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Automotive Lithium Ion Battery Recycling in the UK

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Automotive Lithium Ion Battery Recycling in the UK Automotive Lithium ion Battery Recycling in the UK Based on a feasibility study by Anwar Sattar, David Greenwood, Martin Dowson and Puja Unadkat at WMG, University of Warwick REPORT SUMMARY: SEPTEMBER 2020 Produced by WMG, supported by the Advanced Propulsion Centre Electrical Energy Storage Spoke and the High Value Manufacturing Catapult. “Electric vehicles offer huge potential for decarbonising Key Findings transport and improving air quality, but as we accelerate their early market we must equally be thinking about what happens ► ► THE ELECTRIC The average value in at the end of their useful life. REVOLUTION end of life automotive Batteries in particular contain IS WELL packs is £3.3/kg for BEVs significant quantities of materials UNDERWAY and £2.2/kg for PHEVs. which are costly to extract and AND THE refine and which could be hazardous to the environment if ► A huge opportunity exists for improperly disposed of. UK IS AMONGST lithium ion battery recycling THE BIGGEST in the UK. Investment is needed to create suitable recycling facilities in the ELECTRIC VEHICLE UK within the next few years, and ► By 2040, the UK will require beyond that, research is needed MARKETS IN 140GWh worth of cell production to allow economic recovery of EUROPE capability, representing 567,000 much greater proportions of the tonnes of cell production, requiring battery material. In doing so we will protect the environment, secure ► By 2035, most passenger 131,000 tonnes of cathodic metals. valuable raw materials, and Recycling can supply 22% of this cars will contain a lithium reduce the cost of transport.” ion chemistry traction battery. demand (assuming a 60% recycling rate and 40% reuse or remanufacture). David Greenwood Lithium ion batteries contain Professor of Advanced Propulsion rare and valuable metals Systems, WMG, University of such as lithium, nickel, cobalt ► The break-even point for an Warwick and copper, many of which automotive lithium ion battery are not found in the UK. recycling plant is 2,500 – 3,000 tonnes per year if the chemistry ► UK-based OEMs pay between contains nickel and cobalt. “WMG has been at the forefront £3 and £8 per kg to recycle of the development of battery ► end of life lithium ion The three greatest costs for recycling technology for the future of batteries that are exported plants are transport (29%), purchase electric mobility in the UK. Internal abroad for material recovery. (29%) and hourly labour (23%). combustion engines and systems will be replaced by electric The material must later be motors, power electronics and repurchased. battery packs. Ni Co A key part of that future is how we responsibly recycle the materials Li Cu 339kT contained in the batteries and ► METALS thus create a commercially ARE THE MOST RECYCLABLE valuable circular economy. This COMPONENTS WITHIN report is one of the best that I’ve ► seen to present the challenges LITHIUM ION BATTERIES BY 2040, 339,000 TONNES OF BATTERIES ARE EXPECTED TO and the opportunities in such a REACH END OF LIFE clear way. It’s an excellent piece of thought leadership, from the leaders in their field”. Dick Elsy Abbreviations used in this Report CEO, High Value Manufacturing Catapult NEDC: New European Driving Cycle NMC: Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide LMO: Lithium Manganese Oxide NCA: Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide LNO: Lithium Nickel Oxide 2 EV’s Sold EoL Batteries EV’s Sold EoL Batteries 2.5 400 2.5 400 350 350 2 2 300 300 EV’s Sold EoL Batteries EV’s Sold EoL Batteries 250 250 1.5 2.5 1.5 400 2.5 400 200 200 350 350 1 2 1 2 150 150 300 EVS SOLD MILLIONS EVS SOLD MILLIONS 300 End of Life Batteries Where is the Value?100 100 250 END O LIE BATTERIES 000 TONNES 000 END O LIE BATTERIES 0.5 1.5 TONNES 000 END O LIE BATTERIES 0.5 250 1.5 From 2035 it is proposed that every new passenger car sold in the In 2018, the average values for end of life battery packs The value content in an end of life battery differs 50 50 UK will be non-polluting - in practice, this means that new vehicles were around £1200 for BEV packs and £260 for PHEV significantly from the cost breakdown for a new 200 packs. In BEVs the average value per pack for non-cell battery. The cost of cells in a new battery represents 200 sold after 2035 will have a traction battery. components was estimated at an average of £128 around 64% of the total cost whereas in an end of life 0 1 0 0 0 1 (source: WMG; International Dismantlers Information pack the cells account for almost 90% of the value in 150 Electric vehicle traction batteries can range in mass If all the vehicles sold in the UK are to contain a System (IDIS), vehicle manufacturer’s websites). the pack. 150 2010 2015 2020 2025 EVS SOLD MILLIONS 2030 2035 2040 2045 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 from 50kg to >600kg. Each of these batteries contain traction battery, the market penetration for such EVS SOLD MILLIONS a significant amount of rare and strategic metals, that vehicles will follow a similar trajectory to that shown YEAR 100YEAR 100 must be imported as the UK has no economically in Figure 1. FIG 2 0.5 Cost of New Pack Value in EoL Packs TONNES 000 END O LIE BATTERIES viable deposits. 