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Water Usage and Human Health: a Preliminary Study in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

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Water Usage and Human Health: a Preliminary Study in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Ashwaq Alamri for the degree of Master of Science in Environmental Science presented on June 10, 2019 Title: Water Usage and Human Health: A Preliminary Study in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Abstract approved: ______________________________________________________ Sunil Khanna Saudi Arabia is one of the most arid countries worldwide with limited surface water sources. In most areas of the country, there are no natural rivers or lakes and precipitation is unpredictable and low. The entire region is susceptible to climate change, especially considering that the country is experiencing unprecedented growth in population and urbanization. The purpose of this study was to understand water usage among urban households and whether water quality had a negative impact on the health of household members. Furthermore, the study aimed to explore the implementation of water conservation methods in households. The data collection took place in Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia through a close- ended household survey in addition to conducting structured interviews with a microbiologist. The results suggest that water conservation methods were not used in 70% of the households. Moreover, household members were not fully aware of water-related topics such as water-borne disease, water resources, and the implication of climate change on the availability of water resources. Further, it appears that in household’s water quantity or quality did not adversely impact human health as 95% of the households reported no cases of water-borne diseases such as cholera, or hepatitis. Key Words Water conservation method, water scarcity, health outcomes. ©Copyright by Ashwaq Alamri June 10, 2019 All Rights Reserved Water Usage and Human Health: A Preliminary Study in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia By Ashwaq Alamri A THESIS Submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Presented June 10, 2019 Commencement June 2019 Master of Science thesis of Ashwaq Alamri presented on June 10, 2019 APPROVED: Sunil Khanna Major Professor, representing Environmental Science Direct of the Environmental Science Program Dean of the Graduate School I understand that my thesis will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any reader upon request. Ashwaq Alamri, Author ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am overjoyed that I finished writing my thesis despite all the challenges I went through; I was not in a good place emotionally writing it. I felt skeptical about my ability to complete this daunting task. Fortunately, I had nice people who helped me throughout this process. I owe them my most sincere thanks. First, I am sincerely grateful for my advisor Dr. Sunil Khanna for accepting to be my advisor. Also, I thank him for his feedback on this project. In addition, thanks go to my committee members, Dr. Lisa Gaines, Dr. Susan Shaw, and Dr. Tammy Bray, who were so kind to be willing to serve as my committee members. Also, a special appreciation goes to Dr. Gaines for being willing to serve as PI while Dr. Khanna was out of the country, thank you very much for that. Moreover, thanks go to Dr. Carolyn Fonyo, the director of the Environmental Science Graduate program, for her unconditional support, thanks for all the efforts she did to accommodate my interest in this program. Also, I want to thank Renee Freeman, receptionist/ESGP administrative assistant CEOAS student services, who was so supportive and helpful since the moment I stepped in this program. Moreover, I want to thank the Graduate school and the Graduate Success center, especially Michael Dumelle for his help with some questions regarding statistical software and data analysis. Thank you for the Graduate Writing Center Staffs, especially, Chris Nelson and Rachel Polisher; also, sincere thanks and appreciation goes to Valerie Goodness for her support and assistance with checking the entire thesis. Thank for the Valley Library for providing resources that were very helpful, thank you for Counseling & Psychological Services; I would like to express my appreciation to Michele Ribeiro and Fernando Frias for their support. Also, I am so grateful to have my wonderful friend Ayat to share this journey with. Honestly, she had the most impact on my thesis completion. She inspired me by working so hard on her own project, sharing information with me, giving some valuable advice, sharing the good news with me, and spending time together. Thank you so much dear Ayat, I always will be grateful for you. Thank you very much for contacting me and introducing yourself to me in the first place, I appreciate it. Thanks go to my parents and my