Automotive Lithium ion Battery Recycling in the UK Based on a feasibility study by Anwar Sattar, David Greenwood, Martin Dowson and Puja Unadkat at WMG, University of Warwick
REPORT SUMMARY: SEPTEMBER 2020 Produced by WMG, supported by the Advanced Propulsion Centre Electrical Energy Storage Spoke and the High Value Manufacturing Catapult. “Electric vehicles offer huge potential for decarbonising Key Findings transport and improving air quality, but as we accelerate their early market we must equally be thinking about what happens ► ► THE ELECTRIC The average value in at the end of their useful life. REVOLUTION end of life automotive Batteries in particular contain IS WELL packs is £3.3/kg for BEVs significant quantities of materials UNDERWAY and £2.2/kg for PHEVs. which are costly to extract and AND THE refine and which could be hazardous to the environment if ► A huge opportunity exists for improperly disposed of. UK IS AMONGST lithium ion battery recycling THE BIGGEST in the UK. Investment is needed to create suitable recycling facilities in the ELECTRIC VEHICLE UK within the next few years, and ► By 2040, the UK will require beyond that, research is needed MARKETS IN 140GWh worth of cell production to allow economic recovery of EUROPE capability, representing 567,000 much greater proportions of the tonnes of cell production, requiring battery material. In doing so we will protect the environment, secure ► By 2035, most passenger 131,000 tonnes of cathodic metals. valuable raw materials, and Recycling can supply 22% of this cars will contain a lithium reduce the cost of transport.” ion chemistry traction battery. demand (assuming a 60% recycling rate and 40% reuse or remanufacture). David Greenwood Lithium ion batteries contain Professor of Advanced Propulsion rare and valuable metals Systems, WMG, University of such as lithium, nickel, cobalt ► The break-even point for an Warwick and copper, many of which automotive lithium ion battery are not found in the UK. recycling plant is 2,500 – 3,000 tonnes per year if the chemistry ► UK-based OEMs pay between contains nickel and cobalt. “WMG has been at the forefront £3 and £8 per kg to recycle of the development of battery ► end of life lithium ion The three greatest costs for recycling technology for the future of batteries that are exported plants are transport (29%), purchase electric mobility in the UK. Internal abroad for material recovery. (29%) and hourly labour (23%). combustion engines and systems will be replaced by electric The material must later be motors, power electronics and repurchased. battery packs.
Ni Co A key part of that future is how we responsibly recycle the materials Li Cu 339kT contained in the batteries and ► METALS thus create a commercially ARE THE MOST RECYCLABLE valuable circular economy. This COMPONENTS WITHIN report is one of the best that I’ve ► seen to present the challenges LITHIUM ION BATTERIES BY 2040, 339,000 TONNES OF BATTERIES ARE EXPECTED TO and the opportunities in such a REACH END OF LIFE clear way. It’s an excellent piece of thought leadership, from the leaders in their field”.
Dick Elsy Abbreviations used in this Report CEO, High Value Manufacturing Catapult NEDC: New European Driving Cycle NMC: Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide LMO: Lithium Manganese Oxide NCA: Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide LNO: Lithium Nickel Oxide
2 EV s Sold EoL Batteries EV s Sold EoL Batteries
2.5 400 2.5 400
350 350
2 2 300 300 EV s Sold EoL Batteries EV s Sold EoL Batteries 250 250 1.5 2.5 1.5 400 2.5 400
200 200 350 350 1 2 1 2 150 150 300 EV S SOLD MILLIONS EV S SOLD MILLIONS 300
End of Life Batteries Where is the Value?100 100 250 END O LI E BATTERIES 000 TONNES 000 END O LI E BATTERIES 0.5 1.5 TONNES 000 END O LI E BATTERIES 0.5 250 1.5 From 2035 it is proposed that every new passenger car sold in the In 2018, the average values for end of life battery packs The value content in an end of life battery differs 50 50 UK will be non-polluting - in practice, this means that new vehicles were around £1200 for BEV packs and £260 for PHEV significantly from the cost breakdown for a new 200 packs. In BEVs the average value per pack for non-cell battery. The cost of cells in a new battery represents 200 sold after 2035 will have a traction battery. components was estimated at an average of £128 around 64% of the total cost whereas in an end of life 0 1 0 0 0 1 (source: WMG; International Dismantlers Information pack the cells account for almost 90% of the value in 150 Electric vehicle traction batteries can range in mass If all the vehicles sold in the UK are to contain a System (IDIS), vehicle manufacturer’s websites). the pack. 150 2010 2015 2020 2025 EV S SOLD MILLIONS 2030 2035 2040 2045 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
