DOCSLIB.ORG

Three-Dimensional Body and Centre of Mass Kinematics in Alpine Ski Racing Using Differential GNSS and Inertial Sensors

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Three-Dimensional Body and Centre of Mass Kinematics in Alpine Ski Racing Using Differential GNSS and Inertial Sensors remote sensing Article Three-Dimensional Body and Centre of Mass Kinematics in Alpine Ski Racing Using Differential GNSS and Inertial Sensors Benedikt Fasel 1, Jörg Spörri 2, Matthias Gilgien 3, Geo Boffi 1,4, Julien Chardonnens 1, Erich Müller 2 and Kamiar Aminian 1,* 1 Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; benedikt.fasel@epfl.ch (B.F.); geo.boffi@geod.baug.ethz.ch (G.B.); [email protected] (J.C.) 2 Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria; [email protected] (J.S.); [email protected] (E.M.) 3 Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, 0806 Oslo, Norway; [email protected] 4 Institute of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland * Correspondence: kamiar.aminian@epfl.ch; Tel.: +41-21-693-26-17 Academic Editors: Richard Müller and Prasad S. Thenkabail Received: 30 June 2016; Accepted: 16 August 2016; Published: 22 August 2016 Abstract: A key point in human movement analysis is measuring the trajectory of a person’s center of mass (CoM). For outdoor applications, differential Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) can be used for tracking persons since they allow measuring the trajectory and speed of the GNSS antenna with centimeter accuracy. However, the antenna cannot be placed exactly at the person’s CoM, but rather on the head or upper back. Thus, a model is needed to relate the measured antenna trajectory to the CoM trajectory. In this paper we propose to estimate the person’s posture based on measurements obtained from inertial sensors. From this estimated posture the CoM is computed relative to the antenna position and finally fused with the GNSS trajectory information to obtain the absolute CoM trajectory. In a biomechanical field experiment, the method has been applied to alpine ski racing and validated against a camera-based stereo photogrammetric system. CoM position accuracy and precision was found to be 0.08 m and 0.04 m, respectively. CoM speed accuracy and precision was 0.04 m/s and 0.14 m/s, respectively. The observed accuracy and precision might be sufficient for measuring performance- or equipment-related trajectory differences in alpine ski racing. Moreover, the CoM estimation was not based on a movement-specific model and could be used for other skiing disciplines or sports as well. Keywords: inertial sensors; GNSS; sensor fusion; wearable system; skiing; center of mass; biomechanics 1. Introduction In the sport of alpine ski racing, precise data of the center of mass (CoM) position, speed and acceleration are indispensable for the purposes of performance analysis and injury prevention [1–9]. Early studies mainly used camera-based stereo photogrammetry to collect kinematic data on a ski-slope and to reconstruct the CoM kinematics [2,3,7,10–13]. However, despite advantages in measurement accuracy, these systems are complex to set up and need for time-consuming post processing due to manual digitization. Moreover, they are limited in capture volume, allowing the analysis of a short turn sequence only. With the ongoing miniaturization of electronics, it became possible to use global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) in alpine skiing research [9,13–24]. However, one disadvantage of these systems is that the exact CoM position in space and time cannot be measured directly, as Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 671; doi:10.3390/rs8080671 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 671 2 of 13 the GNSS antenna is mounted on the head or neck. Thus, modeling methods are needed to estimate the CoM position relative to the GNSS antenna and to find the absolute position of the CoM, as previously suggested by the authors of [13,14,25]. In these studies, the models were based on inverse pendulumRemote using Sens. 2016 precise, 8, 671 surveying of the snow surface. However, for abnormal skiing2 movements of 13 violatingbe the measured model directly, hypotheses as the (e.g.,GNSS during antenna moments is mounted of on loss the ofhead balance) or neck. the Thus, estimated modeling CoM methods kinematics may beare wrong. needed Moreover, to estimate surveyingthe CoM position the snow relative surface to the isGNSS time antenna consuming and to and find isthe only absolute feasible for researchposition applications, of the CoM, but as not previously within suggested regular trainingby the authors sessions. of [13,14,25] Alternatively,. In