Oral History Society

Culinary voices: perspectives from restaurants Author(s): Máirtín Mac Con Iomaire Source: Oral History, Vol. 39, No. 1, DISCRIMINATION (SPRING 2011), pp. 77-90 Published by: Oral History Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25802217 . Accessed: 09/10/2014 13:50

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Culinary voices: perspectives from Dublin restaurants

byMairtin Mac Con lomaire

Abstract: Despite growing interest inculinary history and gastronomy in the last three decades, the use of oral historywithin the culinaryfield remains inan embryonic stage. By discussing the strengthof oral history,particularly when triangulatedwith other sources, and surveyingsome food related projects, the article focuses on the power of oral historyto capture the lifeexperiences of chefs, waiters, restaurateurs and diners. The article calls on curators of culinary librariesto build oral historyarchives which can be accessed electronically.

Key words: culinaryhistory, gastronomy, chefs, haute cuisine, Dublin, food sector

There has been a growing interest in culinary population, the cooks who are employed to history and gastronomy in the last three make their food, and the ingredients and decades.1 Much of the work of culinary histori methods of preparation used'.3 French haute ans is centred on written sources, ranging from cuisine became the model and the basis for an cookbooks, diaries, or menus; and the voices internationally renowned cuisine that is more and lifeexperiences of most foodworkers (both highlyvalued, both culturallyand socially,than domestic and professional) are hidden, apart other regional or national cuisines.4 Evidence from the minority who wrote cookbooks or existsof a growing trendstarting in 1953with memoirs. This article discusses the use of oral a festivalcalled 'AnTostaY forthe promotion of historyas a tool to unlock the experiences of quality Irish food inDublin restaurants and food workers and draws particularly on my most of today's top Dublin restaurants serve experiencesusing oral historyin researchingthe what is called 'modernIrish food'. Despite this, historyof Frenchhaute cuisine inDublin restau Trench restaurants' remain themost expensive rantsbetween 1900 and 2000 fora PhD at the restaurants in practically every country, reflect Dublin Instituteof Technology.2 French cookery ing theperceived superiorityof French cuisine. is considered bymost Western societies to be The international dominance of haute cuisine themost refinedmethod of food preparation. can be most clearly seen by the fact that the This reputationis based mainly on haute cuisine menu, the language of cooking, kitchen organi a are (sometimes known as grande cuisine), style of sation, and the training of cooks all largely cooking offered by high-class restaurants and based on French models.5 generally regarded as the national cuisine of The term 'foodservice' refers to the broad France. Haute cuisines, according to Amy cateringindustry and incorporatesboth 'frontof Trubek, 'have some relationshipwith an elite house' (managers and waiters) and kitchen staff

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Pierre Holland and his brigaded958.

(chefsand porters).This paper calls on culinary Russell Hotel Restaurant read: 'words fail us in researchers to use oral history to research a wide describing the brilliance of the cuisine at this range of foodservice businesses from fish and elegant and luxurious restaurant which must chip shops, pizzerias, contract catering, to five rank amongst the best in theworld'.8 The Miche star hotels and Michelin-starred restaurants. My linGuide toGreat Britain and Irelandwas first research, however, was based on the influence of published in 1974, awarding one star toThe French haute cuisine and this therefore domi Russell Hotel which also closed in 1974.Haute nates most of the examples I present. cuisine moved from the restaurants of Dublin to the countryhouse hotels during the 1970s and Dublin and haute cuisine 1980s. The next Michelin star was not awarded The words Dublin or Irelanddo not immediately inDublin until 1989, to anotherFrench chef / come tomind when haute cuisine ismentioned. restaurateur, . By 2001 there However, two leading French chefs, the broth were two Dublin restaurants with two Michelin ers Francois and Michel Jammet, opened a stars each: Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud, and restaurantin Dublin in 1901which, up until its Thornton's, run by an Irish chef Kevin Thorn closure in 1967, remained one of the best restau ton. rants in the world serving haute cuisine.6 During the twentieth century haute cuisine was served Background to the study in many Dublin hotels, clubs and restaurants My initial interest in the history of Dublin came and under similar influences as Paris, restaurants was sparked when Iwas training to London and other European cities, moving from become a chef in theDublin Instituteof Tech the Escoffier orthodoxy to the influence of nology in the early 1990s. One of my lecturers, nouvelle cuisine. In 1949, another French chef, P JDunne, was in his seventies and had been Pierre Rolland, arrived inDublin as chef de larder chef in the famous Restaurant Jammet in cuisine of and the hotel's Dublin for many years before commencing his restaurant under his leadership also became teaching career. Stories of his experiences, world renowned for haute cuisine.7Dublin particularly during the years of the Second restaurants serving haute cuisine enjoyed a World War, fascinated me. He showed me and 'goldenage' in the twodecades thatfollowed the my fellow studentshow he improvisedin times Second World War. The kitchens and dining of fishshortages by using a monkfish tail (not a rooms of The Russell and Royal Hibernian popular fish in the 1940s and 1950s) to fashion Hotels became nurseries for young Irish chefs scampi, collops of lobster, and scallops for an and waiters who gradually replaced the conti appreciativedining public.When I returnedto nental head chefs and waiters and became the theDublin Instituteof Technology in the late culinary leaders in the 1970s.When theEgon 1990s as a part-time teacher, P JDunne had died Ronay Guide covered Ireland for the firsttime and his stories were left unrecorded. During this - in 1963, The Russell was awarded three stars time I listenedwith great interestto the stories thehighest possible accolade. Itwas described of two retired chefs, Bill Ryan and Liam as 'one of the best restaurants in Europe' in the Kavanagh, then working as part-time teachers. 1964 guide and by 1965, the entry forThe Both chefs had spent years travelling around the