from 50kg to >600kg. Each of these batteries contain traction battery, the market penetration for such EV S SOLD MILLIONS a significant amount of rare and strategic metals, that vehicles will follow a similar trajectory to that shown YEAR 100YEAR 100 must be imported as the UK has no economically in Figure 1. FIG 2
0.5 Cost of New Pack Value in EoL Packs TONNES 000 END O LI E BATTERIES viable deposits. 0.5 TONNES 000 END O LI E BATTERIES 2% 2% 50 4% 4% 0.40% 4% 4% 50 0.40% 1% 1% FIG 1 End of Life Batteries 7% 0 7% 0 0 0 2010 15%2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 15% 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 EV s Sold EoLCells Batteries Cells Cells Cells Wiring Wiring Purchased items YEAR Purchased items Electronic 2.5 Electronic YEAR Manufacturing components 400 Manufacturing components Pack integration Busbars Pack integration Busbars Thermal2% Thermal Casing 14% 4% Casing 14% 350 4% management2% 0.40% management 89% 4% 4% 64% 0.40% 89% 64% 1% 2 1% 7% Source: BatPaC Model Software, 7% 300 Argonne National Laboratory1. Purchased items refers to 15% connectors, busars, etc. 15% Cells 250 Cells Cells Wiring Cells 1.5 Wiring Purchased items Electronic Purchased items componentsElectronic Manufacturing components Pack integrationManufacturing 200 Busbars Pack integration There is also a differenceCasingBusbars in the values between new cells as only14% dedicated hydromatellurgicalThermal recovery Casing 14% managementThermal cells and end of life cells. In new cells,89% the cathode processes are able to recover metalsmanagement such as64% lithium 5% 1 5% 89% 11% 150 material and the anode current collector make up and manganese. Recyclers11% which only recover the64%
EV S SOLD MILLIONS 51% 14%of the costs, but comprise 93% of the value black mass and sell it onto a metal refiner will claim a 14% in end of life cells. It must be noted that not every much lower value. Positive active material100 13% Positive active material 13% 2% recycler will beCathode able to active realise the total value in the 2% Cathode active Graphite Graphite material 0.5 TONNES 000 END O LI E BATTERIES material Negative current collector Negative Negative current collector Negative current collector Carbon + binders 50 current collector Carbon + binders FIG 3 Graphite Postive current collector Graphite 8% Postive current collector Cost of New Cells 8%Value in End of Life Cells Separator Positive current Separator Positive current 43% collector 79% 43% collector 79% 0 Electrolyte 0 Electrolyte 5% 11% 5% 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 3%2035 2040 2045 11% 3% 3% 3% 19% 14% 19% YEAR 14% Positive active material 13% 2% Cathode active 13% GraphitePositive active material 2% Graphite materialCathode active Assuming that the average lifespan2% of a battery is Negative current collector Negativematerial 11 years, the volume4% of batteries4% coming to ‘end 0.40% CarbonNegative + binders current collector currentNegative collector current collector of life’ is projected to be around 1.4 million packs PostiveCarbon current + collectorbinders Graphite 1% 8% Postive current collector Graphite per year by 2040. This translates to around 339,000 7% 8% Separator Positive current ElectrolyteSeparator 43% collectorPositive current79% tonnes of batteries per year (based on the average Electrolyte 43% collector 79% pack mass of 238kg) and assuming 60% are recycled; 15% Cells 203,000 tonnes per year that will require recycling. Cells 3% Wiring 3% Purchased items 3% Electronic 3% 19% components Manufacturing 19% Source: BatPaC Model Software Busbars Pack integration Casing 14% Thermal management 89% 64% 4
5% 11% 14% Positive active material 13% 2% Cathode active Graphite material Negative current collector Negative Carbon + binders current collector Graphite 8% Postive current collector Separator Positive current Electrolyte 43% collector 79%
3% 3% 19% LCO NMC 8:1:1 NMC622/LMO NMC622 NCA
NMC111/LMO NMC111 LMO/LNO
The value in the packs is affected by0123456789 the quantity of the material Lithium ion batteries are used in a multitude of Figure 5 shows the material value per kg in within the pack and the chemistry of the cells. Figure 4 shows the applications and therefore, a number of different different cells. Note that lithium iron phosphate value in three different vehicle packs. VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG) chemistries have been developed to match the cells have been omitted as there is currently an performance with the requirement. uncertainty in their end of life value arising from A recycler will want to process a number of a lack of European recycling facilities for such FIG 4 Cell Value of Packs different chemistries to maximise value. cell chemistries.
