Sanitation MDG: the Race Is on ��

ISSN 0258-2244 March/April 2008 Volume 7 No 2

Sanitation MDG: The race is on ��

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�� table of contents 3

Letters 4

upfront 5

Sanitation 14 International Year of Sanitation

Sanitation 16 Can SA lay claim to a ‘sanitary revolution’?

ISSN 0258-2244 March/April 2008 Volume 7 No 2 Wetlands 21 From wetland to waste land – Human activities threaten Gauteng treasure

EDCs 24 The ABC of EDCs: Global concern spurs researchers into action

Water Treatment Plants 28 New guidebook helps find better treatment solutions

IWRM 30 The business of compulsory licensing Sanitation MDG: The race is on Service delivery 32 Survey shows good progress in RDP principles Cover: Africa’s sanitation ministers gathered in Johannesburg Sanitation 34 to discuss ways of accelerating African ministers unite in fight against backlogs sanitation service delivery (See page 16). Water Kidz 36 Washing hands can save your life

the last word 38 DWAF/WRC alliance strengthened

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly magazine on water and water research published by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in 1971 by Act of Parliament. Subscription is free. Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the members of the WRC, and may be copied with acknowledgement of source.

Editorial offices: Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa. Tel (012) 330-9031. Fax (012) 331-2565. WRC Internet address: http://www.wrc.org.za Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: [email protected]; Editorial Secretary: Rina Human, E-mail: [email protected]; Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: [email protected]

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 4 Letters Letters to the Editor SA laws lagging behind High levels of nitrates lead to conception and In view of the pending water crisis I find it pregnancy problems in mammals, including strange that the use of grey water i.e. bath, humans. washing and shower water to irrigate gardens Other problems relate to the absence of is strictly forbidden by most municipalities in Cryptosporidium testing in the Sans 241. Cryptosporidium testing is compulsory in the South Africa. On the other hand, in Melbourne, (2002) edition 5 by removing the class ‘O’ sec- USA. Several major outbreaks have occurred Australia, householders are encouraged to tion. Rand Water continuously run auto analysis notably in the USA in 1993 when 100 people harvest grey water and rain water by means of and maintain the old class ‘O’ standard. died and 300 000 were hospitalised. The latest a state subsidy of up to A$1 500 to assist in No facts are given concerning the inorganic outbreak in the west of Ireland affected 70 000 installing the necessary equipment and visually parameters such as calcium, magnesium, homes. The common reason given for not test- friendly storage tanks. Duel flush toilets are also cadmium, cobalt and vanadium which are criti- ing is the cost. Compare this with hospitalisa- mandatory. cal in South Africa and included in our standard. tion expenses. In South Africa regulations stipulate that: As an example cadmium, which is a worse toxin Then, the article on page 23 of the Janu- all discharge from any sanitary fixture, which than lead, has a maximum of 10 micrograms ary/February edition (Mercury Levels in SA includes washing machines, showers, basins, per litre. However, some of the boreholes in Water Resources Probed) refers specifically etc., must be disposed of into the water-borne Johannesburg are showing toxic levels of two to mercury. I am now retired but for over 20 sewage disposal available. That is the municipal milligrams per litre. years I have regularly had mercury determined sewerage connection provided. Chemical oxygen demand has fallen away in potable water by SANS approved laboratories Although municipalities are aware of private and is not mentioned. Dissolved organic carbon for this element. At least three laboratories are use of grey water, its disposal or use for irriga- has replaced this old parameter but it does not capable of this evaluation in South Africa. tion does not comply with national building allow for non organic oxydisable parameters in It is agreed that mercury is a major prob- regulations; therefore the discharge of grey water the water, such as sulphides, sulphur, ferrous lem, but far more serious is cadmium, which is to a garden can not be specified for approval by iron. These are continuously found in South rising rapidly. It would appear that whenever old the local municipalities’ building department as Africa as a result of mine drainage. mine (rock) dumps are disturbed, mercury/lead/ the applications would be refused. Nor will The present standards for South Africa in cadmium all rise rapidly. building inspectors issue occupation certificates terms of Tables 1 and 2, are tabulated and also It would be of far more use if the full spread once building work is completed should they show the old standard. All figures are the maxi- of toxic elements were determined in this find out that the drainage installation does not mum for the given parameter. High levels of programme and local resources used instead of comply with the SABS regulation. magnesium in drinking water have been shown costly overseas laboratories. One again we are caught napping. Our to cause behavioural problems in humans. authorities warn us of a pending crisis, but they Waterwatcher persist in hanging on to antiquated legislation. Table 1: For heavens sake let’s get our act together. Determined Unit NL max SABS 241 SANS241 SANS 241 SA max as Furthermore I notice from TV coverage that limit 2002 Class 1 max Class II Given in at all meetings involving Eskom and various Class ‘O’ max Max report governmental authorities there is invariably a Aluminium µg/ℓ 200 150 300 500 300 Ammonia µg/ℓ 200 200 1000 2000 1000 bottle of bottled water in front of every delegate. Antimony µg/ℓ 5 5 10 50 10 Is this because the authorities don’t trust our Arsenic µg/ℓ 10 10 10 50 10 municipal water or are they totally unaware of Bromate µg/ℓ 1 - - -- the electricity, raw materials and disposal Chromium µg/ℓ 50 250 100 500 100 Copper mg/ℓ 2 0.5 1 2 1 costs of hundreds, if not thousands, of these Iron µg/ℓ 200 10 200 2000 200 unnecessary items? Lead µg/ℓ 10 10 20 50 20 Dennis Toens, Somerset West Manganese µg/ℓ 50 50 100 1000 100 Mercury µg/ℓ 1 1 1 5 1 Nickel µg/ℓ 20 50 150 350 150 Articles shows SA in poor Sodium mg/ℓ 150 100 200 400 200 light Zinc mg/ℓ 3 3 5 10 5 The article on pages 24 to 27 of the January/ Chloride mg/ℓ 150 100 200 600 200 Cyanide µg/ℓ 50 30 50 70 50 February 2008 edition of the Water Wheel (SA Fluoride mg/ℓ 1.1 0.7 1 1.5 1 Drinking Water Standards Under the Micro- Sulphate mg/ℓ 150 200 400 600 400 scope) shows South Africa in a very poor Selenium µg/ℓ 10 10 20 50 20 light, particularly Rand Water. The maximum Nitrate mg/ℓ 50 26 ) 44 ) 88 ) 10 Nitrite mg/ℓ 0.1 ) ) ) 10 limits given in Tables 1 and 2 of this article Magnesium mg/ℓ - 30 70 100 - are incorrect. The actual figures are shown in Cadmium µg/ℓ - 3 5 10 - SANS241 Class II max. We should remember Cobalt µg/ℓ - 250 500 1000 - that in December 2005 South Africa effectively Calcium mg/ℓ - 80 150 300 - Vanadium µg/ - 100 200 500 - reduced our water standards with the issuing of ℓ SANS241: 2005 Edition Six. Table 2: This reduced our old very high (one of the highest in the world) standards of SABS 241 Trihalomethanes µg/ℓ 25 100 200 330 200 DOC mg/ℓ - 5 10 20 10

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Upfront 5

Frogs leaping into distinction Water by numbers umanity is facing one of its biggest Hextinction crises of recent times, with up 11 million – The number of people sup- to half of the world’s 6 000 amphibian spe- plied with potable water by Rand Water. cies in danger of dying out. 13 – The number of river basins worldwide The Year 2008 has been declared the that are shared by between five and eight Year of the Frog in a bid to raise awareness of riparian nations, according to UNESCO. the plight of the world’s frogs and toads. In Five basins, the Congo, Niger, Nile, Rhine South Africa, more than 17% of 114 recorded and Zambezi, are shared between nine species are considered critically endangered. and eleven countries. The river that flows Known as nature’s indicators, amphibians through the most nations is the Danube are among the first species to respond to (18 countries). Pretoria Zoo’s amphibian mascot, Fred the environmental changes. Habitat loss is a 97,9% – The percentage of Gauteng’s African bullfrog, undergoes testing for the significant threat, as cities expand, streams, population who have access to piped chytrid fungus. ponds and wetlands give way to the needs of water, according to Statistics South farmers and forest lands are destroyed. Other In a bid to save the world’s amphibians Africa. threats include climate change, pesticides, the Amphibian Ark project has been initiated 157 – The number of countries that have pollution and climate change. by a group of conservation organisations signed the Ramsar Convention on wet- Another major cause for the extinction where zoos are being encouraged to, among lands. crisis is a parasitic fungus called amphib- others, maintain select species in capti 90 000 – The estimated number of house- ian chytrid. The fungus, which originated in vity until they can be secured in the wild. holds who qualify for free basic services Africa, attacks the skin of the frog and has a The Pretoria Zoo is also part of this captive in the City of Tshwane. The city is in the 100% mortality rate. In the last few decades breeding programme, and has already tested process of registering indigent house- the fungus has spread across the world, several of its frog species for the chytrid holds who will receive 12 Kℓ of water and endangering whole colonies in the wild. fungus. 100 kW of electricity free a month. 50% – The estimated percentage of block- ages in the City of Cape Town’s sewers Drinking water experts meet in CT due to foreign objects and fat in the network. According to the city, carcasses, ore than 70 delegates from South Africa, A range of technologies both high-end MNamibia and Botswana attended the (e.g. robust ultrafiltration membrane systems, engine parts and even furniture are find- third Techneau Regional Technology Platform solar- or wave-powered reverse osmosis ing their way into the network. (RTP) for safe drinking water held in Cape systems), and low-end (e.g. sand filtration, 150 000 – The estimated number of chil- Town towards the end of last year. solar stills, simple ozonation systems) exist dren in need of humanitarian assistance Techneau is an integrated project funded by to improve potable water supply, especially in following recent flooding in Mozambique, the European Commission looking at new and rural areas. However, adequate operation and Malawi, Zambia and other African coun- improved technologies for drinking water sup- maintenance remains crucial regardless of tries, according to UNICEF. ply. The latest RTP provided some insight into the technology selected. US$202,5-billion – The funds required to the problems and challenges facing the drinking The South African government is pursuing protect to control wastewater pollution in water sector in southern Africa and enabled an two approaches to operation and maintenance: the US for the next 20 years, according intensive exchange between local water experts firstly, treatment plants are monitored remotely to a new report by the country’s Environ- and those from the European Union. and any problems are resolved by a ‘roving mental Protection Agency. Delegates heard how the standard of the technician’ and, secondly, a national techni- 19 500 t – The amount of medicinal plant water supply and the quality of the drink- cal assistance centre is being investigated to material provided annually by South ing water varies significantly throughout the support small water suppliers with information Africa wetlands, according to the Depart- southern African region. In the larger met- and practical hands-on assistance. ment of Environmental Affairs & Tourism. ropolitan areas, the technologies and water Other initiatives being initiated or imple- These plants are used by an estimated 28 quality are comparable with the developed mented to improve drinking water quality million people every year. world. However, nearly half of the region’s include the municipal electronic drinking 68 800 km2 – The surface area of Lake Vic- population live in rural areas where villages water quality management tool, a municipal toria, the world’s second-largest fresh- are widely scattered, making the supply of drinking water quality management tool, and water lake and the largest in Africa. The drinking water difficult and expensive. Treat- water safety plans, among others. lake is shared between Kenya, Tanzania ment plants in these areas are often inad- For more information, visit the techneau and Uganda. equately maintained. website: www.techneau.eu

