaches and administrators who allowed for one day. And every now and then, more more autonomy in setting individual so when I’m up late, my back will hurt priorities and consideration of alternate really bad. Ankles, that happens a lot. sources of information. Participant 3’s You’ll roll your ankle and stuff. Shin response was particularly indicative of how splints, too. I actually injured my hip college representatives could contribute to flexor, which I have issues with every positive student-athlete experiences and now and again. A lot of that stuff, like outcomes: beating up your body with weights and But my coach, I really believe this, cared different events, puts your body into all more about my academic success than these positions and motions. So not he did my athletic success. There was doing that anymore, you feel like every one time, I had an organic chemistry now and then it comes back and test and we had a meet with Texas Tech bothers you. (Participant 2, Personal that weekend down in Lubbock. The Communication, 2015) coach was filling out the team and I was Thus, for some, the time spent as a the number one 5K guy who was premiere college athlete left them in supposed to go, and I said, “Hey coach, permanent physical pain and created would it be alright if I didn’t race this ongoing medical costs for which they are weekend and raced next weekend now solely responsible. Although none of because I have this big organic the former athletes interviewed considered chemistry test?” And he’s like, “Yeah themselves to be seriously disabled as a we can do that.” I guess that’s one of result of their participation in college sports those moments that he recognized that (others are not so fortunate), the approach I was concerned about the test and he to injury and rehabilitation reflects both probably sacrificed the team success for institutional value on short-term labor me. (Participant 3, Personal viability and the use of information to Communication, 2015) encourage individual sacrifice in the name

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I came into college wanting to do The majority of participants had biology pre-med and that’s exactly what difficulty describing the exact benefits of I ended up with. There is a physician their involvement. For instance, Participant there who serves on admissions who 6 clearly articulated how fallacious it is to would come down to the athletic assume that simply being a participant department and answer questions that would result in returns: anyone would have about what it takes I don’t think my co-workers even know to be accepted to medical school and that I played sports. Even on my what types of things they need to be résumé, I don’t know how long you doing. So I would say, because I was a keep that sort of thing on there. Maybe student-athlete I got exposed to a good an employer could read into it and say, role model. (Participant 3, Personal “You’re a good team builder,” but I Communication, 2015) don’t know. I’m an underwriter for an Participant 3 was able to maintain a balance insurance company, so my sport between academics and athletics, search for experience hasn’t really done anything information from multiple sources, and for me. (Participant 6, Personal benefitted from support networks that Communication, 2015) appreciated the larger picture. In these Saying you played sport on your résumé is cases, short-term athletic success and team not what the NCAA is evoking when it objectives were occasionally suspended so promotes the benefits of athletic attention could be turned to pressing needs participation. Instead, the benefits are in other areas. Additionally, scholarships understood to come in the form of a and the more ambiguous notion of degree—“free” or at a reduced price—and “opportunity lost” were not used as sources other intangible benefits more directly of leverage to influence student-athlete related to sport participation. Furthermore, decisions. the assumption is that these benefits are cumulative; that is, a college degree is good, Equivocal Returns but a free college degree (of any sort) is The former college athletes in this study better. recognized the importance of information The respondents, however, consistently and informants when, as a prospective separated their assessment of the benefits student, they sought to decide on investing attributed to their education from those in sport participation and, as an enrolled linked to their athletic participation. The student, they sought to escalate or de- majority of study participants cited athletics escalate their commitment. Some of these as being in conflict with academics. students experienced uncertainty as a result Respondents indicated that an over- of asymmetries of information. Here we investment in athletics was a hindrance to build on the initial analysis of investment in the economic benefit they envisioned from order to understand the returns that our having been a student-athlete. participants achieved from college sport The primary issue here seems to stem participation. from the uncertainty of student-athlete time