NEDC Range: 328 miles 90kWh pack 392kg cells 2000 FIG 5 Value per kg of Cells (£)
1800
LCO 1600 NEDC Range: NMC 8:1:1 1400 118 miles NMC622/LMO 24.2kWh pack NMC622 1200 192kg cells
UE (£) NEDC Range: NCA L 1000 124 miles VA NMC111/LMO 24kWh pack 800 152kg cells NMC111 LMO/LNO 600 0123456789
400 VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG)
200
0 Nissan Leaf (LMO/LNO) VW eGolf (NMC111/LMO) Tesla Model S (NCA)
Li Ni Mn Co Al Cu Graphite
“Recent times have seen the automotive sector focus on developing TABLE 1 electric vehicles to drive a reduction in tailpipe greenhouse gas emissions. Value of the Recoverable Components However, to deliver a truly decarbonised sector a whole lifecycle approach is required to ensure that emissions from one part of the vehicle lifecycle Prices taken from London Metals Exchange (LME) are not shifted to another. To achieve this the UK has an opportunity to in Q2 2019. think holistically; so that whilst it is investigating how to grow its battery manufacturing capacity to support the electrification agenda, it can in Metal/material Value/kg (£) parallel build its recycling capability. Li 46 Successful delivery of this involves us going back to the start of the process Ni 10.4 by considering design for manufacturing, assembly, disassembly, reuse, Mn 1.44 remanufacturing and recycling. This will enable the development of a Co 25.6 strategy for the UK to develop a sustainable and competitive supply chain that supports the delivery of an end-to-end process, which includes a viable 1.44 Al and sustainable battery recycling industry, that retains the earth’s valuable Cu 4.8 resources within the system.” Graphite 1* Philippa Oldham Head of National Network Programmes, Advanced Propulsion Centre *Price for recycled graphite. Virgin battery grade graphite costs around £11/kg
6 140
120
100
80
60 G H G H PER ANNUM
40
20
0 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040
YEAR
10.0%
9.0% France Germany UK
8.0%
7.0%
6.0%
5.0%
4.0%
MARKET PENETRATION MARKET 3.0%
2.0%
1.0% The Faraday Institution estimates the UK The average Gigafactory has around 20GWh of requires around 140GWh worth of cell capacity and produces 81,000 tonnes of cells Why0.0% the UK? production capabilities by 2040. per year, a total of 567,000 tonnes of cells per year (using Tesla 2170 cell format). 2017 2018 2019 2020 The UK is the second largest vehicle marketYEAR in Europe with annual sales exceeding 140 2.3 million units in 2019. It is also amongst the top electric vehicle (BEV+PHEV) FIG 8 Projected Demand for UK-produced Batteries markets in Europe1, with 32,000 EVs registered in the first quarter of 2020. 120 140 FIG 6 EV Registrations 100 120 120000 France Germany UK 80 100000 100
8000060 80
60000 G H PER ANNUM 40 60 40000 EV REGISTRATIONS EV G H G H PER ANNUM 20 20000 40
00 20 2017 2018 2019 1 2020
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 YEAR2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 0 Market penetration of EVs is accelerating, reaching 6% in Q1YEAR of 2020. But, it will need to grow at an annual rate of 25% to enable all passenger cars to be ultra-low emission by 2035. 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040
YEAR FIG 7 10.0%Market Penetration Modified from a Faraday Institution report5
9.0% France Germany UK
8.0% To10.0% satisfy 2040 demand, the UK will need 133,000t of cathode metals per year. Much of this material can be supplied by recycling end of life batteries. 7.0% 9.0% France Germany UK TABLE 2 6.0% 8.0% Metal Demand (tonnes per year) Supply from Recycling (tonnes per year) 5.0% Lithium7.0% 14,000 3,000 4.0% Nickel6.0% 96,000 20,600
MARKET PENETRATION MARKET 3.0% Manganese 11,000 2,400 5.0% 2.0% Cobalt 12,000 2,600 4.0% Based on 8:1:1 chemistry assuming 60% of end of life batteries are recycled in 2040. 1.0%
MARKET PENETRATION MARKET 3.0% Each Gigafactory produces approximately 6% transport costs and rapidly reintroduce the
0.0% 2020 is for Q1, * 2020 data defective2.0% cells and modules plus thousands of material into the supply chain. Established 2017 2018 2019 2020 tonnes of ‘dry’ anode and cathode scrap, all of recycling facilities will be a requirement for YEAR which1.0% requires recycling. It is vital that recycling attracting battery manufacturers to the UK. plants are located near Gigafactories to reduce Road transport accounts for a fifth of the UK’s The UK exports its end of life lithium ion batteries 0.0% greenhouse gas emissions2. Electric vehicles offer to Europe and other parts of the world for recycling 2017 2018 2019 2020 a 72% reduction in fuel-generated CO emissions and material recovery. This is not an economically 1 2 More electric vehicles have been sold in Norway to date but NorwayYEAR has an EV market penetration of 75% and its total vehicle market is around (based on the current UK electricity mix) and a sustainable position for the UK. Establishing 6% of the UK’s vehicle market. 50% reduction in embedded carbon3. Battery material recovery processes in the UK would 2 Office for national statistics; https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/articles/roadtransportandairemissions/2019-09-16#toc 3 recycling will help this further, as 1kg of recycled provide a supply of ethically sourced material. Nikolas Hill. Determining the environmental impacts of conventional and alternatively fuelled vehicles through Life Cycle Assessment. Ricardo 120000 Energy and Environment; https://www.upei.org/images/Vehicle_LCA_Project_FinalMeeting_All_FinalDistributed.pdf material saves the equivalent of 1kg CO versus France 2 Germany UK 4 Rebecca E. Ciez & J. F. Whitacre; Examining Different recycling Processes for Lithium ion Batteries. Nature Sustainability, 2, 148156 (2019). 4 manufacturing from virgin material . 5 100000 The Faraday Institution. UK electric vehicle and battery production potential to 2040. Faraday Report – March 2020. Annual Gigafactory Study
