HOW IS WAYNE ROONEY CONSTRUCTED WITHIN SPORTS CULTURE AND THE MEDIA

SAM CHALONER

This dissertation is presented in part fulfilment of the BA (Hons) Film and Media With Practice, 2011.

ABSTRACT

How Wayne Rooney is Constructed Within Sports Culture and The Media.

This thesis will aim to examine the process of construction of sports stats in modern day football and celebrity culture. To do this, close examination of tabloid press material and coverage of four football matches featuring current British football star

Wayne Rooney will be used.

Wayne Rooney will be examined in four key areas: Celebrity,

Class, Nationalism and Gender, and will be compared to other football stars, both past and present to highlight how the construction of the modern day football star works and has changed over time.

i Contents

Page Number

Acknowledgements iii List of illustrations iv

Introduction 1 Literary Review 3 Methodology 9

Chapter One – An Introduction to 13 British Football and Wayne Rooney

Chapter Two – Celebrity 26

Chapter Three – The Working Class Hero 43 and Nationalism

Chapter Four – Gender 58

Conclusion 73 Bibliography 78

Appendix Appendix A 91

ii Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Helen List for sharing her knowledge base with me and giving me guidance wherever it was needed. I would also like to thank my parents and family for the support they have given me over the last three years. Finally I would like to thank Keith Chaloner for introducing me to the wonderful sport that is football.

iii List of Illustrations

Page Number

Figure 1: Premier League Advert 16

Figure 2: Rooney signs for Manchester 24 United

Figure 3: Coke Zero Advert 32

Figure 4: Sunday Mirror Scandal Headline 39

Figure 5: Stanley Matthews 45

Figure 6: Goal against Manchester City 47

Figure 7: Rooney and The World Cup 53

Figure 8: Rooney and Family 70

Figure 9: David Beckham Armani Advert 72

iv Introduction.

British football and its image has drastically changed over time, from its humble beginnings as a working class leisure activity, to its growing relationship with media broadcast platforms and its transformation into the multi-billion pound industry it is today. The increased exposure given to football and injection of cash from the formation and the Premier League has also given rise to a new breed of celebrity, the football star.

Wayne Rooney is one of, if not the, biggest football star playing in Britain today. He currently plays for Manchester United

Football Club and also represents the England National team.

By studying the representation of Wayne Rooney, I aim to examine the process of construction within football culture and the media.

Football coverage exists on two main platforms of popular media, Television and the Tabloid Press. Both forms comment on the same game, yet use very different forms of address and representation and I will examine how different forms of construction and representation exist through these mediums.

1 There are four key contributing areas to Rooney's overall persona construction. Firstly, is celebrity culture, a concept that has evolved over time and has only recently been attracted to include a figure like Rooney, with the relatively new phenomenon that is the sports star. Secondly, is his place within the British class system, which due to his upbringing and background would see him classed as working class, and has led to him being built up as a working class hero, something that has become commonplace for talented footballers. Also, the idea of Nationalism within sport contributes to Rooney's persona, as national ideologies are both naturalised and constructed through sport and its coverage. Lastly, is the way in which gender is constructed and naturalised within the media, with Rooney's own construction and performance working towards a notion of hegemonic masculinity.

By examining newspaper articles and football coverage the process of how Rooney's persona is constructed in terms of these four key areas and applying it to theoretical work and comparison to past cases of football stars I aim address the question; How is Wayne Rooney Constructed within Sports

Culture and the Media.

2 Literature Review

The area I will explore in this dissertation will be: How is Wayne

Rooney Constructed within Sports Culture and the Media.

Whilst there has not been a great amount of academic literature on Rooney himself, there is a vast amount written on the concept of celebrity and the "sports star" which I can use to my advantage and apply to both my own theories and other authors looking at similar modes of construction that are found in Rooney's image.

When looking at the concept of celebrity, a brief introduction to the area and its history is needed. Turner (2004), Holmes and Redmond (2006) and Rojek (2001) provide a good background to this, recounting early examples of fame and celebrity status creation, recollecting early methods such as the

"pseudo event", the Hollywood Star systems persona creations and early use of gossip columns.

Rojeks book Celebrity (2001) is particularly interesting and useful for the way in which he attempts to classify the different type of celebrity and their path to fame. He categorises them into the following – ascribed, which is though blood, such as royalty, achieved which is through things such as sport and

3 attributed, which would count for created personas such as television and film stars. There are however, limitations when using this model, Rojek recognises this and coins the category celetoid, which is a celebrity that has hyper visibility, yet has a short and unpredictable lifespan. The problem in my research with this would be that Rooney, and other sports stars would be I feel a hybrid of parts of these as they need to fit into the achieved category at first, but would also need to be attributed to maintain their status and some sports starts could be seen as a celetoid.

To study how celebrities are formed and created Turner (2004) is an excellent starting point. He argues that celebrities are constructed and their main function is to promote and sell products. He also looks at the role of celebrity within sport. He argues that sport is differ from other ways of gaining celebrity status as you have to earn your way to a certain level by having a certain amount of talent and can continually prove that you are the best at what you do and deserve your celebrity status.

However, the celebrity still needs to create a persona outside their sporting agenda and this persona can transcend their sporting career, he uses people such as footballer David

Beckham and tennis player Anna Kournikova to demonstrate this. Another key text in how and why celebrities are created in

4 society is Marshalls Celebrity and Power (1997), in particular his work on how celebrities are used in regard to capitalist society.

Turner (2004) also looks at the role of agents, PR managers, publicists and the relationship with the press in relation to the creation and maintaining of celebrity status. He concludes that the press, the public and celebrities all need one another, something that I will be looking at when studying the case of

Wayne Rooney. Whilst providing a look at celebrities over various media platforms, Turner (2004: 39-40) also applies his studies to sports, which is useful to my research. He looks at the rise of the sports celebrity in relation to televised sport and convergence of sportswear and fashion.

The world of sport is another area that will have to be closely studied. Rowe's (2004) Sport, Culture and the Media, gives a good introduction to sport including a history of sport and its rise to being a major player within the media, the cultural aspects of sport and how sport is consumed. This book serves as both an introduction to the relationship between sport and the media as well as beginning to look at how construction works within sport by looking at the role of commentators and photography.

