An Ethnographic Study of Young University Students in Bangladesh

Veil as Religious Expression : An Ethnographic Study of Young University Students in Bangladesh

Fouzia Mannan1

Abstract

This paper draws from the experience of teaching feminism to a class of young women who wear black, all covering veils with just their eyes showing through. Increasing numbers of women, especially young women, can be seen wearing veils in Bangladesh, a drastic shift away from the decades following the nation's independence in 1971. Currently, within feminist discourse, two major debates surrounding veiling or 'purdah' take precedence; with one sect of feminist scholars identifying veils as oppressive and the other heralding it as a source of agency as well as a freedom of choice. However, this dichotomy is not relevant to the Bangladeshi context, and has given rise to a discrepancy between theoretical knowledge and real practice; urging further critical analysis of the changing role of veiling in the Global South generally and Bangladesh specifically, particularly among the youth and adolescent populations. Therefore, this paper will aim to both explore and discuss factors that incentivize young women, especially those who are studying and critique societal structures and phenomena (including religious behavior and gendered norms) to a different form of social attire. Thus, the research conducted, in this case, was qualitative in nature and the sample consisted of a select group of young university students (using purposive sampling). 25 case studies were conducted on the basis of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation. Last but not least, I note the ways in which patriarchy, capitalism, globalization converge in the urban metropolitan setting of Dhaka, to encourage women across age and class divides, to embrace religion as their dominant social identity over ethnic and national identities. It was concluded that the role of veiling in the context of Bangladesh, is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon; that is to say, it is not only an expression of religious piety against an ethno-symbolic identity; deeply intertwined with issues of globalization, patriarchy, class, and feminine sexuality.

Key words: Religious expression, University student, Symbolic interaction, patriarchy and Globalization.

1 Associate Professor , Department of Sociology & Dean, Faculty of Liberal Arts & Social Sciences, East West University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, email: [email protected] .

Introduction

The practice of veiling2, has always been considered a manifestation of religious expression for Muslim women globally and in Bangladesh. An increasing number of veils, particularly among the younger generations has become widespread within the past two decades in Bangladesh. On the contrary, western outfits have also become increasingly popular, particularly among upper class women that is apparent to see in both private and public universities, corporate offices and as well as in the media, where young female presenters and newscasters wear formal western attire regularly on private TV Channels in Bangladesh. However, according to Hassim (2014) in her research on Hijab and the Malay-Muslim Woman in Media, "the globalization of Islamic countries worldwide, inadvertently changed the representation of Muslim woman and the hijab. Displays of Islamic modesty in print, broadcast and social networking channels create opportunities for Muslim women to experience empowerment and diminish oppressive stereotypes,”. However, feminists have argued that veiling has a symbolic meaning that is interconnected with other sociopolitical issues, 'such as resistance, oppression, identity, colonialism, and patriarchy rather than being just an object' (Ahmed 1992:56). Thus, the sociological interpretation of veil as attire is not only culturally symbolic, but can be telling of broader socio-cultural trends within a society.

This paper largely draws from the experience of teaching feminism in a class full of young women with only their eyes showing through black, all-covering veils. Increasing numbers of Bangladeshi women, especially younger women, are now seen sporting veils, contrary to traditional practice in Bangladesh even a decade ago. Bangladesh emerged into the world after fighting for independence with Pakistan on the basis of a salient ethno-symbolic national identity that stems from a shared culture and the principle of secularism as opposed to religious identity. Since its inception, the

2 The veil, is an attire that Muslim women wear to cover or conceal the face and body. There are different terminologies relating to the veil worn by Muslim women, such as niqab or burqa. Three versions of coverings. Stylish, colorful, long robes and the hijab substitute long suits and the more traditional full black burqa with a full face covering (niqab). Often, women even cover their hands with gloves and wear socks on their feet, so that none of their skin is visible. It has been highly debated that these variations are not religious, but cultural and are in fact, the result of interactions between religion and cultural identities.

Constitution3 of Bangladesh branded the new nation-state as completely secular in nature4. The question has arisen in academia in general and in the field of sociology in particular–– how can the social phenomena of veiling be explained? Is it a revivalism of religious faith or a new global expression in the new era? Has secular cultural identity only propelled new generations towards founding new religious identity? Or has the new market economy ushered a new form of patriarchy in the name of religious freedom and choice?