these studies, inertial the sensorsmodels could be usedwere to estimate based on theinverse athlete’s pendulum body using segment precise orientations surveying of and the posturesnow surface. over timeHowever, [26]. for In alpine skiing research,abnormal suchskiing an movements approach violating was already the model used hypoth to estimateeses (e.g., theduring relative moments COM of loss kinematics of balance) (e.g., the the estimated CoM kinematics may be wrong. Moreover, surveying the snow surface is time athlete’s CoM kinematics with respect to the athlete’s head), and fused with a GNSS, to estimate the consuming and is only feasible for research applications, but not within regular training sessions. CoM kinematicsAlternatively, with inertial respect sensors to acould fixed be reference used to estimate frame the [18 athlete’s,19,27]. body Although segment these orientations studies and specified the errorsposture of each over systemtime [26]. independently, In alpine skiing research, they did su notch an validate approach their was already final results used to on estimate snow the using the gold standardrelative COM camera-based kinematics (e.g., stereo the photogrammetry. athlete’s CoM kinematics Fasel with et al. respect [28] usedto the sevenathlete’s inertial head), and sensors to estimatefused a relative with a GNSS, CoM basedto estimate on athe seven CoM segmentkinematics body with respect model. to Relativea fixed reference distances frame between [18,19,27]. the CoM and ankleAlthough position these were studies estimated specified andthe errors validated. of each However,system independently, they did not they compute did not validate the absolute their joint final results on snow using the gold standard camera-based stereo photogrammetry. Fasel et al. [28] and CoM positions in space. used seven inertial sensors to estimate a relative CoM based on a seven segment body model. Relative Therefore,distances between the aims the of CoM this and study ankle were position threefold: were estimated (1) to and design validated. a novel However, algorithm they did to not estimate CoM kinematicscompute the based absolute on joint the trajectoryand CoM positions and speed in space. data obtained from a differential GNSS (dGNSS) and body segmentTherefore, orientations the aims of this obtained study were from threefold: seven (1)inertial to design sensors; a novel algorithm (2) to reduce to estimate the CoM number of sensor andkinematics to design based an on alternativethe trajectory algorithm and speed data that obtained bases on from the a dGNSS differential data GNSS and (dGNSS) the orientation and of the athlete’sbody segment head and orientations sternum obtained only; (3) from to validateseven inerti theseal sensors; algorithms (2) to reduce against the number a camera-based of sensor stereo and to design an alternative algorithm that bases on the dGNSS data and the orientation of the photogrammetricathlete’s head system. and sternum only; (3) to validate these algorithms against a camera-based stereo photogrammetric system. 2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Protocol 2.1. Protocol The measurements took place on a giant slalom slope of 26◦ inclination. Eleven gates were positioned atThe a measurements constant distance took place of 27 on m a with giant an slalom 8-m slope offset of (Figure 26° inclination.1A). The Eleven left turn gates around were gate positioned at a constant distance of 27 m with an 8-m offset (Figure 1A). The left turn around gate 7 7 was covered with the video-based reference system. Six European Cup level alpine ski athletes was covered with the video-based reference system. Six European Cup level alpine ski athletes participatedparticipated in the in study. the study. Each Each athlete athlete skied skied thethe coursecourse two two times. times. Informed Informed written written consent consent was was obtainedobtained from eachfrom athlete.each athlete. The The protocol protocol was was approvedapproved by by the the University University Ethics Ethics Committee Committee of the of the DepartmentDepartment of Sport of Sport Science Science and and Kinesiology Kinesiology at at thethe University of ofSalzburg. Salzburg. Figure 1.FigureMaterials 1. Materials and setup.and setup. (A )(A Illustration) Illustration of of thethe giant giant slalom slalom slope. slope. The Theleft turn left marked turn marked with the with the solid linesolid was line covered was covered by the by the six six cameras cameras and and analyzedanalyzed in in this this study; study; (B) (inertialB) inertial sensors sensors placed placedon on both shanksboth shanks and thighs, and thighs, on theon the sacrum, sacrum, sternum, sternum, and head. head. The The global global navigation navigation satellite satellite systems systems (GNSS)(GNSS) antenna antenna was fixed was fixed to the to the athlete’s athlete’s helmet. helmet. Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 671 3 of 13 2.2. Wearable System 2.2.1. Inertial Sensors Six inertial sensor units (Physilog® III, GaitUp, Renens, Switzerland) were placed on the left and right shank on the tibial plateau, above the ski boots, on the left and right thigh on the lateral side, mid-distance between the knee and hip joint center, on the sacrum and on the sternum using a custom made skin-tight underwear suit. A seventh inertial sensor unit was fixed to the athlete’s helmet (Figure1B). Three-dimensional acceleration and angular velocity were recorded on each sensor unit at 500 Hz.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Designing Sustainable Alpine Skis Combining User Needs with Ecological, Social, and Economical Sustainablility
    Designing Sustainable Alpine Skis Combining user needs with ecological, social, and economical sustainablility Tom-Oskar Barreflod Matilda Nilsson Industrial Design Engineering, master's level 2020 Luleå University of Technology Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences Designing sustainable alpine skis Combining user needs with ecological, social, and economical sustainablility Tom-Oskar Barreflod Matilda Nilsson 2020 SUPERVISORS: Patrik Sannes (Norse Skis) & Eva-Leva Bäckström (LTU) REVIEWER: Erika Möller & Ylva Jersenius CIVILINGENJÖR I TEKNISK DESIGN EXAMINER: Åsa Wikberg Nilsson Master of Science Thesis in Industrial Design Engineering Designing sustainable alpine skis Combining user needs with ecological, social and economical sustainability © Tom-Oskar Barreflod & Matilda Nilsson Published and distributed by Luleå University of Technology SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden Telephone: + 46 (0) 920 49 00 00 Cover: Render by Tom-Oskar Barreflod Printed in Luleå Sweden by Luleå University of Technology Reproservice Luleå, 2016 Acknowledgment First of all, we would like to thank Norse Skis for giving us the opportunity to conduct this master thesis project together with them. Thank you for your time, welcoming atmosphere, and providing us with a place to work. We would also like to give a huge thank you to our supervisor Patrik Sannes at Norse Skis, for all the knowledge, endless answering of questions, and great discussion. Thank you for the great skiing in Sälen, we hope that we get to ski with you again soon! We would also like to thank Eva-Lena Bäckström, our supervisor at Luleå University of Technology. Thank you for your great inputs that have helped us think outside the box and challenged us through the design process.
    [Show full text]
  • Wide Skis As a Potential Knee Injury Risk Factor in Alpine Skiing
    ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 18 February 2020 doi: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00007 Wide Skis As a Potential Knee Injury Risk Factor in Alpine Skiing Martin Zorko 1, Bojan Nemec 2, Zlatko Matjaciˇ c´ 3, Andrej Olenšek 3, Katja Tomazin 4 and Matej Supej 4* 1 Clinical Institute of Occupational, Traffic and Sports Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2 Department for Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Štefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 3 Research and Development Unit, University Rehabilitation Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 4 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Alpine skis with wider waist widths have recently become more popular. With such skis, the contact point of the ground reaction force during ski turns is displaced more medially from beneath the sole of the outer ski, which may present an increased risk of injury. The aim of this study was to investigate knee joint kinetics, kinematics, and lower limb muscle activation as a function of changes of the ski waist width in a laboratory setting. A custom skiing simulator was constructed to enable simulation of different ski waist widths in a quasi-static ski turn position. An optical system was used for capturing knee joint kinematics of the outer leg, whereas a force plate was used to determine the ground reaction force vector. The combination of both systems enabled values for Edited by: external torques acting on the knee joint to be calculated, whereas electromyographic Josef Kroell, measurements enabled an analysis of knee flexor muscle activation. With respect to the University of Salzburg, Austria outer ski, the knee joint external torques were independent of ski waist width, whereas Reviewed by: Peter A.