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 6 Upfront

Building dams not a lasting Raising the status solution – WWF of groundwater ature organisation ship, electrical he profile of groundwater in Africa has WWF has com- batteries could N been raised significantly following the mended the Department help one get T Sixth Ordinary Session of the African Ministe- of Water Affairs & For- through a few rial Council on Water, held in Brazzaville, estry on its programme hours of a Congo last year. to rehabilitate old dams, power break of The meeting saw the participation of a as opposed to building load shedding, strong contingent of the UNEP & UNESCO led new ones. however, they Africa groundwater network, which made pres- The department add little to entations to ministers representing nearly 40 initiated its dam safety solving the countries. According to Yongxin Xu, UNESCO rehabilitation pro- problem of Chair in Hydrogeology at the University of the gramme in April 2005. demand exceed- Western Cape, several important resolutions National Treasury approved R1,25-billion over ing supply. He went on to explain that were taken on the Africa Groundwater Initia- five years, starting from 1 April 2006, specifi- similar to the way batteries merely tem- tive, including promoting the institutionalisa- cally to address the infrastructure mainte- porarily store electrical energy, dams are tion of groundwater management by river nance needs of dams. A total of 42 projects merely temporary storage facilities. Dams basin organisations to ensure regional owner- are between the planning and construction are only as effective as the amount of water ship of the initiative. phases at present. flowing into them. Representatives from the Southern African “WWF believes that rehabilitating our “Dams will help us get through tempo- Development Community (SADC) approached existing dams will be far more cost effec- rary drought events, but they will not help Xu whether a scoping study on the status of tive and have lower social and ecological increasing long-term water supply to match groundwater management could be under- consequences,” the organisation said in a a growing demand. Ultimately, it all comes taken in the region. The call was met with a statement. “ However WWF also believes down to simply managing long-term sup- positive response from the Water Research the Minister (Lindiwe) Hendricks’ reason- ply and demand,” said Dr Nel. “We need Commission. ing that dams are going to solve a looming to invest in the management of our rainfall The first funds that have been approved water crisis is flawed, and that this thinking catchments and freshwater ecosystems, are being used to develop and test a protocol is analogous to saying that building batteries which are the ultimate source of our water for this purpose in South Africa and feed will solve the energy crisis we are currently supplies. Parallel to this we need to invest it with whatever SADC information can be experiencing.” in technology and behavioural changes that obtained. A website protocol will also be According to Dr Deon Nel, manager of lead to reducing the demands on our water developed. the WWF Sanlam Living Waters Partner- supplies.” Water Diary SANITATION legal aspects. E-mail: imwa2008@itctravel. GROUNDWATER MAY 19-21 cz or Visit: www.natur.cuni.cz/imwa2008/ JUNE 25-28 The International Water Association (IWA) An International Conference on Groundwater is organising an international conference in GROUNDWATER and Climate in Africa will be held in Wageningen, the Netherlands, to discuss MAY 25-27 Kampala, Uganda. The conference, new sanitation concepts and techniques, The Third International Conference on co-organised by the University College models of governance and experiences. Managing Shared Aquifer Resources in London, Directorate of Water Develop- Enquiries: Tel: +31 (0)31 7482 023; Africa will take place in Tripoli, Libya. ment (Uganda) and UNESCO-IHP, seeks to Fax: +31 (0)31 7482 108; E-mail: Leaf@ Enquiries: Ms Krystel Lepresle; E-mail: bring together water and climate scientists, wur.nl; Visit: www.sanitation-challenge.wur.nl [email protected] government departments, the private sector and the donor community to share knowl- MINE WATER MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY edge and expertise and thereby improve JUNE 2-5 JUNE 2-4 present understanding of the impact of The Tenth International Mine Water Associa- The IWA Regional Conference on Membrane climate variability and change on ground- tion Congress will be held in Karlovy Vary, Technologies in Water & Wastewater Treat- water resources in Africa. Enquiries: Richard Czech Republic. Topics include water issues ment will take place in Moscow, Russia. Taylor; E-mail: [email protected]; or in underground & open-pit mining, mine E-mail: [email protected]; E-mail: [email protected]; closure, water engineering, and mine-water Visit: www.iwamembranes.ru Visit: www.gwclim.org

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Upfront 7

New system to Free services for Water on the Web monitor R&D in SA registered poor www.acsnanotation.org outh Africa’s science and technology households The American Chemical Society has infrastructure received a major boost launched a new nanoscience and nano- S he Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality has following the launch of a Web-based tool to technology community website. The site embarked on an indigent registration drive capture statistical information on research T aims to become the premiere destination which will see poor households receiving free and development (R&D) activities at universi- for nanoscience and nanotechnology basic services. ties, science councils and other government news, highlights and community. Features According to government news agency R&D funding agencies. include research highlights from ACS BuaNews, indigent households which register The so-called Research Information journals, career resources, podcasts and for the services will qualify for 12 kℓ of free Management System (RIMS) is a strategic other multimedia resources, as well as water and 100 kW of electricity per month. tool that will be completely integrated with interaction with other scientists. The Mayoral Committee member Sonto Thipe other existing systems at institutional level. It said she hoped to register 90 000 indigent will provide real-time information on human www.knowwiththeflow.org households by the end of June. “We would resources for science, engineering and This website, hosted by Cap-Net and like to address the plight of our poor resi- technology R&D capacity and technology MetaMeta Communications offers water- dents and provide them with affordable and improvement and innovation. related training and education communica- basic services. We therefore urge those who According to Minister of Science & Tech- tions materials. It is filled with useful tips qualify to register and also to inform others of nology Mosibudi Mangena, who launched for presentations, communication tools, the registration process.” the system in Pretoria in February, RIMS will tutorials for the use of common media, Households are considered indigent if the provide government with the necessary tools software and a picture gallery. total gross monthly income of all the mem- to obtain a detailed, holistic understanding of bers of the household does not exceed where its R&D funds are invested, and how www.drinking-water-engineering-and- R1 700 a month. According to Statistics SA, much it is spending on each area of science science.net there are 98 000 households who qualify as and technology. “This will certainly enhance Launched by Delft University and UNESCO- indigents in the Tshwane metropolitan area decisions in government and at the institu- IHE, Drinking Water Engineering and and only half of these are registered. tional level,” he said. Science aims to be the leading scientific In June last year the municipality intro- Government has set aside more than open access journal for the publication duced an overall rebate system on property R40-million to the development and imple- of original research in drinking water rates for poorer households, those using mentation of the RIMS project. The initial treatment. The focus is on fundamental residential property exclusively as homes and testing of the system was undertaken at the and applied research in water sources, facilities such as old-age homes and those universities of Witwatersrand, Pretoria and substances, drinking water treatment pro- caring for the disabled. Registered indigents Stellenbosch. The Department of Science & cesses, distribution systems and residual with property worth R10 000 and less do not Technology is now ready to pilot the system management. pay property tax and if the property of such in the science councils. families is worth more, a 25% rebate applies. www.internationalwaterlaw.org The International Water Law Project aims to serve as the premier resource on the Inter- SA-Romania collaboration seeks researchers net for international water law and policy issues. Its purpose is to educate and provide he first call for project proposals has gone out under the South Africa-Romania Joint relevant resources to the public and to facili- TScience and Technology Research initiative. tate cooperation over the world’s freshwater The two countries signed an inter-governmental bilateral agreement in 2004 on cooperation resources. The website also offers informa- in the fields of science and technology. The initiative is jointly implemented and administered tion on upcoming water events, courses, by the National Research Foundation in South Africa and the National Authority for Scientific publications and general water news. Research of Romania. South African researchers who are interested in research projects in the priority areas of http://timecapsule.iah.org biotechnology (including agriculture; the environment and food technology); information and The Hydrogeologist Time Capsule, communication technology; climate change and energy; applied physics (including laser launched earlier this year, is a website technology); new materials and technologies (including nano-materials); social science and hosting a collection of interviews of emi- humanities (including health sciences); and space cooperation may apply. nent Hydrogeologists who have made All South African applications must be submitted by 28 March. For more information, a material difference to the profession. contact Raven Jimmy at Tel: (012) 481-4069; Fax: (012) 481-4044; or E-mail: [email protected]

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 8 Upfront

Women more vulnerable to climate of environmental education into the National Curriculum Statement. People who have change – Minister previously used the miniSASS tool are invited to put forward their perceptions of the tool limate change their inequality and suggestions for its revision. Contact Cadaptation and margin- Mark Graham at E-mail: admin@ground- funds need to assist alisation. As truth.co.za or Clare Peddie at E-mail: poor rural women crop yields [email protected] who will be hardest and resources hit by the changes become to the planet due scarcer, Save water to global warming, women’s through click of a according to Deputy workloads Minister of Envi- will expand, mouse or many years, authorities have been try- ronmental Affairs & jeopardising ing to establish the levels of wastage from Tourism Rejoice Mabudafhasi. their chances to work outside the home or F water supply systems. She was addressing the United Nations attend school. To support more effective auditing of Environment Programme’s Tenth Special Ses- Mabudafhasi, said: “We need to make water use, the Water Research Commission sion of the Governing Council in Monaco in concerted efforts to prioritise women when has developed an advanced software tool February. opportunities arise for green jobs. We should name Aqualite. This new generation soft- The Minister said women were respon- actively encourage girls and young women to ware, developed by Dr Ronnie Mckenzie, is sible for food production in about 75% of choose non-traditional career options such designed specifically to assist water suppli- households in sub-Saharan Africa. Because as science and engineering in the areas of ers in managing their non-revenue water. they were so dependent on, for example, agri- mitigation and adaptation to climate change. It is reportedly one of few models available culture and natural resources such as fishing, Strategies should not focus on employing worldwide not based on an Excel spread- it was crucial that climate change adaptation women only as workers, they should also be sheet format. The program was developed in funds target their plight. supported to be managers of companies that collaboration with numerous internationally The Global Network of Women Minis- provide adaptation and mitigation services. recognised water loss experts. ters and Leaders of the Environment drew In this way, women will be able to make a The model incorporates a host of fea- the panel’s attention to the fact that when fundamental shift from being the victims of tures, some of which are not available in poor women lose their livelihoods, they slip climate change to leaders and victors against other water audit models. These include, deeper into poverty, which, in turn worsens climate change.” among others, a selection of seven different measurement units for use in various coun- Water Affairs gets Mini monitoring tries where metric units do not apply; user- defined confidence limits on al key variables; new DG tool reviewed ability to differentiate between connections and customers in certain calculations; and ormer DG of the Department of Environ- he Water Research Commission has detailed reporting forms which can be user- mental Affairs & Tourism (DEAT), Pam launched a project to assess the min- F T defined to provide either a summary report or Yako, has moved departments to become the iSASS (South African Scoring System) a detailed report. new DG of the Department of Water Affairs & biomonitoring tool as a resource for environ- Aqualite is available free of charge and Forestry (DWAF). mental education in the River Health Pro- can be downloaded from the WRC website, Yako has a B.Comm, a post-graduate gramme and to cross-link with the National www.wrc.org.za. Diploma in Labour Law, a certificate in Curriculum Statement. Human Resources Management, a certificate The miniSASS tool has been used as in Provincial and Local Government Law and a low-cost technology tool for the last six a Masters Degree in Business Leadership. years. Although various shortcomings and She was DG of DEAT from April 2005. perceived limitations have emerged, the tool Making the announcement in February, has provided a scientifically reliable and DWAF Minister Lindiwe Hendricks expressed robust technique to monitor water quality in her excitement at the appointment of Yako. “Ms rivers and streams, having been developed as Yako joins the department at a very critical time a simplified method of biomonitoring based in terms of meeting the service delivery targets, on the SASS technique. and the need for the department to clean up its Changes and updates to the miniSASS are act with regard to financial management.” needed, however, to facilitate the integration

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Upfront 9

‘Business Unusual’ Gets Donor Nod

establishing and rationalising catchment management agencies and making appropriate institutional arrangements for managing and development national water resources Minister of Water Affairs & infrastructure; delegating management of Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks government irrigation schemes to water user at the official launch of associations; transferring department-owned Masibambane III. “We need water schemes to water services authori- to build strong institutions ties (WSAs) and ensuring effective service to be able to handle future delivery by WSAs and institutions. water challenges such as “We are seeing water for growth and those brought on by the development as contributing towards bridg- impact of climate change,” ing the gap between the first and second she said. economies by bringing marginalised people into the mainstream economy,” noted Hen- dricks. “It is not only having access to clean water and decent sanitation that will con- he European Union (EU) has reconfirmed Information Network which is located at the tribute to growth and development, but also Tits commitment to assist the Depart- Water Research Commission. involving communities in provision of some ment of Water Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) “Masibambane is a success story, a of the goods and services required by the in achieving its development goals, with demonstration of what can be achieved water sector, such as brick making. We also a support package of some €107-million through a sector-wide approach to develop- see that through access to water a number of (R1,25-billion) pledged to phase three of the ment,” reported Briët. “When the programme new enterprises and small-scale agricultural Masibambane programme. started it was all about bringing water and activities become possible.” Masibambane III was officially launched sanitation to impoverished communities, In his 2008 State of the Nation address by DWAF Minister Lindiwe Hendricks and EU about the ‘nuts and bolts’ of service delivery. South African President said the country Ambassador to South Africa Lodewijk Briët at However, as time progressed we realised had to adopt a ‘business unusual’ approach the Third National Water Summit in Midrand, there were other ‘softer’ issues that needed to service delivery. “This business unusual in March. In addition to its donor funding, attention,” he explained. “Masibambane III approach must become business usual, in South Africa will commit R69-billion of its looks beyond the nuts and bolts towards other words, this principal must guide our own resources to the programme. systematic and institutional issues.” everyday actions,” said Briët. “Globally, The nationwide programme, a partnership The theme for the third phase is ‘Water regionally and locally we know what the water between DWAF, the Department of Provincial for Growth and Development’. “This theme challenges are and we know what to do to and Local Government and the South African is in recognition of water playing a key role overcome them. We need to get on with it.” Local Government Association, the EU and its in support of economic growth and social member states, Irish Aid and the Swiss gov- development, as well as strategic use of ernment, pools multi-donor funds for the pur- water infrastructure as a means to contribute pose of supporting and strengthening the water to and stimulate growth and development,” and sanitation services sector in South Africa. said Hendricks at the launch. The EU has been the largest contributor since Over the next five years, Masibambane the programme’s inception, with €125-million III will be focused on developing stronger donated between 2001 and 2007. inter-governmental relations; building the Through Masibambane the government interface between water resources and water has, among others, contributed to strengthen- services; building local government capac- ing governance at local level; placed profes- ity for economic growth and development; sionals at municipal level to support local developing skills and knowledge sharing and government; driven the agenda of ensuring addressing the needs of civil society and that cross-cutting issues (such as gender indigent communities. European Union Ambassador to South Africa mainstreaming and HIV/AIDS) are included It is foreseen that the programme will also Lodewijk Briët reconfirmed the commitment in service delivery and developed a learning be used to help DWAF overcome its final of the EU to assisting DWAF in meeting its sector through the establishment of the Water restructuring challenges. This includes growth and development goals.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 10 Global news