In this paper, I discuss the factors that are influencing young Bangladeshi women to embrace the practice of veiling; including those who have chosen to study and understand social problems from religious behavior to socialization, gendered norms and coherent thinking. However, considered a means of evoking modesty on the one hand and a form of beautification on the other: this discrepancy between theoretical knowledge and the real practice of veiling has claimed attention worldwide over the past few years. In order to understand these new changes in Bangladeshi society, particularly in terms of the creation of new identities through religious expression, the concept of veiling must be explored alongside other social processes including Globalization, Westernization, Modernization etc.

Objectives

This study aims to explore why the practice of veiling is seeing a notable increase among young women in general and university students in particular within Dhaka city. The primary goal of this research is to explore the causal relationship between wearing a veil and the ethno-symbolic

3 According to the Constitution: “The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth” (Article 28:1) Eighth Amendment of the Constitution was adopted : “The State religion of the Republic is Islam, but other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony in the republic” (Article 2A)

4 After the colonial period in India, it was divided into two parts on the basis of religion. Pakistan ( the then East and West Pakistan) was created with the majority of the Muslim population . Again, in 1971, the then East Pakistan emerged as a new independent nation, Bangladesh, on the basis of ethno-cultural identity that is Bengali nationalism, and secularism is one of the pillar of the Constitution of Bangladesh. Afterwards in 1975, the different political regimes have brought up religion in the arena of national identity and national identity of Bangladesh now in a complex juncture.

construction of female Muslim (religious & cultural) identity among young Muslim women, with a specific focus on young university students in Dhaka.

Research Questions

a) Why is veiling becoming increasingly ‘popular’ among young university students in Dhaka?

b) Is the upsurge of veiling a symbol of cultural , religious or a new identity among young university students? and how is it intertwined with gender, class, patriarchy and with the process of globalization?

Methodology This research has been carried out using qualitative methods with the sample consisting of a select group of young university students who wear veils, selected using purposive sampling. It is mainly based on in-depth interviews conducted with female students of two departments, one is from the faculty of social sciences and other is from the faculty of sciences. 25 case studies have been done on the basis of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (FGD) and participant observations. Apart from classroom interaction and observation, personal experiences based on interpersonal relationships with different social classes of females who are wearing veils are also reflected in this study.

The scope of this research study is confined to one university, which might not provide a general view of the situation, but can throw light on the attitude, belief and causal relationship of the recent trend of the increasing wearing veil among young Muslim women in a limited manner that can enhance the scope for research in the future.

2. Literature Review

Sociology of Religion & Ethno-Symbolic Identity

Religion is not simply a feature of culture, but a distinctive cultural phenomenon. Religious concerns today can be understood only in relation to social changes affecting the position of religion in the wider world. Sociologists argued that religion needs to be recognized for its diversity but also looked at as a general phenomenon. (Giddens, 2009, p. 528). One of the main influences on social changes according to sociologists, 'are cultural issues, such as communications systems, belief systems (religious and otherwise), and popular culture' (Giddens, 2009 p. 658).

Ethno-Symbolism, Religion & Ambivalent Identity in Bangladesh

Ethno-symbolism is a concept coined by Anthony Smith which can be defined as the study of nations and nationalism and is associated with the nature of ethnic groups and nations, and the need to consider their symbolic dimensions. According to ethno-symbolism, ethnic ties such as common descent and unique cultural features, bind people together and are the main factors in nation building (Miller, 1995; Smith, 2009).

In Bangladesh, the question around national and religious identities is historically merged with cultural, religious and linguistic identity (Murshid, 2006). In 1947, identity politics revolved around the question of religion in the subcontinent and created Pakistan. However, in 1952, during the Language Movement of what was then East Pakistan, the main focus shifted to become shared culture–– more specifically, the freedom to speak Fig:1 Female students of the Faculty of one’s mother tongue, in this case Bengali (Sobhan, Business in 1960. 1994). The Bengali Muslim identity was and remains complicated; even though, Bengali (‘Bangali’ in Bangla) culture dominates the region, Islam remains the professed faith of the Bangladesh Muslim majority.