5 The work of Boyle and Haynes will take prominence specifically when looking at the role of football. Power Play (2nd Edition

2009) is very useful as it addresses many themes I wish to look at such as Nationalism, Masculinity and Consumption, which I will analyse in relation to Rooney and construction. Whilst not always focusing on football they provide many theories that can be applied to my own work. Football in the New Media Age

(2004) provides a look at football from an industry point of view, particularly focusing on the way in which technological and financial interventions have changed the face of football and in turn given rise to the football celebrity. This is particularly useful in my research as the changing face of football, the formation of the Premier League, the injection of money in the industry and players "image rights" will be important when studying Wayne Rooney. They also discuss

Rooney himself, and how his first professional contract was disputed over the value of his potential as a "brand" and less over his football ability.

The sports star itself is explored in two texts The Sports Star,

Smart (2005) and Sports Stars, Andrews and Jackson (2001), which whilst mainly focused on American sports stars such as

Jordan and Woods also looks at football stars creations in relation to Beckham and his celebrity construction, image rights

6 and downfall, which will be useful as it is similar to Rooney's career to date. Andrews and Jackson (2001: 124-137), look at

Paul Gascoigne, whose rags to riches story is an interesting comparison to Rooney's, bearing many similarities. The issue of nationalism is also examined within these texts, whilst Turner

(2004) examines the connection of sports stars to national identity and suggests sports stars are more vulnerable to the cycle of celebration, transgression, punishment and redemption, something Rooney has recently experienced and is visible in the coverage I will study.

When looking at the construction of Rooney's identity, along with Celebrity, there are three prominent themes that need to be addressed. Those themes are Class, Nationalism and

Masculinity, which I will analyse in relation to sports stars construction and how the themes interact with each other.

The issue of class, and the "British Class System" in particular have to be investigated. Rooney could be seen as a example of a working class hero. Milner (1999) does a good job of summarising the history and changing views on class systems, including Marxist and Weberian accounts of class and how they relate to new social movements. Giulianotti (1999) also studies class in relation to sport, describing how football is one of the

7 few routes originally offered to working class to gain social recognition. He also claims footballers status has changed from the original working class hero such as Stanley Matthews to international media stars such as David Beckham, similar changes are also discussed in Jeffery Richards essay Football and the Crisis of British Identity (2004).

For an introduction to nationalism David Miller's Piece

'Nationalism' in The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (2008:

529 – 543) provides a good overview of the subject, which can be applied, to Boyle and Haynes work on nationalism in relation to sport. Masculinity will follow a similar approach, with theories from Connell's work in Masculinities (2nd Edition, 2005) and Gender (2002) being applied to my own research on

Rooney and the research paper 'What is Hegemonic

Masculinity' (Donaldson, 1993).

Overall, I feel that by applying the knowledge base from the aforementioned academic work to key areas of my study and by using my own primary research I can offer a thesis that is both original and interesting.

8 Methodology

To explore the question How is Wayne Rooney Constructed within Sports Culture and The Media I intend to use a number of methods to obtain the information and theory required to gain answer the question in depth as well as applying findings to my own thoughts and theories.

The first method I have employed here is a critical analysis of secondary research from published academic books and journal articles. This will ensure I have the required background knowledge to the subject. I have identified key texts in the

Literature Review and intend to use different texts to relate to different parts of the question. The texts by Turner (2004),

Rojek (2001) and Holmes and Redmond (2006) will give me the required background on Celebrity Culture, whilst Boyle and

Haynes (2004) Goldblatt (2006) and Rowe (2004) will give a view on how football has evolved, and a look at the industrial and business side of the game. Having studied these two aspects, I have then refined my research and look at Smart

(2005) and Andrews and Jackson (2001) who look at the rise of the sports star, particularly in America, which can provide an interesting parallel to Rooney.

9 Rooney's Gold, Sweeny (2010), will also be a key text as it provides a good background on Rooney himself and some of the themes I will be looking at are explored within and can be applied to my own study. Along with these I will draw upon theoretical work on Gender (Connell, 2002, 2005), Nationalism

(Miller 2008, Boyle and Haynes, 2009) and Class (Richards,

2004).

To apply these themes to the study of Rooney I will be using several primary resources. I will use a close examination of tabloid newspaper articles to highlight the celebrity construction of Rooney and compare how coverage of football games differs in the tabloid press to television and how

Rooney's construction is effected because of this. I will also analyse the types of stories published around the subject matter of Rooney's private life, looking at how these contribute, or conflict with the construction of his persona and how the types of stories change due to his performance on the pitch. To do this I will be using articles from the UK's best selling tabloid newspaper, The Sun and applying techniques from Richardson's book Analysing Newspapers: An Approach from Critical Discourse Analysis (2007).

10 Further primary research will be the analysis of four football matches with Rooney playing. I will use two national based

Premier League games with Rooney playing for Manchester

United combined with two International games with Rooney representing the England football team. The first game analysed will be Manchester United vs. Aston Villa (MU/AV.

28.02.2010) from the Carling Cup Final, in which Rooney scored the winning goal. Then I will analyse two games from The 2010

World Cup where Rooney is playing for England with games against Algeria (EN/AL. 18.06.2010) and Germany (EN/GE.

27.06.2010). Finally I will analyse a game after the World Cup with Rooney again playing for again for Manchester United, this time against Manchester City (MU/MC. 12.02.2011), in which, again Rooney scored the winning goal. Further details on all the games are available in Appendix A.

I chose these games as I can look at how coverage of Rooney works for and against the construction of the chosen themes as well as comparing how his representation changes due to the team he is playing for. Also I can draw comparisons in the difference between broadcasters, with the national games being broadcast on Sky and the international games being broadcast on the BBC or ITV. The television coverage of

Rooney, the live football games with pre and post match

11 analysis will give another aspect of the construction of Rooney, this time through the spoken discourse of the sports commentator and studio discussion of Rooney, where I can apply theories of framing, from Framing and Frame Analysis

(Kitzinger, 2007: 134-161). To further my study on how these key areas are constructed I will also evaluate the evidence in light of Goffman's theories in The Presentation of Self in

Everyday Life, (1959) and compare them to how Rooney himself performs them and lives up to expectations and constructions laid before him.