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Bill and Liam Ryan world cooking on various Cunard ocean liners at the the Kavanagh in the early 1950s. Kavanagh had also worked Savoy Grill, London, inNew York City fora number of years. I felt 1948. Courtesy of that these life stories were worth I Liam Kavanagh. preserving. had been reading Kevin C Kearns' books on Dublin at the time,9which promptedme to use theoral historyapproach he had employed,with the inhabitants of Dublin tenements and customersof Dublin public houses, tocollect the life stories of Dublin chefs, waiters and restau rateurs. When I enrolled on a masters degree in 2003, there was a certain reticence among the academics about the use of oral history alone and a research question was agreed: to investi gate the influenceof Frenchhaute cuisineon the emergenceand developmentof public dining in Dublin restaurants 1900-2000 using oral history. Within a year I had transferredto thePhD regis ter and graduated in 2009. The academic fieldsof food studiesand culi nary history span many academic disciplines.10 Therefore, an interdisciplinaryapproach to the identification and analyses of research material the Southern Foodways Alliance 'GulfCoast was in the The adopted above study. main Foodways Renaissance Project: An Oral History primary research methodology employed, Initiative'in theUniversity of Mississippi,12 and however, was in-depth life history interviews theDelta Food Oral Histories in theDelta State with chefs, waiters, restaurateurs and discerning University, which seem to have grown from the diners who had lived experiences of Dublin potential loss of bothNew Orleans and theGulf restaurants during the twentieth century. One of Coast's culinary heritage following Hurricane the reasons forusing oral historyin thisproject Katrina in 2005. was the lack of written material available, but In the UK, the British Library houses a thiswas compensatedby thefund of outstanding number of life storycollections including 'An personal experience provided in the oral testi Oral History of theWine Trade', 'Food: from monies, enabling valuable data to emerge Source to Salespoint', and 'Tesco: An Oral concerning the history of Dublin restaurants that History'.14 Recent research published in Oral might otherwise have remained hidden. History has included papers on the poultry indus try,15cooking tools as inalienable possessions,16 Oral history in culinary history and memory of food, family and conflict.17 Some There are few very culinary history archives in Australian food related oral history sources also the world. Most material culture rests culinary exist.18 Other culinary-related oral history in the attics of individuals thathave no under projects have been inaugurated in recent years standing of their historical relevance. Equally, a worldwide, some linked to the growing Slow wealth of undocumented information rests in Food movement, and there have been attempts the memories of the men and women who to capture the influence of the ethnic food worked use in the foodservice industry. The of cultures of immigrants on their host communi oral historyin culinaryhistory is stillat an early ties. For example the Irish Taste Council recently stage. Despite growing culinary collections in commissioned an oral history project to inter as libraries such the Schlesinger in Harvard, view food artisans including fishermen, farmers, New York Public Library,Oxford Brookes, or butchers, bakers and cheese makers, in order to theUniversity of Adelaide, none has a culinary capture the traditional techniques and knowl oral history archive. There are, however, a edge theyhold before theydisappear forever.19 number of oral historyprojects in thewider This paper encourages more culinary researchers areas of food and wine. The California wine to engage in oral histories with foodservice was on industryoral historyseries initiatedin 1969 workers and calls curators of culinary with fundingfrom the Wine AdvisoryBoard, but librariesto build culinaryoral historyarchives was it not until 2002 that theRegional Oral that would be accessible online. Among the History Office (ROHO) of theUniversity of groups that researchers could interview, are California, Berkeley," inaugurated the 'food and waiters, chefs, restaurateurs, sommeliers, fast food interview ways' series, which includes food workers, fish and chip shop owners, interviews with chefs and other food workers, Chinese or Indian takeaway workers and with funding from thewine industry.More owners, kitchen porters, environmental health recent oral history projects in America include officers, food critics, and culinary educators.

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Methods primary sources to provide a robust account of There is a dearth of research on Dublin restau the historyof Dublin restaurantsfrom 1900 rantsand thisstudy is inkeeping with thepost 2000. Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin modern historiographyof the late twentiethand suggest that to build dense, well-developed, a early twenty-firstcentury, particularly through integrated and comprehensive theory, use or the technique of oral history. Previously, histori researcher should make of any every ans focussed mainly on written sources found in method at his or her disposal, keeping inmind a archives and inmemoirs or personal papers. Paul that true interplay of methods is necessary. Thompson remindsus thatmuch of thisdocu They also stress that the research design, like mentary data is suspect.20 Reports, accounts of the conceptsmust be allowed to emerge from war and politicaldiaries are written by theupper the research process: echelonsof society;the winners write thehistory and generallyrepresent only thevictorious in any Remember, the idea behind varying conflictand present solely theirview. Women, methods is to carry out the most parsimo and the lower classes in society,which would nious and advantageous means of arriving includefoodservice workers, were less likelyto at theory.Such a taskcalls for sensitivityto nuances be questioned or have their voices heard. Georg the in data, tolerance for ambigu Iggers discusses how history's subject matter has ity,flexibility in design and a largedose of recently shifted from social structures and creativity.26 processes to culture in the broad sense of every day lifeand how, 'historyhas assumed a human Census reports face as attention is given to individuals, common Census reports covering the twentieth century folks not just the high and mighty'.21Arjun available in theCentral StatisticsOffice (CSO) Appadurai suggeststhat performing 'genealogies library were analysed for statistics and data on of the present' can create a more historical restaurants, restaurant workers, and foreign pictureof present situations.22The methodology ers working in the hospitality industry.The of this studywas motivated by thepioneering 1911 census became available online in work ofKearns inDublin's urban folkloreand October 2007 and this research tool was oral folk history.23 harnessed to better understand patterns of employmentand the role of foreignemployees Focus Groups and Strategic in restaurants and hotels in Edwardian Conversations Dublin.27 Analysis of the census reports show Focus groups with colleagues, lecturers in a number of errors and discrepancies such as professional cookery, pastry and restaurant the listingof Michel Jammetas being born in service in theDublin Instituteof Technology London rather than France, and the fact that were employed in a semiformal manner to they list only seven foreign-born chefs in informthe researchprocess and to identifykey Ireland in 1911, despitemy research identify individuals as potential sources of information. ing at least thirteen foreign-born chefs in Some of these colleagues were also interviewed Dublin alone. for the research. John Ratcliffe24 suggests holding at least one or two strategic conversa Material culture tions with 'remarkable people', who might not Material culture is utilised bymany different be centralto the studyitself, but have thecapac disciplines and as such thedefinitions of itcan ityto thinkcreatively and differently.One such vary. One writer defines material culture as the - interviewwas held with Garret Fitzgerald, study throughartefacts of thebeliefs values, - formertaoiseach (primeminister) of Ireland. ideas, attitudes and assumptions of a particu Fitzgerald argued that lack of immigrationin lar community or society at a given time.28 For Irelandled to cateringworkers and other service social historians in particular, material culture industryworkers such as the banks receiving is a useful tool to gather informationon groups significantlyhigher wages than theircounter other than theelite. This is valid forrestaurant parts in England. He observes: and other foodserviceworkers. Since the life stories of the 'working class' were not often It always struck me as the perverse thing in recorded, and very rarely in their own words, economics, we were such a poor country some of their story can be extrapolated by study thatwe were emigratingbut nobody immi ing thematerial objects leftbehind. The main grated here, and because there was no immi types of material culture analysed in this gration they could unionise the staff in research were photographs, menus, advertise hotels and restaurants, which they couldn't ments, and awards. Menus can indicate the type do in England.25 of food, includingprice, and also the styleof service employed in particular establishments at Traditional documentary and archival a specific moment in time. Some cutlery, crock evidence was examined and compared with ery, delftware and other catering equipment