80000 120000 8 France Germany UK 60000 100000
40000 80000 EV REGISTRATIONS EV
20000 60000
0 40000 EV REGISTRATIONS EV 2017 2018 2019 1 2020 YEAR 20000
0 2017 2018 2019 1 2020 YEAR 11 10 REDUX – Commercial process Battery Recycling Process ► 10,000t per year. Cells deactivated in a thermal treatment step prior to shredding and material separation This map details the major lithium ion battery recycling ► Process recovers anode and cathode as black centres in Europe and their capacities. mass which can be treated pyrometallurgically Please note that this is not an exhaustive list. and hydrometallurgically to recycle the metals
1 Duesenfeld – Pilot scale 2 Accurec Recycling GmbH 11 Akkuser – Commercial process (commercial operation) – Pilot scale (commercial operation) ► 4,000t per year (estimate). Cells shredded ► 3,000t batteries per year ► 2,500t batteries per year in a two-stage process assumed to occur in ► Recycling efficiency of 85% - includes an ► Cells placed in pyrolysis chamber and heated to an inert atmosphere. Material separation is 9 electrolyte recovery step 250oC evaporating electrolyte before shredding followed by acid leaching ► ► Cells shred in an inert atmosphere, created ► Process treats recovered black mass Process is able to recover anode and cathode as black mass which is treated using N2. Patent also has the provision of pyrometallurgically to produce an alloy and a slag shredding in a vacuum which contains the lithium. The alloy can be treated hydrometallurgically to recover the metals as metal salts ► Process has hydrometallurgical capabilities and hydrometallurgically to recycle the metals recovers the cathode metals as metal salts to go back into the supply chain 4 Euro Dieuze Industrie (EDI) – Pilot scale process 3 Umicore – Commercial process (commercial operation) ► 7,000t batteries per year ► 1,800t batteries per year ► High temperature (pyrometallurgical) process. ► Cells shredded in a closed system - Batteries mixed with coke and slag forming vapours and gases coming off cells agents and dropped into a giant furnace where are captured and treated preheated air is fed through sides and the volatile ► Process has hydrometallurgical 10 material within the batteries is used to produce capabilities and recovers the some of the energy required for the process. cathode metals as metal salts to ► 1 Process has hydrometallurgical capabilities and go back into the supply chain also produces new cathode powders from the 2 recycled metal salts 3 6 Batrec Industries AG – Pilot scale process 5 Valdi (Eramet Group) – (in commercial operation) Commercial process ► 200t batteries per year ► ► 20,000t batteries per year but, Li ion only small Shreds lithium ion batteries in a CO2 atmosphere portion of this to neutralise the lithium and avoid ignition of 4 flammable electrolyte ► Pyrometallurgical ► Process recovers anode and cathode material ► Process produces a metal alloy that can be as black mass which is sold to refiners recovered hydrometallurgically
8 – Pilot scale process 5 7 SNAM – Pilot scale process Recupyl ► 110t batteries per year 6 ► 300t batteries per year, looking to expand to 10,000t per year ► Shreds cells in a controlled atmosphere using a mixed CO and Ar atmosphere ► Pyrolysis followed by shredding process 2 ► Process recovers anode and cathode material as ► Black mass is sold to refiners. Installation of black mass which is sold to refiners 7 hydrometallurgical plant is planned 8
9 uRecycle – Pilot scale process ► 100t batteries per year
► Shreds lithium ion batteries in a CO2 atmosphere to neutralise the lithium and avoid ignition of flammable electrolyte ► Process recovers anode and cathode material as black mass which is sold to refiners
10 Commercial Processes for Battery Recycling
Portable End of life Discharge Dismantle FIG 9 batteries pack
Coke Thermal Shred in Aqueous Wet Shred in Pyrolysis + slag oxidiser CO Solution shredding nitrogen 2 formers
Shred
Li + Gas electrolyte Li scrubbing neutralisation neutralisation Electrolyte recovery Smelting Gas furnace scrubbing
Electrolyte Electrolyte treatment treatment
Slag Metal alloy
Material Material Material Material Separation separation separation separation
Metals Graphite Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Electrolyte powder powder powder powder recovery
Al, Cu, Fe Smelters Hydrometallurgical Recovery
12 Pros and Cons of Different Recycling Methods (includes processes that are still in development)
TABLE 3 Pre-process Methods Process Methods (continued)
Method Advantages Disadvantages Method Advantages Disadvantages
