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Topic 4.1Аа Properties of Materials Topic 4.1 Properties of materials Guiding Questions and Tasks 1. compare and contrast physical and mechanical force. 2. identify a situation where the following forces might be applied: ­ shear ­ tension ­ compression ­ torsion ­ friction 3. Consider the difference in the lengths of the electricity wires ­ as shown ­ in relation to thermal expansion. 4. Outline the following hardness testing methods: ­ scratch hardness ­ static indentation hardness ­ dynamic hardness 5. Describe the stress / strain curve of the Young’s modulus for rubbers 6. Define toughness 7. Outline the effect temperature has on toughness 8. Compare malleability, ductility, and brittleness 9. List different applications for Piezoelectric materials 10. List different applications for SMAs 11. List different applications for Photochromic materials 12. List different applications for Magneto­rheostatic and Electro­rheostatic materials 13. List different applications for thermoelectric materials 14. Explain why Thermal expansion (expansivity) is an important consideration where two ​ dissimilar materials are joined. 15. Give an example of a design context where density is important 16. Give an example of a design context where electrical resistivity is important 17. Give an example of a design context where thermal conductivity is important 18. Give an example of a design context where hardness is important Topic 4.1 Properties of materials Materials are often developed by materials engineers to have specific properties. The development of new materials allows designers to create new products, which solve old problems in new ways. For example, the explosion of plastic materials following the second world war enabled products to be made without using valuable metals. Essential idea: Materials are selected for manufacturing products based primarily on their properties. Nature of design: The rapid pace of scientific discovery and new technologies has had a major impact on material science, giving designers many more materials from which to choose for their products. These new materials have given scope for “smart” new products or enhanced classic designs. Choosing the right material is a complex and difficult task with physical, aesthetic, mechanical and appropriate properties to consider. Environmental, moral and ethical issues surrounding choice of materials for use in any product, service or system also need to be considered. Concepts and principles: • Physical properties: mass, weight, volume, density, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness • Mechanical properties: tensile and compressive strength, stiffness, toughness, ductility, elasticity, plasticity, Young’s modulus, stress and strain • Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, appearance and texture • Properties of smart materials: piezoelectricity, shape memory, photochromicity, magneto­rheostatic, electro­rheostatic and thermoelectricity Guidance: • Design contexts where physical properties, mechanical properties and/or aesthetic characteristics are important • Design contexts where properties of smart materials are exploited • Using stress/strain graphs and material selection charts to identify appropriate materials Properties of materials Properties of materials are categorized according to their Physical Properties or Mechanical ​ ​ ​ Properties. Physical properties The physical properties of a material are unaltered by the application of force. Physical properties are listed as: mass, weight, volume, density, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness. Mass Mass (m) of a body, is a measure of the amount of matter that body contains. It is constant. The SI unit for mass is kilogram (kg). Weight Weight is a force and represents the mass of an object which is acted upon by gravity and is expressed by Newton’s second law: Force (weight) = m x a ​g 2 ​ ag is acceleration due to gravity. The surface of the Earth has an approximate value of 9.8m/s , ​ ​ 2 ​ while on the moon its value is only 1.6m/s .​ Weight is therefore a variable quality. ​ Because it is a force, the SI units for weight are Newtons (N) Note: People often confuse mass and weight. Remember that weight is a force, and is measured in newtons. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/energy_electricity_forces/forces/revision/3/] ​ ​ Volume The amount of 3­dimensional space an object occupies. Density A measure of how much matter is in a certain volume. A gold bar is quite small but has a mass of 1 kilogram (, so it contains more matter than a similar sized piece of wood. Therefore gold is more dense than wood. The density of water is about 1 kg per liter (1 liter of water has a mass of 1 kg), so anything that floats has a lower density, and anything that sinks is more dense. [https://www.mathsisfun.com/definitions/density.html] ​ ​ Density is important in relation to product weight and size (for example, for portability). Pre­packaged food is sold by weight or volume, and a particular consistency is required. Electrical Resistivity Electrical conductivity (σ) and electrical resistivity (ρ)are the measure of how easily free ​ ​ ​ ​ electrons move through a material. Temperature has the greatest effect on resistivity.The reasons for these changes in resistivity can be explained by considering the flow of current through the material. The flow of current is actually the movement of electrons from one atom to another under the influence of an electric field. Electrons are very small negatively charged particles and will be repelled by a negative electric charge and attracted by a positive electric charge. Therefore if an electric potential is applied across a conductor (positive at one end, negative at the other) electrons will "migrate" from atom to atom towards the positive terminal. Only some electrons are free to migrate however. Others within each atom are held so tightly to their particular atom that even an electric field will not dislodge them. The current flowing in the material is therefore due to the movement of "free electrons" and the number of free electrons within any material compared with those tightly bound to their atoms is what governs whether a material is a good conductor (many free electrons) or a good insulator (hardly any free electrons). The effect of heat on the atomic structure of a material is to make the atoms vibrate, and the higher the temperature the more violently the atoms vibrate. In a conductor, which already has a large number of free electrons flowing through it, the vibration of the atoms causes many collisions between the free electrons and the captive electrons. Each collision uses up some energy from the free electron and is the basic cause of resistance. The more the atoms jostle around in the material, the more collisions are caused and hence the greater the resistance to current flow. [http://www.learnabout­electronics.org/Resistors/resistors_01a.php] ​ ​ Electrical resistivity is particularly important in selecting materials as conductors or insulators. Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity (K) is the measure of the efficiency with which thermal energy will travel through a material. The higher the thermal conductivity, greater is the rate at which the heat will flow. Metals have a high thermal conductivity, while polymers and ceramics have a low thermal conductivity and are insulators rather than conductors of heat. When a temperature gradient exists, temperature will flow from high to low. Thermal conductivity is important for objects that will be heated or must conduct or be insulated against heat gain or loss. Thermal expansion Thermal expansion (expansivity) is the measure of a material’s increase in dimensions when that material is heated. When a material is heated, the gain in thermal energy causes an increase in the atomic vibrations, which leads to an increase in atomic separation, which in turn leads to an increase in the material’s overall dimensions. Consider railway lines, which are lengths of steel. As these are heated by the sun, they expand. If it were not for the expansion space [see figure on the right] then the rails would buckle. Thermal expansion (expansivity) is important where two dissimilar materials are joined. These may then experience large temperature changes while staying joined. Hardness Hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching or abrasion. Hardness tests fall into three broad categories: Scratch Hardness Test Static Indentation Hardness Test Dynamic Hardness Hardness is important where resistance to penetration or scratching is required. Ceramic floor tiles are extremely hard and resistant to scratching. Another design context would be bearings and brake pads. Mechanical properties The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to the application of force. There are many different types of force including: ● shear ● tension ● compression ● torsion ● friction ● electrical ● gravitational Tensile and Compressive Strength The compressive modulus of a material gives the ratio of the compressive stress applied to a material compared to the resulting compression, essentially how easy it is to squash the material between thumb and finger or in a vice. The compressive strength gives the stress that is needed to destroy the sample by crushing. The tensile strength of a material is the stress required to destroy that sample by tension. As with compressive stresses there will be a clear failure point if the material is brittle.
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