Overall I feel that by applying my own primary research and analysis to academic publications I can provide an in-depth look at the construction of Wayne Rooney through numerous platforms and also provide insight into how well the work and give interesting comparisons and parallels to other sports celebrities.

12

Chapter 1: An Introduction to British Football and Wayne

Rooney.

Broadcast Football 1920 - 1988

Sport, and football in particular has always been a key component of British broadcasting. Early forms of sport broadcasting came in the 1920's with newsreels in cinemas providing early screenings of recorded sporting events

(Williams, 2002). The advancement of outside broadcast meant football could be broadcast live on BBC radio in 1927

(Goldblatt, 2006:187). The first televised game in Britain came ten years later, with BBC broadcasting a specially arranged game between Arsenal and their own reserve team in 1938

(Goldblatt, 2006:187). Popularity of football then continued to grow, with ITV deeming football coverage essential to their success with the purchase of the rights to show the European

Cup (Boyle and Haynes 2004:16). Despite the 1980's being a poor time for football, with it being marred by increasing football violence, it was still deemed good business for television with it being relatively cheap to produce compared to other television genres and also successful. This led to ITV's

13 1988 four-year contract to screen live football being worth

£44m (Boyle and Haynes 2004:19).

The Formation of the Premier League

The evolution of football broadcasting into what it has become today, and what I will be studying, really began in 1992 with the formation of the Premier League. The Premier League was created when Sky Television outbid ITV by £30 million to secure the rights to top-flight football for the next four years, paying

£304 million for the privilege (Goldblatt, 2006:689; Boyle and

Haynes 2004: 21-22). This deal saw the top teams in the country at the time break off from the lower, poorer teams to form their own league and sign over the broadcast rights to a single digital provider for the first time in British football history. The deal saw a huge increase in the amount of money involved in the game and amount of exposure offered to players and teams.

"What the success of the deal proved was that the value

placed on football by television had now dramatically

changed as had the money flowing into the game"

(Boyle 2004:21)

14 The increasing fee's involved with broadcasting rights meant that the teams themselves earned more from the television revenue. This saw clubs being able to afford new facilities, import foreign players whilst also inflating the industry, meaning players now cost more in transfer fees and earned more in wages leading to a increased media consciousness of the games and its players.

The Premier League saw a shift in the way in which football was presented to the viewer. They built on the formal, factual presentation conventions instilled by terrestrial television and incorporated elements of sensationalism and increased dramatization of situations. One of the key developments in this advancement of broadcasting, along with increased budget, came with new technological developments. The introduction of the multi-camera environment in football meant that a range of shots and angles could be switched between quickly, meaning "more coherent sense of space and drama can be introduced onto the programme" (Bignell and

Orlebar 2005:149) with the camera able to enhance the suspense of the moment and highlight players emotions through use of close up.

15

Figure 1: The Premier League - The changing face of football and its coverage (BSKYB / Sky Sports, 2007)

Football and the Press

The press has also had a key role in the development of football coverage into what it is today. The early 20th Century saw the growth of press circulation in Britain, which meant football stories could now be shared to a new, national audience, with information having previously been limited to those in attendance or word of mouth (Boyle and Haynes 2009:20).

This national exposure and popularity sport was being given led to the future necessity for sport to be broadcast via newsreels, radio and later, television. However with the invention and success of television newspapers needed a new way of reporting to ensure their medium was still successful and

16 relevant. This led to newspapers, tabloids in particular, becoming even more sensationalist and exaggerated in their storytelling, sport was no different. This saw the rise of celebrity culture with 'stars' private lives, off screen, becoming increasingly scrutinised and written about.

Celebrity culture impacted on football reporting and its players, who with increased income and exposure began to fit into the celebrity model. Early examples of football celebrities included

George Best who embraced the celebrity lifestyle off the pitch, living a 'playboy lifestyle' through the press. The creation of footballers celebrity persona's continued and later increased due to the injection of money provided by the Premier League formation. Today, footballers often dominate the front pages as much as the back, with details of their personal lives and scandal becoming both popular with the reader as well as being important to individual players, each with their own narrative and persona construction. Developments of global stars associated with the sport can "create new spectators and viewers for the game" (Arundel and Roche 1998: 82)

The increased focus on emotion and personal lives in sports broadcasts could also mirror the USA in their way of attempting to raise sports viewership amongst women. Many TV

17 executives in the America work on the assumption that women are "attracted to biographical and conceptual narratives about stars and their sports, rather than stats or quests for success"

(Miller 2010:98). During the 1996 Olympic games NBC targeted the female audience, running accompanying features on competitors personal lives. It was regarded as a success with the network reporting a 26% increase of women's viewers aged

25-54 in comparison to the Olympic event four years prior

(Miller 2010:98). In modern day broadcasting every professional men's league in the US has a women's broadcast marketing plan (Miller 2010:98).

Narrative within Football Coverage.

The idea of narrative within sport works both on and off the pitch, creating a link between the press and television coverage. Whilst the press will report and offer their take on the events broadcast on television, the broadcast itself will also utilise the persona's of the players in their method of coverage.

The live narratives differ from that of literary narrative with each game embodying its own narrative, with its own conclusion at the end of each match, with three possible outcomes, a team wins, loses or draws, but what happens in- between is unique and unprecedented. Each game also adds to

18 a longer running, open-ended narrative. For example, each game contributes to each teams success at the end of each season or cup competition, certain games can have a bearing on the future success, or failure of certain players, and games can be revisited and talked about for years, even decades to come. Off pitch narratives are often originated through the tabloid press and sometimes considered television newsworthy also. Off the pitch narratives are usually about players private lives, their family, celebrity lifestyle or scandal. On and off pitch narratives often become integrated with one another, with off pitch happenings and character often being used to blame for on pitch behaviour, performance and character (although controversial elements will not always directly mentioned but heavily implied), and also vice versa.

The role of the Commentator.

Arguable the most important aspect of football television broadcasting is the role of the commentator. Primarily the commentator acts a mediator between the action and the audience, putting the events into linguistic terms, highlighting key moments, the highs and lows of the action as well as providing background information and facts (Bignell and

Orlebar 2005:153). The commentators work on many levels,

19 covering the roles of spectator, narrator and evaluator.

However the commentator also plays a larger role in the presentation of football as a public display with the majority of values and themes portrayed through sport coverage coming through the commentator.