Discharge Takes electrical energy out of cells making Only applicable for large modules and packs Shredding in an Easier to scale up than dry inert shredding Hydrogen is generated if aluminium is present them safe Difficult to discharge portable cells without using salt water alkaline solution methods Addition of alkali reagent to water increases costs Process is mature and scalable solution, which generates toxic and flammable gases Allows harmful chemicals to be neutralised Alkali ions can be corrosive to process equipment Electricity can be fed back into the grid Rebound can occur if discharged too rapidly Some alkali solutions treat electrolyte No electrolyte recovery possible Negates the need for post lithium Rapid discharge of high capacity cells can lead to making it easier to process downstream neutralisation overheating and thermal runaway Shredding in Cheaper to operate than using inert gas Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult Non-standardised parts make it difficult to connect to a vacuum to scale up load bank Can be coupled with a vacuum extraction unit to evaporate and condense electrolyte Other parts of shredder may need to be placed under Thermal treatment Allows charged cells/modules to be Inert atmosphere required - increasing process operating carbonates vacuum to avoid fires post shredding processed costs and reducing throughput Relatively mature technology used in other Safety not as high as shredding in an inert atmosphere Energy expended in a safe environment Large quantities of toxic gases produced increasing recycling operations Not suitable for shredding charged cells Burns off electrolyte taking away biggest processing costs hazard Lower recovery efficiency Shredding in a Relatively mature technology used in More expensive than vacuum shredding nitrogen atmosphere recycling of other flammable material Process is mature and scalable Large input of energy required for process May need inert conveyance line post shredding to avoid Continuous shredding possible with right fires/explosions Negates the need for post process Produces CO2 through combustion process feeding mechanism Not suitable for shredding charged cells and modules neutralisation Temperature gradients can exist in larger modules, which Low temperature vacuum thermal treatment may lead to incomplete reactions Shredding in a CO Allows for shredding of charged cells Lithium beneath the surface of the particle is not reacted allows for recovery of some electrolyte Aluminium components within cell can melt at high 2 atmosphere carbonates temperatures causing agglomeration within the reactor Mature technology in operation for over Reaction takes a long time to complete Makes easier to process hydrometallurgically 15 years Unreacted lithium needs to be neutralised post shredding Expensive to operate Freezing Allows charged cells and modules to be Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult processed as immersion in a cryogenic to scale up liquid, typically liquid nitrogen, freezes the Expensive reagents used electrolyte, reducing cell reactivity to zero TABLE 5 Electrolyte Recovery Methods Only gives a short time for processing before cells become live again Method Advantages Disadvantages Li and electrolyte must be neutralised post processing Liquid extraction Allows all electrolyte components to be Volatile low boiling point solvents required extracted Energy intensive process TABLE 4 Process Methods Very mature technology Difficult to find right solvent for each chemical Method Advantages Disadvantages More than one solvent may be required to recover all electrolyte components Pyrometallurgical Allows for selective targeting of metals Difficult to feed continuously as high temperatures Solvent loss likely to occur vaporise electrolyte, forming explosive mixtures Extracts most valuable components Solvent likely to dissolve plastics creating problems Volatile components within the cells are Metals such as aluminium, manganese and lithium not in extraction combusted, reducing external energy recovered (although could be recovered from slag)
demand Various additives required to make process work Supercritical CO2 Recovery of electrolyte relatively simple Additives may be needed to recover all electrolyte compared to liquid solvents components Makes easier to process hydrometalurgically Extensive scrubbing required to treat off-gases extraction Components such as electrolyte, graphite and plastics Can be used to neutralise the lithium if Cannot recover lithium hexafluorophosphate combusted so not recovered charged cells are shredded Very difficult to scale up the process as high pressures are involved Shredding in Easier to scale-up than dry inert shredding If shredding is done submerged, complex feeding and saturated lithium methods equipment operation required Vacuum extraction Recovery of electrolyte is simple Cannot recover lithium hexafluorophosphate chloride solution Allows charged cells to be processed Large quantities of expensive lithium chloride is required Relatively mature technology May not be suitable to recover all carbonates Contamination of products with lithium chloride Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult Lithium to be neutralised post-process which can cause to scale up exothermic reaction Final product could require further processing Chloride ions can cause corrosion to process equipment Acid not dealt with Electrolyte recovery and removal very challenging