UN Secretary-General Micropollutants pledges action on water invade crops, resources water supply

oxins produced by a common fungus are Treportedly spreading beyond food crops and invading the environment, including water supplies, with unknown consequences, ing global anti-poverty targets. researchers in Switzerland report. “Our experiences tell us that environ- Their study, which reveals a need for mental stress, due to lack of water, may lead stronger monitoring and control of these to conflict, and would be greater in poor overlooked micropollutants was published in nations,” Ban told participants. Population the American Chemical Society’s Journal of growth will make the problem worse. So Agricultural and Food Chemistry. will climate change. As the global economy The contaminants are members of a grows, so will its thirst. Many more conflicts large family of fungal-produced toxins called

C ourtesy of UN lie just over the horizon.” mycotoxins. In the report, Thomas Bucheli nited Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki- The Secretary-General emphasised that and colleagues note that scientists have Umoon has told participants at the World water resources must be protected. “There is studied two of the most common mycotox- Economic Forum that the UN would take still enough water for all of us – but only so ins – deoxynivalenol and zearalenone – in action to address the challenge of shrinking long as we keep it clean, use it more wisely, food and animal feed products for decades. world water resources in the context of reach- and share it fairly,” he said. However, scientists know very little about the distribution of these toxins elsewhere in the environment. Groundwater used to pinpoint gold In the new study, the researchers exposed a winter wheat field to Fusarium graminearum, a major fungal source of o-called hydrogeochemical exploration, area of northern Yilgarn Craton in the west of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, and sub- Sgroundwater sampling to locate promis- the country. sequently monitored these toxins in the ing areas of mineralisation, is proving a “The northern Yilgarn is an arid area field’s drainage water before, during and cost-effective new technique able to detect with potable groundwater, so it is dotted with after harvest. Using high-tech lab instru- metals such as gold, nickel, copper, zinc and mindmills and bores used for agriculture. ments, they found that levels of these toxins uranium. This gives us direct access to groundwater increased significantly after harvest. Levels of Scientists with the Minerals Down Under without the need for drilling,” reports David deoxynivalenol, for instance, rose by almost National Research Flagship are analysing Gray of CSIRO. 4 000-fold. Traces of these toxins were also groundwater samples from one of Australia’s The project follows closely on the heels found in a number of Swiss rivers, they note. most prospective regions to help mineral of a similar successful hydrogeochemical explorers pinpoint areas for further investiga- exploration project along the Leonora-Wiluna tion. The project is taking place over a vast belt last year. Coated silica particles filter out toxins, pathogens David Gray of CSIRO and Patrice iny particles of pure silica coated with an DeCaritat of Tactive material could be used to remove Geoscience pollutants such as chemicals, viruses and Australia conduct bacteria from water much more effectively field measure- and at lower cost than conventional water ments and filtra- purification methods, according to Australian tion for a northern researchers. Yilgarn ground Peter Majewski and Chiu Ping Chan of water sample. the Ian Wark Research Institute at the Univer- sity of South Australia investigated how silica

M Pirlo particles can be coated with a nanometre-thin

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Global news 11

layer of active material based on a hydro- system has no buffer to sustain the popula- Global news carbon with a silicon-containing anchor. tion of the Southwest through an unusually snippets The coating is formed through a chemical dry year. In such an event, water deliveries self-assembly process so involves nothing would become highly unstable and variable,  The Zambian government has more than stirring the ingredients to make the according to research marine physicist Tim fined a Mopani Copper Mines active particles. Barnett and climate scientist David Pierce. manager and three other em- These active particles, called surface The two researchers concluded that ployees for the pollution of the engineered silica, were then tested to demon- human demand, natural forces such as Mufulira water system in January. strate that they could remove biological mol- evaporation, and human-induced climate The company reportedly pol- ecules, pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, change are creating a net deficit of millions of luted the water supply system and parasites. “The results show clearly that cubic metres of water per year from the Colo- affecting 800 Mufulira residents. organic species can efficiently be removed rado River system. Their analysis indicates  The Mississippi, North America’s at pH ranges of drinking water by stirring the that the water system could run dry even if largest river, is being dramati- coated particles in the contaminated water mitigation measures now being proposed are cally changed by farming prac- for up to one hour and filtering the powder,” implemented. tices that have increased its reported the researchers. They point out “We were stunned at the magnitude of water volume and carbon levels, that the filtration process occurs through an the problem and how fast it was coming at according to scientists from electrostatic attraction between the pathogens us,” said Barnett. “This water problem is not the Louisiana State University’s and the surface engineered particles. a scientific abstraction, but rather one that Coastal Ecology Institute. Since will impact each and every one of us that live the 1950s, there has been a 40% Key US lake could in the Southwest.” increase in carbon levels in the river as well as a 9% increase in be dry by 2021 the amount of water flowing from the Mississippi. here is a 50% chance Lake Mead, a key  Canadian city Montreal plans Tsource of water for million of people in the to be the first large metropolis southwestern US, including Las Vegas, will in the world to disinfect all its be dry by 2021 if climate change as expected wastewater using ozonation. and future water usage is not curtailed. The multimillion dollar plant will So maintain researchers at Scripps Insti- reportedly be the third-largest in tutions of Oceanography at the University of the world, treating about 32 m2/s California San Diego. Without Lake Mead and of water. neighbouring Lake Powell, the Colorado River

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The Water Wheel March/April 2008 12 Company news

Better plant for soft drink maker

WS Envig has completed a water treatment valves were supplied for the filtration units Vupgrade project for Coca-Cola Fortune in while a backwash recovery system was added Nelspruit, Mpumalanga. which feeds water into the cooling towers. The project, awarded through tender, VWS Envig also supplied an additional included the revamp and automation of the pump as well as all process instrumentation, existing plant. According to John Heffill, controls and cables. Training was supplied to manager: engineering at VWS Envig, the plant operators during commissioning. uses a municipal water source, and treats the The project was completed on a tight incoming water according to specifications for schedule, said Heffill. “The client needed use as process water. “The customer required the plant to be commissioned to coincide a more modern plant, which was to be as with the end of the bottling plant shutdown. automated as possible. We have not only This presented a challenge in that we had to delivered that, but also a plant which uses less physically dismantle much of the existing water and chemicals, while operating more equipment for us to complete the refurbish- efficiently and is more user-friendly.” ment. However, we completed the project The old plant was operated manually on time, and even went as far as supplying a and consisted of chemical dosing, a clarifier, polishing filter. The chemical dosing and temporary water source to the bottling pant in sand and carbon filtration units, and a clarification units were reworked. Automated the midst of the revamp.”

Mpumalanga villages on the northern border of the munici- News snippets pal area – Leroro, Matibidi and Moremela. refurb contract “This required assessing the status of the TCTA chairman Malixole Gantsho died infrastructure, determination of the refurbish- tragically at his farm outside East London, extended ment requirements, drafting schedules of in the Eastern Cape, in January follow- quantities and tender documents and project ing a tractor accident. He was appointed pecialist consulting engineering and administration,” said Kleynhans. “With the chairman of the TCTA Board in 2006. project managing group SSI has received S extension of our contract we will continue Meanwhile, TCTA has appointed Londiwe an extension until July to a contract awarded in with further refurbishment in the area.” Mthembu as new CEO to succeed Martie January last year by the Thaba Chweu Munici- Janse van Rensburg, who resigned from pality in Mpumalanga. Funded by the Depart- the company. Mthembu will serve as CEO ment of Water Affairs & Forestry (DWAF), the Soweto reservoir until the establishment of the National Wa- contract calls for the refurbishment of rural ter Resources Infrastructure Agency, which municipal water-related infrastructure. to be fixed is currently awaiting legislation. This project is a key component of the ohannesburg Water is refurbishing the  Investment company, Lonhro, has announced Provincial Water Sector Plan, which com- Diepkloof reservoir in Soweto following that it has set up a new water company in prises a schedule of interventions over the J supply difficulties due to numerous technical Design and South Africa to build a 800 000 ℓ/m bottling next five years to help achieve the objectives Planning, and infrastructure problems. Guidelines for Ftheishways in South Africa plant. The new company, Lonrho Springs, of the Mpumalanga Growth and Develop- Operation of TT 287/07 Guidelines for the Planning, Design and Operation of Fishways in South Africa P Kotze, R Heath & J Rossouw According to a statement, the company A Bok, has reportedly bought the existing water use ment Strategy, the National Water Resources will be able to improve water supply serv- rights from Aquamine, which sources its Strategy and the Strategic Framework for ices in the area once the reservoir has been water from a natural spring in the Cradle of Water Services. “DWAF is in the process of upgraded. “Johannesburg Water is aware of Humankind, outside Johannesburg. handing over the management and operation the problems that have been caused by old  Diana Duthe has been appointed as a Partner of provincial infrastructure to local munici- and outdated municipal water infrastructure. of SRK Consulting. Duthe holds an MSc palities and one of the requirements of this That is why we have launched a comprehen- (Hydrogeology) from the Centre de Hydroge- development is that the infrastructure must be sive programme to upgrade and rehabilitate ologie University de Neuchatel in Switzerland. handed over in its original operational condi- municipal water infrastructure throughout  Wayne Taljaard has been appointed to the tion,” explained SSI’s Theo Kleynhans. Soweto,” said MD Gerald Dumas. position of General Manager: Engineered From January to July 2007, the company TT 287/07

One of the main components to be replaced Water Research Commission Systems at VWS Envig. Taljaard joined was tasked with providing the professional during the Diepkloof reservoir upgrade is the main the company in 2005 and previously held services related to and management of the water flow valve, which has not been functioning the position of Manager: tenders and refurbishment exercise pertaining to infra- properly leading to low supplies in peak hours. executions. structure such as borehole pump stations, The project is due for completion in May. reservoirs and reticulation in three rural

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 New reports 13

New from the WRC Report No: KV 202/07 mine the specific fishway design for South purpose of the guide is to help officials make Guideline to Develop a Sustainable Urban African conditions. The guideline also decisions in an efficient and consistent man- River Management Plan (Nemai Consulting) includes a detailed inventory of the fishways ner on the process that has to be followed This study aimed to create a guideline docu- to be found in the country – one of the most when applying for approval to develop and ment to aid in the compilation of a plan that important outcomes of the fishway research use groundwater. addresses the impacts and management of programme. Other important issues, such as A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o specifically urban rivers. Salient themes sur- the construction, operation, maintenance and Report No: A q u i f e r D e p e n d e n t E c o s y s t e m s rounding urban rivers, such as pollution and monitoring of fishways are also included. TT 301/07 i n S o u t h A f r i c a impact sources and the concomitant effects, An Introduction to are discussed in the bulk of the document. Report No: 1528/1/07 Aquifer Depend- The document culminates in a guideline Polyeletrolyte Determination in Drinking Water ent Ecosystems which navigates the reader through steps (S Majam and P Thompson) in South Africa Christine Colvin David Le Maitre, Irené Saayman, required to prepare a sustainable urban river Polyelectrolytes are water soluble organic (Christine Colvin; and Simon Hughes management plan. polymers used as primary coagulants in the David Le Maitre; treatment of drinking water. Although it is Irené Saayman Report No: TT 287/07 desirable to remove traces of polyelectrolytes and Simon Guidelines for the Planning, Design and added during the treatment process, residual Hughes) Operation of Fishways in South Africa (Ralph amounts of these substances may persist in Aquifer

Heath; Anton Bok; Pieter Kotze; Paul Fouché; solution after the filtration stage. Evidence depend- TT 301/07 Water Research Hylton Lewis; Jan Rossouw and Matthew suggests that several of these contaminants ent ecosystems Commission Ross) could have an adverse effect on the health (ADEs) occur throughout the South African Historically, there has been limited of water consumers if ingested in sufficient landscape in areas where aquifer flows and research funding available in South Africa quantity over time. Consequently, water treat- discharge influence ecological patterns to investigate fishway facilities designed ment plant operators are required to know the and processes. They are ecosystems which to cater for indigenous species under local residual concentration of polyelectrolytes at require groundwater from aquifers for all or environmental conditions. However, in various stages in the treatment process and part of their lifecycle, to maintain a habitat 2000, the Water Research Commission the eventual quality of the treated water. with a water budget or water quality that (WRC) started funding a fishway research The study investigated several tech- contrasts with the surrounding ecosystems. programme to improve knowledge in this niques to determine polyelectrolytes in Examples of known South African ADEs regard. A number of reports have been drinking water. Two simple and practical include in-aquifer ecosystems in the dolo- produced as part of the programme over analysis methods were developed. Applica- mites (North West); springs and seeps in the the years, finally culminating in this publi- tion of either or both of these methods is Table Mountain Group sandstone (Western cation. The guideline has been developed recommended for monitoring purposes and Cape); terrestrial keystone species such as through a collabora- for ensuring the safety of final, treated drink- Acacia erioloba in the Kalahari; lakes and Design and Planning, tive and consultative ing water. punctuated estuaries on the shallow sand Guidelines for Ftheishways in South Africa process with leading aquifers of the east coast in KwaZulu-Natal, Operation of TT 287/07 Guidelines for the Planning, Design and Operation of Fishways in South Africa P Kotze, R Heath & J Rossouw A Bok, South African fish Report No: 1510/1/08 and seeps on the Karoo dolerite sills. The experts, ecologists, Application Procedure for the Development main objectives of this project were to hydraulic engineers and Use of Groundwater (R Parsons; produce a summary of known and probable and hydrologists. L Eichstadt; J Crowther and J Blood) groundwater dependent ecosystems; to guide Among others, The lack of clear guidance from responsible decision-makers in assessing the impor- the guideline authorities in matters relating to the authori- tance and vulnerability of ADEs; to test the provides ways of sation of development and use of groundwa- application of the tools identified for measur- determining if a ter, in as far as compliance with legislation is ing groundwater use and dependency; and fishway should concerned, necessitated a multi-disciplinary to identify significant knowledge gaps and to be built and study to develop this report, which is essen- recommend a strategy for further research to TT 287/07

Water Research Commission how to deter- tially a groundwater licensing guide. The key address key issues relating to ADEs.