The commentators are also responsible for the development of the dramatization and narrativization of the games. Coverage usually begins with a "bedding in period", consisting of a conversational approach "building up sentences with a familiar lexicon of sporting phrases and idioms and weaving a narrative without losing shape" (Boyle and Haynes 2009: 82). Whilst the mode of address and tone of the broadcast will be governed by the broadcasters, directors, producers and editors of the programme and their professional ideologies the coverage has to both inform and entertain a wide range as possible from the avid fan to the casual family audience to someone who knows nothing about football, therefore: "the level at which sport can be understood by anyone is as a story: as a narrative which must build to a decisive climax and which character is revealed through actions" (Lawson, 1988). A careful balance of sport analysis, dramatization and narrative development will be included in the broadcast.

20 Sports commentators also work on a level of increasing drama and interaction. The language and use of open-ended questions often encourages audience interaction by creating a space for and inviting them to respond by passing judgment on players or events in the game. The commentators are also there to build up tension and excitement of the game as well as pointing out characteristics players and the history between the teams playing and past results and conflicts to:

"create a feeling that the competitors don't like each

other… Studies have shown that fans react better and

are more emotionally involved, if aggressive hostility is

present… work the audience at the emotional level and

get them involved in the game" (Hitchcock 1991:75).

Through the commentary, certain ideologies are portrayed, both about the sport and society itself. "Television commentary both ingests from and projects into a public discourse on sport"

(Boyle and Haynes 2009:84) basic themes of social life such as

"success and failure, good and bad behaviour, ambition and achievement, discipline and effort" (Hargreaves 1986: 12) are all highlighted and become important aspects of the game as discussed by the commentators. By fulfilling these social roles on the fields, football stars can reaffirm their celebrity

21 construction. It is also important to consider what is not discussed in the commentary of football. Anything that might harm the good image of the game is never talked about, things like football related violence, crowd chants and drunkenness will not be mentioned yet the positives will be accentuated, such as the spectacle of the event, the skill and passion of the players or even TV friendly parts of the crowd containing families or father and son members of the audience will be focused upon. Football's commentary consists of a number of codes and conventions, which is a social process and has developed over time. The commentary also has to contain a certain amount of balance in terms of the commentators having an obligation to commentate on all the players and the team ethic, as well as giving equal attention to both teams playing.

Through football coverage many themes and constructs are portrayed. To demonstrate this I chose to look at how Wayne

Rooney is portrayed though both football television coverage and press coverage. I chose Rooney as he is probably the most famous and high profile British footballer playing in Britain today and embodies the values set up within football coverage as well as the celebrity aspect of the game. Rooney is also a useful study when compared to Beckham, the man he replaced

22 as Britain's 'face of football', who went against and transcended many conventions involved with football and it is interesting to see what changes have remained with Rooney's coverage and construction.

Introduction to Wayne Rooney

Wayne Rooney is an English footballer, who plays in the position of Striker. Rooney is from a working class background in Croxeth Liverpool (Sweeney 2010: xi). He began his football career aged 10, joining Everton's youth team, before making his professional debut for them aged 16 in 2002, the same year he was named Young Sports Personality of the year by the BBC. He stayed with his boyhood team for a further two years before signing for Manchester United, a move he was highly criticised for, for a fee of around £30 million (Sweeney, 2010: 175-6) where he has enjoyed success both with trophies for

Manchester United as a team and won awards on an individual level. He has been selected for the England national team frequently, yet not enjoyed the heightened success as at club level.

23

Figure 2: Rooney with Manchester United Manager Sir Alex Fergueson (PA, 2004)

Off the pitch Rooney has been involved in numerous incidents of scandal in tabloid newspapers and his wife Coleen, whilst integral to his celebrity construction has arguably become as famous as him. Rooney embodies many ideologies associated with British football such as masculinity, nationality and professionalism as well as having a managed and constructed celebrity persona and also represents the development of the game as a whole with high wages and transfer fees as well as having many personal sponsorship deals.

British football and its relationship with the media has been a continuously developing one. With technology changing and advancing, football coverage changed and advanced too. The defining moment for the advancement of football has been the

24 creation of the Premier League, which has increased both the money involved with the game in regards to television rights, player transfer fees and wages as well as increasing visibility and exposure of the game. These factors have given way to a new development in celebrity culture, which Wayne Rooney can be classed within, the football star.

25 Chapter 2: Celebrity.

Defining celebrity.

A celebrity is someone who is highly visible in any form of the media, Daniel Boorstin states "the celebrity is a person who is well-known for their well-knownness" (1961:58). A celebrity's private life often attracts more attention than their professional ones (Turner, 2004: 3). Contemporary celebrities are largely from the entertainment or sports industries.

However, today, ordinary, everyday people can become celebrities virtually over night, with little or no special achievements, other than to attract the attention of the public with modern platforms such as 'reality' television shows such as

Big Brother and X-Factor there to aid such exposure of 'ordinary people'.

Turner claims that the moment a public figure becomes a celebrity is:

"the point at which media interest in their activities is

transferred from reporting on their public role (such as

in their specific achievements in politics or sport) to

26 investigating the details of their private lives" (Turner

2004: 4).

However, it is most often the original high profile they have already obtained through their public roles that provides the reasoning for the process of 'celebritisation'.

The Origin of Celebrity

Chris Rojek (2001) claims that the emergence of celebrity culture was a consequence of three historical processes. Them being: "The democratisation of society", "the decline of organised religion" and "The commodification of everyday life".

He argues that there was a shift of emphasis from traditional establishment figures, towards celebrities who became the subject of "cult worship" replacing religious worship and in turn worked with the development of commodity consumption culture (Rojek, 2001:53).

The growth of celebrity culture is directly linked with the growth and spread of mass media (Turner, 2004: 10), particularly visual media. Richard Schickel claims that "there was no such thing as celebrity prior to the beginning of the twentieth century"(2000: 23), as he suggests that they only had

27 people who were successful and famous because of it. This changed in the early twentieth century with increased exposure to Hollywood film stars and the first multi-million dollar film contract being signed by Mary Pickford in 1916 (Schickel, 1985,

47). 1925 saw the origins of stories about celebrities private lives when Walter Winchell:

"introduced a revolutionary column that reported on

who was romancing with who, who was cavorting with

gangsters, who was ill or dying, who was suffering

financial difficulties, which spouses were having affairs,

which couples were about to divorce and dozens of

other secrets… He suddenly, and singlehandedly

expanded the purview of American journalism (Gabler,

1995: xii)

This type of reporting and the types of stories used, set the blueprint for what celebrity culture would become. Many of these types of stories are still highly prominent today, as will be seen through the celebrity style reporting of Wayne Rooney's career.