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were also studied. Silver service has nearly Creative interviewing and 'insider' disappeared in Irish restaurants but was very research an popular for much of the twentieth century. Oral history is interactive and cooperative These items are also powerful in sparking technique where the roles of researcher and memories within interviewees.29 Photographs researched overlap.35 A particular strength in this help to remind interviewees of the names, research project was that the researcher, a chef talents, and peculiarities of individualswith by trade, could draw on first-hand experience in whom they worked. By scanning old menus and the restaurant business in Dublin, and engage in photographs and embedding themwithin the a dialogue where mutual respect and under dissertation, I have effectively created my own standing led to very detailed conversations, and archive.30Much of thismaterial is embedded in secured freshand significantdata. JohnRatcliffe my doctoral thesis.31It ismy intentionto build states that it is rare for a researcher to have the an online culinaryarchive throughDublin Insti standingand proficiencyin a particularfield to tuteof Technology'sArrow website, inwhich I fulfilthis requirement.36There is debate about will place all thematerial culture I collected whether 'insider research' compromises validity.37 during my research, making them available to In the case of Foster, a black female teacher other scholars. researching black female teachers, it is argued During one of the first interviews with thather insiderstatus is likelyto have enhanced Herbert (Sonny) Geldof (1912-2005),32 Iwas the validity of the research.38 This shared experi showna framedDiploma ofMerit fromthe Irish ence leads towhat JackDouglas describes as Food and Cookery Exhibition 1912 thatwas creative interviewing, and derives from the tradi hangingon thewall, which was won byGeldof s tion of oral history. The word 'creative', however, father, Zenon, a Belgian chef who came to refers primarily to the interviewer, not the respon Ireland in 1907. Further research revealed that dent. Douglas notes: the IrishFood and Cookery Exhibitionswere held inDublin from 1909 to 1912. The names Creative interviewing involves the use of of prize winners published in the newspapers, many strategies and tactics of interaction, when cross-referenced with the 1911 census largelybased on an understandingof friendly data helped me draw a clearer picture of restau feelings and intimacy, to optimise co-opera rantworkers in Edwardian Dublin than had tive, mutual disclosure and creative search previously been known.33 A theme that emerged for mutual understanding.39 from this research was that many foreign chefs came toDublin by chance,met an Irishgirl and This creative approach leads to the disclosure settled in Ireland. Some othersmet Irishgirls and probing of details thatmay not have been while working inLondon andmoved to Ireland revealed to a researcher from another field. Even followingmarriage and particularlythe arrival of with the closeness I shared during my research, children.34 there were certain topics, particularly alco holism, which some interviewees preferred to discuss 'offthe record' or bymaking drinking gestures rather than verbalising that a colleague might have had a problemwith alcohol. Despite this, the strengthof oral history,according to Peter Burke, 'is the strength of any methodolog icallycompetent history. It comes fromthe range and the intelligencewith which many typesof sources are harnessed to pull together'.40

Validity of evidence Oral sources, like all other sources need to be considered critically. Using what Norman Denzin calls 'triangulation', the insights gained from oral sources can be compared and combined with standard archival and published sources to produce a truer picture of the past.41 One example of this is how oral evidence from Jim Bowe, who worked as a chefde partie in the Inter continentalHotel inDublin from1963-1968, can explain the reasons behind The Intercontinental Hotel losing its star rating in theEgon Ronay 1967 Guide. He suggests that it iswhen the Diploma of who had come at the of Merit won by foreignchefs, opening Zenon Geldof. thehotel in 1963, leftthat the standards dropped:

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Yes, very much so, the reasons for itwas pass from the scene'.48 As mentioned earlier, it a was of stories of restau profits, number one, change in manage my memories Jammet's World ment affected things... for whatever reason rant during 'the Emergency' (Second a teacher of the whole thing changed. Now, I'm not War period) from deceased profes P that led me to iden knocking our own, but when the foreign sional cookery, JDunne, two chefs de parties left, the management think tifythe need to record the life stories of from that ing would be 'ok, the honeymoon is over, surviving chef / instructors period, a let's start making money here'. There were thus initiatingthis research project. In 2002/3, lot of cutbacks.42 a number of informal focus groups were held among theacademic staffin theSchool of Culi Trevor Lummis concludes that even 'hard' naryArts and Food Technology,Dublin Institute an contemporary statistical evidence is still what of Technology (DIT) to formulate outline of somebody told somebody, and if truth is the principal hotels and restaurants of Dublin's concealed the facts will be erroneous.43 Kevin C past, and the key individualswho worked in Kearns, who pioneered urban folklore inDublin, them.This process proved extremelybeneficial questionswhy archival sources like the diaries as I developed a picture of the restaurant land or memoirs of politicians, clergy or business men scape and was familiarwith many of the key should be considered anymore valid thanoral individuals' names when they came up in the evidence since he notes that common people subsequent interviews. These sessions identified have nothing (or significantlyless) togain bynot some of the first interviewees, and as previously tellingthe truth,compared to some of themore mentioned, some members of the focus groups were interviewee was affluent members of society.44 Alice Hoffman also interviewed. Each contends that when undertaken in the most asked to suggestother individualswho would be worth Anna calls this professional way, oral histories may be superior interviewing. Bryson inter to many written records, noting, 'archives are the 'snowball sampling' method.49 Having and received various replete with self-serving documents, with edited viewed thirteen individuals and doctored diaries and memoranda written oldmenus and photographs thathelped illumi "for the record'".45 In thirty years of using oral nate the past, influencedby themethodology itwas decided to make history, Kearns points out that his research has used by Simon Guest,50 never been challengedby any academic; on the a public call for information using radio contrary, most modern histories of Dublin draw programmes and other media. A twenty-minute on his work.46 interview on the Marian Finucane Radio Show on RTE Radio One (average listenership was Identifying informants 372,000 according to JNLR2004) secured on 16 2004. The The challenge in oral history is to 'track down' Tuesday November response members of the 'old crowd' as they are affec was exceptional. Over forty-five responses from retired tionately known.47 John D Brewer explains the individuals including chefs, waiters, relatives or friends of importance and urgency of seeking out this discerning diners and names 'small number of survivors whose life experi catering workers furnished stories, of of ences will be lost to future generations once they potential interviewees, pictures and copies