To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340; fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za

The Water Wheel March/April 2008

NI T E R N A T O I N A LY E A R O F S A N TI A TO I N 14 2 0 0 8 International Year of Sanitation Editor’s note: Toilet is not a dirty word

It is one of the most basic human acts – going to the toilet – and yet an astounding two out of every five people in the world do not have access to safe sanitation. Safe sanitation, which includes ventilated improved pit (VIP) toilets, ecological sanitation (such as urine diversion toilets), pour-flush and flush toilets, are about offering people the basic right to dignity and health. Without it, people (mostly children) suffer from incidence of disease and death, women and children remain at risk of attack, school days and work days are lost to the economy, and the environment is increasingly polluted with Only 22% of Africans human waste. have reached the top of the Recognising the importance of sanitation to the overall sanitation ladder, i.e. they have achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, the United access to a flush toilet connect Nations General Assembly declared 2008 as the International to a sewerage system. Year of Sanitation (IYS). The main objective is to raise awareness and accelerate progress for the 2,6 billion people who still do not enjoy the right to basic sanitation facilities. The South African government has committed itself to erasing the existing sanitation backlogs (at last count about 19 million people still lacked access to adequate toilet facilities). Yet, there remain many challenges for this target to be achieved. (see article on page 16), sanitation ministers from several While the funds exist, skills, at especially local government level, African countries, including South Africa, signed a Ministerial remain sorely lacking, while the increasing urban population Declaration committing themselves to stepping up actions to growth – and subsequent rise in informal settlements – makes for wipe out existing backlogs in their respective countries. With a ‘moving target’ that is difficult to reach. In addition, sanitation political will established, the rest of the water and sanitation often remains the ‘orphan’ of government departments, with the sector needs to step up its support in ensuring the momentum departments of water, health, public works and education, often is maintained, and even increased. ‘Toilet’ is not a dirty word, having to share responsibility for sanitation service delivery. we need to keep talking about it if we want to raise the dignity Still, it can be done. A collaborated effort, led by the Depart- and health of our people. ment of Water Affairs & Forestry, has resulted in the virtual To make sure sanitation remains in the minds of the sector, eradication of bucket toilets in the country in less than two years, the Water Wheel has dedicated pages in each edition for the from 252 254 households in February 2005 to 49 010 house- remainder of the year to articles related to sanitation. We will holds in December 2007. While it remains to be seen whether bring you news of progress, new developments and research the alternative sanitation options provided will be sustainable it is support from across the world. a step in the right direction. To contribute to these pages, write to The Editor at At the recent AfricaSan 2008 conference, held in Durban, [email protected] or Fax: (012) 331-2565.

Swelling shacks pose a more seemed to spring up in its place. “For instance, by the end of November, 16 500 buckets were eradicated across the Maquassi and sanitation challenge Matlosana municipalities, yet another large number has mushroomed in the same municipalities,” she said. orth West Premier Edna Molewa has raised concerns that the Molewa added that it was encouraging, however, that according Nincreasing shacks and buckets will pose challenges to her govern- to recent statistics released by Statistics South Africa, there had been ment’s commitment to get rid of the bucket system. huge improvements in households gaining access to piped water, BuaNews reports that, delivering her State of the Province address electricity, safe sanitation and refuse removal. in February she said that for every shack removed, another one or

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 NI T E R N A T O I N A LY E A R O F S A N TI A TO I N 15 2 0 0 8

Last buckets removed in KZN groups who presented with diarrhoea at health centres in these areas. They found that the lowest overall cholera rate was in Jakarta, with 0,5 cases per 1 000 people per year. The incidence was three times he last bucket toilets have been removed in KwaZulu-Natal, accord- higher in Kolkata (1,6 per 1 000 people per year) and eight times ing to Premier Sibusiso Ndebele. T higher in Beira (four per 1 000 people per year). Delivering his State of the Province address in February, the In all sites, children were the most affected, with rates highest in Premier said the last four bucket units were to be eradicated in the those children under five years of age. “The study implies that cholera Umzimkhulu Local Municipality that month. “We have progressively INTERNATIONALis still a major problem in developing YEARcountries,” said Dipika Sur, OF eradicated the bucket toilet system in the province. In 2003, we had Deputy Director at the National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Dis- 13 605 households using the bucket sanitation system. We progres- eases in Kolkata. According to Sur, children tend to have the disease sively eradicated the system to 3 226 in 2004 and 101 in 2007.” more in endemic areas because adults develop immunity. Despite the huge strides made in KwaZulu-Natal, more remains Dr Jo Barnes of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University to be done. Ndebele reported that a million people in the province of Stellenbosch reported that Mozambique is at high risk from cholera still did not have basic sanitation, while 31% of households were still due to ongoing flooding and poor infrastructure. “People have been without close access to potable water. The municipalities with the displaced and are living in refugee-like accommodation.” most backlogs of water and sanitation are Zululand, Ugu, Uthungulu, The disease can remain dormant in the environment for years, Umzinyathi, Umgungundlovu and Umkhanyakude. she warned, and resurface as soon as conditions were right. “What is needed urgently are pit latrines, clean drinking water and education SANITATIONNew African sanitation about hygiene,” Dr Barnes concluded. network formed Source: SciDev.Net

new African network of professionals and academics in the sanita- Tackling AIDS challenges Ation field has been launched. The African Sanitation Knowledge Network (ASKNet) was offi- through proper services cially launched at the AfricaSan 2008 conference, held in Durban, in he hygienic use of appropriate water and sanitation facilities is February. The network emanated from a meeting of leading African essential, particularly for people living with HIV/AIDS. and European academics and practitioners in the field of sustainable T Municipalities have an important role to play in ensuring that water sanitation held in Uganda last year, at which an unanimous need was and environmental health services address the implications of HIV/AIDS. expressed to enhance the profile of African academia in this field, and The provision of water and sanitation services that are affordable, acces- to increase the output of young professionals with the necessary skills sible, reliable and used with appropriate health and hygiene practices to manage implementation projects on the ground. can help people with HIV to stay healthy longer; increase the effective- According to founder member Dr Nicola Rodda of the School of ness of home-based care for people with HIV/AIDS; support people’s Biological and Conservation Studies at the University of KwaZulu- livelihoods and are vital for community growth and development. Natal, the objectives of the network are three-fold: to increase the The Water Research Commission (WRC) has published a new numbers of African professionals skilled in sustainable sanitation; guide on water and sanitation services and HIV/AIDS for local govern- to enhance the relevance, quality and profile of sustainable sanita- ment councillors and officials responsible for water, sanitation and tion research in Africa; and to promote sustainable sanitation and its municipal health services. implementation in Africa. The report, based on a project undertaken by Mvula Trust and A networking conference will take place in Maputo, Mozambique, funded by the WRC, is intended to assist local government water in December. For more information, contact Dr Rodda at Tel: (031) services and environmental health officials with planning and imple- 260-3015; E-mail: [email protected] or Visit: www.asknet-office.net. menting water and sanitation services, together with health and hygiene education, to reduce the impact of HIV/AIDS. It sets out a Cholera still burdens framework for municipal responses to the disease and highlights ways developing countries in which HIV/AIDS can be mainstreamed into water and sanitation planning, regulation, implementation and provision. In order to clarify the institutional complexities in water and environmental esearchers estimating cholera incidence in endemic areas have health services, the report provides a model, strategies and found that the disease has a substantial burden, with the highest R indicators for implementing project-related health and impact on young children. hygiene education in the context of HIV/AIDS. Such estimates are important, they say, in deciding where inter- A complementary DVD is also available. To order ventions – such as water supply and sanitation improvement, should the report and/or the DVD, contact Publications at Tel: be targeted. The study was carried out in three sites: Kolkata in India, (012) 330-0340; Fax: (012) 331-2565; or E-mail: Jakarta in Indonesia and Beira in Mozambique. [email protected] The international team tested2008 for cholera among people of all age

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 16 Sanitation African Ministers Unite in Fight Against Backlogs

For hundreds of years conflict and strife have plagued different parts of the African continent. Now countries face a new war – the struggle against death and disease suffered by millions of Africans as a result of a lack of access to safe sanitation. Lani van Vuuren reports. Lani van Vuuren Lani

ore than 30 of Africa’s sani The Durban conference focused the water, is the cause of 17% of deaths tation ministers pledged attention of Africa’s sanitation leaders among children under the age of Mtheir allegiance to the war and technical experts on exploring five. More than 4 100 children under against open defecation and poor ways of accelerating achievement five die every day due to diarrhoeal toilet facilities when they signed the of national and MDG targets for diseases – that is five times more Ministerial Declaration at the Africa sanitation. Sanitation, or the lack of than the number of children dying San 2008 conference, which took it, remains one of the most pressing from HIV/AIDS. place in Durban in February. The development issues around the world. event followed the first AfricaSan About 2,6 billion people do not have But it is not just about health and conference, held in Johannesburg safe toilet facilities – almost 980 mil dignity. According to UNICEF, there in 2002, where a United Nations lion are children under the age of 18. is compelling evidence that sanita Millennium Development Goal tion brings the single greatest return (MDG) specifically for sanitation was The result is not surprising: millions on investment of any development created. This MDG aims to reduce, of people die each year from pre intervention (roughly US$9 for every by half, the number of people with ventable diseases. Diarrhoea, mostly US$1 spent). In the developing world, out access to basic sanitation and as a result of poor hygiene and a the costs of not investing in sanita hygiene by 2015. lack of safe sanitation and potable tion is huge – lost work days and

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Sanitation 17

missed schools days are estimated Kordjé Bedoumra. “For Africa to meet to have an economic cost of around “The provision of the MDGs for water and sanitation, US$38-billion per year, with sanitation the number of persons served would accounting for 92% of this value. sanitation is a key have to double from 350 million to development intervention – 700 million by 2015. Even that would Africa’s staggering still leave 200 million people without statistics without it, ill health services. Investments in the sector dominates a life without would also have to be doubled to In Africa, the situation is particularly some US$26-billion,” he said. grim. The continent has the lowest dignity. Simply According to Bedoumra, the inad access figures in the world – about having access to sanita- equate progress in the attainment 600 million people currently do not of the sanitation MDG was due, in have access to safe sanitation. The tion increases health, part, to the strategy adopted. He Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) well-being and economic added that the greater burden for for Water Supply & Sanitation, coor the attainment of the goal lay with dinated by the World Health Organi productivity. Inadequate local authorities who did not have the sation and UNICEF, estimates that sanitation impacts funding to ensure the success of the only 38% of Africa’s population have programmes. access to improved sanitation (2006 individuals, households, figures). Improved sanitation facilities communities and “It is heartening to note, however, are defined as flush or pour-flush toi that most countries have taken an lets connected to sewerage systems countries.” active approach to improving access. or septic tanks, ventilated improved The continent is a global leader in pits (VIPs), pit latrines with a slab finding innovative ways to provide and urine diversion toilets (shared AMCOW President Bruno sanitation services to the very poor. toilet facilities are not regarded as Jean-Richard Itoua Examples include sanitation market ‘improved sanitation’). ing approaches being implemented in Benin, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi.” People in rural and peri-urban areas seem worse off than their urban Toilets a physical danger to women, girls counterparts: less than a third of the WRC Sanitation Reports African rural population use improved utdated sensitivity to privacy and delicacy sanitation compared to just over half resulting in toilets being hidden from view are of the urban population. In 16 of the O putting women and girls at greater risk of being 54 African countries, less than 25% violated. of the population uses an improved According to crime prevention expert Barbara sanitation facility. Holtmann of the CSIR more than 50 000 rapes were recorded in the country in 2006/07. Of these more The continent as a whole is not on than 40% were girls under the age of 18. “Rape track to meet the MDGs, although and/or sexual abuse in toilets is a real risk,” she it is recognised that there is great Water Research told delegates at the AfricaSan conference, held in Commission variation across countries. In fact, Durban, in February. “Despite this, toilets are still some countries have succeeded in being constructed away from mainstream activity with poor lighting sustaining expansions of sanitation and entrances hidden from sight. Poor girls are at real risk as they are coverage to more than 2% of their unlikely to have safe toilets at home.” population each year. These include Even in urban environments, for instance, in shopping centres, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Rwanda, women’s toilets are often next to – and past the entrance of – men’s Benin, Ethiopia and Mozambique. toilets, providing a reason for men to loiter near to women’s toilets. According to Holtmann, toilets needed to be integrated into the “With eight years to go it is clear that mainstream areas of public places, including schools. Safety needed to most African countries are unlikely to be prioritised over delicacy. “Toilets need to be designed in such a way reach their sanitation MDG targets so that it is possible to see from the outside if there is someone inside unless approaches to sanitation (e.g. walls not reaching to the floor), and the entrance needs to be change,” said African Development brightly lit,” she said. Bank Director of Water and Sanitation