Likewise, the prevalent dress code that Muslim women adhere to across the Indian Subcontinent (including Bangladesh) differs based on geographical location. The struggle for an individual Bangladeshi identity was often expressed through women‘s clothing over the years: Sari to salwar kameez, to jeans and short fatua or kurti, to hijabs, burqas, chador or orna (Azim & Banu, 2009). Even though Bengali women traditionally covered their heads with Fig:2 Women leading armed protests their saris, irrespective of class and religion. during the 1971 Liberation War From the photos it can be observed that the prevalence of the hijab in Bangladesh, especially among university aged women, is much higher now, compared to a few decades in the past.

Now, that Bangladesh is approaching a transition, the question of the future role of religion in the broader discourse of national identity in Bangladesh in general and its reflection on the lives and choices of Muslim women (particularly in relation to veiling) demands critical analysis (Anderson, 1991).

Fig:3 The 51st Convocation Rehearsal at Dhaka University (2018).

Gender in Islam: Feminist Perspectives

Sociologists argue that religion strengthens patriarchal norms. Mernissi, a leading feminist sociologist, who studied the gendered nature of Islamic fundamentalism, argued that religion and apprehension of modernization have been both prominent in the field of sociology as well as a subject of much debate. Within broader feminist debates, religion is largely regarded as an oppressive social institutions as it is a source of discrimination for women and that is a violation of human rights. (O’Neill, Gidengil, Côté and Young ,2014). Laila Ahmed (1992) , Ruby (2004), Blackmen, Brenda O’Neill, Mernissi, 1987; Ahmed, 1992; Aziz, 2010)

Feminist thinking on the issue of the veil is conflicted.The concept of veiling has been explored from many different perspectives, but there are generally two dominant discourses among feminists and sociologists with some feminists identifying it as a symbol of freedom, while others see it as a symbol of control and oppression. For instance, Hamdan (2007) states that the veil is a symbol of women’s oppression from the perspective of western feminism but Hessini (1994) depicts that Muslim women choose to wear the hijab out of conviction, and not simply out of tradition, especially those who live in Muslim majority countries (Galadari 2012).

However, Saba Mahmood (2005), also a feminist scholar has showed that traditional and modern Islamic scholars and as well as sociologists consider the veil an emblem of integrity for women and a safeguard that prevents being viewed as a sexual object by men.On the other hand, Mernissi and others explained that the wearing of the veil was an expression of resistance to Western definitions of modernity (Mernissi 1992). For example, some sociologists have demonstrated that Muslim countries like Algeria, Egypt, and Turkey, have used the veil as a symbol of freedom from colonial oppression (Fanon 1965, El-Guindi 1981, Çinar 2005). In contrary, opposing arguments were, largely influenced by market forces and consumer trends, reformation of the hijab as a cultural identity ( Hossain,2014 03.), Göle (1996) argued that "this is the modern hijab shaped by a variety of themes, merchandise and communication technologies that stray from the true practice of Islamnic ideology".

Another group of feminists argue that the practice of veil among the Muslim women is very much a traditional and cultural practice. It is related to their religious belief (O’Nail, Gidengil et al:2014). Analyzing the 2010 Quebec Women’s Political Participation Survey, Ruby (2004) and

others found that 'wearing the niqab is a woman’s free choice, a matter of freedom of religion'. As Ahmed states in her book, (A Quiet Revolution,2004) veiling is a practice that predates Islam and is more connected with politics and culture (Bartkowski and Read, 2003; Mernissi, 1991; Read and Bartkowski, 2000) (Nausheen Pasha-Zaidi 2014, Sage,p,3.). Therefore, wearing the veil depends greatly on its context, for it has always been shifting between the dialogue of freedom of choice and oppression. In Bangladesh, the veil, more commonly known as the hijab, is typically worn by Muslim women as an expression of religious beliefs and values; however, the reasons behind why Muslim women in the 21st century choose to practice veiling, remains interlinked with a wide array of other social issues, such as resistance, oppression, identity, colonialism, and patriarchy.