This 'private reporting' also represents the beginnings of celebrity construction being a carefully constructed process,

28 with 'pseudo events' often being used to raise celebrities profile and public interest. The aim for the film industries was to create a "picture personality" (De Cordova, 1990:12) and build interest in the performer to see them portray the same constructed personality through new film productions.

Celebrity Today.

Contemporary celebrity culture has grown to a point where it has now become integrated with our everyday lives, celebrity journalism has "completely dominated the tabloid newspaper market in the UK" (Turner, 2004: 71). Celebrities can now be seen as a commercial commodity, carefully constructed to be an object of consumption. Figures are constructed through promotion, publicity and advertising through which their celebrity 'persona' and identity is formed.

A team of publicists usually handles the construction of the celebrity and the publicity they receive. Their role "turns advertising into news" (Turner, Bonner and Marshall, 2000: 31).

Good publicists are invisible to the public eye, with successfully constructed publicity strategies and stories ending up on the front pages, not gossip columns. Rein et al claim that 70% of all information published as news originates in publicity and public

29 relations (1997: 286). Once a celebrity has newspaper coverage, public interest in them increases, meaning people's interest in seeing their films or play live for example also increases, which in turn increases the likelihood of getting a photo shoot in Hello for example. This process of increasing publicity increases the value of the celebrity as a commodity within the celebrity industry and increases third party interest for advertising deals, endorsements and so forth. Of course, celebrities are just as important to the newspapers, magazine, television shows who create them, as they are one of the sole reasons these sell so well.

The Sports Celebrity.

Celebrities existing within sports are a relatively new development. David Rowe (1995) argues that before the 1970's there was nothing "chic" or "fashionable" about sports or its stars. 'Traditional' football players such as Stanley Matthews and Nat Lofthouse indeed served as local working class heroes.

However, a shift in the cultural and economic positioning of sports increased the possibility and attraction to marketing sports stars as commodities. Football players became increasingly viable due to their enhanced visibility with

30 increased football on television. Modern international footballers, like any other celebrities, are now known as much for their off field personalities or lifestyle as for their on-field performances.

Today, sports stars are as much a commodity as any other type of celebrity. According to Rein et al – sports stars can earn 2/3 of their annual salary through product endorsements. (Rein et al., 1997: 53) and can be used by companies to penetrate international markets. Gatorade's advertising campaign, using the American basketball star Michael Jordan claiming that the public can too "Be Like Mike" by drinking their beverage

(Smart, 2005: 9-10) showed a annual revenue increase from

$681 million to over $1 billion (McDonald and Andrews,

2001:20).

Whilst sports coverage can create heroes they don't create celebrities as "While heroic figures are distinguished by their achievements or by 'the great simple virtues of their character, celebrities are differentiated mainly by trivia of personality"

(Turner, 2004: 4). Therefore celebrity construction lies within the private life reporting of the tabloid press and gossip magazines. Turner claims that a :

31 "Celebrity develops capacity for fame, not by achieving

great things but by differing their own personality from

those of their competitors in the public arena" (Turner,

2004: 4)

However once established as a celebrity, just as figures who originate from other professions, sports stars can outlive their professional careers as a within this role.

How Wayne Rooney is constructed as Celebrity.

Figure 3: Rooney the Brand - An Advert For Coke Zero (Coca Cola, 2006)

32

If the celebrity construction of sports stars occurs outside their field of profession then Rooney's begun before he had even kicked a football on television. Before Rooney played for

Everton's first team The Sun ran a piece entitles "Everton Go

Rooney Looney" (Ellis, 17.09.2002). The article talks of "Rooney fever", focusing on his young age while proclaiming him a

"wonderboy". Comparisons are made between Rooney and other English players who broke through at an early age and went on to become celebrities, such as Michael Owen. As well as building up his potential ability as a footballer, including speculating on what records he might break, personal qualities are also highlighted. The article focuses in on his upbringing, stating which area of Liverpool he grew up, and played up in as well as affirming his loyalty to his boyhood club Everton. This is all part of the construction of Rooney's own 'picture personality', to build him up and generate interest so that more people will want to watch him play football, which will increase his value as a commodity. Rooney and his representatives were very aware of the potential for Rooney's celebrity image and his first professional contract was disputed between Rooney's representative and Everton Football Club, not because of footballing matter but Rooney's 'image rights and the potential

33 to be marketed as Rooney the 'Brand' (Boyle and Haynes,

2004:73)

The desire for personality, the authentic and to find out what the celebrity is 'really like' is as fundamental to the sports fan as to the film fan. The Suns piece "Meet New Footy Sensation"

(Yates, 21.10.2002) focused in again on Rooney's upbringing, a

"tough estate in Croxeth, Liverpool" including a shot of the

"humble three bedroomed council house" where he lives, his relatively normal life compared to other footballers, and reinforces his working class status with introductions to his

"unemployed labourer dad" and mother who "is a dinner lady a

De LaSalle RC High school". The article also works to again build up his football potential, "soccer's brightest new star" and also speculate on future riches and status claiming his pay could be boosted from "£80 to an amazing £10,000 a WEEK" (Yates,

21.10.2002). Within the tabloid press one of the main aims is being able to speak to, and maintain the attention of the majority of ordinary people, by constructing Rooney as working class and normal, they create a figure the audience can relate to. This story also works to "constructing their [celebrities] everydayness, their similarity to us" (Turner, 2004: 41). This is important for a celebrity, especially as one like Rooney as he represents the football masses. Representing the working class

34 male, from humble upbringings, as well as represents the ideologies portrayed through sport such as loyalty and later on a family man. Rooney can also be seen as an aspiration to people 'like him', and young people to what they can become.

Once achieved celebrity can spin-off into many related sub- industries, through endorsements and merchandising etc.