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 18 Sanitation

growing up to two times faster than in Ethiopia – where political planned areas. “The sector has to run will found a way hard just to stay still in terms of the proportion of people it covers,” noted thiopia, one of Africa’s largest countries (total Bedoumra. Epopulation 80 million), is a prime example of what can be done with political will and Political will remains a problem in commitment. some countries. Financing for sanita The country used to be on the lower end of tion remains low in comparison country league tables on health and sanita- to water and extremely low in com tion. However, in the last few years significant parison to other development strides have been made to substantially sectors, such as health and educa improve the situation. The driving force for tion. Compounding this problem is change is the country’s health services the fact that the responsibility for extension programme with its emphasis providing sanitation has increasingly on provision of preventative healthcare been devolved to lower tiers of gov at household level. Through the pro- ernment. However, this has often gramme, female health extension workers are employed to deliver key taken place without the necessary health messages about hygiene and sanitation, disease prevention associated development of local and control, family health services and health education and com- capacity and technical support. munication. Communities are encouraged to build their own toilets and improve their health through simple acts such as regular hand washing. To date, more than “The global sanitation 24 500 health workers have crisis is driven by been trained. The country has man- political neglect; the aged to move more than 20% sector is plagued by a of its population from prac- tising open defecation. By lack of political priority last year, 50,8% of Ethiopia’s compared to other sectors people had access to at least minimum sanitation facilities such as health and (a traditional pit latrine). This education, compounded is up from 11,5% in 2003. The country’s child mortal- by a chronic lack of ity rate has also decreased funding.” significantly as a result. “In Ethiopia we have Oliver Cumming, WaterAid realised the importance of sanitation and hygiene not only to the health of our people, but to our general economy. We cannot build our country Another challenge is the fragmentation without healthy citizens,” reported State Minister of Health Dr Shiferaw of the sector, for example, few coun Teklemariam. “The process is driven by the Prime Minister, with integra- tries have a ministry or department tion of all the ministries responsible for hygiene and sanitation, namely solely responsible for sanitation. Health, Water Resources and Education.” “Usually sanitation is split between water, health and education ministries Contributing factors holds rather than service or utility pro who take responsibility for small pieces viders. As a result improved facilities of the overall puzzle, but rarely there While Africa is by no means ‘one remain out of reach for many families is a lead organisation coordinating the place’, explained Bedoumra, the – statistics reveal that building a VIP different roles,” said Bedoumra. country profiles showed some similar would cost twice the monthly budget ities in the issues faced by the major of the average African household. Sanitation in South ity of countries. One of the biggest Africa problems is the overwhelming weight Other issues arise from the pace of of on-site sanitation, which places the demographic growth. Populations in How does South Africa compare with emphasis for sanitation on house peri-urban settlements and slums are other African countries? A community

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Sanitation 19

AMCOW President Bruno Jean- Richard Itoua and South African Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks at AfricaSan 2008 in Durban.

survey undertaken by Statistics South Africa last year revealed that there has been steady progress in access to flush toilets and VIPs, and a related decrease in use of the bucket toilet system and those without any type of toilet facility. Most of the progress has been in the last five years.

At present, about 85% of house holds have access to improved and

adequate sanitation facilities, com van Vuuren Lani pared to 80,4% in 2001. An estimated 60,4% of South African households eThekwini Declaration have a flush toilet, 21,5% have unim proved pit latrines, 6,8% have VIPs, t the AfricaSan 2008 conference around 30 sanitation ministers and 4,1% use a urine diversion toilet, heads of delegations pledged to: 2,3% have bucket toilets, 0,4% have A  Bring the messages, outcomes and commitments made at AfricaSan a chemical toilet and 8,6% have no to the attention of the African Union; sanitation.  Support the leadership of African Ministerial Council on Water (AMCOW) to track the implementation of the eThekwini Declaration; “As a government we have committed  Establish, review, update and adopt national sanitation and hygiene to creating a better life for our peo policies within 12 months of AfricaSan 2008; ple, which has resulted in us driving  Increase the profile of sanitation and hygiene in poverty reductions massive programmes to provide not strategy plans; only sanitation to our people, but  Ensure that one, principal, accountable institution takes clear leader also clean water, electricity and hous ship of the national sanitation portfolio, establishing one coordinating ing,” said Minister for Water Affairs & body with specific responsibility for sanitation and hygiene, involving Forestry Lindiwe Hendricks. “In rolling all stakeholders, including those responsible for finance, health, water, out these programmes we have been education, gender and local government; confronted with new challenges; in  Establish specific public sector budget allocations for sanitation and the area of sanitation these include hygiene programmes; additional burden placed on waste  Use effective and sustainable approaches, such as households and water treatment plants, the increased community-led initiatives, marketing for behaviour change, educational demand for waterborne sanitation programmes, and caring for the environment, which make a specific even where there is inadequate water impact on the poor, women, children, youth and the unserved; resources to accommodate such  Develop and implement sanitation information, monitoring systems requests; a continuous moving target and tools to track progress at local and national levels and to work with because of the growth of new infor global and regional bodies to produce a regular regional report on Afri mal settlements; and VIPs filling up.” ca’s sanitation status, the first of which to be published by mid-2010;  Recognise the gender and youth aspects of sanitation and hygiene, Hendricks admitted that the lack of and involve women in all decision-making levels; capacity – especially at local govern  Build and strengthen capacity for S&H implementation, including R&D ment level, was another hindrance in and support knowledge exchange and partnership development; and the delivery of sustainable sanitation.  Give special attention to countries or areas which are emerging from “Our skills are being divided among conflict or natural disasters. many infrastructure projects,

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 20 Sanitation

“More than 4 100 children sanitation and hygiene programmes regionally and in selected countries under five die worldwide across the region. every day as a result of The Ministerial Declaration and Action diarrhoea caused by a Plan will be presented at the African lack of basic sanitation Union (AU) Water and Sanitation Summit to take place in Egypt in July and hygiene. These are at the next General Assembly of the not merely numbers and AU in Sharm el Sheikh where the support of Heads of State will be statistics, these are real sought. children.” “AfricaSan 2008 was never going to Thérèse Dooley, UNICEF be another ‘talk shop’. We wanted to review the present situation honestly Kathy Eales Action plan and provide clear actions for the way Around 0,4% of South African house- forward, said Bruno Jean-Richard holds still make use of chemical toilets. Apart from the Ministerial Declara Itoua, President of the African Minis tion, in which Africa sanitation min terial Council on Water. “The Ministe including the Gautrain, the stadiums isters committed to intensifying their rial Declaration and the Action Plan for the Soccer World Cup and basic sanitation delivery efforts, the most are a clear indication that sanitation housing, to name a few. Another important outcome of the AfricaSan is at last becoming a priority issue in cause for concern has been the 2008 conference was an action African countries. This political com escalating costs of implementing plan focusing on strategic areas, to mitment will provide a new dynamic sanitation. We need to find ways of improve monitoring of sanitation and in the fight to bring health and dignity making it more affordable.” hygiene in the region and accelerate to the people of Africa.”

Access to basic sanitation remains a luxury for about 600 million people in Africa. Lani van Vuuren Lani

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Wetlands 21

From Wetland to Waste Land – Human Activities Threaten Gauteng Treasure Terence McCarthy Terence Stretching over 25 km, the Klip River wetland, south of Johannesburg, has proven one of Gauteng’s most valuable natural assets through its ability to treat heavily polluted water. However, parts of the wetland have been severely degraded over the last few years, threatening the existence of this aqua-treasure. Lani van Vuuren reports.

ven during Johannesburg’s with parts of the wetland being five years ago. He reports that the early years, when prospectors drained and irrigation canals and wetland has been providing a water Egathered from all over the world diagonal drains criss-crossing the purifying function since the founding on the dusty outcrops of the Witwa- wetland area. However, it is for its of Johannesburg. tersrand to share in its metal and min- latest function that the wetland is eral riches, the importance of the Klip most treasured, namely, for its ability The wetland receives water that has River wetland could not be denied. to treat the polluted waters arising been contaminated by acid mine Its underlying groundwater resources from the western section of the drainage, industrial sources and provided the first reliable water supply Witwatersrand urban-industrial- runoff from urban sources. Water to the growing towns of the Witwa- mining complex. from sewage treatment plants, which tersrand gold field. It was only when contain residual phosphates and the Vaal Barrage was completed in Natural wastewater nitrates also find their way into the 1923 that groundwater became a treatment system wetland. “Polluted water arising from less important source of supply to the these sources has left clear symp- towns of the Witwatersrand. Prof Terence McCarthy of the School toms in the chemistry of the wetland of Geosciences at the University peat,” explains Prof McCarthy. “Accu- In the early days the Klip River was of the Witwatersrand started his mulated concentrations of metals also a significant agricultural area, research on the Klip River wetland such as copper, mercury, lead, nickel,

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 22 Wetlands

“The Klip River wetland is possibly one of the most economically important wetlands in Africa.”

Authorities to help Klip River wetland

national multimillion Rand A initiative to restore the Klip River wetland to its natural glory has kicked off following an announcement by Deputy Minister

of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, McCarthy Terence Rejoice Mabudafhasi. Location of the Klip River wetland. Speaking ahead of World Wet- lands Day in Soweto in February, zinc, as well as uranium, nitrogen and water. “For this reason the Klip River Mabudafhasi said the Klip River phosphate have been found in the wetland is possibly one of the most wetland had contributed indirectly wetland material.” economically important wetlands in to the South African economy Africa,” maintains Prof McCarthy. and directly to the well-being of Interestingly, a student of Prof the country’s citizens. This was McCarthy, Jaco Venter, is currently Resource under because of the wetland’s ability to undertaking an investigation into the threat trap pollutants and improve water extent of heavy metal accumulation quality coming out of catchments in the wetland. The study should be Despite burgeoning growth and devel- on the Witwatersrand that had been completed later this year. opment in the area the upper reaches impacted by mining, industries and of the Klip River wetland, found near sewage treatment plants. The water The purified water flowing out of Lenasia, have remained in reason- purified by the wetland eventually the wetland eventually enters the able condition. Here a 500 m wide, finds its way to the Vaal River. Vaal River, one of the country’s larg- reed-covered swamp can be found In the last few decades, est rivers and a premier source of and, although some sections have however, the Klip River wetland has come under threat due to increased human activities. A multidisciplinary team was to be appointed under the leadership of Working for Wetlands to come up with a plan to rehabilitate the wetland. R2-million had already been secured from DEAT to initiate the process. Mabudafhasi emphasised that it would require cooperation across government departments and tiers to ensure the success of the rehabilitation project. “It is only through such a combined approach that we can hope to tackle a problem of this magni- Lani van Vuuren Lani tude, and it is our shared responsi- The Klip River wetland, south of Johannesburg, has played a significant water bility to bring the Klip River wetland treatment function for more than a hundred years, cleaning up much of the back to health.” pollution from mine dumps in the area.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Wetlands 23

been affected by peat mining and the heavy metal concentrations in the remaining peat are high, the vegetation does not appear to be adversely affected.

It is the lower reaches of the Klip River wetland that are of most concern. Aerial photographs show that this section of the wetland is in a state of near collapse. Prof McCarthy explains that the main problem is the steady increase in treated sewage water that the wetland has received since the 1960s. McCarthy Terence Large volumes of water entering the wetland from nearby sewage treatment plants have resulted in deep incising channels. The large volume of water has resulted in channelling along the former irrigation ditches dug to support agriculture during the early 1900s. “The channels have under- gone major widening and incision. In places, bedrock barriers have been encountered during incision, resulting in several waterfalls and rapids along the modern river,” notes Prof McCarthy.