This content downloaded from 210.212.93.44 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 13:50:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Spring2011 ORAL HISTORY 83 old menus. Another method which was view with JohnClancy (22 January2008), attempted, but to no avail, was sending a letter 'Rolland sat on a stool at the hotplate. The to the editor of a national newspaper.51 hotplatewas dressedwith white linen,and all the cloches were there, all spotless, spotless!... The interview process Now, Rolland was treated as a God, he was a Interviewees were originally contacted by tele God in thatkitchen'.54 The principal approach phone, email or letter,and the background to in coding and analysing data utilised in this the researchproject was explained.A suitable researchwas the grounded theoryapproach time for an interview was sought and the inter outlined in Strauss and Corbin.55This enables viewees were asked tomake any relevant mate the researcher to develop a theoretical interpre rial such as photographs, menus or newspaper tationwhile stillgrounding it in the empirical clippings theyhad available on theday of the realityreflected in thedata. interview. The interview process followed best practice.52 For this research, each interviewee Themes emerging from the oral was brought throughtheir life in chronological testimony order, although other interview techniques are A number of themes emerged from the various equally valid. I focussed particularly on oral history interviews including education whether there was catering in the interviewees' provision, career patterns, migration, gender, families, how theygot involved in catering, unionisation, tension between chefs and theireducation and trainingand the various waiters, and alcoholism. Interviews with two positions theyheld over their lifetime.Inter life long friendsLiam (Bill)Kavanagh and Bill viewees were asked about technological Ryan, both born in 1927, reveal how both changes theyhad witnessed, patternsof eating became chefs by chance, since other trades were out, trade union involvement and also gender closed. Ryan notes thatbased on his results in within the restaurants in which they worked. technical school he should have been directed Intervieweeswere also asked to identifywho towards becoming a draughtsman: they felt themain pioneers/instigators of changewere during theirworking life. Actually I should have been directed into Seventy-one interviews were undertaken. draughtsmanship or something but the The interviewees' years of birth ranged from college, Marino, never said a bloody word 1911 to 1969. Thirty-seven interviews were you know theynever had me down doing formal face to face interviews that were tape anything.There was very littlework, I could recorded and lasted an average of two hours. not get into a bakers union I couldn't The remaining thirty-four interviews were become a baker because itwas closed trade. carried out over the telephone due to distance, I couldn't become a plumber, I couldn't age and convenience to the interviewees. become a brick-layer, I couldn't become a Research notes were taken during these inter carpenter. [You needed] a father or an uncle, views. Some individuals were visited or tele to get you into the union... It's ridiculous, phoned more than once to clarify certain topics, so you couldn't get in. So my father said to dates or events. One interview of a very elderly me one day, I see something working in the individual was carried out by his grand-daugh technical [school], I see a notice went up, terusing a questionnaire I had provided her boys can apply to get intoCathal Brugha with. I also transcribed an archived radio inter Street or Kevin Street, not Kevin Street, view with a deceased prominent individual in some other technical school. Three trades the Irishhospitality industry. were open. Watch making, boot making and chefs grants, but you would have to do an Editing, coding and analysing the data exam you see and anyways I did the exam Each tape-recorded interview was transcribed and I got this exam.56 and then edited. Some interviews were over 20,000 words in length.Each thread of the Both Ryan and Kavanagh won scholarships edited interviewswas numbered for ease of forthe Apprentice Chefs course andwere in the referencingas practicedby Mary Muldowney.53 firstgroup that attended the course in Saint By using these threads,it is easy tofind where Mary's College forDomestic Science, opened in a certain topic is discussed in a particular inter 1941, in Cathal Brugha Street, which later view. For example when discussing the high became theDublin College of Catering.A few esteem inwhich Pierre Rolland was held in years later,in 1948, theyboth won a scholarship Dublin catering circles, the references (Ryan fromThe Panel of Chefs of Ireland towork in 2004:~67; Clancy 2008:~44) refer to thread the Savoy Grill in London under one of the sixty-seven of the interviewwith Bill Ryan legendary chef Escoffler's proteges, chef Albon. (7 January2004), 'Rolland was a God, in They both subsequently spent many years trav Dublin hewas theGod in thecheffing business elling theworld cookingon Cunard ocean liners, a in you know', and thread forty-four of the inter and Liam Kavanagh spent number of years

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the 1950sworking inNew York City in restau Squab pigeon.We used tomake disheswith rants such as The Forum of the Twelve Caesars, squab chicken.We used toput boiled rice in Le Valois, La Cremaillere a-la-, The itand cook itand itwas boned.We used to Four Seasons and in The Country Gentleman have it encased in the greaseproof paper and Club in Saratoga Springs.Kavanagh described thenwe'd cook itwith theboiled rice and some of the new dishes he saw and learnt to we used to serve a sauce with it.Quite nice. produce at this time: We did a lotof thingslike coulibiac. Russian coulibiac}7

I worked in this particular restaurant right in theheart of Rockefeller Centre inNew Kavanagh returned to Ireland for the York after I left theVictoria Hotel and I opening of the Intercontinental Hotel, Dublin, came back from New Jersey, I opened this in 1963. Bill Ryan returnedto Ireland in the late restaurant called The Forum of the Twelve 1950s and following a few years in the Caesars. Itwas in Rockefeller Centre, which Gresham, Jury's and Moira Hotels, he spent is basically one of central points of New around thirtyyears working inDublin Airport York. This restaurant was known as The Restaurant,which was noted byEgon Ronay for Forum of the Twelve Caesars. They reckon thequality of its cuisine. Both Kavanagh and they had three hundred and sixty-five items Ryan became part-time culinary instructors in on the menu. It was an incredible restau theDublin College of Catering in the 1990s, rant. It gave me a new insight into cooking, where Imade their acquaintance. completely. They had wild boar on the menu, theyhad wild lobstersyou know in Unionisation tanks, theyhad trout live, theyhad pheas One of the themes emerging from the older ants cooked inclay, they had chickencooked respondents was the importance of the Number in clay.The baked potatoes were baked in Four branch of the IrishTransport and General ashes, charcoal ashes, that's how they Workers Union (IT&GWU) particularlyunder worked. That would give you an insight. the leadershipof Michael Mullen, who became They got snails, French snails, and they secretaryduring the famous 1951Dublin hotel coated them in a choux pastry and they strike.58In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the rolled themand theycooked themand with union agreed to allow foreign chefs and waiters that they came along when the sauce was work inDublin as longas theytrained indige made.... The sauce for to cover that was nous workers. A photographof staffpicketing made from spinach, creamed spinach with outside the Royal Marine Hotel in Dun Pernod through it and itgave a beautiful Laoghaire during the 1951 strike includes a taste. That was only one of their dishes and German chef,Giinter Heinz Finger (farright).59 that was only a small thing. They used small, By the late 1950s,however theunion tooka less wild pigeons and you probablyheard them favourable view of foreign workers, as told by talkingabout itrecently, they used to serve the Swiss chefMichel Treyvaudwho came to it quite a bit there, you know pigeon.... Dublin fromScotland with his Irishwife:

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Photo of striking workers during the 1951 Dublin hotel strike.