14 Recyclability of Materials Component Material Current Recyclability Future Recyclability Cathode Lithium There are two options for cathode recycling: More in-house hydrometallurgical processes will active Commercial refiners use elevated temperatures be developed or large-scale centralised refining At the end of a battery’s life, some of these materials material alongside additives to selectively discard specifically designed for cathode material will Lithium ion batteries are made up of allow for the recovery of all cathode metals. retain their value but others do not, and some even certain metals (such as Li, Al, Mn) to leave the a variety of materials that can cost a more valuable and abundant metals such as have a negative value. The table below shows the significant amount when new. Ni, Co and Cu which are then recycled using Next-generation cathode recycling processes recyclability of the materials, given current recycling hydrometallurgical processes. will recycle the entire cathode rather than break processes and possibility of future recycling. In-house processes are more tailored so can it down to its base metals. Standardisation of recover more of the metals including lithium. cell chemistry is required for this to become The main issue for lithium recycling is the low commonplace. concentration of lithium per cell, at around 2% by mass.
Manganese Similar to lithium, manganese is not recycled by As above commercial recyclers owing mainly to its low price. In-house hydrometallurgical processes are able to recycle the manganese.
Nickel Nickel is a high-value metal that can be completely As above recycled back into cells.
Cobalt Cobalt is a high-value metal that can be completely As above recycled. Some LIB recyclers have the capability to recycle the cobalt back into cathode material.
Oxygen Oxygen accounts for around 33% of the cathode Next-generation cathode recycling processes will or ~11% of cell mass. The Battery Directive has a recycle the entire cathode (including the oxygen). provision for the recycling of oxygen if it can be Standardisation of cell chemistry is required for proven that it is involved in the chemical conversion this to become commonplace. of the metals. This gives pyrometallurgical recyclers an advantage.
Direct hydrometallurgical recycling of the cathode leads to the production of oxygen gas, which, unless utilised, cannot be accounted for.
Other Lithium iron Alternative processes such as direct recycling or Direct recycling methods will be further cathodes phosphate chemical processes that strip the lithium from the developed, which will allow for the recycling of the (LFP) LFP have been demonstrated at small scale. LFP powder to go back into new cells. TABLE 6
Separators Polymers Limited recyclability. Commercial plastic recyclers Plastic separators will continue to be challenging Component Material Current Recyclability Future Recyclability prefer chunky plastics as the high temperature to recycle, particularly back into new cells. They melting and extrusion process is not suitable for could potentially be down-cycled and used in Casing Steel Steel is highly recyclable. Steel is most likely to Steel will continue to be recycled plastic films. Many recyclers choose to combust other applications in the future. be down-cycled into an alloy. the plastics.
Aluminium Aluminium is highly recyclable, but recyclers The aluminium recycling industry is considering Electrolyte Organic Recyclers are able to recover at least some of the Recyclers will be more inclined to recover prefer ‘chunky’ pieces to thin foil, such as from recycling high grades of aluminium rather than- carbonates organic carbonates fraction of the electrolyte. This and recycle the electrolyte if the cells used a pouch cell casings. down cycling, but this is likely to be for high- may be sold into the chemicals industry if the purity standardised electrolyte composition. It is difficult volume scrap and not thin foils. is high enough. Some recyclers claim to able to to design a process that can recover the variety Aluminium is down-cycled into an alloy recover the electrolyte from the aqueous solution in of different carbonates that go into the various wet shredding processes. lithium ion batteries. Most recyclers either combust the electrolyte or Positive Aluminium As above As above treat it with chemicals to destroy it. current collector
Litihum Limited recyclability. The LiPF composition within Limited recyclability in the future, as the conditions Negative Copper Highly recyclable, but may need to be baled or Copper will continue to be recycled 6 hexafluorop- the cell changes as the cell ages. Difficulty recycling required for its recycling are likely to be too current briquetted beforehand. The high value of copper hosphate LiPF is due to a number of factors: It decomposes stringent for most recyclers. collector allows for complete recycling. 6 (LiPF6) at temperatures above 80oC, it hydrolyses in the presence of moisture and, finally, it requires a Anode active Graphite or Limited recyclability. Graphite’s structure and Graphite will continue to be difficult to recycle into solvent extraction process to enable its recovery. material graphite- morphology changes with cell use, making it cell-grade graphite, but it may be converted into Currently either destroyed thermally or hydrolysed silicon difficult to recycle back into cells. other materials such as graphene. using water and neutralised.