Ethnic Identity vs Religious identity: Globalization and social change

The world has been experiencing huge changes in socio-economic and political conditions that are leading to a new way of life on the national level as well as on the global level. Giddens and et.al (2009) explain the trends of social change and the emergence of new identities separate from the ethnic or religious identity in today’s world. According to Giddens et. al (2009):

"Mass production, the mass consumer, the big city, the big-brother state, and the nation- state are in decline: flexibility, diversity, differentiation, and mobility, communication, decentralization, and internationalization are in the ascendant. In the process of our own identities, our sense of self, our subjectivities are being transformed...this phenomenon both produces and further accelerates the process of globalization. (Giddens 2009, p 671)

Therefore, it has been observed that new identities are replacing religious and ethnic identity nationally as well as globally. From a global standpoint, individuals and communities are increasingly looking for new sources to formulate their own sense of identity, not from the nation- state as before. As Giddens (2009) furthermore stated, "local cultural identities in various parts of the world are experiencing powerful revivals at a time when the traditional hold of the nation-state is undergoing profound transformation".

Alternatively, living in a global culture, a symbolic threat arises when practices are perceived to diverge from social norms and values. Religious expression turns to be a symbolic treat when

women are unwilling to assimilate to the other culture or refuse to accept the new culture, for example, the ban on veil for example in Quebec, Canada; France; The Netherlands; The UK and USA is a symbolic threat that is brings about the question of state neutrality about religion regarding freedom of religion (O’Nail, Gidengil et al:2014). Again then, the rise of religious fundamentalism is also seen as a common experience in the recent globalized world. The next section will shed light on the perceptions of young university students regarding veil in order to understand the trends of social changes in Dhaka as a part of the globalized world.

Findings & Discussion

This section will focus on how young university students have expressed their views in relation to wearing a veil and as well as why it is increasingly popular among them. This is a question that has been raised by many researchers in the past (Mernissi, 1991, Ahmed, 1992, Bartkowski and Read, 2003; Read and Bartkowski, 2000, Nausheen Pasha-Zaidi 2014), within the field of sociology (Smelser 1988,Giddens et.al 2009, Miller, 1995; Smith, 2009,). It is a constant topic of debate whether this social phenomenon is simply an expression of religious revivalism or an entirely new expression of identity unique to the 21st century? Are secular cultural identities currently transforming into popular religious identities? Or are neoliberal free market policies ushering in a new form of patriarchy in the name of religious freedom and choice?

During the in-depth interviews, key leading questions were asked about the causes of wearing veil, the influencing factors, and how it is shaping new identities. The research findings indicate that the veil is not only a religious expression, but also has gender, sexual and class connotations, which are multi-dimensional in nature. Major findings are discussed below:

Why Is Veiling Attracting Young Women?

In the interview process, selected students were asked why the option of veiling was attractive to them. The findings explicitly show that there are a multitude of reasons for wearing a veil or a hijab; as a matter of fact, some of the most dominant reasons were attributable to popular fashion trends and religious modesty. Other reasons included the influence of family and peer groups,

beautification and attempts to protect skin and hair from everyday pollution, institutional rules, as well as personal security in public places.

Fashion & the Concept of Beauty

A large number of respondents explained that the veiling is a popular fashion trend and they appear trendier to their peers when they wear the hijab. It shows a significant change in attitudes among, women in general and young women in particular, pertaining to veiling as an expression of religion exclusively. It has been observed both in general and through the interviews that the hijab is now accepted as a new accessory that is very much in demand with the Bangladeshi youth. Among the 25 respondents, nine actively wear the hijab regularly, while the rest take up veiling whenever the desire strikes. For example, Nelly and Sama (fictitious names to maintain the privacy of the respondents) and some others do not wear their hijabs during social or cultural celebrations i.e. Departmental events, when they are hanging out with friends, social and cultural celebrations like the Bengali New Year, Valentine's Day, and even Friendship Day. As Nelly mentioned,“I used to wear the veil regularly to university and as well as other public places. As I felt more secure using public transport and also it protects my hair and skin from pollution. But generally I refused to wear veils for special occasions like wedding ceremonies, festivals and different sociocultural celebrations or while performing in the annual cultural program at the university, (Nelly, Age 22). Additionally, in terms of social media, all major platforms including Facebook, Youtube and Instagram where many influencers offer tutorials on different ways of styling the hijab, as per the