I had checked thepapers and saw itwas no become chefde cuisine in their respective restau problem because lots of restaurants were rants.63 looking for chefs, but when I came over I found itvery hard to get a job because of Conflict between chefs and waiters was [the Union]. Iwent to Jury's, yes, Iwent to Another theme emerging from the research the Gresham, yes, 'you can have a job but the traditional conflict and animosity between you have tobe in theunion'. And you had to chefs and waiters. There are a number of have a union card, and where do you get a reasons for tension between the front of house card but in the union. You go to the union staff (waiters and managers) and the kitchen but you had tohave a job, itwas like tennis, (chefs and porters). Firstly, all communication you go here, you go there! I couldn't get a from customers comes to the kitchen through job. When I saw some of the restaurants thewaiting staffand anymistakes made in (where he could get work) oh my god, I ordering places more work on the already tense would preferto be unemployedor wait until working atmosphere of a professional kitchen. I found somethingeven ifI have to go back The converse is that the waiter has to endure to Scotland or Switzerland, I said to Breda complaints from customers for any mistakes [his Irishwife], 'I'm not going towork in made by the chefs.Chefs oftenconsider them or there, no way', my pride would not let me selves as artists rather than tradesmen crafts do it.60 men and yet the more creative their food, the person who gained financiallywas thewaiter In the late 1950s and early 1960s therewere who received the tips. Oral evidence of waiters fewer foreign chefs or waiters working in goading chefs across the hotplate by placing Dublin, having been replacedby foreigntrained large denominational paper money received as Irish chefs and waiters. The catering branch of tipson theirforeheads can be balancedwith the the IT&GWU, during this period, strongly knowledge that two chefs interviewedduring opposed the employmentof foreignstaff. Oral my research lost a particular catering position evidence fromChristy Sands andArthur McGee for physically assaulting a waiter. Some of the suggests that some Irish chefs and waiters were tension, it is suggested,might stem from the was pressurised to take senior positions, in order to 1951 strike. It the introduction of service exclude suitable foreign-born candidates.61 Jim charge forwaiters which led to the 1951 strike Bowe confirms these assertions: 'there was a lot inDublin hotels. ChristySands, who began his of thatalright, OK, maybe some of themdidn't career as a waiter in 1951, suggests: deserve, or didn't have the background needed for promotion'.62 Nevertheless, this change did My view is that the real reason the strike was or offer opportunities for some talented individu happened that all the head waiters als. Two Irish chefs, Vincent Dowling in Restau most of the head waiters saw that they rant Jammet, and Joe Collins in Jury's Hotel, would be gettingdouble points and treble - Dame Street, were sent abroad to Paris and points, seemingly in certain places in - Switzerland for training before returning to London: that's what happened, and that's

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Chart linking crierswith George Auguste Escoffier

Alfred Suzanne Swiss Chefs inDublin Caesar Ritz Dublin Castle Opperman, Gygax, Wuest Ritz Hotels

Michel & Francois Jaramet Paul Besson Restaurant Jammet,Dublin Hotel Cecil, London Georges Auguste Escoffier Hotel Bristol, Paris Royal Hibernian, Dublin Savoy, Carlton, Ritz Hotels Le Guide Culinaire

JosephReukl^ ChefAlbon Hector Fabron BKen Besson Jammet's Savoy Grill Russell /Hibernian Russell/Htbernian/Bailey

Marc Faure Karl Ublemann Pierre Rolland Baumann /Hess Jammet's Gresham Hotel Russell Hotel K-H The Red Bank

Liam Kavanagh Bill Ryan

Frank Farren George Ennis Auzello Neyrolles

what did happen and as a result theydrove Escoffier, Fernand Point, Paul Bocuse, and both it, and got it through.64 the Troisgros and the Roux brothers have been in France and England. Michel and Francois The service charge system favours those in Jammet were contemporaries of Escoffier and higherpositions as theydraw a largerpercentage Caesar Ritz. By opening Restaurant Jammet in than the normal waiters. The strike went on for Dublin they introducedboth Irish customers seven months and during this time chefs stayed and their Irish employees to Escoffier style out in solidarity with their co-workers although haute cuisine, which remained relatively they were not going to benefit one way or the unchanged under the next generation of the other from the outcome. Not all restaurants or Jammet family until the closure of the restau hotels were on strike, some establishments such rant in 1967. In 1963, Egon Ronay described as the Gresham Hotel and Jammet's Restaurant Restaurant Jammet: settled early on. Ironically, some of the waiters who were on strike in one restaurant went to As ifby magic the turnof the centuryhas work in a non-striking establishment during the been fully preserved beyond the swing strike.65Waiters lost much of their power when door...Space, grace, the charm of small red thewave of nouvellecuisine sweptEurope in the leather armchairs, fin-de-siecle murals and 1970s and 1980s, since it signalled theend to a marble oyster counters exude a bygone age. large extentof traditionalsilver service.With Ritz and Escoffier would feel at home nouvelle cuisine, chefsplated all of the food in here.67 the kitchen and waiters moved from practition ers of the table arts to become plate carriers. Another contemporary of Ritz and Escoffier, Paul Besson, came toDublin in 1905 from the Nurseries for culinary talent Hotel Cecil, London. Besson was central tomost The importance of restaurants such as Restau developments in hospitality and catering in rant Jammet, The Russell, The Royal Hibern Dublin during the firsthalf of the twentieth ian, and The Red Bank Restaurant as nurseries century. Paul Besson's son Ken fulfilled a forculinary talent was highlightedin a number Fernand Point-like role in Dublin restaurants of the oral testimonies."The Jammet brothers, around the thirdquarter of the century 1947 and later Louis Jammet, are among the few indi 1974. He was responsible for the introduction viduals who emerged from the research as of some key individualssuch as PierreRolland, being pivotally influentialto the development Hector Fabron, Claude Auzello and Maurice of haute cuisine in Dublin restaurants during Neyrolles to Ireland. Fabron had apprenticed the twentieth century, in the way that Auguste under Escoffier in London and oral evidence

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links between Irish chefs and Fernand Point

London Restaurants Escoffier Orthodoxy Paris Restaurants L 'Ecu de France Cafe Royal Ledoyen Waltons La Maree Quaglino's Lendtre Odins Fernand Point Michael Rostang Alice The Dorchester Father ofNouvelle Cuisine Hotel Bristol Waters The Mayfair The Cumberland V? California