Therefore, even when Wayne Rooney isn't making the headlines for the right or wrong reasons (football or scandal respectively) it is still vital to his celebrity construction that he remains in the public eye. Often stories which seem to be nothing newsworthy such as details of Wayne Rooney's (or

"Wayne Crooney" as he is described in this particular piece in

The Sun), music listening habits, appear in the press (Phillips and White, 01.01.2011). Whilst not being very interesting or of public interest, stories like this work to keep public awareness of Rooney up, something which is crucial to his sponsors and advertising deals, and is an example of 'manufactured news' being used.

There are also examples of Rooney as a celebrity, and the importance of coverage within the coverage of his games. In the Aston Villa game (MU/AV. 28.02.2010), even though

Rooney starts the match on the substitutes bench, there are

35 numerous close up shots of him. As no other substitute player gets the close up treatment, this choice of shot and coverage highlights Rooney's status and importance to the broadcasters.

Boorstin claims that celebrities are "Fabricated on purpose to satisfy our exaggerated expectations of human greatness"

(Boorstin, 1961: 58). This can be seen in Rooney's in all aspects of Rooney's construction. Marshall states that celebrities exist as personalities that are "given heightened social significance within the social world" (Marshall, 1997: 9) he also argues that celebrities are:

"part of a system of false promise in the system of

capital, which offers the reward of stardom to a random

few in order to perpetuate the myth of potential

universal success" (Marshall, 1997: 9).

This 'false promise' of the capitalist system is clear in the representation of Rooney, with focus being on his lower class upbringing and his lifestyle now, how much money he earns and what he spends it on (cars, houses, holidays etc). This demonstrates the promise that with hard work that anyone can become rich and indeed famous.

36 It may also seem peculiar that Rooney is still willing to talk to the tabloid press despite invasion into his private life and numerous false claims about it. In December 2005, Rooney appeared in the News of the World in an interview about the upcoming World Cup, entitled "Sport of the World – We get the interview they all wanted" (Sweeney, 2010:219). At the time

Rooney was suing the same paper for libel over claims he had punches Coleen in a nightclub and had also been accused by the same paper days earlier of telling the England captain to

"fuck off" (Sweeney, 2010:219). The reason Wayne was still appearing in interviews with the paper is spelled out in much smaller writing below the headline "In association with Coca-

Cola", and the picture depicted Rooney in a t-shirt with the strap line "Always the real thing" plastered across it, Coca-Colas tagline. So as much as Rooney may not have wished to speak to the paper, he was powerless as it was a decision, and also a business deal, made by a company with which he has an advertising deal.

Turner claims:

"the careers of sports stars are especially vulnerable to

the mass mediated cycle of 'celebration, transgression,

punishment and redemption'…. The playing out of this

37 cycle – through tabloid revelations, paparazzi shots,

interviews with aggravated friends, spouses or team

mates, moralistic commentary pieces, contrite

confessions and even comments from politicians – is

offered to the public as entertainment with the sports

star concerned a more or less powerless participant."

(Turner, 2004: 106).

This is evident in the 'celebrity career' of Wayne Rooney. He begins with being celebrated and built up by the press, where he is celebrated for his achievements, until he reaches the level of celebrity. Whilst being involved with scandal throughout his career he is never truly punished for it until he transgresses by not performing for England as expected, for which he is punished.

"Typically it is the sports stars' indiscretions in their private lives that expose them to criticism and not their performance as sports-persons" (Turner 2004: 106). Therefore failure to perform for England at the 2010 World Cup led to criticism through Rooney's lifestyle and earnings, with reports of a new

"megabucks deal" (Peake 17.07.2010)for the England "flop" of

£140,000 a week, making him the highest paid player in

Manchester United's history, and focusing on a expensive

38 holiday with his wife (Peake 17.07.2010). It also led to fresh allegations of infidelity with prostitutes with the Sunday Mirror revealing "Rooney paid for secret hotel sex sessions with a

£1,000 a night prostitute while his wife Coleen was pregnant with their son" branding Rooney "humiliated" and a

"disgrace"(Wright, 4.09.2010). What is interesting is the timing of the story, the incident had happened long before the World

Cup, with the paper only choosing to reveal it after the World

Cup and Rooney's "disappointing" performances, almost as a punishment for not performing for the country as anticipated.

Therefore, Rooney has been built up as an almost sub-human footballer, only to disappoint as well as being formed as a family man and loyal husband only to succumb to temptation and ruin this image.

Figure 4: Scandal (Sunday Mirror, 2010)

Whilst the goal in the Manchester City game could have been a redemptive moment for Rooney for a "truly awful world cup"

39 (Beasley, 12.02.2011), The Sun refused to do as such, comparing him to other players and goals scored, citing

Rooney, and the goal he scored was not as sensational as initially perceived, instead using it to criticise him more.

However the newspaper still offers hope for redemption:

"Clearly he is a young man with all the God-given talents

to succeed…So the Devil must be in the details of his

personal make-up… In other words the problem must

be between his ears, (or on some infamous occasions

somewhere a little south of there)… For Rooney seems

a troubled, tormented soul off the pitch evidenced by

his well-publicized affairs, his early-morning nightclub

shenanigans, his shambolic transfer request and then

his humiliating climbdown… And there's only one man

who can sort all that out isn't there?" (Beasley,

12.02.2011)

The relationship between Wayne Rooney and the tabloid press is interesting as it encounters many techniques affiliated with the construction of celebrities. There is a sense that Rooney and the press both need each other, with Rooney needing the exposure to maintain a high profile and, in turn, big money sponsorship deals while on the other hand the press needing

40 Rooney as he fits in with UK celebrity culture and due to his working class upbringing, nationality and sporting ability is a perfect fit for celebrity construction in the UK. His involvement in scandal, while seemingly working to disgrace and damage his image, keeps Rooney topical and newsworthy and working to further cement his place in tabloid celebrity culture, raising interest in Rooney the commodity.

Wayne Rooney is an example of a modern day celebrity. The changing values of celebrity culture can be seen through

Rooney as he is a sports star, who has achieved a level of public awareness through football performances, yet has elevated himself to a level of celebrity through tabloid coverage and private life stories and scandal. Due to him being a perfect commodity for celebrity construction in Britain and with his wife, Coleen being heavily involved in glossy magazines and their high profile lifestyle and fabricated news stories, should they continue to maintain this level of interest, their celebrity career can outlast Rooney's as a footballer.