16 Economic Analysis
Currently the UK lacks industrial capacity for lithium ion battery recycling, Pack discharging and dismantling is one of the most challenging parts of automotive battery recycling. therefore batteries are shipped to mainland Europe for material recovery. Lack of standardised connectors Some packs use epoxy resins Module removal can be difficult This can be a very expensive process, dependent on state of health of the makes it difficult to connect pack to seal the lid, making it hard to if the screws and connectors are pack, chemistry of the pack and size of the pack. to the load bank access the cells and modules located in obscure locations
The cells and modules are sent to mainland Europe for recycling. The process is as follows;
End of life electric vehicles are The packaged modules are Up to 75% of the total cost of returned to the dealership where shipped to Europe to a recycling recycling can be attributed to the battery is removed from facility which levies a processing the transportation costs if the the vehicle using high voltage charge to recycle the batteries pack is damaged or its state of technicians and gives a rebate based on health is unknown the LME price of nickel, cobalt The vehicle is sold to a metal Only cells and modules which are and copper recycler whilst the battery is given in a good state of health can be to a battery disposal company Costs can range from £3/kg transported to Europe, damaged to £8/kg depending on the cells and modules cannot be The battery is discharged, state of health and chemistry of taken to Europe dismantled into modules which the battery are packaged in containers alongside fire-proof material
Estimated cost:
FIG 10 Estimated cost: £0.05- End of Life Transport of Storage container: Electricity: £0.10/kg Electric Vehicle good packs: £0.25-£0.5/kg ~£60k for 20ft £0.11/kWh Bad packs: container with fire Gas: £0.03/kWh £6/kg suppression, blast Labour: £8-£12/h protection and gas Intermediate Wear and tear: detection. Running Company Variable costs: electrical and Material Transport Transport labour (material Company conveyance) Authorised Treatment Facility Battery
Vehicle Discharge, Module Processing and Battery Recycler Battery Storage Metal Refiner Dismantle Material Separation Metal Recycler
Waste Treatment or Disposal Battery >£20/h purchased for HV Estimated Last owner at 20% of technician Rebate: of vehicle and co- Ni = 30-40% LME material If disposed paid around worker Co = 20-30% LME value of: £100/t £100/t Cu = 70% LME for non- hazardous waste
18 20 Figure 10. capitalanddepreciation Cost of were notincludedinthemodel. 20% forLMOpacks. Transport costswere assumedto be£50perpack. Othercostsare shownin refiners, allowingthe thevalueforpacksrecycler to containingNiand attainCo andonly 40%of (LMO) to£733(average) per pack. Process blackmass, islimitedtoseparation of whichissoldto Assumptions were asfollows;average packs weigh238kgwithgross valuesvaryingfrom £550 plant were modelledonMicrosoft Excel. Process economicsfora1.5t/h automotivelithiumionbattery recycling Battery Recycling PlantEconomics Note that average packchemistryincludesmanyNMC1:1:1packs whichhaveahighervalue PRO IT LOSS FIG 11 -£4,000,000 -£3,000,000 -£2,000,000 -£1,000,000 £2,000,000 £3,000,000 PROCESSING COST PER TONNE £1,000,000 £4,000,000 Break-even Point £1,000 £1,500 £2,000 £2,500 £3,000 £3,500 £500 £0 £0 0 0 29% NMC/LMO 5% 2000 2000 6% 2% NCA 29%
23% 4000 4000 THROUGHPUT T Y THROUGHPUT T Y 6% LMO 6000 6000 Waste removal Labour hourly Purchase Overheads Energy costs Labour salary Transport costs AVERAGE PACK ( 15- 18) 8000 8000
PRO IT LOSS -£4,000,000 -£3,000,000 -£2,000,000 -£1,000,000 10000 £2,000,000 £3,000,000 £1,000,000 £4,000,000 10000 PROCESSING COST PER TONNE £1,000 £1,500 £2,000 £2,500 £3,000 £3,500 £500 £0 £0
0 PRO IT LOSS -£4,000,000 -£3,000,000 -£2,000,000 -£1,000,000 £2,000,000 £3,000,000 PROCESSING COST PER TONNE £1,000,000 £4,000,000 £1,000 £1,500 £2,000 £2,500 £3,000 £3,500