The incising channels have also exploited some of the diagonal head

drains and thus the new, widened McCarthy Terence channels migrate from one side Drying up of the reed beds leads to the burning off of the peat layers, exposing of the wetland to the other. These the bedrock below. diversions across the wetland have had the effect of capturing progres- of 0,5 m/s. This means the residence “If no immediate action is taken the sively more of the dispersed flow and time of the water has been reduced in lower Klip River and the Vaal down- focusing it into a widening, single this section of the wetland from days stream of its junction with the Klip will channel, thus further promoting inci- to hours. It is therefore likely that the experience eutrophication problems sion and channel widening. downstream reed bed has virtually similar to those experienced at the ceased to sequester pollutants.” Hartbeespoort Dam. The wetland The channels are still flanked by reed could be lost and replaced by a sin- beds, but these appear to experience From reed bed to gle channel, gravel-bed river, similar only limited inundation. This seriously gravel bed to the Jukskei to the north of Johan- compromises the wetland’s ability to nesburg,” says Prof McCarthy. sequester pollutants. “The success When the reed bed dries out, the of a wetland to purify water lies in the peat starts to burn. The ash thus pro- It is believed that further degradation slow movement of water through the duced forms soil susceptible to ero- can be prevented by constructing wetland,” reports Prof McCarthy. “In sion and several gullies have already a series of weirs to raise the water the upper reaches where the reed formed in the lower reaches of the level back to what it used to be and bed is still functioning the flow velo Klip River wetland. If this degrada- to get the water back onto the flood- city of the water is in the region of tion is not halted, we could see the plain and into the reeds that are left. 0,03 m/s and the contact area release of heavy metals, organic load Whichever action is taken, it is hoped between aquatic vegetation is very and phosphates, which are bound in that it will take place in the short term large. “However, in the canalised sec- the peat into the Vaal River system to prevent the complete disappear- tion, the flow velocity is in the region over the coming years. ance of this strategic asset.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 24 EDCs

ver the past two decades there has been growing Oconcern, public debate and lack of scientific consensus about the potential effects of a number of chemicals that have the potential to alter the normal functioning of the endocrine The ABC system. The endocrine system is the set of glands and the hormones they produce, which help guide the development, growth, reproduction and of EDCs: behaviour of animals and humans. So-called endocrine disruptors or endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) – also called gender benders – can be natural or man-made substances, and interfere with the normal functioning of the endocrine system in three possible ways:  By mimicking the action of a naturally-produced hormone, such as oestrogen or testosterone, and thereby setting off similar chemical reactions in the body;  By blocking the receptors in cells receiving the hormones, thereby preventing the action of normal Global hormones; or  By affecting the synthesis, trans- port, metabolism, and excretion Concern of hormones, thus altering the concentrations of natural hormones. Spurs The potential danger of these substances to humans and the environment first came to light in the 1960s, when the observed effects of wildlife expo- Researchers sure to chlorinated pesticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), became known. Today, there are over Into Action 80 000 chemicals registered for commercial use, and it is unclear exactly how many are potential EDCs.

www.sxc.hu We are surrounded by chemicals in our everyday lives, and every person In Part One of a series on endocrine disruptors, will probably be exposed to a cocktail Lani van Vuuren looks at the increasing awareness of potential EDCs through various of the potential risks of man-made chemicals to agents in their lifetime. Suspected endocrine disruptors can be found humans and wildlife as well as the start of South in pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceu- Africa’s EDCs Research Programme. ticals (e.g. birth control), personal care products (medicines, lotions,

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 EDCs 25

cosmetics, sun block), and industrial substances (plasticisers, fabric Some examples of endocrine disruptors softeners, fire retardants, cooling Phthalates: Add flexibility to a large range of plastic goods. Also found in some agents). They find their way into the paints, inks, adhesives and cosmetic products. environment and water resources. Bisphenol A: Used extensively in the production of polycarbonate and epoxy We are exposed to these chemicals resins. It can also be found in adhesives, reinforced pipes, interior coatings of through the water we drink and the tins and drums, flooring, electronic goods, powder paints, lenses, crash hel- food we eat, the air we inhale, and mets, thermal fax paper and some resistant plastic foods and drinks containers. through contact with our skin. P-nonylphenol: Found in industrial and household detergents. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): PCBs have historically been used as cool- Because the list of chemicals with ants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment. possible endocrine disrupting effects (Production has stopped and these compounds have been banned in some is structurally so diverse, it is not countries, although they are still prevalent in the environment). possible to define a ‘typical’ EDC. DES: Diethylstilbestrol was the first synthetic oestrogen to be developed. It has Of specific concern, however, is the traditionally been used by pregnant women to prevent miscarriages. subgroup of EDCs known as per- Atrazine: Widely used in South Africa as a herbicide, especially in the maize sistent organic pollutants (POPs). producing areas. These compounds do break down Dioxin: Byproduct of industrial processes, including waste incineration, food extremely slowly, and can remain in containment. the environment for many years. They Organochlorine pesticides: Still widely used in SA, especially in areas where accumulate in fatty tissue, becoming malaria prevails (including DDT). more concentrated higher up in the Estradiol: Form of oestrogen used to treat, for example, symptoms of meno- food chain over time. For example, pause. fish-eating birds might have higher Organophosphate pesticides: Includes chlorpirifos, Azinfos-methyl and concentrations of EDCs than the fish Parathion. on which they feed, such as a study on bald eagles in Alaska showed. Infants can be exposed to their the discharge of tens of thousands of species vary from subtle changes in chemicals through the womb and chemicals in large volumes.” These the physiology and sexual behaviour through their mothers’ breast milk. field and laboratory investigations of species to permanently altered indicate that exposure to certain sexual differentiation. For example, The use of these compounds has gen- EDCs could contribute to adverse exposure to EDCs has been shown erally been banned, but they are still effects in some wildlife populations. to adversely impact the reproduc- present in the environment. Of equal tive and immune function in Baltic concern are newer products, with short The World Health Organisation seals, resulting in marked population half-lifetimes to which we are exposed (WHO), in its Global Assessment of declines, while eggshell thinning daily, such as pesticides used for the State of the Science of Endocrine and altered gonadal development domestic pest control and chemicals Disruptors, reports that the health have been observed in birds of prey contained in plastic containers. effects witnessed in wildlife exposed to pesticides such as DDT.

Endocrine disruption in nature

As Natalie Aneck-Hahn of the Depart- ment of Urology at the University of Pretoria pointed out in a paper presented at the 2006 Biennial Confer- ence of the Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), most of the studies for endocrine disruption in wildlife has come from studies on species living in or closely associated with, the aquatic environment. “This is not

surprising given the fact that our rivers van Vuuren Lani and oceans act as repositories for Plastics are one potential source of EDCs.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 26 EDCs

Another well publicised example is “There are over 80 000 the decline of alligator populations at Lake Apopka, in Florida, in the US, chemicals registered for following a DDT spill. A decrease in commercial use, and it is reproductive capability among pan- thers in the same area was linked to unclear exactly how many the same incident. In a more recent are potential EDCs.” survey by the US Geological Survey (USGS), more than 80% of male affect the immune system and neuro- smallmouth bass in the Potomac logical development. were found to be growing eggs in their testes (known as feminisa- Why is it so difficult to unequivo- tion). A seven-year research effort cally prove the human health effects by Canadian biologists found that of EDCs? “It is difficult to establish synthetic oestrogen (such as those cause and effect relationships for

www.sxc.hu found in birth control pills), which human exposure of EDCs and inci- were regularly discharged in munici- Pristine wildlife dence disease. We have no control, pal wastewater into surface waters, area affected by since everyone has been exposed had similar feminising effects on wild EDCs to EDCs at some time or another,” fish populations living downstream. explained Genthe during her presen- tation at WISA 2006. “We encounter n 1999 the US Geological Society What about human a broad range of environmental published the results of a study I health? exposures throughout our lives and on bald eagles in the remote and frequently to a mixture of chemicals pristine area of Aleutian Archipel- According to CSIR senior researcher at any one time.” This makes it diffi- ago, in western Alaska. Bettina Genthe, there is still much cult to know which chemicals at what The research indicated debate surrounding the significance dosages are harmful. elevated levels of organochlo- of evidence that EDCs are affect- rine pesticides, such as DDE (a ing human health, especially since Another challenge is the fact that metabolite of DDT) and the indus- epidemiological studies are almost more recent research suggests that trial compound PCB in the bald non-existent. It is assumed, however, endocrine disruptors have transgen- eagles leading to low reproduction that since these chemicals are affect- erational capabilities. This means levels due to eggshell thinning and ing animals, they must be affecting they do not only affect the people embryo death. humans too. A number of reproduc- presently exposed to them, but could Studies on sea otters in the tive health effects in the human popu- possibly elicit greater effects up to same area found they contained lation have been observed in which a second or third generation. Also, almost twice as much PCB than EDCs could play a role. health effects due to prenatal expo- otters from the central California sure may not present themselves until coast, an area known to have Some studies in countries, such as later in life. It is generally believed that agricultural and industrial contami- Japan and the US, for example, have the earliest stages of life are the most nation. While the researchers could reported decreases in sperm num- sensitive to endocrine disruption. not pinpoint the source of the pol- bers in males over the last 50 years lutants, their distribution patterns as well as a decline in male births. In yielded some clues. The PCBs The South AfricaN recent years there has also been an may have come from former mili- EDCs Research increase in the incidence of congeni- tary activity on some of the islands, Programme tal malformations in children, such while the DDT could be windborne as hypospadias (abnormal posi- The best way to defend ourselves or waterborne contamination from tioning of the meatus, the opening against this onslaught of chemical agricultural use in Asia. from which urine passes) and cryp- influences is to improve our knowl- This proved that even remote torchidism (undescended testes). edge of EDCs and their presence and pristine areas could potentially In addition, there are more reports and effects on the environment. This be affected by endocrine disrupt- of testicular and prostate cancer information can be used by decision- ing chemicals due to the potential in males and breast cancer and makers to ensure these chemicals of these pollutants to be trans- endometriosis in women. It is thought are controlled effectively through ported over long distances. that EDCs could also potentially legislation to reduce risk of exposure.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 EDCs 27

In the early 1990s awareness grew of the need to conduct large-scale EDC research in South Africa. “Early investigations were very isolated and the country’s EDC research capacity was limited,” reports WRC research manager Annatjie Moolman. “A need existed for a coordinated programme involving all researchers and other role- players, including government departments, industry and water suppliers. This is especially necessary as EDCs research requires a multidisciplinary approach involving research in disci- plines such as zoology, physiology, toxicology and analytical chemistry.”

“Health effects witnessed in wildlife species vary from subtle changes in the physiology and sexual behaviour of species to permanently altered sexual differentiation.” van Vuuren Lani Many EDCs are believed to be transgenerational, meaning they do not only effect one generation, but can elicit effects up to a second or third generation. It is reported that little of the existing analytical data generated in South Africa at that stage was useful for or reported.) Subsequently, the WRC The main objective of the programme EDC evaluation as most of the data launched an EDCs Research Pro- was to monitor the occurrence and at that time were collected with tox- gramme to coordinate and extent source of EDC pollution in South Afri- icity in mind. (EDCs have an effect present capacity to conduct research can water systems and determine the at levels much lower than the toxic in this field and monitor studies being potential risks to the local population. effect, and was thus not detected undertaken. The programme focused on a list of priority EDC compounds compiled in collaboration with stakeholders such as the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry and the Global Water Research Coalition.

The early years focused on building much needed capacity at the participating research facilities for activity testing and chemical analysis. Thanks to these efforts, South African EDC researchers and scientists now count among the best in the world.