    [Show full text]
  • Effect of Ski Geometry on Aggressive Ski Behaviour and Visual Aesthetics: Equipment Designed to Reduce Risk of Severe Traumatic
    BJSM Online First, published on November 24, 2015 as 10.1136/bjsports-2015-095433 Original article Br J Sports Med: first published as 10.1136/bjsports-2015-095433 on 24 November 2015. Downloaded from Effect of ski geometry on aggressive ski behaviour and visual aesthetics: equipment designed to reduce risk of severe traumatic knee injuries in alpine giant slalom ski racing Josef Kröll,1 Jörg Spörri,1 Matthias Gilgien,2 Hermann Schwameder,1 Erich Müller1 1Department of Sport Science ABSTRACT Within the classification of severe injuries, the and Kinesiology, University of Background/Aim Aggressive ski-snow interaction is most frequently injured body part was the knee Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Austria 3 2 characterised by direct force transmission and difficulty of (62,3%), with a particular focus on the rupture of Department of Physical 13 Performance, Norwegian getting the ski off its edge once the ski is carving. This the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The major- School of Sport Sciences, behaviour has been suggested to be a main contributor ity of knee injuries occur while the skier is still Oslo, Norway to severe knee injuries in giant slalom (GS). The aim of skiing the course (83%).9 The main mechanism for the current study was to provide a foundation for new ACL injury in World Cup alpine skiing was found Correspondence to fi Dr Josef Kröll, Department of equipment speci cations in GS by considering two to be the slip-catch mechanism where the inside Sport Science and Kinesiology, perspectives: Reducing the ski’s aggressiveness for injury edge of the outer ski abruptly catches the snow University of Salzburg, prevention and maintaining the external attractiveness of surface, forcing the outer knee into internal rota- Hallein-Rif 5400, Austria; a ski racer’s technique for spectators.
    [Show full text]
  • Stability Control and Turning Algorithm of an Alpine Skiing Robot
    sensors Article Stability Control and Turning Algorithm of an Alpine Skiing Robot Si-Hyun Kim 1, Bumjoo Lee 2 and Young-Dae Hong 1,* 1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea 2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Myongji University, Yongin 17058, Korea * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 12 July 2019; Accepted: 20 August 2019; Published: 23 August 2019 Abstract: This paper proposes a general stability control method that uses the concept of zero-moment- point (ZMP) and a turning algorithm with a light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensor for a bipedal alpine skiing robot. There is no elaborate simulator for skiing robots since the snow has complicated characteristics, such as compression and melting. However, real experiments are laborious because of the many varied skiing conditions. The proposed skiing simulator could be used, so that a humanoid robot can track its desired turning radius by modeled forces that are similar to real ones in the snow. Subsequently, the robot will be able to pass through gates with LiDAR sensors. By using ZMP control, the robot can avoid falling down while tracking its desired path. The performance of the proposed stabilization method and autonomous turning algorithm are verified by a dynamics simulation software, Webots, and the simulation results are obtained while using the small humanoid robot platform DARwIn-OP. Keywords: navigation based on LiDAR sensor; skiing robot; stability control; turn radius 1. Introduction Research into humanoid robots is one of the most exciting topics in the field of robotics. As proof, robot competitions, such as the DARPA Robotics Challenge (DRC), are becoming increasingly popular.
