Laminated Glass Insulating Glass Fire Rated Glass Burglar Resistant Glass Sound Protection Glass Decorative Glass Curved Glass

Envelopes in Architecture (A4113) Designing holistic envelopes for contemporary buildings Silvia Prandelli, Werner Sobek New York A4113 ENVELOPES IN ARCHITECTURE - FALL 2016 Supply chain for holistic facades

Systems Door systems Media Facades Rainscreen facades

Dynamic facades Mesh System Structural glass/Cable

Glass floors Multiple skins Shading systems

Green facades Panelized systems Stick/Unitized systems

3 Curtain wall facades

4 What are the components of a façade system?

5 What are the components of a façade system?

6 What are the components of a façade system?

7 Glass

8 Glass Types

Base Glass (float glass) Heat Treated Glass Laminated Glass Insulating Glass Fire Rated Glass Burglar Resistant Glass Sound Protection Glass Decorative Glass Curved Glass

9 Base Glass (Float Glass)

10 3500 BC Glass Making: Man-made glass objects, mainly non-transparent glass beads, finds in Egypt and Eastern Mesopotamia

1500 BC Early hollow glass production: Evidence of the origins of the hollow glass industry, finds in Egypt

11 27 BC - 14 AD Glass Blowing: Discovery of glassblowing, attributed to Syrian craftsmen from the Sidon- Babylon area.

> The blowing process has changed very little since then.

12 Flat Glass Blown sheet

13 15th century Lead Crystal Glass: During the 15th century in Venice, the first clear glass called cristallo was invented.

In 1675, glassmaker George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass by adding lead oxide to Venetian glass.

14 16th century Sheet Glass: Larger sheets of glass were made by blowing large cylinders which were cut open and flattened, then cut into panes

19th century Sheet Glass: The first advances in automating glass manufacturing were patented in 1848 by Henry Bessemer, an English engineer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers.

20th century Sheet Glass: On March 25, 1902, Irving W Colburn patented the sheet glass drawing machine, making the mass production of glass for windows possible.

20th century Sheet Glass: The first real innovation came in 1905 when a Belgian named Fourcault managed to vertically draw a continuous sheet of glass of a consistent width from the molten tank.

15 Flat Glass Bessemer Method

16 Flat Glass Drawn Glass

Fourcault Process Colburn-Owens Process

17 20th century Modern Sheet Glass:

1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the first successful commercial application

• for forming a continuous ribbon of glass

• using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity

18 Float Glass Float Process

19 Float Glass Float Process

20 Float Glass Float Process

Stage 1: Melting and refining Stage 2: Float bath

Fine-grained ingredients, closely controlled for quality, are Glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory mixed to make a batch, which flows into the furnace which spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin, is heated to 1500 ºC. Float today makes glass of near starting at 1,100ºC and leaving the float bath as a optical quality. Several processes - melting, refining, solid ribbon at 600ºC. homogenizing – take place simultaneously in the 2,000 tones of molten glass in the furnace. They occur in The principle of float glass is unchanged from the separate zones in a complex glass flow driven by high 1950s. But the product has changed dramatically: temperatures, as the diagram shows. It adds up to a continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 hours, • from a single equilibrium thickness of 6.8mm to a that delivers glass at 1,100oC, free from inclusions and range from sub-millimeter to 25mm; bubbles, smoothly and continuously to the float bath. • from a ribbon frequently marred by inclusions, The melting process is key to glass quality; and bubbles and striations to almost optical perfection. compositions can be modified to change the properties of the finished product.

21 Float Glass Coating

Soft coating

Stage 3: Coating

Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high temperature technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.

On-line chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of coatings is the most significant advance in the float process since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of coatings, less than a micron thick, to reflect visible and infrared wavelengths, for instance.

Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass ribbon flows beneath the coaters. Further development of the CVD process may well replace changes in composition as the principal way of varying the optical properties of float glass.

22 Float Glass Annealing

Stage 4: Annealing

Despite the tranquility with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the ribbon as it cools.

Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the cutter. The picture shows stresses through the ribbon, revealed by polarized light.

To relieve these stresses the ribbon undergoes heat-treatment in a long furnace known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled both along and across the ribbon.

23 Float Glass Inspection

Stage 5: Inspection

The float process is renowned for making perfectly flat, flaw-free glass. But to ensure the highest quality, inspection takes place at every stage.

Occasionally a bubble is not removed during refining, a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts ripples into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected. And it enables computers downstream to steer cutters round flaws.

Inspection technology now allows more than 100 million measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see. The data drives 'intelligent‘ cutters, further improving product quality to the customer.