In Part Two: More on the South African EDCs Research Programme and what studies have shown thus Drinie van Rensburg far. Animals living in an aquatic environment are most at risk of EDC pollution.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 28 Water Treatment Plants

New guidebook helps find better treatment solutions

Many peri-urban and rural communities in South Africa are dependent on small water treatment plants for their drinking water. Choosing the right type of technology for the application is one of the crucial steps in ensuring the sustainability of the service. To assist decision-makers in making the right choices, the Water Research Commission (WRC) has published a new guidebook on the selection of small water treatment systems for potable water supply to small communities.

mall water treatment plants rural hospitals, schools, clinics and According to the guidebook authors, are defined as water treat- forestry stations. the selection of suitable technologies Sment systems (usually with for small communities is very impor- a capacity of less than 2,5 Mℓ/day) Today, there are many local and inter- tant. “These systems are crucial in installed in areas which are not national technology designs to choose ensuring safe water to the communi- adequately serviced and do not nor- from. As the authors of the new WRC ties on a sustainable basis.” mally fall within the confines of urban guidebook point out, however, very areas. They are, therefore, mostly little may be known of these systems While some small water treatment used in rural and peri-urban areas in terms of cost, efficiency and the systems have been evaluated during and include chlorination plants for applicability to the intended applica- selected WRC projects, this guide- water supplies from boreholes and tion, especially in the case of novel and book offers a more comprehensive springs, small treatment systems for emerging systems. Supplier information look at all the small water treatment rural communities, treatment plants may be sketchy, or promising new tech- choices available in South Africa. A of small municipalities and treatment nologies have not yet been fully evalu- database comprising 1 100 small plants for establishments such as ated under South African conditions. water treatment plants has been

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Water Treatment Plants 29

compiled. This database provides described, together with an emphasis Dealing with information on the applicability, on the important technological and management efficiency, operational use and cost socio-economic issues. This is fol- aspects of the water treatment tech- lowed by Section 2 in which the pro- While the guidebook addresses the nologies so that the user can make cedures to be followed for selecting need for technical information on technical comparisons between dif- appropriate technologies for specific available and emerging small water ferent solutions that exist. applications are described, starting treatment technologies, it is becom- with establishment of the need for ing more evident that a major prob- Use of the guidebook is not limited to the small water treatment system and lem with the sustainability of these the selection of treatment technolo- information on the water source to be plants lies with management aspects, gies for new treatment plants; it can treated. the authors point out. “More applied also assist in assessing the appropri- research is needed on the identifi- ateness of present technology appli- “It is recognised that cation and addressing of manage- cations for achieving compliance ment issues that may result in poor with drinking water quality standards socio-economic fac- performance of treatment plants, under the site-specific circumstances tors are just as impor- and ultimately, non-compliance with encountered by an existing plant. recognised local and international tant as technological norms and standards.” It is recognised that socio-economic considerations when factors are just as important as The WRC has recognised the impor- technological considerations when selecting the most tance of improving management selecting the most appropriate appropriate water practices especially at small water water treatment technology. Thus treatment plants, and is funding two socio-economic guidelines, based treatment technology.” projects on addressing these issues on research community experience at present. The one project is aimed with such or similar water treatment The user then produces a shortlist of at compiling a manual and training technologies are provided to assist available technologies that will meet aid for such plants, while the other the guidebook user in determining these raw water requirements. These project is focusing on the compliance the appropriateness of identified technologies are then evaluated and of non-metropolitan potable water technologies for specific small com- compared with each other by means providers as well as management munity use. of the technology information data- guidelines and norms. A third project base. Different evaluation criteria are on the development of a manage- According to the authors, another used to determine which treatment ment tool for the efficient operation important aspect in ensuring the sus- system will be the best for the user’s and maintenance of small water treat- tainability of a system is following the specific needs. ment plants has also started. correct operation and maintenance procedures. “Although most suppliers Section 3 provides the data that is To order the WRC Report, Selection of small water treatment plants pro- necessary for performing the above of Small Water Treatment Systems for vide their clients with some operation evaluation and selection procedure. Potable Water Supply to

and maintenance guidelines, these A list of relevant research and evalu- Small Communi-communities small to supply water potable for systems treatment water small of selection the for Guidebook 319/07 TT may not be exhaustive, or certain ation reports is also included to allow ties (Report No: important generic aspects may not the user to obtain more detailed infor- 1443/1/07), the GUIDEBOOK FOR THE SELECTION OF SMALL WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS be covered. Specific attention should mation on the technologies contained socio-economic FOR POTABLE WATER SUPPLY TO be given to operation and mainte- in the database. report (1443/12/07) SMALL COMMUNITIES nance aspects and, where the treated or the guidebook water is distributed in a pipe network “When comparing costs of alterna- (Report No: or has to be stored, the presence of a tive technologies, the focus should TT 319/08), con- disinfection residual is required in all be on cost-efficiency (i.e. the cost tact Publications circumstances.” to achieve certain treatment goals) at Tel: (012) rather than on the absolute cost of 330-0340, Fax: Step-by-step the technology,” the authors point (012) 331-2565 out. “Lifecycle costing provides or E-mail: Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers The guidebook comprises three the most effective tool for cost- orders@wrc. Cape PeninsulaUniversity University of Stellenbosch of Technology sections. In Section 1, the scope and efficiency of alternative treatment org.za Rand Water intended use of the guidebook is technologies.”

TT 319/07 Water Research Commission

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 30 IWRM

The business of compulsory licensing

The South African National Water Act makes provision for the equitable sharing of resources between water users in a catchment, from farmers, to industry to communities. Courtesy SA Tourism The National Water Act (NWA), Act 36 of 1998, has been widely hailed as one of the most progressive water resource acts in the world. It recognises that the environment should be allowed its rightful share, it placed into law South Africa’s obligations to countries it shares its rivers with and it did away with the concept of ‘riparian water law’, Writes Peter van Niekerk.

revious water legislation did not provision for rebalancing equity in schedules. It is fraught with dif- take into regard hydrological the allocation of water where there ficult and complex administrative Prealities which nowadays are were unfair allocations in the past, decision-making that is quite likely to better understood, e.g. the con- or where waters of catchments were be challenged, even in court. Even a nections between groundwater and overallocated, i.e. where demands constitutional challenge regarding the surface water. Riparian rights were exceeded supplies and the water compulsory licencing provisions in replaced by water licences to be allo- resource was under stress. A proce- the NWA cannot be ruled out. Small cated by a responsible authority, such dure called ‘compulsory licensing’ wonder then that, in the ten years as the Department of Water Affairs was introduced in section 43 of the since the publication of the NWA, & Forestry (DWAF) or a catchment NWA to deal with particular issue. only the relatively minor area of the management agency. As a transitional Jan Dissels River has successfully measure the concept of ‘existing lawful Complex process gone through the process. use entitlement’ was introduced, with the aim of replacing all these entitle- The compulsory licensing process is Compulsory licensing can only be ments with licences in due course. not an easy one. It requires a series done once. While this gives certainty of administrative steps, notices, to all users of water in that area, it Taking into regard South Africa’s advertisements, and publication of does mean that there is only one particular history, the NWA made documentation such as allocation bite of the proverbial cherry – it has

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 IWRM 31

to be correct and, therefore, has to the administrative burden of Considerable work has been done be done with great care. That compulsory licensing, provided cer- on the issue of water trading, in means, in all likelihood, that a tain conditions are right and certain South Africa as well as a number of comprehensive reserve determination elements are in place. These condi- other countries. Generally it is has to be undertaken to ascertain the tions and elements are: proposed that such a market has ecological water needs for the area in  The water authorisations, includ- to be a managed one: it has to limit question. Such an exercise can easily ing the lawful water use entitle- negative social consequences and take two years to complete. ments, must be tradable within take into regard the physical proper- a prescribed area, such as a ties of the water system. The issue The once-off nature of the existing specific catchment considered for for South Africa is not IF a water compulsory licensing process is compulsory licensing. market should be introduced, but particularly problematic: the scientific  A mechanism to allow trade WHAT exactly it should look like. basis on which the decisions have must be established. This could Trading is in fact already to be made is far from perfect. The be a market that may be sub- taking place, and there is a need for meteorological and hydrological ject to certain set rules set by a proper regulatory environment – records on which the calculations the responsible authority and/or the sooner the better. are based to determine the available series of tenders and auctions of water are often flawed (sometimes the tradable water authorisations From an economic perspective the even non-existent) and have to be in the area under consideration. use of a market mechanism has the corrected or approximated using  A fund must be established under benefit of reducing administrative sophisticated techniques. Past expe- the auspices of the responsible costs and, more importantly, result rience has demonstrated that more authority to enter into the market in more efficient allocation of scarce often than not with additional data and obtain water authorisations resources (in this case, water). This or improved techniques, the calcula- for reallocation. The fund must be can be understood by considering tions of the quantities of available specific to the area in question. that the more inefficient users of water would differ significantly.  The responsible authority must water would be first inclined to sell be enabled to charge a levy on all their authorisations in the market. The processes to determine ecologi- water use in the area considered cal water requirements are equally for compulsory licensing and No State funds will be needed to fraught with difficulty, as are the judge- to keep the monies thus accu- effect the reallocation procedure dis- ment calls that of necessity have to be mulated in the fund mentioned cussed here. The funding would be made as to the likely economic and above. sourced from within the geographic social impacts that will follow reduced area targeted for compulsory licens- allocations in a particular geographic With these elements in place the ing – instead of forfeiting water; the area. These estimations will form the responsible authority charged with the users contribute their monies to the basis of decisions as to what would task of reallocating water according fund to buy the water. be reasonable to reallocate to the to the same principles as those for environment and to water users, from compulsory licensing has the ability to Conclusion the power generation sector to the obtain stocks of water authorisations small farmer and all the water users within the geographic area in ques- Using a market mechanism to in between. When one adds to this tion. This it can do in a progressive effect the equitable allocation of the uncertainty of the effects of global manner at a rate that will suit its ability water holds great advantages over climate change on the future avail- to reallocate the water. It will be able a purely administrative system. ability of our water resources one to do this with circumspection so as Lengthy (and expensive) prepara- has to conclude than an incremental not to abruptly shock the social and tory work can be cut short, the most process, allowing for corrections and economic fabric of the area, and will inefficient water use will be targeted adjustments, would be much more enable it to monitor the results and automatically, and it can be imple- desirable than the once-off process of make adjustments as may be needed. mented in a progressive manner. compulsory licensing. There is also room afterwards to The process of reallocating the water monitor, evaluate and to adjust, Market mechanisms thus obtained would be the same which is not the case with the and water licensing process as envisaged with the com- present once-off approach. Most pulsory licensing mechanism, except importantly, lengthy court challenges The mechanism of trade and the mar- that it would be done in gradual can be limited, if not completely ket can be used to cut out much of fashion, over a longer period. avoided, by adopting this process.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 32 Service delivery Survey shows good progress in RDP principles Kathy Eales

The mobile nature of the South African population and constant influx into urban areas has resulted in a continuous ‘moving target’ for municipal service delivery.

While basic service delivery has increased in all of South Africa’s provinces, some municipalities still have much work to do to improve the living conditions of their constituents. This is the message from Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) based on the municipal data from its Community Survey, released in March. Lani van Vuuren reports.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Service delivery 33

bout 250 000 households par- province in terms of land area, has from piped water inside the yard (from ticipated in the survey, which the largest population (about ten mil- 29% to 22,2%) and obtaining piped Awas undertaken in February lion). Interestingly, only 5,8 million of water from an access point outside 2007. According to Statistician- its residents were actually born in the the yard (from 23,2% to 19,1%). General Pali Lehohla, the R600- province, with the remainder migrat- million sample survey was the first of ing from other provinces. Looking at the provinces, the West- its kind undertaken in South Africa. ern Cape had the highest proportion Never before had data been deliv- People migrate from one munici- (98,95) of households with access ered at such a low geographic (i.e. pal area to another for a variety of to piped water (inside the dwelling, municipal) level. “There was a great reasons, such as the prospect of a inside the yard or less than 200 m need for relevant information to ena- better education, jobs and a better from the dwelling), followed by ble municipalities to undertake more living environment. “The survey has Gauteng and the Free State with accurate infrastructure development shown that bigger is definitely better,” 97,9% and 8,2% respectively. planning and monitoring,” Lehohla explained Lehohla. “All of the munici- told the media at the launch of the palities which indicated a decline had However, the survey showed very Community Survey municipal results populations of less than 124 000.” disproportionate service delivery at Gallagher Estate, in Midrand. across most of the provinces. For Another determinant is service deliv- example, in KwaZulu-Natal, the pro- “This has been quite a learning expe- ery. “When people see better service portion of households with access to rience for Stats SA, but I believe we delivery in another municipality they piped water within 200 m in the vari- have delivered a product that will tend to want to move there,” noted ous municipalities ranged from 3% in enable municipalities to get a more Masiteng. “Unfortunately, this means Msinga to 88% in uMhlatuze. accurate view of the present status of that underperforming municipalities service delivery and provide a good are placing more pressure on those THE SANITATION LADDER basis on which to move forward to municipalities that are delivering the improve the lives of all South Afri- necessary services, notwithstanding Nationally, the percentage of house- cans. No longer can municipalities existing capacity constraints.” holds with a flush toilet connected to a say they have no data available.” sewerage system increased from 49,1% This can be seen in provinces such in 2001 to 55,1% in 2007. At the same MOBILE POPULATION as Gauteng which, despite the efforts time, the use of ventilated improved pit of its municipalities still has one of latrines declined from 22,8% to 20,6% The survey covered the basic service the highest proportions of house- as did the proportion of households areas of housing, electricity, refuse holds living in informal areas (22,7%). without any toilet facility (from 13,6% removal, access to piped water and The municipalities with the highest to 8,2%). The percentage of house- sanitation. The survey did not meas- percentages of informal dwellings holds still using the bucket system also ure quality or sustainability of serv- are Nokeng tsa Taemane (24,8%), declined in all the provinces. ices, and only quantitative data has Kungwini (19,5%), Mogale City (27%), been supplied. Westonarea (41%), Ekurhuleni (26%) There is still concern over the large and the City of Tshwane (26,8%). percentage of households that have A critical factor influencing the rate and no toilet facilities in provinces such quality of service delivery in municipali- ACCESS TO PIPED as the Eastern Cape (23,5% in 2007). ties was the highly mobile nature of WATER Most of these households are in South African society, reported Stats municipalities located in the north- SA Deputy DG Kefiloe Masiteng. The As much as access to piped water eastern part of the province. For survey indicated changes in popula- has increased since the last census in example, in Mbhashe 74,2% of house- tion numbers in most of the munici- 2001, this basic service remains rela- holds have no toilet facilities, while in palities, with some losing and some tively low compared to other services Intsike Yethu the figure is 56,5%. gaining population numbers. measured in the Community Survey, according to Stats SA. Nationally, the Stats SA was to launch a roadshow In line with international urbanisation proportion of households obtaining between April and July to all the trends, people are generally moving water from piped water inside the municipalities in the country to share towards South Africa’s metropolitan dwelling rose from 32,3% in 2001 to the information and assist them in areas, with Gauteng and the Western 47% in 2007. There has also been a using the data to its full potential. To Cape showing the highest annual corresponding decrease in the pro- access the Community Survey results growth. Gauteng, while the smallest portion of households obtaining water go to www.statssa.gov.za.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 34 Sanitation

Can SA lay claim to a ‘sanitary Kathy Eales Much more needs to be done in South Africa to ensure revolution’? communities have access to improved sanitation facilities.