sisters who were so supportive during this journey, especially, Nejood, Reem, and my favorite sister Zezo, who was checking on me every time I was not ok. I also want to thank some of my other friends who might not necessarily have had a direct impact on my thesis, but definitely they had a very positive impact on my life in other ways. I want to thank my friend Janet Selby, thank you for the time we spent together the last two years, thank you for the delicious meals you made, thank you for everything. Also I want to thank Kate, Lauri, Susan, Finn, Clara, Casey, and Andrew ( Casey, Andy, thank you so much for inviting me to study with you guys, that was so nice of you, I owe the A I got in Julie’s class to you). You guys were so nice and supportive in many ways, thank you very much. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter 1: Introduction...…… ……………………………………………………… 1 1.1 Research purpose……………………………………….……………….………4 1.2 Problem Statement……………………………………………….……..………4 1.3 Thesis Layout …………………………………………………………….….6 Chapter 2: Literature Review .………… ………………………………………...….. 8 2.1Water Resources …………...…..…………………………….……….…….8 2.1.1 Surface Water……………………………………………..………………9 2.1.2 Groundwater……………………………………………………….…..….9 2.1.3 Seawater Desalination ……………………………………………………10 2.1.4 Wastewater Treatment ………………………………………………….12 2.1.5 Fog Water Harvesting ………………………………………………….13 2.1.6 Rainwater Harvesting ………………………………………………….14 2.2 Climate Change Implications…………………………………………….14 2.3 Water and Human Health ……………………….......……………..…….16 2.4 Domestic Water Use……………….......…………………………………19 2.5Water Conservation Practices……………………………………….…….20 Chapter 3: Methodology …………………………………………..............………25 3.1 Study Design and Data Collection ……………………………………...25 3.2 Recruitment and Sampling Method……...………………………………28 3.3 Instruments …....………….....…………………………………………...29 Chapter 4: Results ………………….………………………………………………31 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page 4.1 Household’s Survey ……………………………………………………31 4.1.1 Water and Human Health ….......……………………………………..31 4.1.2 Water Conservation Impactions ………………............……….……..35 4.2 Structured Interview .........................................................................…...38 Chapter 5: Discussion …….....……………………………………………………..39 5.1 Water Conservation Implications ……………………...……………….39 5.2 Water and Human Health ………………………...…………………..…44 5.3Limitations ……………………...…………..............................................46 Chapter 6 Conclusion ………………………………………….....………………..47 6.1 Implication and Recommendation …………….............…………………...48 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………..51 Appendices …………………………………………………………………………56 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Saudi Arabia Map…………………………………………………………………..3 2. Summary of Saudi Arabia Water Dilemma ………………….…………………....6 3. Water Type ……………………………………..............................……………...31 4. Water Delivery Methods……................………………………………………….32 5. Shower Duration............………………………………………………………….32 6. Water Demand……………………………………………………….....………...33 7. Water Quality…………………………………………………………………….34 8. Health Outcomes……………………………………………………..........……..34 9. Eye/Skin Irritations …………………….…………..............................................35 10. Conservation Methods Applications……………………………………………..36 11. Knowledge of Water Resources ………………...................…………………….37 12. Knowledge of Climate Change ………………...................................…………..37 13. Conservation Methods Applications in Future……………..............................…42 14. Water Conservation Kit ........................................................................................43 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Water Resources Production In Saudi Arabia……………..….. 8 2. Household’s Survey ………………………………………………….……. 25 3. Interview Questions……………………………………………………….. 27 4. The Estimate Water Quantity that Could be Used During a Shower with Different Periods of Times and Different Devices …………..…………………………..40 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Consent Form (Arabic) ………………………………………………...56 B. Consent Form (English)…………………………………………………57 C. Recruitment Flyer (Arabic) ………………………………………………58 D. Recruitment Flyer (English) …………………………………………..…59 E. Household’s Survey (Arabic) …………………………………………....60 F. Interview Questions (Arabic) ……………………………………………63 LIST OF ABBREVATION MANA …………………………………. Middle East and North Africa countries TDS ……………………………………... Total Dissolved Solids PPM …………………………………….. Parts Per Million MCM ……………………………………… Million Cubic Meters Mm ………………………………………Millimeters EDCs …………………………………….Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals GPHD ……………………………………Gallon per house per day GPM……………………………………….Gallon per minute UNCED …… National Report for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development MOVE…………………………………….. Ministry of Water and Electricity 1 Chapter 1: Introduction
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