PRO IT LOSS £500 Based onaverage packs soldintheUK between 2015and2018 tonnes per year if thechemistrycontainsCo andNi. tonnes peryear if more efficiently. The break-even pointfor suchaplantisbetween2,500and3,000 processingThe decreases costof asthroughput increases sinceplantcapacityisutilised -£4,000,000 -£3,000,000 -£2,000,000 -£1,000,000 FIG 13 £0 FIG 12 £2,000,000 £3,000,000 £1,000,000 £4,000,000 £0
PROCESSING COST PER TONNE 29% NMC/LMO £1,000 £1,500 £2,000 £2,500 £3,000 £3,500 0 £500 Cost Breakdown forRecycling Plant ProcessingCostVs Throughput £0 £0 5% 2000 2000 0 29% NMC/LMO 6% 2% 5% 2000 2000 29% NMC/LMO 6% 2% 5% 2000 2000 NCA 29% 6% 23% 4000 4000 NCA 2% 29% THROUGHPUT T Y THROUGHPUT T Y 23% 4000 4000 THROUGHPUT T Y THROUGHPUT T Y 6% NCA 6% 29% 23% 4000 4000 THROUGHPUT T Y THROUGHPUT T Y LMO 6% LMO recycling economicallyviable. but theymustcomedownsignificantlytomake costs are covered bythevehiclemanufacturers, and transport costs. Currently, packtransport recycling plantare hourlylabour, purchase costs The biggestcostsforanautomotivebattery 6000 6000 Waste removal Labour hourly Purchase Overheads Energy costs Labour salary Transport costs 6000 LMO 6000 Waste removal Labour hourly Purchase Overheads Energy costs Labour salary Transport costs 6000 6000 Waste removal Labour hourly Purchase Overheads Energy costs Labour salary Transport costs AVERAGE PACK ( 15- 18) AVERAGE PACK ( 15- 18) 8000 8000 AVERAGE PACK ( 15- 18) 8000 8000 8000 8000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 Recommendations RECYCLING EFFICIENCIES The UK needs to establish commercial scale COULD REACH recycling for automotive lithium ion batteries. 70% BY 2025 This will ensure sustainable disposal and capture valuable raw materials to sustain UK battery manufacturing. Today’s volumes AND 80% BY 2035 of end of life batteries are insufficient to sustain a commercially viable plant, but plants are needed nonetheless to ensure sustainable disposal.
Volumes will become sustainable in around 5-8 years when tens of thousands of tonnes of material will require processing. Processing of trade waste from UK battery factories will provide early revenue streams in the meantime.
The UK does not have legacy processes and could challenge for highest recycling efficiencies – enabling revision of Battery Directive towards >80% recovery by mass (from 50% today).
The following points are recommended to ensure a viable and sustainable battery recycling industry in the UK:
1 Support the installation of recycling 2 Link recycling plants to planned 3 Work with battery recyclers and transport 4 Streamline permitting facilities until volumes reach sufficient Gigafactories in UK. companies to develop and update the process for battery levels to make battery recycling battery transport regulations. recycling. sustainable.
5 Vehicle manufacturer must provide battery 6 Greater clarity around the transfer 7 Develop and standardise discharging 8 Update Battery Directive to reflect passporting data to vehicle/battery of liability at end of life. and dismantling training for end of life the increased material recycling recyclers allowing for accurate triaging. battery technicians. capabilities of new processes.
9 Begin to standardise parts of the battery 10 Create a distinction between automotive 11 Only processes with high recycling 12 R&D into the following areas; packs such as high voltage connection traction batteries and other batteries rates for critical metals should be Design of ‘easy to recycle’ battery packs ports to allow for easier discharging to allow for ambitious targets to be set, permitted – for example 98.5% for Recycling of cathode metals using, and dismantling. such as 70% by 2025 rising to 80% by cobalt to stop inefficient processes green solvents, that reduce the CO 2035 for battery packs. from being installed. 2 footprint of the process Recycling of non-cathode components Direct recycling of production scrap Research into the life cycle analysis of lithium ion battery recycling processes in the UK.
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