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demands, as respondents were unable to and find a job easy. Thank god for my devote enough time to academics in the face mother. I have a lot of friends that of athletic commitments. Repeatedly, don’t have jobs. They have that degree, respondents indicated they had to make but no experience. (Participant 4, compromises to secure their place on the Personal Communication, 2015) team and/or athletic scholarship even Importantly, as Participant 4 clearly though most were unable to maximize the describes, the commitment to sport instead benefit of the educational opportunity of other activities such as internships may afforded by the scholarship. Though there even put college athletes in a more difficult was an overwhelmingly positive assessment position than their non-athlete peers. At a of college sport participation as a “once in a minimum, our interactions with former lifetime” or “priceless” experience, most college student-athletes complicate the respondents indicated they would place NCAA’s position that participation prepares more emphasis on academics if they had the student-athletes to “go pro in something chance to do it over again. other than sports.” Furthermore, although the economic The acquisition of social capital is value of college sport participation is widely another possible source of utility for researched, in this study attributable student-athletes. Below, Participant 9 economic outcomes were limited or non- reported that the social relationships formed existent. Roughly half of our participants during her participation played a significant currently work in the sport industry (four), role in her life after college: which would appear to reflect the benefits I’m still friends with girls who were on of participation. However, though they the team, so you see it that way. Not sought a career in sports because they had just girls on my team, but other athletes. unique skills and experiences, their sport I’m still in touch with most of the specialization also presented limitations. For baseball team from then, a few of the our participants, working in the sport basketball players, some of the women’s industry was both influenced by their love golf team. These are people that are still of sports forged over years of participation my friends. You’re taking courses with and the fact that they spent so much time them; you’re sharing a weight room participating in sports that they lacked the with people. The way the dorms were skills needed for other professions. Indeed, set up, and it’s different now, they had as Participant 4 demonstrated, these former baseball in this building, soccer in that athletes faced similar challenges to other building, and they faced each other with underprepared graduates: about 50 yards between the two. So we I just wish there was something after were really close with them. We saw it [graduation] so they can allow athletes as this great opportunity to meet other to get on their feet, maybe financially, people who did the same things we do. maybe a training camp. Myself, I feel (Participant 9, Personal like I was left hanging. When I left Communication, 2015) school, I felt like I would leave school

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Here is evidence that sport participation Thompson, 2007; Vermeulen & Verweel, provides lasting, intimate, social 2009), social capital formed during sporting relationships. However, while all our interactions is most often characterized as participants celebrated this aspect of their intragroup “bonding” rather than post-athletic lives, many were unable to intergroup “bridging” (Putnam, 2000; articulate exactly how their relationships Putnam & Goss, 2002). This is particularly benefitted them personally. salient in the current study, for where Importantly, much of the social capital bonding triumphs, sport participation favors attributed by participants was perceived the creation of homogeneous relationships only within networks of other college that could stifle career mobility and athletes with similar experiences. Participant significantly restrict civic engagement 6 explained how the social relationships in (Coakley, 2011; Harvey, Lévesque, & her sport of rowing were predicated on their Donnelly, 2007). However, the excerpt high school experience and college tenure: from Participant 8 demonstrates how Socially it was kind of difficult because bonding and bridging can both occur, it wasn’t like your typical college sport eventually resulting in new pathways in where people are recruited. They had one’s social network: some people that were recruited, but I had a great experience from my other than that they had people who freshman year to my senior year. played different sports in high school Thinking I was just going to go to because nobody really rows, at least not school and get drafted by some team or in Kansas. So socially it was difficult to something, but that wasn’t the case. break into that higher group. There was Over time I met people and I met more clearly a divide between the seniors and people different from myself. Meeting the freshmen. Then they had multiple more people exposed me to more strings. So they had people who had things. I met one of my good friends been rowing for a while and they were and he actually gave me the opportunity really good at it, and then they had to be on the radio and meet other guys. people who had just played other (Participant 8, Personal sports. (Participant 6, Personal Communication, 2015) Communication, 2015) In Participant 8’s case, “bonding” with his Although Participant 6 points out that her teammates gave him access to social case was a unique example, evidence of networks beyond sport, which led to a job social segregation in sport is well opportunity in radio and “bridged” his documented (DeLuca, 2013; Swanson, access to networks in the community of 2009). This observation is supported by radio professionals. Putnam (2000), who distinguished between Finally, it is worth reiterating that, two forms of social capital: bonding and despite the lack of measurable ROI, the bridging. Although researchers have shown majority of the respondents expressed being that both may occur under certain a student-athlete was of significant circumstances (Beaudoin, 2011; Palmer & experiential value. Reflecting on the time