41 Chapter 3: The Working Class Hero and Nationalism

With Wayne Rooney being a highly skilled footballer, and a highly visible public figure, there is an expectancy of him to perform consistently, and a need for Rooney to do so to maintain his 'status'. Due to his upbringing and ascribed class status there is an attraction to label him as a working class hero. With him achieving heroic status, there are notions of

Nationalism and national ideals being portrayed through, and attached to, his persona.

The Working Class Hero.

Within filmic terms, the American Film Institute defines a hero as:

"Sometimes mythical figures, sometimes ordinary

people who prevail in extreme circumstances, heroes

dramatize a sense of morality, courage and purpose

often lacking in our everyday world. Heroes do what is

good, just and right and even though they may be

ambiguous or flawed characters they often sacrifice

themselves to show humanity at its best and most

humane" (American Film Institute, 14.02.2011)

42

British heroes within films often contain typical traits such as courage, decency and modesty with a "Never say die quality in their various responses to adversity" (Rojek, 2007: 135). This construction of a hero and the qualities they possess can be seen within various other public spheres, including sport.

During the 1960's being 'young' and 'working class' became fashionable for the first time in British history (Richards, 2004:

94). The recession of the late 1970's lead to an aggressive pursuit of individual wealth. This saw audiences later finding heroes with 'success stories' such as Mike Tyson and Rocky.

This saw a change in ways of ascertaining masculinity and gave rise to a cult of "new laddism" (Richards, 2004: 94) with swearing, drinking and violence becoming prominent.

"Laddism" has always existed in some form, yet had not been so prominently endorsed by the media such as in 'lads mags' such as Loaded and television shows such as Men Behaving

Badly.

The Working Class Hero within Football.

The changing idea of the working class hero can be seen within football and the players it celebrates. Through football, rival

43 ideals of masculinity are reflected, whilst also changing ideals of heroes. Traditional football stars were 'gentleman' such as

Stanley Matthews who was never sent off or even cautioned throughout his career. He became a symbol for a working class ideal of Englishness, embodying many traits as film heroes such as being honourable, decent and skilful. The embodiment of this 'gentleman' character was portrayed both on and off the pitch, and agrees with the statement that the "the idea of the gentleman is not a class idea"(Barker, 1947: 566-7).

Richard Holt, in Sport and the British claims that football players mirror some of most prized attributes and qualities of the working class such as grit, loyalty to mates, hardness, stamina and courage (Holt, 1989: 173). Other key qualities often associated with football such as skill and sportsmanship are not mentioned. In his article Football and the Crisis of

British Identity, Jeffery Richards claims that Frank Richards, creator of 'Roy of the Rovers', a fictional comic about a football player and his team, "had more influence on the mind and outlook of young working class than any other single person"

(Roberts, 1977: 160-1). Roy of the Rovers, which debuted in

1954 in Tiger and later having its own magazine in 1976 continued the tradition of the chivalric heroes such as Robin

Hood or Superman. However the attributes associated with

44 these heroes were naturalised, and made identifiable to working class audiences through an environment such as football. The magazine also gave rise to the now football cliché

"its real Roy of the Rovers stuff" (Roberts, 1977: 161) and is often used to praise a standout individual, performing and winning against adversity.

Figure 5: Stanley Matthews - The original working class hero in football (Douglas Miller/Keystone/Getty Images, 1965) Although some future players such as Gary Lineker and Bobby

Charlton would be portrayed like Matthews the 1960's saw a new type of role model being celebrated in football. Players such as George Best and Rodney Marsh became known for their drinking, gambling, fighting and womanizing, and quickly became very public figures, looking and dressing like pop stars and living their lives through the press. This type of star increased over the years as football became increasingly visible and popular. Players such as Tony Addams and Duncan

45 Ferguson who furthered this 'laddsism' representation in football, even leading to jail time for both, and continued their aggressive personalities on the playing field. Just as 'laddism' had grown within popular culture, so too there had always been a representation and celebration of players with a

"rough" element rather than a respectable one, yet hadn't been culturally prominent. Therefore the success of these football players and the masculine attributes that were being celebrated led to the press increasingly presenting thugs as heroes (Richards, 2004: 102). Therefore, there was now less focus on the chivalric, classic footballer and more focus and attraction to the controversial footballers who fitted in with the

'laddism' culture. However these new heroes still required the original high profile which had to be achieved through the high skill and match winning attributes of the 'Roy of the Rovers' classic footballer.

46 Wayne Rooney as a Working Class Hero.

Figure 6: "It defies description" - Rooney's winning goal against Manchester City (BSKYB / Sky Sports, 2011)

Wayne Rooney's working class hero status can be seen to have similarities with both the classic 'respectable' footballer and the more modern 'rough' one. The commentators in the game I analysed constantly attempt to build Rooney as a possible hero in the mould of Matthews or Moore. For example, in the

Germany game with England losing the commentator states that" England have not come from behind to win a World Cup game since you know when… 1966, time for that to change"

(EN/GE. 27.06.2010), the camera then cuts to a close up of

Rooney with the commentator saying "It can be done" (EN/GE.

27.06.2010). This creates links with Rooney and the World Cup winning team of 1966, forcing expectation upon Rooney and already beginning to pre-empt his hero status should he inspire

47 an England win. Another example of this type of framing is in the Algeria game, during a close up of David Beckham the commentator says that it is "time for someone to replace him as the most famous face in English football"(EN/AL. 18.06.2010) to which the camera cuts to a close up of Rooney and the commentator muses "Rooney maybe?" (EN/AL. 18.06.2010).

This connotation between Beckham and Rooney could relate to potential national football heroics as with the 1966 team link or perhaps the celebrity lifestyle they both lead, which is certainly implied though the "famous face" remark. This technique is also used later on, in the Manchester City game where the camera focuses on David Beckham, who was in the crowd for the game and again, links are made between Beckham and

Rooney, with the commentator claiming Beckham to be

"someone capable of such moments himself" (MU/MC.

12.02.2011). The two games where Rooney is playing well and scoring goals for Manchester United also contain the cliché "its real Roy of the Rovers Stuff" (MU/MC. 12.02.2011, MU/AV.