24 Float Glass Cutting

Stage 6: Cutting to order

Diamond wheels trim off selvedge - stressed edges - and cut the ribbon to size dictated by computer.

Float glass is sold by the square meter.

Computers translate customers' requirements into patterns of cuts designed to minimize wastage.

25 Heat Treated Glass

26 Heat Treatment

27 Heat Treatment Tempered Glass

Thermally Fully Tempered Glass:

Generally speaking, “Toughened glass’ is about 4 – 5 times stronger than its non-toughened equivalent.

Minimum thickness of glass is 3 mm.

28 Heat Treatment Tempered Glass

Chemically Tempered Glass:

When glasses are dipped into a bath with melted potassium salt at a temperature above 380ºC, an exchange takes place between the potassium ions in the salt and the sodium ions on the surface of the glass. Tempered Chemical tempering should be considered in the following situations:

• When glass thickness is less than 2.5mm potassium

• Where glass with complex bending or dimensional characteristics cannot be tempered with thermal tempering.

Chemical tempering can be used on previously curved glass, and also on glass that is less than 2 mm thick. sodium The shape of the glass sheet will not be modified during tempering, so perfectly coupled sheets can be obtained during PVB lamination.

29 Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Toughened or Heat Strengthened Float Fully Tempered

30 Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Float Glass

31 Heat Treatment Brakeage Pattern

Toughened or Fully Tempered Glass Heat Strengthened Glass

32 Laminated Glass

33 Laminated Glass

In 1903, French chemist Edouard Benedictus accidentally broke a bottle of cellulose acetate in his laboratory.

As a result, he discovered that the cellulose, upon hardening, held the fragments of glass together. This subsequently led to the use of cellulose as a binding agent in the glass laminating process.

A Saint-Gobain patent of the process followed in 1910. Further development by DuPont and Monsanto led to the use of laminated windscreens in cars after the second world war. • Performance?

• safety • security • sound control • solar energy performance • ultraviolet radiation protection • hurricane, earthquake and bomb blast

34 Laminated Glass Process

Technical data Minimum glass size 250 x 400 mm Maximum glass size 3300 x 9000 mm

Glass types • Float glass, also with the latest coatings • Tempered and heat strengthened glass

Laminating interlayers • PVB • EVA • SGP (SentryGlas®plus)

35 Laminated Glass Infill

Glass Pane

PVB, SGP,… Infill

PVB, SGP,…

Glass Pane

36 Laminated Glass Interlayer

1. Butacite® polyvinyl butyral interlayer (PVB) has been continuously improved over the past 67 years from its inception as the preferred material for safety glass. It has established all of the advantages of laminated glass: Safety and security, sound dampening; ability to offer solar control for energy savings; protection of interiors from fading; and added beauty.

2. SentryGlas®Plus interlayer (SGP) for laminated safety glazing is the latest innovation in DuPont’s family of glass laminating products. It extends the performance of laminated glass beyond current technologies. SentryGlas® Plus Interlayer offers five times the tear strength and 100 times the rigidity of conventional PVB interlayer. Because of its added strength, clarity, durability, fabrication and installation ease, it is an excellent candidate for demanding applications in the architectural market place. It can offer improved ballistic protection or thinner constructions than are now possible with conventional laminated glass.

37 Laminated Glass Comparison

38 Insulating Glass

39 Insulating Glass

40 Insulating Glass

41 Insulating Glass

Hermetically sealed insulated glass units are fabricated with dual seals using continuous spacers for maximum performance and longevity.

This combination allows to offer windows with a standard 10-12 year warranty against seal failure.

42 Glass sizes

Typical manufacturing limits in the US are governed by the demand of the residential market:

•Maximum panel size 102” x 144” •Minimum/maximum thickness 6/10mm

Oversized glass is available with this US suppliers:

•Cristacurva •AGNORA •AGC •Rochester Insulated glass •Glass design Concepts

Oversized glass is available with this EU suppliers:

•BGT •Cricursa

43 Glass sizes

FRITTING LAMINATING COATING TEMPERING Supplier Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Height (in) Height (in) Height (in) Height (in) Width (in) Width (in) Width (in) Width (in) AGNORA 84 240 130 300 130 240 130 275 Canada Guardian 84 160 96 180 102 144(168*) 84 (96*) 160 US Cristacurva 94 240 118 240 130 204 118 240 Mexico/US Viracon 84 165 84 165 84 147(165*) 96 165 US

AGC/Interpane 60 120 84 144 84 (126)** 144(236)** 84 144 US/EU BGT Any coating can be 112 236 106 354 supplied to BGT for 112 236 EU processing

44 Fire Rated Glass

45 Fire Rated Glass Fire Performance Classifications

E=Stability INTEGRITY Glazing products to contain smoke and flames

Fire Rated Glass is evaluated as a component of a complete fire resistive Assembly:

EW=Stability + Radiation Reduction INTERGRITY & RADIATION • Glass REDUCTION • Frame Glazing Products to reduce radiant • Door heat transfer • Hardware • Gasket & Seals • Anchoring INTEGRITY & TEMPERATURE • Installation INSULATION EI=Stability + Temperature Insulation Glazing Products providing a barrier to radiant and conducted heat transfer

46 Fire Rated Glass Types

Allowable Temp increase 140º K in the middle 180º K at one place

Foamed interlayer Broken or melted glass

47 Fire Rated Glass Certified Sizes

Glass width (mm) Glass width (mm)

48 Fire Rated Glass Fully Glazed

49 Burglar Resistant Glass

50 Burglar Resistant Glass

51 Bullet Resistant Glass

52 Sound Protection Glass

53 Sound Protection Glass

54 Sound Protection Glass

$$$$

55 Decorative Glass

56 Decorative glass

Different glass manufacturers can offer decorative glass solutions

•Fritting/ Double fritting

•Back painted

•Digital printing

•Colored/fabric interlayer

•Patterned glass

•Dichroic glass

57 Fritting

10 mm

2 mm diameter 3.6 mm diameter 3.6 mm diameter 2 mm diameter 3 mm apart 2 mm apart 1.5 mm apart 1.5 mm apart 2 mm apart

Typical manufacturing limits:

•Standard maximum panel size 84”x65” (2100 x 4100mm). Oversized glass up to 84”x240” (2100x6100mm)

•Minimum distance apart and width of lines is 3mm

•Minimum diameter of dot or hole is 2mm

•Minimum distance between dots or holes is 1.5mm

•White, black and grey ceramic ink are the most commonly used colors

•Non-standard color availability should be checked with suppliers on a case by case basis

•Range may be limited to one color per glass

58 Fritting

IAC building ,New York • Fritted glass on SSG unitized system • White fritting at 100% on the spandrel panel, fading at 0% at eye level

59 Fritting

Cooper Square Hotel, US • Fritted glass on unitized system • Each elevation has its own glass pattern • White fritted glass is mixed with perforated aluminum panels

Solid metal panels mounted on units

60 Fritting

Louis Vuitton, New York • White fritted glass on solid wall with openings • Fritting is uniform through the façade, except at the shop windows where a transparent glass has been used

61 Fritting

Anchorage Museum Expansion, US • Fritted mirrored glass on capped stick system • Vertical stripes fritted pattern

62 Fritting

Charlotte R. Bloomberg Children’s Center, Baltimore • Fritted mirrored glass on capped stick system • 30% fritting on low iron glass – custom pattern

63 Fritting

Allianz HQ, Zurich • Fritted glass on SSG unitized system and stick patch plate system to the ground floor • 100% fritted framed panels to replicate the marble used on Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion • Two colors per glass: composite layers of black and white fritting dots • Curtains have been included into the double glazed unit

64 Fritting

Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg • Fritted curved glass on SSG unitized system- • Double dotted fritting pattern and double coatings. • Challenge in overlying the laminated front panel to match the architectural pattern.

Low-iron laminated glass

Solar control coating Chrome mirror dots Low-e coating

Monolithic float glass Grey dot frit

65 Digital Printing

Different patterns and colours

Printed plastic interlayer can be supplied to glass processors for laminating.

Typical manufacturing limits: o Maximum panel size 60”x 144”. Oversized panels from EU up to 2400 mm x 5800 mm o Different levels of transparency are achievable o Different colors are possible

66 Digital Printing

Icelandic Institute of Natural History

• Digitally printed interlayer in laminated glass: different patterns are achievable with an higher resolution than ceramic fritting

• More expensive compared to ceramic fritting

67 Digital Printing

Harlem hospital • Digitally printed glass, patterns will have higher resolution compared with ceramic frit • Glass supplied by GGI, NJ • Standard and bespoke patterns available

68 Interlayers

Different types of interlayer can be used including colored, fabric, metal and organic films > $$$ / longer supply

Fabric interlayer

Vanceva interlayer

Organic interlayer (wood,silk) Metallic interlayer

69 Interlayers

Yamaha building, Tokyo • Glass with laminated interlayer made of gold dust manufactured locally. • Cable net secondary structure for a lighter appearance.

70 Patterned Glass

LASVIT LIQUIDKRISTAL OLIVIA BY JOEL BERMAN Maximum sizes105”x145” Maximum sizes 53”x108”

PATTERNS BY JOEL BERMAN Maximum sizes varies _ Compatibility with exterior use to be confirmed and dependant on loading

71 Patterned Glass

Vakko Center, Istanbul • Patterned glass manufactured locally • Curved shaped to increase glass strength where most necessary (at the bolt connections)

72 Dichroic Glass

• Dichroic glass changes color as the viewer moves in relation to the glass.