    [Show full text]
  • Designing for Professional Skiers Designing Equipment for Professional Alpine Skiers and Freestyle Skiers
    Designing for Professional Skiers Designing Equipment for Professional Alpine Skiers and Freestyle skiers. Yvonne Maria Rørvik Department of Product Design Engineering Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) ABSTRACT Products that are designed for professional athletes are products of high quality and endurance, since the athletes often rely on their equipment to be the best. To create these kind of products, designers must work with the best materials and test their products for improvement often to be able to get the best possible solution possible. In addition to this, there are rules and regulations that must be taken into consideration to make sure that the product is safe to use, and that it does not violate any laws or constrictions given by unions such as FIS (Fédération Internationale de Ski). This paper looks at the challenges and factors to take into consideration when designing for professional athletes, alpine skiers in particular. Since alpine ski racing is a sport with high risk of knee injuries, the focus for this article will be to look at safety and injury prevention. It will also be to look at the effectiveness of sponsorship, and will give guidelines to what a designer should take into consideration when designing for professional alpine skiers. KEYWORDS: Athlete safety, Sponsorship, Users’ need, Alpine skiing 1. INTRODUCTION From the designer’s point of view, there is The author of this article has been skiing since often an attempt to combine aesthetics, the age of five, and skiing and snowboarding is function, and technology when designing sport still one of her favorite hobbies.
    [Show full text]
  • Recent Kinematic and Kinetic Advances in Olympic Alpine Skiing: Pyeongchang and Beyond
    fphys-10-00111 February 18, 2019 Time: 15:54 # 1 PERSPECTIVE published: 20 February 2019 doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00111 Recent Kinematic and Kinetic Advances in Olympic Alpine Skiing: Pyeongchang and Beyond Matej Supej1* and H.-C. Holmberg2,3 1 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2 The Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, 3 School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway Alpine skiing has been an Olympic event since the first Winter Games in 1936. Nowadays, skiers compete in four main events: slalom, giant slalom, super-G and downhill. Here, we present an update on the biomechanics of alpine ski racers and their equipment. The technical and tactical ability of today’s world-class skiers have adapted substantially to changes in equipment, snow conditions and courses. The wide variety of terrain, slopes, gate setups and snow conditions involved in alpine skiing requires skiers to continuously adapt, alternating between the carving and skidding turning techniques. The technical complexity places a premium on minimizing energy dissipation, employing Edited by: strategies and ski equipment that minimize ski-snow friction and aerodynamic drag. Nicolas Coulmy, Access to multiple split times along the racing course, in combination with analysis of the Fédération Française de Ski, France trajectory and speed provide information that can be utilized to enhance performance. Reviewed by: Laurent Mourot, Peak ground reaction forces, which can be as high as five times body weight, serve as a Université Bourgogne measure of the external load on the skier and equipment. Although the biomechanics of Franche-Comté, France alpine skiing have significantly improved, several questions concerning optimization of Robert Cortas Reid, Norwegian Ski Federation, Norway skiers’ performance remain to be investigated.
    [Show full text]
  • Making Pressure Your Friend in GS Pressure in the Start House Is Usually Not Wel - on by Guy Wearing a Running Shoe It May Sure from the Snow
    autumn 2015 www.ussa.org/masters Making Pressure Your Friend in GS Pressure in the start house is usually not wel - on by guy wearing a running shoe it may sure from the snow. Remember, more is not come, but pressure while skiing is prerequisite hurt, although it would hurt much more if always better. Don’t try to make Ted’s 50 to turn. We can pressure the tip, tail, under - he had on a high heel stiletto (not to men - mph angles to create pressure when you are neath foot, as well as adjust pressure from ski tion the social implications). Tipping the traveling 30 mph. You may have less speed to ski. Pressure is increased with higher speeds than Ted, but you probably have more side - and can be created by leg extension, reducing The snow pushing back cut radius in which to accomplish the task. the turn radius. All pressure movements are in on Ted Ligety on his way to World Line will be dictated by your capabili - the sagittal plane. Edging, the close cousin of Championship gold in Schladming. ties and the tool you have selected that is pressure, is from lateral movements in the strapped to your boots. How we interact frontal plane. The ankle, knee, hip and entire with pressure is a key to a good line and the body move sideways to create edging. Moving secret of going fast. in two different planes which are perpendicu - lar to each other creates distinct and unique Edge, then pressure actions. Understanding and appreciating each The skills of edging and pressure are so in - will help to clarify how they affect the ski turn.