Other Robert Pierre & Claude Alain Restaurants Carrier Troisgros Ducasse

Kevin Eugene Mc Thornton Sweeney

Conrad Patrick Guiibaud & Gallagher L-1

Cullen

Aidan Mc Michael Paul Paul Johnny Manus Martin Cartwright Flynn Cooke

suggests that this was also true of other chefs positions in these new establishments and in (forexample Kordina, Uhlemann) working in restaurants such as the Lord Edward, The Old Irelandduring thisperiod.68 The IrishHotelier Dublin, and in country house hotels such as (February1954) suggestedRolland was 'among AshfordCastle which had become thecentre of the tenmost distinguished culinaryexperts in haute cuisine in Ireland in the 1970s and early France'. As previously mentioned, a number of 1980s. This new phenomenon of haute cuisine Irish chefs also trained in the Savoy Grill, in country house hotels was partly due to indi London under Escoffier's colleague Albon, as viduals such as (ArbutusLodge, part of an exchange programme organised by Cork) and Ernie Evans (The Tower Hotel, Fabron. Besson-controlled kitchens, particularly Kerry), who had trained directly under Bocuse - The Russell under Rolland, became nurseries for and the Troisgros brothers 'disciples' of Point. culinary talent in the same way that Point's Other Irish chefs such as JimBowe, John kitchen inLa Pyramide provided trainingfor a Howard and Noel Cullen also worked in new generation of French chefs such as Bocuse London's top restaurants and in Switzerland in and Jean and Pierre Troisgros. Knowledge trans the late 1950s and early 1960swhere theycame fer also occurred as chefs moved between the under the influenceof both Point and Escoffier. various kitchens in Dublin. There was a rise in Point indirectlyinfluenced other chefs / restau French chefs, managers and waiters working in rateurs. Dublin after theSecond World War, facilitated Foreign influence in knowledge transfer by an agreement between Besson and the increased in later years as air travel expanded. IT&GWU, which led to the first-classtraining Some Irish chefs such as JohnnyCooke (Polo of a generation of Irish catering staff who One, Cooke's Cafe) worked in America and became the culinary leaders in Ireland during returnedin the late 1980swith the latestCali the following decades. fornianfood ideas, influencedby Alice Waters and Jeremiah Towers. Other Irish chefs such as International knowledge transfer (TheWine Epergne, Thorn Dublin's golden age of haute cuisine endedwith ton's), Michael Martin (La Stampa, The Tea the closure of Restaurant Jammet(1967), The Rooms), Shay Kirwan (The Commons), Paul Red Bank Restaurant (1969) and The Russell Cartwright (Roly's Bistro), Paul Flynn (La Hotel (1974). New restaurants such as Snaffles Stampa, The Tannery), JamesCarberry (ESB, and The Soup Bowl, opened by enthusiastic DIT), JohnDunne (Les Freres Jacques,The amateurs, became the new venues for Dublin , Duzy's), and (Morels, gourmets. Some of the kitchen and dining room Peacock Alley, Christopher's, Mango Toast) staff from the newly closed restaurants found returned to Dublin having worked in the

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kitchensof Michelin starredchefs such as Albert baud staff have been involved inmost success and Michel Roux, Nico Ladenis, Pierre fulDublin restaurantsduring the last twenty Kaufman, Shaun Hill, John Burton-Race, years.73 Raymond Blanc, and Anton Edelman in England, andwith Paul Bocuse, Jeanand Pierre Jimmy Kilbride and the City and Guilds Troisgros, Georges Blanc and Alain Ducasse in 706/3 programme France, some of whom have been previously The influenceof working with some of France's discussed. These returning Irish chefs, in turn, leadingchefs such as Troisgros and Bocuse was trainedthe currentgeneration of Irishchefs in also identifiedas importantin transferringculi the latest techniques of haute cuisine which nary knowledge from France to Ireland.74 One remained firmlyrooted in theFrench culinary such individualwas Kevin Thornton,who in canon. Both thedirect and indirectlinks these 2001 became the firstnative Irish chef to be chefs have with both theEscoffier orthodoxy awarded two Michelin stars. Thornton, and the nouvelle cuisinemethods of Fernand however, attributes more credit for his success Point and his disciples are shown on theprevi to JimmyKilbride (his lectureron theadvanced ous page. These linkswere identified from City and Guilds 706/3 programme in the analysing the oral interviews and also from Dublin College of Catering) than tohis foreign secondary sources.69 experience.He points out thatKilbride opened hismind to thehistory of food and instilledin Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud him a confidence inhis own ability.He recalls The most influentialindividual in Dublin haute thatKilbride was theonly person he was ever cuisine restaurants during the last two decades nervous cooking for,when he came for a meal at of the twentiethcentury was Guilbaud, whose theWine Epergne restaurant,noting 'itwas like role in Ireland alongwith his chefGuillaume cooking for themaster'.75 JimmyKilbride ran Lebrunmay be comparedwith thatof Bocuse theCity & Guilds 706/3 course from the late in France or the Roux brothers in England. 1970s to beginning of the 1990s, and his There were diverse connections between the students became the future teachers, entrepre leading Irishchefs and restaurateursand their neurs and leaders in culinary matters in Ireland French and English counterparts.Many of these in the lastdecades of the twentiethcentury. He individualswere central to the renaissance of engendered a love of learning in themand he haute cuisine restaurantsin Dublin in themid instilledconfidence in Irishchefs thatthey were 1990s.70 For the last two decades of the twenti world-class. Kilbride recalls being extremely eth century,Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud set the impressed with the quality, commitment, inter standard of haute cuisine that other restaurants est and dedication of the Irish chefs who emulated. Their kitchens and dining rooms also attended the course, noting that the first year acted as nurseries for young talent, both Irish they went to Hotelympia (an international culi and foreign born, with some restaurants even nary competition held in London) theywon advertising that their chef was 'ex-Patrick Guil numerous awards.76Another one of his students, baud's' as amarker of thehigh standardof food Noel Cullen, creditsKilbride with givinghim they served.71 An advertisement for Restaurant pride as a chefand recognisedthat the advanced PatrickGuilbaud inThe IrishTimes (23 June cookery programme made a significant contri 1983, p 20) promised new Irishcooking or La bution in raising the consciousness and self Nouvelle Cuisine dTrlande.Guilbaud notes that awareness of Irish chefs.77 one of the key reasons for the restaurant's continuous success is thatthey try to be as good Total assimilation as they can and renew themselves constantly: A number of intervieweesspoke of theirown memories ofworking inDublin restaurants,but We have new blood coming in everyeigh also had memories and storiesof theirforeign teen months in the restaurant. We change born fatherswho had been industryleaders in our staff;we let them go after eighteen Ireland during the firsthalf of the twentieth months, except the top guys. This brings century.78 Some current foreign-born restaura new blood into therestaurant all the time.72 teurs resemble theNormans who arrived in 1169, in thatthey have becomemore Irish than This continuous trainingof new staffat such the Irishthemselves. Patrick Guilbaud discusses high standardsensured a steadyflow of stafffor whether his food is Irishor French: other restaurants in Dublin such as Sebastian Masi who became head chef inThe Commons It isGuillaume's [head chef] and my food, and later chef/proprietor of Pearl Brasserie, people say we are French, of course we are Stefan Couzy who was Maitre d'hotel inThe French, I am born inFrance so isGuillaume Park and later co-owner in Duzy's, and Bruno and Stefan [MaitreD'hotel], butGuillaume Berthawho was waiter inLe Coq Hardi and later is here twenty-eightyears and he is only owner in Bruno's. Ex-Restaurant Patrick Guil forty-four,he is living longerhere thanhe