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spent as an athlete, they identified that the popular one, espoused by economists experience of competing at an elite-level, studying human capital, the popular press the prestige of being recognized as a varsity evaluating student debt, and NCAA athlete, and belonging to an exclusive commercials advertising college sport organization provided a sense of intrinsic participation. At first glance, it seems as value. Recognition of this benefit is a though our participants also shared this manifestation of cultural capital afforded by belief. They reflected on their student- participation. athlete experience as an investment and Upon closer analysis it was observed believed that it should be understood that that the potency of this form of capital has a way by aspiring high school athletes. shelf-life and is not easily extended beyond Despite their conviction, we had college. Participant 6 was wrestling with the difficulty qualifying the return on limits of cultural capital when she investment that these former athletes questioned the relevance of her athletic purportedly received. Furthermore, while experience: our respondents had difficulty identifying In the job market they look a lot more the long-term benefits they received from at education, but activities and things being a student-athlete, they were consistent like that, I don’t think they would place on one thing: the cost. Being a student- an NCAA team activity over a club athlete requires a significant amount of sport or something organized where money, time, and effort along with forgoing you are working with people. There’s many other experiences and opportunities not an advantage I would say. for self-development. Therefore, according (Participant 6, Personal to our participants, being a student-athlete Communication, 2015) must be an investment because it is so costly, Moreover, when other respondents not necessarily because it provides returns. articulated the cultural value of their How do we make sense of the experience, they described it as limited or contradictory manner by which these ambiguous. In turn, the cultural significance former student-athletes reflect on their of having been a college student-athlete is experiences? And how can we reconcile it only valuable when it is recognized by with the NCAA’s version of events, in others and is often reduced to a passing which they promote the returns of being a curiosity. Several participants highlight the student-athlete and, at best, neglect to limited exchange value of cultural capital, publicize the costs? Being a student-athlete acknowledging that though their status as was, for all of our participants, an experience former student-athletes may be “exotic”, it they would not trade for any other. In that sense, is only useful as a cultural novelty. while they rationalized being a student- athlete in terms of investment, they Coda recollected in terms of experience. In this paper, we set out to evaluate the This is a key feature of sport that verity of the claim that being a college theories of human capital and political athlete is an investment. The claim is a economy rarely elucidate (c.f., Gruneau,

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1979, as cited in Beamish, 1982; Ingham & the respondents’ perspective on the short- Hardy, 1984). When one plays sport, and in term, causing the then student-athletes to doing so puts one’s body into motion with a forgo investments in the long-term. lusory attitude, the outcomes are in excess When viewed in the context of the of that which can be defined in bodily corporate university model promulgated by output. In other words, no matter how fully late capitalist economic rationality, this sporting goals might be appropriated for the confounded investment paradigm is not production of capital, and no matter how much different than that facing non-athlete completely sporting practice is reoriented to students. That is, all students presumably create investment, athletes, in this study at attend college as a form of investing for a least, retain a sense of achievement which better future. However, both the athlete and justifies their decision to participate in the student are valorized in their attendance, college athletics. For our respondents, their and both face an uncertain future with student-athlete experiences remain limited or skewed sources of information. immensely enjoyable despite not having There are important differences, anything material to show for it. however, between athlete and non-athlete We need to be very careful with this students. First, the athlete’s body is of finding lest it be used to justify the central importance to his or her investment. continued over-extension of student- As Participants 2 and 3 showed, these athletes. Instead, we argue that this finding bodies can be broken. And second, the should be interpreted as initial evidence for student and the athlete are entwined in each the need for a critical, research-driven other’s attendance, meaning they play a evaluation of NCAA academic progress symbiotic role in their conjoined criteria. Specifically, we argue that our exploitation. The student indebting himself participants’ reflections highlight the need to the workforce, is tied, by way of for a clear delineation between short-term exuberant athletics fees, to the athlete who and long-term returns on investment. must forgo her desired major or sacrifice Short-term returns from sport non-sporting social relationships in order to participation include internal rewards such practice. Thus, it appears the myths as enjoyment and external rewards such as surrounding the college athlete experience those provided by coaches and peers. mirror similar falsehoods presented to non- According to our participants these returns athlete students, supporting the supposition were significant. However, these returns can that the corporate university model extends also obscure the realities of long-term to all students (Giroux, 2014). investment for college athletes. Our As noted in the introduction and participants noted this happens in two ways. method, our research—given an First, the thrill and enjoyment of overrepresentation of lower-profile sports competition itself led them to forgo and women participants—is not as relevant educational opportunities. Second, and for commenting on the investments of perhaps most importantly, coaches with aspiring professional athletes. However, short-term outlooks occasionally leveraged given that the NCAA (2015a) estimated the

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probability of collegiate athletes going pro to range from as low as 0.9% in women’s basketball to as high as 8.6% in men’s baseball, the college athlete who will not, or did not go professional is certainly worthy of sustained scholarly attention. Nevertheless, we believe a similar humanistic, phenomenological method could be used for those athletes who have made or started careers playing sports— they too deserve that the benefits of life after college not be taken-for-granted. Finally, with respect to our over- representation of women participants, the current findings add nuance to the oft- assumed notion that women athletes perform better and graduate at a higher rate than their men counterparts (see for instance Leeds & von Allmen, 2014). In summary, while it may be necessary in the current climate of high performance amateur sport and the corporate university to treat college athletics as an investment, the theory of human capital cannot be used to explain this investment because student- athletes are not rational in the long-term (at least they are not permitted to be rational in the long-term). They enjoy competing, training with their peers, and holding a privileged status on campus. Furthermore, the entire support network created to ensure their success is designed to produce on-field performers and off-field “progressers” for four years—and only four years. The student-athlete is not an enterprise-of-the-self after all, despite the NCAA, academic, and popular discourse that has obfuscated this fact. ---

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