    [Show full text]
  • April / May 2019
    INTERNATIONAL MEN’S CLUB OF ZUG, P.O. BOX 7212, 6301 ZUG IIII Editor: Alan Cattell • email: [email protected] IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IMCZ NEWS APRIL / MAY 2019 Introducing… New members THE IMCZ WELCOMES: EDITORIAL Spring is Sprung Martin Wrathall NoW that the Weather is graduallY getting Warmer, I’m sure Martin is of mixed British and German descent. manY of You are thinking about Warm Weather pursuits and He was born in Shrewsbury but moved to putting aWaY Your Winter sports equipment for another Year. Düsseldorf in his early teens. He trained as “Hotelkaufmann“ and Soon the blossom Will be out on all 1,000 cherrY trees in Zug then “Chef du Cuisine“ and had and it Will be time for each of us to finalise plans for the many jobs in kitchens in summer. For me it’s soon the start of the sailing season! Germany, Austria, Chicago and This is the second edition of the IMCZ NeWsletter Which I haVe Singapore. In 1990 he started edited. I think it’s noW time to get some feedback from You, his own business “all-event the membership. I Want to hear from You – for eXample: Party & Rental services” in Germany, which • Do You read the NeWsletter? attracted many large clients. In 2017 he sold • Do You enjoY the NeWsletter or is it onlY of passing interest? this business and shortly thereafter started a • What Would You like to see more of? / less of? new all-event company in Zug, freelancer • What do You think of the format? event management, catering events and expos.
    [Show full text]
  • Modeling of the Ski-Snow Contact for a Carved Turn
    Modeling of the Ski-Snow Contact for a Carved Turn Martin Mössner1, Dieter Heinrich1, Kurt Schindelwig1, Peter Kaps2, Peter Lugner3, Heinz-Bodo Schmiedmayer3, Herwig Schretter4, and Werner Nachbauer1 1 University of Innsbruck, Department of Sport Science, [email protected] 2 University of Innsbruck, Department of Engineering Mathematics, Geometry, and Computer Science 3 Vienna University of Technology, Department of Mechanics and Mechatronics 4 HTM Tyrolia, Schwechat, Austria Abstract. Carved turns with alpine skis are investigated. During the movement of a ski, snow is loaded and unloaded. Compacted snow is not elastic, i.e. deformations remain. Such effects are modeled by a hypoplastic constitutive equation. During a turn the shovel digs into the snow and the tail maintains nearly the same penetration depth as the part under maximum load. This results in a higher resistance against shearing for the afterbody of the ski. In the present work we investigated the benefits of the hypoplastic against the elastic force- penetration relationship. Simulation results for a sledge on two skis are compared to experi- mental track data. 1 Introduction Skiing experts define a perfect turn as carving with no skidding. Therefore we stud- ied carved turns with alpine skis and in particular the contact problem between ski and snow. To avoid influences of the skier’s motions, the movement of a rigid sledge on two skis was investigated. A common approach is to model the penetration force by non-linear springs. However, snow is not elastic. Deformations of the snow re- main, leaving tracks. Such effects can be modeled by a hypoplastic force-penetration relationship (e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • The Revolution for the „Perfect Setup“
    T UVO E C HN O L O G Y Function General technical function Use of the technology in skis The revolutionary UVO technology utilizes UVO dampens disruptive vibrations that which were attached to the ski at a fixed the same underlying principles as a vibra- constantly emerge as a result of varied ter- point and thus functioned solely along the tion damper. The strategically positioned rain and uneven ground. The free-floating Z axis (along the direction of travel and floating mass reacts to vibrations and mass of the UVO follows the ski’s vibrations ski’s length). Another even more important counteracts them by moving in the opposi- and counteracts them effectively. Because benefit of UVO technology is the fact that te direction of the vibration, thus reducing the greatest amplification of vibration ski and binding can be produced in an even the impact of the vibrations to the ski. Si- occurs in the ski’s shovel, the UVO is positi- more lightweight version, which promotes milar systems can be found in a variety of oned close to the ski’s tip for more effective greater performance and agility. areas, including industry and architecture, minimization of the vibration phase. 3D where they are used to dampen the influ- dampening means that jolts and vibrations ence of wind and earthquakes on high-rise are handled from all directions (360°). buildings and bridges. Vibration dampers The result: the ski’s edge contacts the are integrated into critical portions of the snow surface for a longer period and inter- construction to stabilize the structure.