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did inFrance, inhis familyhe has two sons testimonies and of material culture acquired and a daughter and ismarried to an Irish during interviewswere included in thispaper lady,he is bound to have Irish ideas and so to illustratethe rich fund of informationthey his food ismodern Irish,I don't likethe term contain. This article has argued for the use of modern Irish because itmeans nothing. His oral historyamong culinaryhistorians to gather food ishis food, it isGuillaume's food. It is and preserve parts of the 'living past' before it theway Guilbaud's is designed it is the perishes with the informants.80The links restaurant's food. It is a mixture of French between Irish chefs and restaurants and those and Irish, because the product is local inother countriesare clear but thesewould be product, we try and work with local unknown and undocumented were it not for product.79 the comparative analysis of the in-depthoral history interviews I carried out during my Conclusion research. I focused on haute cuisine, but this The fieldof culinaryhistory has been growing paper calls on future researchers to use oral steadily in the last threedecades but despite historyas a tool tounlock the lifestories of all this the use of oral history in the culinary foodservice workers internationally. It calls on sphere remains relatively rare. Much of the curators of culinary libraries to build oral data required for a better understanding of history archives which can be accessed elec culinaryhistory is ephemeral and survives in tronically. It took the tragedy of Hurricane both the memories and material culture resid Katrina in 2005 to remindmany Americans ing in theminds and the attics of old chefs, how fragilethe culinary diversity and traditions waiters and restaurateurs. Samples of both oral that surrounds us all can be. NOTES

1. Ellen Messer, Barbara Haber, Joyce 10. Nancy Duran and Karen MacDonald, Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity Toomra and Barbara KWheaton, 'Culinary 'InformationSources forFood Studies to the Postmodern Challenge, Middletown History', inKennethe F Kiple and Kriemhild. Research', Food, Culture & Society, vol 9, no CT:Wesleyan UniversityPress, 1997, p 14. C Omelas (eds), The Cambridge World 2, 2006, pp 233-243. 22. Arjun Appadurai, 'Global Ethnoscapes: History of Food, Cambridge: Cambridge 11. http:/^bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/ Notes and Queries fora Transnational UniversityPress, 2000, pp 1367-1380. projects/food_wine/food. html. Anthropology', inRichard Fox (ed), ZThe author's PhD, 'The emergence, 12. http://www.southemfoodways.com/ Recapturing Anthropology, Santa Fe, N.M.: development and influenceof French Haute documentary/orvlndex. html. School of American Research Press, 1991. Cuisine on public dining inDublin restaurants 13. http://www.deltastate.edu/pages/1303. 23. Kevin C Keams, Dublin Voices: An Oral 1900-2000: an oral history',can be asp. Folk History, Dublin: Gill& Macmillan, 2001. accessed online at 14. http://www.bl. urVreshelp/findhelprestype/ 24. John Ratclrffe, 'Scenario planning: http://arrow.dit.ie/tourdoc/12/. sound/ohisVohnls/nlsfoodAc)od.html. strategic interviewsand conversations', 3. AmyTrubek, Haute Cuisine: How the 15. Polly Russell, 'Manufacturingmemories: Foresight: The Journal of Future Studies, French invented the Culinary Profession, commercial, team and individualnarratives Strategic Thinking and Policy, vol 4, no 1, Philadelphia, Universityof Pennsylvania inpoultry production', Oral History, vol 36, no 2002, pp 19-30. Press, 2000, p 4. 1,2008. 25. Interviewwith Dr Garret Fitzgerald, 4. Eva Barlosius, 'Food and Drink around the 16. David Sutton and Michael Hernandez, politician, bom Dublin 9 February 1926, World: France', inKennethe F Kiple and 'Voices fromthe kitchen: cooking tools as recorded byMairtin Mac Con lomaire, 21st Kriemhild C Omelas (eds), The Cambridge inalienable possessions', Oral History, vol February 2005, -30. World History of Food, Cambridge: 35, no 2,2007. 26. Anselm Strauss and JulietCorbin, Basics Cambridge UniversityPress, 2000, pp 17. Graham Smith, 'Beyond individual/ of Qualitative Research: Techniques and 1210-1216. collective memory: women's transactive Procedures forDeveloping Grounded Theory, 5. Trubek, 2000, px. memories of food, family,and conflict',Oral Thousand Oaks, California: Sage 6. Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 'Louis Jammet', History, vol 35, no 2,2007. Publications, 1998. inAlice Amdt (ed), Culinary Biographies, 18. John Newton, Wogfbod: An Oral History 27. Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 'Searching for Houston, Texas: Yes Press, 2006, pp 218 with Recipes, Milsons Point, NSW: Random Chefs, Waiters and Restaurateurs in 219. House Australia, 1996; Kathy Stewart and Edwardian Dublin: A Culinary Historian's - 7. Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 'PierreRolland Bob Percival, Bush Foods of New South Experience of the 1911 Dublin Census Ireland's FirstMichelin Star Chef, Hotel & Wales: A Botanic Record and an Aboriginal Online', Petits Propos Culinaires, vol 86, Catering Review, vol 37, no 12,2004, p 45. Oral History, Sydney: Royal Botanical 2008, pp 92-126. 8. EgonRonay, Egon Ronatfs 1965 Guideto Gardens Sydney, 1997. 28. Robert Blair St George, Material Life in Hotels and Restaurants inGreat Britain and 19. This research undertaken forBord Bia America: 1600-1860, Boston: Northeastern Irelandwith 32 Motoring Maps, London: and The Taste Council of Ireland titled UniversityPress, 1988, p 18. Gastronomes Limited, 1965, p 464. Traditional Food Skills forTomorrow' can be 29. The linksbetween material culture and 9. Kevin C Kearns, Dublin Street Life and accessed by requesting a copy to memory, particularly the use of photographs Lore: An Oral History, Dublin, Glendale, [email protected]. isdiscussed inChris Wright, 'Material and 1991; Keams, Dublin Tenement Life: An Oral 20. Paul Thompson, The Edwardians: The Memory: Photography inthe Western History, Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1994; Remaking of British Society, Bloomington: Solomon Islands', Journal ofMaterial Keams, Dublin Pub Life and Lore: An Oral Indiana UniversityPress, 1975. Culture, vol 9, no 1,2004, pp 59-71. History, Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1996. 21. Georg G Iggers,Historiography in the 30. The creation of an Irishculinary archive