most recent fashion trends. A male student mentioned that 'different types of fashion shows are organized as a demonstration of wearing a fashionable veil or hijab and are a bad influence on the younger generations'. As Aziz ( 2010) mentioned with regards to the trends in Egypt, "indeed, the proliferation of the headscarf in countries like Egypt have transformed it into a fashion item whose color and texture matched young women's trendy clothing and glamorous makeup". However, this new social trend does not necessarily align with the understanding and perception of veiling in the Quran; I quote Boulanouar (2006) about the specific Islamic prophecy relating to veils: "In the Quran, Sura 24.31 it is said: “And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their Chimar (scarf) over their breasts and not display their beauty except to [their husbands], ....women’s clothing should be near the ground. And aleihin (upon them (female)) means that it includes the whole body, and that it is wrapped around (the body), dropping to the ground (Al-Sabooney 2002:461-462). The ‘over-garment’(jilbab) must be long and covering, and should fulfil the clothing requirements (non-transparent, loose etc.). The last part of the verse explains the wisdom behind the command: Muslim women will be known by their clothing and their modesty (Ash-Sharawy 1991:12160-12168),”(Boulanouar:2006, p142-143).

Religious Modesty: An Image of ‘the Good Woman’

Socialization processes in Muslim majority societies often intertwine the construction of gender and religious identity; insofar that the donning of a veil becomes associated with the archetype of a ‘good woman’. Similarly, in Bangladesh like all other women, female university students often opt to wear a veil or hijab because it offers respect, dignity, and protection (Ruby 2004).

All respondents echoed that veiling provided a sense of security as men were more respectful towards ‘good women’ and did not treat them like sexual objects (Ruby 2004, Azin &Banu,2009). Based on the focus group discussion with male students expressing their attitude towards veil. They think women should wear veil for religious modesty not for fashion. One of the male students says that “wearing hijab is now a social trend and hijab makes girls appear both attractive and humble. It creates an image of a ‘good’ girl. A number of the male respondents also added that they (their female peers) should wear a veil for religious practice but not as a fashion statement”.

Thus, it can be said that, what Ahmed stated in 1992, remains applicable today,“women’s sexuality was designated the property of men, first of the woman’s father, then of her husband, and female sexual purity (virginity in particular) became negotiable, economically valuable property. This led (some have argued) to the emergence of prostitution and to the enforcement of a rigid demarcation between “respectable” women (wives), whose sexuality and reproductive capability belonged to one man, and women who were sexually available to any man.” (Ahmed 1992:12).

The Enculturation Process: Family & Peer Pressure

For Muslim women in Bangladesh, wanting to wear the hijab is largely correlated with the level of exposure to the culture of veiling. Oftentimes, they are introduced to the practice by social gatekeepers such as family members, older relatives and even teachers. Peer pressure and the desire for a feeling of group solidarity, was also found to be one of the primary reasons of veiling amongst the respondents. One respondent shared her views: “When I was at the age of 12, my mother advised me to wear the hijab because I was starting to learn The Quran in Madrasa. My Madrasa teachers also advised me saying that it is a symbol of modesty and guarantees security. As a result, I continue

to embrace the veil as an expression of my religious identity. But I have observed different reasons among my university friends; many of them choose to wear the hijab because it is in style or because of personal security in public places. Also, one of my

classmates has chosen to take the hijab off once her hair started growing back after her cancer treatment,”.

Convenience or Class Connotations?

Fashion statements, popular culture trends, personal safety and even religious ideals aside, a number of the respondents claimed veiling for a much more straightforward purpose: convenience.

Veiling, especially in the form of a burqa, offers an easy alternative to the daily hassle of having to worry about one’s appearance. For instance, Shefali mentioned, "I woke up late today and did not have time to dress properly for university, so I chose to wear my mom's burqa instead,”. Not to mention, the veil has a prevalent class connotation. Furthermore, respondents mentioned that they do not or do not want to wear a hijab to social gatherings or events. Some of the respondents, especially those from lower and working class backgrounds, mentioned that veiling effectively reduces the burden of having to frequently purchase multiple outfits, thus allowing them to feel confident when interacting with friends or peers from more privileged backgrounds. Most of the

respondents claimed that they wore the hijab as protection against the ‘male gaze’ and potential sexual harassment, for everyday convenience and as a fashion statement.