• The glass has a transparent color and a reflective color, which will often be opposite colors of the spectrum.

• Dichroic glass is an expensive product, but the dichroic film that we also use is much more economical.

73 Curved Glass

74 Curved Glass

75 Curved Glass

Single curved • Single curved process can be mechanized to be cost effective • Single curved glass has tolerances similar to flat glass • Coatings should be carefully selected depending on the radius of curvature, the direction of the curve and the environmental requirements not to be readable or cause any visual distortions on the glass. • A convex curvature may project the light away from the central point causing the reflected image to be stretched out in all directions.

Double curved • Double curved glass is available within selected glass suppliers across the globe. • Minimum radia of curvature will be different from single curved glass. • Where tempered glass is required for safety purposes or strenght chemical tempering might be required if low radia are required.

Cold bent • More cost effective compared to hot bent glass, single and double glazed panels are installed and bent on site at room temperatures on a pre-curved secondary structure. • Certain limitations exist for maximum imposed deflections to the panel. These are dependent on panel sizes, glass thickness, glass retention system and load imposed onto the glass. • Glass must be tempered to withstand higher stresses due to the imposed deflections. • Specific calculations need to be carried out by the glass supplier on the selected glass build up to confirm the warranty extent.

76 Curved Glass

Single curved

77 Curved Glass

Double curved

78 Curved Glass

Cold Bent

79 Curved Glass

Cold Bent

80 Curved Glass

81 Aluminum framing

82 Aluminum extrusions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHkwq_2yY9E

83 Aluminum finishes

Main finishes include:

• Chemical processes

• Anodizing

• Painted processes

• PPC (Polyester Powder Coating) • PVDF (PolyVinyliDene Fluoride)

84 Anodizing . Cleaning: Alkaline and/or acid cleaners remove grease, and surface dirt.

. Pre-Treatment: Etching, Brightening

. Anodizing: The anodic film is built and combined with the metal by passing an electrical current through an acid electrolyte bath in which the aluminum is immersed.

. Coloring: Coloring is achieved in one of four ways: Electrolytic Coloring, Integral Coloring, Organic Dyeing and Interference Coloring

. Sealing: This process closes the pores in the anodic film, giving a surface resistant to staining, abrasion, and color degradation.

Cleaning Pre-Treatment Anodizing Coloring Sealing

85 Paints

86 Curtain wall systems

Stick Curtain Wall Unitised Curtain Wall

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES + Flexibility - Labour intensive + Factory Quality - More Expensive + Lower Cost - Site Workmanship + Fast Construction - Greater lead times - Outside Access + No outside access - Specialised supply Req’d Req’d chain

87 Curtain wall systems

Stick System Curtain Wall

88 Curtain wall systems

Unitised System Curtain Wall

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kE2TsiCD3z 4#action=share

89 Limitations? 1

The Diana Center Weiss/Manfredi

Reykjavik Opera House Henning Larsen Architects

90 1

Reykjavik Opera House Henning Larsen Architects

91 1

Reykjavik Opera House Henning Larsen Architects

92 1

The Diana Center Weiss/Manfredi

93 1

The Diana Center Weiss/Manfredi

94 Limitations? 2

Sydney Opera House Jørn Utzon

Oslo opera house Snohetta

95 2

Oslo opera house Snohetta

96 2

Oslo opera house Snohetta

97 2

Sydney Opera House Jørn Utzon

98 2

Sydney Opera House Jørn Utzon

99 2

Sydney Opera House Jørn Utzon

100 Limitations? 3

Disney Music Hall Frank Gehry

de Young Museum Herzog & de Meuron

101 3

de Young Museum Herzog & de Meuron

102 3

de Young Museum Herzog & de Meuron

103 3

Disney Music Hall Frank Gehry

104 3

Disney Music Hall Frank Gehry

105 Budget costing for holistic facades

106

Systems Door systems Media Facades Rainscreen facades

Dynamic facades Mesh System Structural glass/Cable

Glass floors Multiple skins Shading systems

Green facades Panelized systems Stick/Unitized systems

107

Materials Acrylic/Polycarbonate Concrete/GRC/Ductal Plastic/GRP

Aluminum ETFE Steel/Stainless/Titanium

Bronze Copper Brass Zinc Fabric Stone

Brick/Terracotta/Ceramics Glass Wood

108 A case study

109 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

110 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems

Aluminum Zinc Concrete/GRC/Ductal Carbon fiber/fiber reinforced plastic

111 Cost Comparison for Roof Systems