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during the research process was remarked books citing his work include Tim Pat 63. Mac Con lomaire, 2009. upon bymy external examiners, who pointed Coogan, Ireland In the Twentieth Century, 64. Interviewwith ChristySands, bom Dublin out thatmost historians work with existing London: Hutchinson, 2003; and Diarmaid 1937, recorded byMairtin Mac Con lomaire, archives but that due to the lack of research Ferriter,The Transformation of Ireland 1900 5 June 2003, -70. inmy field to date, Ihad to create my own 2000, Dublin: Profile Books, 2004. 65. Sands, 2003-9-14. archive. 47. Keams, 2001, p 9. 66. Interviewwith Frank Farren, chef, born 31. Mac Con lomaire, 2009, 48. John D Brewer, The Royal Irish Dublin 1926, recorded byMairtin Mac Con (http://arrow.dit.ieAourdoc/12/). Constabulary: An Oral History, Belfast: lomaire, 28 May 2003; interviewwith Arthur 32. Interviewwith Herbert (Sonny) Geldof, Instituteof IrishStudies, Queens University, McGee, chef, bom Dublin 1937, recorded businessman and son of chef / restaurateur, 1990, p 18. byMairtin Mac Con lomaire, 6 January bom Dublin 1912, recorded byMairtin Mac 49. Anna Bryson, '"Whatever you say, say 2004; interviewwith GerryConnell, chef, Con lomaire,April 2003. nothing": researching memory and identityin born Dublin 1946, recorded byMairtin Mac 33. See Mac Con lomaire,2008. Mid-Ulster, 1945-1969', Oral History, vol Con lomaire, 15 January 2008. 34* Examples of these are Carl Opperman 35, no 2, 2007, pp 45-56. 67.77?e 1963 Egon Ronay Guide to Great and Ernst Gygax, both Swiss chefs, whose 50. Simon Guest, 'Cure, superstition, Britain and Ireland. children became leading figures inDublin infectionand reaction: Tuberculosis in 68. Interviewwith Frank Farren, chef, born catering business. See Mac Con lomaire, Ireland,1932-1957', Oral History, vol 32, Dublin 1926, recorded by Mairtin Mac Con 2009, vol 3, (http://arrow.dit.ieAourdoc/12/) no 2,2004, pp 63-72. lomaire, 28 May 2003-36; telephone for transcribed interviewswith Johnny 51.1 sent a letterto the editor of The Irish interviewwith George Ennis, chef and later Opperman(28 April 2004) and FredGygax Times but itwas not published. Idid however Jesuit priest, born Dublin 1923, recorded (19May 2005). make contact with one interviewee following byMairtin Mac Con lomaire, 11 May 2005. 35. A Errante, 'But sometimes you are not letters inThe IrishTimes concerning the 69. Mac Con lomaire 2009, vol 2. part of the story: oral histories and ways or death of Renato Sidoli, ex-manager of the 70. Interviewwith Kevin Thornton, chef, remembering and telling', inS Nage Hesse Unicom Restaurant. born Tipperary 1958, recorded by Mairtin Biberand MLYaiser (eds) Feminist 52. As per Yow, 1994. Mac Con lomaire, 12 August 2008; Perspectives on Social Research, New York, 53. Mary Muldowney, 'The Impact of the Interviewwith Giles O'Reilly, chef, born Oxford UniversityPress, 2004. Second World War on Women inBelfast and London 1960, recorded byMairtin Mac 36. Ratcliffe,2002. Dublin: An Oral History' (unpublished PhD), Con lomaire, 19 May 2008. 37. See Pauline Rooney 'Researching from Department ofModem History,Dublin: Trinity 71. Mac Con lomaire, 2009, vol 2. - the inside does itcompromise validity?A College Dublin, 2005. 72. Guilbaud, 2008, -128. discussion', Level 3, May 2005, Issue 3. 54. All transcribed interviewsare available in 73. Mac Con lomaire, 2009. 38. M Foster, 'The power to know one thing is volume three ofMac Con lomaire, 2009, 74. Interviewwith Declan Ryan, chef never the power to know all things: http://arrow.dit.ieAourdoc/12. /restaurateur, born Cork 1943, recorded by methodological notes on two studies of black 55. Strauss and Corbin, 1998. Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 11 March 2005; American teachers', inA Gitlen (ed), Power 56. Interviewwith Bill Ryan, chef, bom Dublin Thornton, 2008. and Method, London, Routledge, 1994. 1927, recorded byMairtin Mac Con lomaire, 75. Thornton, 2008. 39. Jack Dougas, Creative Interviewing, 7 January2004, -11-17. 76. Interviewwith JimmyKilbride, chef Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985. 57. Interviewwith Liam Kavanagh, bom /culinary lecturer/entrepreneur,born Dublin 40. Peter Burke, New Perspectives on Dublin 1927, recorded byMairtin Mac Con 1929, recorded byMairtin Mac Con Historical Writing, Cambridge: PolityPress, lomaire, 11 April 2003, -136-8. lomaire, 8 October 2003, -28. 1991. 58. Further informationon the Dublin Hotel 77. Noel C Cullen, Elegant IrishCooking: 41. Norman Denzin, The Research Act in Strike can be found inAnnemarie Piso, Recipes from theWorld's Foremost Irish Sociology, London: Butterworths, 1970. 'Unionisation inthe Dublin hotel industry', Chefs, New York: Lebhar-Friedman Books, 42. Interviewwith JimBowe, chef and InternationalJournal of Tourism Research, 2001. lecturer,bom Dublin 1942, recorded by vol 5, no 3, 2003, pp 211-224. 78. Interviewwith JohnnyOpperman, chef/ Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 30 April 2008, 59. Photo was provided by Gunter Heinz restaurateur and son of Swiss chef, bom -94. Finger's daughter Maureen Mooney who Dublin 1917, recorded byMairtin Mac Con 43. Trevor Lummis, Listening toHistory: The contacted me after hearing the call for lomaire,28 April2004; interviewwith Fred Authenticityof Oral Evidence, London: informationon the radio, interviewed19 May Gygax, chef and son of Swiss chef, bom Hutchinson, 1987. 2008. Greystones 1929, recorded byMairtin Mac 44. Telephone interviewwith Kevin C Kearns, 60. Interviewwith Michel Treyvaud, chef, Con lomaire,19 May 2005; interviewwith of oral professor geography and historian bom Switzerland 3 June 1937, recorded by Roisin Hood, daughter of French restaurateur recorded Mairtin by Mac Con lomaire, 10 Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 4 February 2008, Louis Jammet, bom Dublin 1935, recorded by 2005. January -31. MairtinMac Con lomaire,18 January2006. 45. Alice Hoffman, 'Reliabilityand Validity in 61. Interviewwith ChristySands, waiter and 79. Guilbaud, 2008, -128. in Oral History', David K Dunaway and Willa K lecturer,bom Dublin 1937, recorded by the 80. Emyr Estyn Evans, IrishFolk Ways, An Baum (eds), Oral History: Interdisciplinary Mairtin Mac Con lomaire, 5 June 2003 London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1957, Anthology, Nashville, Tennessee: American ?114, and interviewwith ArthurMcGee, xiii. Association of State and Local History, chef, bom Dublin 1937, recorded byMairtin 1984, pp 87-93. Mac Con lomaire, 6 January 2004 -78. Address forcorrespondence: 46. Kearns interview10th January2005; 6ZBowe, 2008-98. [email protected]

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