    [Show full text]
  • Injury Prevention in Super-G Alpine Ski Racing Through Course Design
    www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Injury prevention in Super‑G alpine ski racing through course design Matthias Gilgien1,2*, Philip Crivelli3, Josef Kröll4, Live S. Luteberget1, Erich Müller4 & Jörg Spörri5,6 In Super‑G alpine ski racing mean speed is nearly as high as in Downhill. Hence, the energy dissipated in typical impact accidents is similar. However, unlike Downhill, on Super‑G courses no training runs are performed. Accordingly, speed control through course design is a challenging but important task to ensure safety in Super‑G. In four male World Cup alpine Super‑G races, terrain shape, course setting and the mechanics of a high‑level athlete skiing the course were measured with diferential global navigation satellite systems (dGNSS). The efects of course setting on skier mechanics were analysed using a linear mixed efects model. To reduce speed by 0.5 m/s throughout a turn, the gate ofset needs to be increased by + 51%. This change simultaneously leads to a decrease in minimal turn radius (− 19%), an increase in impulse (+ 27%) and an increase in maximal ground reaction force (+ 6%). In contrast, the same reduction in speed can also be achieved by a − 13% change in vertical gate distance, which also leads to a small reduction in minimal turn radius (− 4%) impulse (− 2%), and no change in maximal ground reaction force; i.e. fewer adverse side efects in terms of safety. It appears that shortening the vertical gate distance is a better and safer way to reduce speed in Super‑G than increasing the gate ofset. In each World Cup (WC) alpine ski racing competition season, approximately one third of all athletes sufer an injury1–3.
    [Show full text]
  • IN FOCUS Let 2016 Be the Year of Wisdom Editorial Photo: Mateja Jordovič Potočnik Moscow 2320 Km Slovenian Information
    November-December The Best from Slovenia IN FOCUS Let 2016 Be the Year of Wisdom EDITORIAL Photo: Mateja Jordovič Potočnik Jordovič Mateja Photo: Moscow 2320 km Slovenian information London www.slovenia.si Berlin www.ukom.gov.si 1550 km 990 km A YEAR OF WISE DECISIONS Vienna Published by Paris Government Communication Office – AIMING TO WIN 380 km 1250 km Editor-in-Chief Nataša Bušljeta, M.Sc. May the coming year be a year of wise decisions, may a winning mentality prevail, may Slovenia become better-known to the world, may there be enough of everything for LJUBLJANA Belgrade Executive Editor everyone. These are the ambitious goals of the successful young companies about Vesna Žarkovič which we report in this issue. Young Slovenes are boldly reducing the gap that existed 540 km with economically more developed markets. A supportive environment has developed, Editorial Board a lot is going on, and a lot is being said about new business opportunities. Much is being Danila Golob, Brigita Juhart, Uroš started anew – all with the aim of becoming a nation with a winning mentality. Young Mahkovec, Danila Mašić, Polona Prešeren, Livija Kovač Kostantinovič people in Slovenia no longer expect to receive the things that the preceding generation Madrid expected from the state. They are well aware that to a great extent they have to provide Ankara Design for themselves, and that a better tomorrow above all requires optimism. They have to get 2060 km Rome 1940 km Irena Kogoj past the “déjà vus” and think: we must, we can, we shall – and act to break down barriers.
    [Show full text]