0.5 TONNES 000 END O LIE BATTERIES 2% 2% 50 4% 4% 0.40% 4% 4% 50 0.40% 1% 1% FIG 1 End of Life Batteries 7% 0 7% 0 0 0 2010 15%2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 15% 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 EV’s Sold EoLCells Batteries Cells Cells Cells Wiring Wiring Purchased items YEAR Purchased items Electronic 2.5 Electronic YEAR Manufacturing components 400 Manufacturing components Pack integration Busbars Pack integration Busbars Thermal2% Thermal Casing 14% 4% Casing 14% 350 4% management2% 0.40% management 89% 4% 4% 64% 0.40% 89% 64% 1% 2 1% 7% Source: BatPaC Model Software, 7% 300 Argonne National Laboratory1. Purchased items refers to 15% connectors, busars, etc. 15% Cells 250 Cells Cells Wiring Cells 1.5 Wiring Purchased items Electronic Purchased items componentsElectronic Manufacturing components Pack integrationManufacturing 200 Busbars Pack integration There is also a differenceCasingBusbars in the values between new cells as only14% dedicated hydromatellurgicalThermal recovery Casing 14% managementThermal cells and end of life cells. In new cells,89% the cathode processes are able to recover metalsmanagement such as64% lithium 5% 1 5% 89% 11% 150 material and the anode current collector make up and manganese. Recyclers11% which only recover the64% EVS SOLD MILLIONS 51% 14%of the costs, but comprise 93% of the value black mass and sell it onto a metal refiner will claim a 14% in end of life cells. It must be noted that not every much lower value. Positive active material100 13% Positive active material 13% 2% recycler will beCathode able to active realise the total value in the 2% Cathode active Graphite Graphite material 0.5 TONNES 000 END O LIE BATTERIES material Negative current collector Negative Negative current collector Negative current collector Carbon + binders 50 current collector Carbon + binders FIG 3 Graphite Postive current collector Graphite 8% Postive current collector Cost of New Cells 8%Value in End of Life Cells Separator Positive current Separator Positive current 43% collector 79% 43% collector 79% 0 Electrolyte 0 Electrolyte 5% 11% 5% 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 3%2035 2040 2045 11% 3% 3% 3% 19% 14% 19% YEAR 14% Positive active material 13% 2% Cathode active 13% GraphitePositive active material 2% Graphite materialCathode active Assuming that the average lifespan2% of a battery is Negative current collector Negativematerial 11 years, the volume4% of batteries4% coming to ‘end 0.40% CarbonNegative + binders current collector currentNegative collector current collector of life’ is projected to be around 1.4 million packs PostiveCarbon current + collectorbinders Graphite 1% 8% Postive current collector Graphite per year by 2040. This translates to around 339,000 7% 8% Separator Positive current ElectrolyteSeparator 43% collectorPositive current79% tonnes of batteries per year (based on the average Electrolyte 43% collector 79% pack mass of 238kg) and assuming 60% are recycled; 15% Cells 203,000 tonnes per year that will require recycling. Cells 3% Wiring 3% Purchased items 3% Electronic 3% 19% components Manufacturing 19% Source: BatPaC Model Software Busbars Pack integration Casing 14% Thermal management 89% 64% 4 5% 11% 14% Positive active material 13% 2% Cathode active Graphite material Negative current collector Negative Carbon + binders current collector Graphite 8% Postive current collector Separator Positive current Electrolyte 43% collector 79% 3% 3% 19% LCO NMC 8:1:1 NMC622/LMO NMC622 NCA NMC111/LMO NMC111 LMO/LNO The value in the packs is affected by0123456789 the quantity of the material Lithium ion batteries are used in a multitude of Figure 5 shows the material value per kg in within the pack and the chemistry of the cells. Figure 4 shows the applications and therefore, a number of different different cells. Note that lithium iron phosphate value in three different vehicle packs. VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG) chemistries have been developed to match the cells have been omitted as there is currently an performance with the requirement. uncertainty in their end of life value arising from A recycler will want to process a number of a lack of European recycling facilities for such FIG 4 Cell Value of Packs different chemistries to maximise value. cell chemistries. NEDC Range: 328 miles 90kWh pack 392kg cells 2000 FIG 5 Value per kg of Cells (£) 1800 LCO 1600 NEDC Range: NMC 8:1:1 1400 118 miles NMC622/LMO 24.2kWh pack NMC622 1200 192kg cells UE (£) NEDC Range: NCA L 1000 124 miles VA NMC111/LMO 24kWh pack 800 152kg cells NMC111 LMO/LNO 600 0123456789 400 VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG) 200 0 Nissan Leaf (LMO/LNO) VW eGolf (NMC111/LMO) Tesla Model S (NCA) Li Ni Mn Co Al Cu Graphite “Recent times have seen the automotive sector focus on developing TABLE 1 electric vehicles to drive a reduction in tailpipe greenhouse gas emissions.
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