Economics and Human Biology 15 (2014) 81–100 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Economics and Human Biology jo urnal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ehb The role of nutrition and genetics as key determinants of the positive height trend P. Grasgruber *, J. Cacek, T. Kalina, M. Sebera Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article history: The aim of this study was to identify the most important variables determining current Received 4 November 2013 differences in physical stature in Europe and some of its overseas offshoots such as Received in revised form 22 July 2014 Australia, New Zealand and USA. We collected data on the height of young men from 45 Accepted 26 July 2014 countries and compared them with long-term averages of food consumption from the Available online 7 August 2014 FAOSTAT database, various development indicators compiled by the World Bank and the CIA World Factbook, and frequencies of several genetic markers. Our analysis Keywords: demonstrates that the most important factor explaining current differences in stature Male height Nutrition among nations of European origin is the level of nutrition, especially the ratio between the Genetics intake of high-quality proteins from milk products, pork meat and fish, and low-quality GDP per capita proteins from wheat. Possible genetic factors such as the distribution of Y haplogroup Europe I-M170, combined frequencies of Y haplogroups I-M170 and R1b-U106, or the phenotypic distribution of lactose tolerance emerge as comparably important, but the available data are more limited. Moderately significant positive correlations were also found with GDP per capita, health expenditure and partly with the level of urbanization that influences male stature in Western Europe. In contrast, male height correlated inversely with children’s mortality and social inequality (Gini index). These results could inspire social and nutritional guidelines that would lead to the optimization of physical growth in children and maximization of the genetic potential, both at the individual and national level. ß 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). 1. Introduction surprising that height could not approach maximal genetic limits. Paradoxically, the tallest people in Europe before The increase of height in the industrialized world the start of the industrial revolution may have been Early started only 150 years ago. In the past, adult stature Upper Paleolithic hunters from the Gravettian culture that reflected fluctuations in environmental factors influencing emerged at least 36,000 calibrated years ago (Prat, 2011) physical growth (mainly climate, diseases, availability of and is connected with the migration from the Near East food and population density) and considering that these that brought Y haplogroup (male genetic lineage) I-M170 conditions have almost never been optimal, it is not to Europe (Semino et al., 2000). The estimated stature of Gravettian men is thought to be tall in the whole of Europe: 176.3 cm in Moravian localities (n = 18) and 182.7 cm in * Corresponding author. the Mediterranean (n = 11) (Docˇkalova´ and Vancˇata, 2005). E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Grasgruber). These exceptional physical parameters can be explained by http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2014.07.002 1570-677X/ß 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 3.0/). 82 P. Grasgruber et al. / Economics and Human Biology 15 (2014) 81–100 a very low population density and a diet rich in high quality 2012; Hatton, 2013 etc.). However, the number of animal proteins. However, Late Upper Paleolithic and investigated European countries is usually limited to the especially Mesolithic Europeans were noticeably smaller; western half of the continent and to former European Formicola and Giannecchini (1999) estimated that the colonies, because information from the rest of Europe is average height of Mesolithic males was 173.2 cm (n = 75) less accessible. In the present work, we fill this gap. in the Carpathian Basin and Eastern Europe, and only The aim of this study can be summarized in four basic 163.1 cm (n = 96) in Western Europe. Perhaps the lowest points: values in European history were recorded in males from the Late Neolithic Lengyel culture (in the Carpathian Basin 1. Mapping the current average height of young males in during the 5th millenium BC), who were only 162.0 cm tall nations of European descent and describing the actual (n = 33) (E´ ry, 1998). dynamics of the height trend. A new increase (up to 169 cm) came during the 3rd 2. Identifying main exogenous (environmental) factors millenium BC with the advance of Eneolithic cultures that determine the final male stature. (Corded Ware culture, Bell-Beaker culture) (Vancˇata and 3. Creating recommendations that