Globalization, The Veil & Patriarchy

The effects of processes such as Globalization, Westernization, Modernization, Industrialization, Rationalization and Secularism have completely transformed the human experience generally and the experience of individual social identities more specifically, including religious identity. The creation of borderless markets and a multitude of sources of information due to new media are drastically reshaping the culture of Bangladesh. The simultaneous influence of Middle Eastern5 and Western culture has had a unique yet significant impact on the socio-economic culture of Bangladesh. It is quite prevalent for young students on the university campus to pair different styles of veils with Western attire like jeans and t-shirts.

Likewise, the export of Bangladeshi labor to the Middle East has been increasingly effective in proliferating the influence of Middle Easterm Islamic culture on the Bangladesh populace; for example, many migrant workers tend to purchase Middle Eastern style veils for their female members regarding it as the most sophisticated form of attire for women. For instance, the story of Dilruba, an undergraduate student of Sociology, rings true for many women and girls who find themselves in a similar position: “my father is working in Saudi Arabia and brought veils for me, my mother and my sister. Initially we were forced to wear it, but now it has become a part of my life,”.

In order to ensure access to education, socioeconomic independence and a chance at upward social mobility; the hijab, for Bangladeshi women, has become a tool of negotiation with the patriarchal social structure; some of the respondents adhere to the veil, exclusively in public places for the purpose of maintaining personal safety and to avoid acts of sexual harassment in the form of ‘eve teasing’ and catcalling. For instance, Shathi, a respondent said that," I feel comfortable and secured by wearing veils in public,”. Similarly, the percentage of the female workforce that work within

5 The Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training (BMET) data inform that a total of 734,181 Bangladeshi workers migrated to different countries of the world including the Gulf, other Arab and South East Asian countries in 2018 and the highest number of female workers (121,925) migrated in 2017 (Siddiqui, 2019).

the public sphere, specifically garment workers and manual laborers, choose to cover their head using veils, head scarves, or hijabs to maintain the image of a 'good woman'; for women, the veiling practice has become merely a bargain with the patriarchy that validates her existence in the male-dominated public sphere. (Ruby, 2014). For instance, Sama like many others had to promise her father to wear a burqa in order to attend university. However, as a married woman she was able to stop wearing a veil with the permission of her husband; but still continues to wear a veil when she visits her in-laws’ village as a show of respect for social norms.

Concluding Remarks

Globalization and neoliberal open market economies have ushered in a new age of individualism in the 21st century; in which, people constantly construct new identities and subcultures for themselves and the legitimacy of an overarching national identity is fast fading. These new trends are forcing people in general and women in particular, as a vulnerable group, to respond and adjust to the changing environment through rebuilding and reshaping their way of life. Consequently, the youth of today is growing up within the greater context of a global culture. According to Anthony Giddens, "...even small choices in daily life–– what to wear, how to spend leisure time, and how to care for our health and bodies, are part of an ongoing process of creating and re-creating our self-identities".(Giddens 2009, p 671).

Among many others, the impact of these minute individual choices, has manifested in the Islamization of women’s clothing, where veiling is an increasingly popular trend among women in general and young university students in particular. However, the manifestation of modes of dress like veils, hijabs and burqas is not unilinear. ( Azim & Banu, 2009). In the last few decades, the influence of globalization and mass media, international labour migration to the Middle East, increased participation of women in the new market economy, and the role of NGOs are multiple agents of social change with regards to the life of women in Bangladesh.

This study demonstrated that socio-economic, political and cultural incentives are as, if not more influential, than religious ones in terms of why women choose to wear veils. Feminists like Rachel Woodlock, thinks that the issue of veiling depends on cultural and globalization context (Bayers and Tohidi, Choudhury, Aziz and Banu). Therefore, In Bangladesh, veiling is neither a form of

religious expression exclusively nor is it solely associated with ethno-symbolism; rather, to be understood it must be studied as a complex social phenomena that demands further research, which aims to explore its multidimensional perspectives. To conclude, the practice of veiling is actively influenced by the intersection of religion and culture over time and its idiosyncrasies are intertwined with gender, class, sexuality, and patriarchy.

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