The South African government has committed itself to wiping out the country’s water and sanitation backlogs. Much progress has been made since 1994, but can South Africa lay claim to a ‘sanitary revolution’?, asks Prof Geoffrey Setswe of the Human Sciences Research Council and Dr Lindiwe Zungu of the School of Public Health at the University of Limpopo.

ccess to safe sanitation conditions, a huge battle against all remains one of the leading causes remains one of the most kinds of diseases will be won.” of death among children under Afundamental challenges in the five. People living with HIV/AIDS are world. A staggering 2,6 billion peo- Water, sanitation and particularly vulnerable to diseases ple are still without safe toilets, lead- health related to poor sanitation. Seem- ing to millions of deaths of mostly ingly less serious sanitation-related children from diarrhoeal diseases Water provision cannot be separated ailments like scabies and intestinal every year. To highlight their plight from two other inter-related factors – worms are also severely debilitat- and place the issue in the spot- sanitation and health. This is because ing – the latter can stunt mental light, the United Nations (UN) has one of the primary causes of water and physical growth in children and declared 2008 the International Year contamination is the inadequate or even result in death. of Sanitation. improper disposal of human (and animal) excreta. This often leads to a Apart from improved health, the To underscore its importance sani- cycle of infection (resulting primarily benefits of access to safe water and tation has been hailed as the most in diarrhoeal diseases) and con- sanitation are numerous. For exam- important medical advance in the tamination which remains one of the ple, women and girls can use their past 150 years, according to a poll leading causes of illness and death in time in more productive ways, such conducted by the prestigious Brit- the developing world. as going to school, rather than carry- ish Medical Journal. Dr Lee Jong- ing water. Water can be used for pro- woo, Director-General of the World In South Africa, poor communities ductive purposes, such as expanding Health Organisation, names water in rural areas are most especially small enterprises and growing house- and sanitation the primary drivers affected by a lack of clean water hold food gardens, thus increas- of public health. “Once we can and safe sanitation. This leads ing disposable household income. secure access to clean water and to thousands of cases of water- Sanitation facilities closer to home to adequate sanitation facilities for related diseases being reported in also improves the safety of especially all people, irrespective of their living the country each year. Diarrhoea women and girls.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Sanitation 35

Progress in achieving Reconstruction and Development, third-highest (450 000). “To meet our a sanitary revolution has donated more than R1,6-billion to 2010 target for sanitation, delivery in water and sanitation projects in South KwaZulu-Natal alone has to increase According to the United National Africa. A further R1-billion has been from the current delivery rate of around Development Programme (UNDP), committed between 2007 and 2013. 50 000 structures per year to at least South Africa is one of the few coun- Most of these funds are funnelled 180 000 structures per year,” Hendricks tries in the world that spends less through DWAF’s Masibambane pro- said at the launch of National Sanitation on its military budget than on water gramme. The first phase of this water Week last year. and sanitation. In his latest State of and sanitation programme was imple- the Nation address, South African mented between 1994 and 2004, with DWAF has placed specific emphasis President Thabo Mbeki reiterated the second phase nearing completion. on the replacement of the bucket government’s commitment towards system. Within one year the country eliminating remaining backlogs of “We cannot lay claim to has been able to eliminate the bucket basic services. “We will…speed a sanitary revolution in system with an improved form of up the development of sustainable sanitation by almost half. By the tar- human settlements, with intensified South Africa…there is get date of December 2007, munici- efforts, as a matter of urgent prior- no sudden, momentous palities managed to replace 81% of ity, to accelerate universal access to bucket toilets. At the time of writing, water, sanitation and electricity, so or sweeping change with the remaining 19% (49 010) were that by 2014, we should have decent regard to the provision of under construction. If only the same human settlements and access by all effort could be put into accelerating households to these services.” especially adequate access to safe sanitation as a whole. sanitation.” As custodian of South Africa’s water Conclusion resources, the Department of Water At a recent media briefing, Minister Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) leads, of Water Affairs & Forestry Lindiwe We cannot lay claim to a sanitary supports and regulates the water and Hendricks told journalists that, this revolution in South Africa. Despite the sanitation services sector. However, year, the delivery programme would President’s State of the Nation targets the main responsibility for imple- focus mainly on accelerating access on water and sanitation, white and menting and managing water and to water. “About 90% of the total green papers, policies and strategic sanitation services lies with local and population will have access to basic frameworks and funding provided, provincial municipalities. water supply services by the end of there is no sudden, momentous or this year.” The Minister also reported sweeping change with regard to the Good progress has been made in that at least 73% of indigent house- provision of especially adequate sani- the provision of water services, and holds and 77% of all households in tation, and it seems that it is business by 2005, the country had already the country were currently benefiting as usual for many municipalities. achieved the UN Millennium Devel- from government’s Free Basic Water opment Goal of halving the number Policy, which provides households Sanitation has always been treated as of those without access to water. 6 000 ℓ of free water every month. a ‘cinderella’ subject. This statement Between June 1994 and June 2006, rings true for millions of South Afri- approximately 12 million people But what of water’s historically cans whose daily lives and dignity are were served with clean water. There neglected cousin, sanitation? In still being impeded by the lack of this has been a significant increase in comparison to water services, only essential service. Many communities the proportion of peri-urban and 9 million people received access to have run out of patience and demon- rural households with access to an safe sanitation between June 1994 strations have been held across the improved water source. Still, the and June 2006. According to DWAF, country to demand better services. If difference between urban and non- 15,3 million people still need to be the local authorities in whose areas of urban households remains significant reached. Access to the rural poor is jurisdiction these marches had taken – 98,2% of urban households have especially challenging. place had prioritised the provision of access to an improved water source, water and sanitation with urgency, while only 59,6% of the non-urban In 2007, Limpopo had the highest back- their and other efforts might indeed households have the same access. log, with more than 810 000 households have provided South Africans with the lacking adequate sanitation. KwaZulu- sanitary revolution needed and the Since 1994 the European Union (EU), Natal had the second-highest number rioting for the provision of basic through its European Programme for at 714 000, and the Eastern Cape the services would have been averted.

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 dangerous infections because they do not wash their hands regularly. Washing hands Almost half of the 1 000 people sur- veyed in the country believed that disinfecting surfaces, avoiding close can save your contact with others and not letting animals in the house were more effective in preventing disease than hand washing. This is not true – hand life washing remains the best way of preventing the spread of disease.

How do you wash your hands properly?

Step 1: Wash you hands in warm water. Step 2: Use soap (it does not need to be anti-bacterial soap) and lather up for 10 to 15 seconds (about as long as it takes for you to sing Happy Birth- day). Make sure you get in-between the fingers and under the nails where uninvited germs like to hang out. Do not forget to wash your wrists! Step 3: Rinse and dry well with a clean towel.

You need to wash your hands: before eating and cooking; after using the toilet; after cleaning around the house; after touching your pets; before and after visiting or taking care illions of germs – bacteria unknowingly become infected of sick relatives or friends; after blow- and viruses – lurk every- simply by touching their eyes, nose or ing your nose, coughing or sneezing; Mwhere. mouth. and after changing the baby’s nappy. These germs can be found in The simple act of washing hands the bathroom, in the kitchen, in the with soap and water is one of the garden, on our pets, even at work best ways to keep ourselves and our and at school. Germs can cause families healthy. Research has shown many different illnesses, such as that hand washing can significantly colds and flu, eye and mouth infec- reduce the two leading causes of Did you know? tions and diarrhoea or even cholera child deaths in the world – diarrhoeal and typhoid. Germs are transmitted disease and acute respitary infection According to the Water Supply in several different ways, especially (such as pneumonia). This makes & Sanitation Collaborative Council, by touching dirty hands or changing hand washing more effective than any one gram of faeces can contain dirty nappies. single vaccine or hygiene behaviour. 10 million viruses, a million Other ways include through con- Unfortunately, many people in bacteria, a thousand parasite taminated water and food, through the country do not wash their hand droplets when someone coughs regularly. An international hygiene cysts and a hundred or sneezes, through contaminated survey conducted among a number worm eggs. surfaces and through a sick person’s of countries, including South Africa, bodily fluids. If people pick up germs found that nearly 70% of the country’s from one of these sources, they can people are at risk of transmitting

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 Learning and Teaching About How germs are spread Water in our Classrooms: A Series of Lesson Plans Nose, mouth, or eyes to hands chicken, to hands while preparing a for Grades 8 -10 Clare Peddie,

to others: Germs can spread to meal. The germs on the hands are 346/08 WaterTT in our Classrooms: Lesson Plans for Grades 8 - 10 Debbie Hibbert & Caroline Conway-Physick the hands by sneezing, coughing or then transferred to other uncooked rubbing the eyes and then can be foods, such as salad. Cooking the transferred to other people. Simply raw food kills the initial germs, but the washing your hands can help prevent salad remains contaminated. such illnesses as the common cold Animals to people: Animals, such or eye infections. as dogs and cats, also carry germs. Hands to food: Usually germs are It is important to wash your hands transmitted from unclean hands to after petting animals or touching any

food by an infected food preparer surfaces they come into contact with, TT 346/08 Water Research Commission who didn’t wash his or her hands such as their bedding. after using the toilet. The germs Infected child to hands to other Water learning are then passed to those who eat people: Germs are passed from a plans for Educators the food. That is why it is important child with diarrhoea to the hands of to always wash your hands after the parent during nappy changing. The Water Research Commission using the toilet and before prepar- If the parent doesn’t immediately has published a series of lesson ing food. wash his or her hands, the germs that plans on water for grades R to 10. Food to hands to food: Germs are cause the diarrhoea are then passed The lesson plans, developed with transmitted from raw foods, such as on to others. Share-Net, are linked to the South African Curriculum. Each lesson pack contains five lessons, with Diarrhoea: World Killer each lesson focusing on a different learning area – these can be used Diarrhoea remains a significant world impaired growth and development. as they are, or adapted to suited health problem, with more than three The organisms causing diarrhoea the local context. Each lesson is million episodes occurring each year. can be transmitted from infected concluded with a rubric of criteria to Many people die from diarrhoea, and faeces to people through food and assess the learners. Learning Out- children under the age of five are water, person-to-person contact, or comes and Assessments Standards particularly vulnerable. direct contact. covered during each lesson are Persistent diarrhoea can also con- Hand washing after going to the given in the summary at the begin- tribute to malnutrition, reduced resist- toilet, and before preparing and eating ning of the pack. ance to infections, and sometimes food can reduce the risk of diarrhoea. The lesson plans are available free of charge. Contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340 or Fax: (012) 331-2565 or E-mail: orders@wrc. org.za. The lesson plans can also be downloaded from www.wrc.org. za/publications_education.htm

Learning and Teaching About Water in our Classrooms: A Series of Lesson Plans TT 345/08 TT Water in our Classrooms: Lesson Plans for Grades R - 7 for Grades R - 7

Clare Peddie, Debbie Hibbert & Caroline Conway-Physick Carina Teichert

TT 345/08 It is important that we wash our hands before preparing food. Water Research Commission

The Water Wheel March/April 2008 38 Last word DWAF/WRC alliance strengthened

he alliance between the Department of Water knowledge hub. As Dr Heidi Snyman, WRC’s Director Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) and the Water Research for Water-Centred Knowledge explains, the main aim of TCommission (WRC) has been strengthened the Open Day was to reinforce the partnership between after the WRC hosted a successful Open Day custom- the department and the WRC, and to share informa- designed for DWAF personnel at its Rietfontein, Pretoria, tion on the organisation’s activities which align strongly offices in March. More than 60 DWAF personnel took with DWAF’s strategic objectives. “At the same time, the up the organisation’s invitation to learn more about the department had the opportunity to share its needs and

inner workings of South Africa’s premier water challenges with the WRC.” Lani van Vuuren van Lani

Above left: Morake Malope, DWAF Geohydrology Technician thought the Yuven Gounden presentations were highly informative and he was especially interested in the work undertaken by the WRC Key Strategic Area for Water Resources Management. Above right: DWAF personnel mostly technical staff and middle- and senior-management from all over the country attended the WRC Open Day. Yuven Gounden Yuven Dr Heidi Snyman, WRC’s Director for Lani van Vuuren Lani Water-Centred Knowledge, welcomed Thandi Thongwana, DWAF Chief Development Expert: WS Institutional DWAF staff to the Open Day. Development thought the Open Day was informative and very stimulating. “I thought the WRC only focused on water resources. I was surprised to find that its scope is broader and much more encompassing,” she said.

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