could lead to the Charva´ tova´ , 2001; Dobisı´kova´ et al., 2007) and it is maximization of the genetic potential in this regard. tempting to speculate that it was just in this period, 4. Investigating the role of genetics in the existing regional when beneficial genes of lactose tolerance spread in differences in male height. Central and Northern Europe, because their origin is placed in the Neolithic era (Itan et al., 2009). During 2. Methods the next millenia, stature of Europeans changed mostly due to climatic conditions and usually remained within 2.1. Collection of anthropometric data the range of 165–175 cm (Hermanussen, 2003; Steckel, 2004; Koepke and Baten, 2005; Mummert et al., 2011 In order to have the most representative basis for our etc.). comparisons, we collected a large number of anthropo- The modern increase of stature in the developed world metric studies of young European males from the whole is closely tied with the positive effect of the industrial continent (including Turkey and the Caucasian repub- revolution. Ironically, these socioeconomic changes were lics), and also data on young white males from Australia, accompanied by a new temporary decline of body size in New Zealand and USA. Whenever possible, we preferred the late 18th century and then again in the 1830s, which large-scale nationwide surveys that have been conducted probably resulted from bad living conditions in over- within the last 10 years and included at least 100 crowded cities, a worsening of the income distribution and 1 individuals. Forty-six out of 48 values in Table 1 were the decline of food available per capita (Komlos, 1998; based on studies that were conducted between 2003 and Steckel, 2001; Zehetmeyer, 2011). These negative circum- 2013. The remaining two studies (from Australia and stances were overcome at the end of the 19th century and Lithuania) were done between 1999 and 2001. In case since that time the trend of height increase in Europe has we found two or more representative sources from been practically linear (Baten, 2006; Danubio and Sanna, this period, we preferred those with higher measured 2008; Baten and Blum, 2012). Before WWII, its pace was values. In general, information from the southeastern faster in the northern and middle zone of industrialized part of Europe was the most problematic, because large- Europe, while after WWII, it was mainly countries in scale, nationwide anthropometric research is often Southern Europe that experienced the biggest increments virtually non-existent. The only country from which (Hatton and Bray, 2010). Approximately since the 1980s, a we had data on less than 100 individuals was Georgia beginning deceleration or even stagnation started to be 2 (n = 69). apparent in some nations. After being the tallest in the In seven cases, we found the most recent data only on world for 200 years, the US was overtaken by many local populations (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Northern and Western European countries such as Iceland, Latvia, Romania, Sweden and United Kingdom). Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands (Komlos and The urban surveys from Iceland and Latvia may increase Lauderdale, 2007). the real national mean, but the study from Iceland was Various authors tried to identify the most important undertaken in the greater area of Reykjavik that encom- environmental variables that contributed to this dramatic passes 70% of the Icelandic population. The mean for the increase of height in the industrialized world. Besides GDP United Kingdom (177.7 cm) was computed from the per capita (as the main indicator of national wealth), the average height in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, most frequently mentioned factors are children’s mortali- weighted by the population size. A weighted average of ty, the general quality of health care, education, social six adult, non-university samples from Bulgaria was equality, urbanization and nutrition (Komlos and Baur, 175.9 cm (n = 643), which agrees with a rounded mean 2004; Baten, 2006; Bozzoli et al., 2007; Baten and Blum, 176 cm (n = 1204) reported in the age category 25–34 years in a recent nationwide health survey CINDI 2007 1 With regard to possible climatic factors, see the climatic deterioration 2 between 1812 and 1917, documented in Prague Klementinum by average According to M. Kharabadze (pers. communication), median male monthly temperatures for August between 1775 and 2013, http:// height in a closely unspecified nationwide survey from Georgia was www.infomet.cz/pix/pix1378445272-2.jpg. 176 cm. P. Grasgruber et al. / Economics and Human Biology 15 (2014) 81–100 83 Table 1 Average male height in European countries and nations of European descent. Country/region n Age Date Height Source Herzegovina 819 17 2001–2003 185.2 Pineau et al. (2005) (pers.