28.02.2010) adding to his construction as a skilled heroic figure, as seen with the reaction to his winning goals in the games.

"It defies description. How about sensational? How about superb?" (MU.MC. 12.02.2011), this is the commentator's reaction immediately after Rooney's winning goal against

48 Manchester City. This "Roy of the Rovers" portrayal of Rooney, following his goal against Manchester City highlights both the sensationalist coverage of Sky Sports and Rooney's construction as an almost subhuman hero

However with Rooney failing to deliver match-winning performances, the other side to Rooney's persona is often played out on this pitch, linking him more to players like

Ferguson and Adams. As Rooney rose to a high level at a young age, a volatile and aggressive persona was often seen seen and led to this being constructed as part of his persona. This aggressive persona is something that has followed him throughout his career as it fits in with his stature, upbringing and physical playing style. His toughness and aggression are frequently referenced during football commentary, during the coverage of the his aggression is often referenced, the "red mist" (EN/AL. 18.06.2010) as it described in the Algeria game, as well as frequent shots of Rooney shouting at players and the referee, which are described as "an angry blast from Rooney"

(EN/AL. 18.06.2010). This portrayal of Rooney as an aggressive character, works to both tie in with his working class rough image and reaffirm his masculinity.

49 Defining Nationalism.

David Miller characterises nationalism as having three core elements (Miller, 2008: 529). Firstly, he establishes that the idea of nations is real, and should not be considered a fiction and there are differences between nations and that "people who identify with them are not simply deluded" (Miller, 2008:

529). The second element he points to is that membership to a nation has its own practical implementations and that by

'belonging' to a nation we have certain ties to our compatriots.

Lastly he indicates that each nation is politically significant. He notes that these elements are common ground among nationalists, yet the way they are interpreted mean "national identity can be understood objectively" (Miller, 2008: 530).

In modern society, with many distinct cultures, forms of nationalism are bound to be common, yet have its own strengths and weaknesses. It can be positive in the sense it gives people a sense of belonging and encourages them to

"cooperate and protect more vulnerable compatriots" (Miller,

2008: 543) whilst giving them a sense of controlling their destiny. However, by constructing differences between nations, it can also become accountable for hostility toward other nations or 'outsiders'.

50

Nationalism in Sport

With the high visibility of sport and the values portrayed within it such as winning, competition and the collective struggle of teamwork (Boyle and Haynes, 2009: 144) there are few other cultural products that are a representation of national characteristics and national identity. For example Gaelic games of hurling and football are seen as typifying Irish character

(Humphries, 1996: 2007) whilst sports such as cricket or rugby have come to symbolise aspects of Englishness (Paxman, 1988).

Mediated sport can naturalise many national ideals, whilst also constructing and at times inventing them.

Organised sport can be an important mode of constructing

'national character' and can often serve specific political ends

(Cashmore, 1996: 235-57). Houlihan (1994) examined the relationships between sport politics and international relations noting:

"sport has always been a resource within the

international system available primarily to governments

but also to other non governmental political interests

and, while it has, on occasion, been the primary tool of

51 diplomacy and policy implementation, it has more often

been an element of a broader and more comprehensive

political strategy" (Houlihan, 1994: 209)

Examples include the politicisation of football by Franco in

Spain, due to the sports universal popularity (Crolley and Duke

1996: 24-29). Or Nelson Mandela's alignment and public support of the 1995 'new' Springbok's rugby team with the motif "One team, one country" (Boyle and Haynes, 2009: 149) to project his idea of a multi racial, democratic South Africa.

Therefore sport can be seen as a highly powerful tool for not just the individual and also can be used in a political sense to portray, promote and naturalise national ideologies.

Nationalism in Rooney's Games.

[Sport can] function on an international level as a site in

which advanced countries can and must act out their

proffered myths through self- and other- stereotypes,

and celebrate those qualities which, in their own eyes,

make them more modern, more advances, in short

superior… This process routinely involves downgrading

other national groups" (O'Donnell, 1994: 353).

52

O'Donnell's comments can be said to have a particular application to Rooney and the games he plays in. During coverage of the two analysed England games in which Rooney plays the commentators quickly establish who they are backing, with "our team" (England) and "their team" (the opposition) very much enforcing an "us and them" notion which is further reinforced by the discussion of "our World Cup prospects"(EN/AL. 18.06.2010).

Figure 7: National expectation - Rooney and the World Cup (Daily Telegraph, 2010)

Through Wayne Rooney the commentators attempt to represent positive qualities so that audiences associate them with being English. Rooney's passion and desire to win is played up as well as his superior ability to other opposing players.

53 However, unlike the Sky Sports coverage the commentators try to represent a collective 'team' identity, rather than focusing on individuals, whilst applying national traits such as "good old fashioned English spirit" (EN/GE. 27.06.2010) to the teams performance.

In each of the England games, the 'other', 'foreign' teams are rarely praised, with the commentators opting to criticise

England rather than accept the other team to be better.

Despite Germany being the far superior team in their encounter, none of their goals were applauded by the commentators, instead either criticising England's defending in the lead up or dismissing Germanys goals as lucky and reaffirming this by stating: "they haven't needed to be good"

(EN/AL. 18.06.2010). Superiority agendas come through, in the

Algeria game. During the build up the commentator claims that

Algeria, are a team that "prospective World Champions should be beating, and beating well" (EN/AL. 18.06.2010), fully expecting England to show their national superiority.

Pre, post game and half time analysis also focus on England performance with little or no mention as to how the other team are doing. Both games start with the coverage of the national anthems being sung, during which the camera has a

54 close up of each individual player as well as a shot of Prince

Harry and William in the Algeria game, highlighting individual importance on a large national scale. The commentators even reinforce this afterwards claiming the national team are

"looking to turn a nations hope into genuine expectation"

(EN/AL. 18.06.2010).

Through national representation of the teams a 'dislike' between the Germans and the English is created " its 1966 in reverse, payback for the Germans"(EN/GE. 27.06.2010), this payback can also of course be read on other levels relating to war. As well as pride and hope being predominant in the games a notion of 'national purity' of the English is also played upon in comparison to the opposing nations, the commentators claim that the German squad has "a few Polish" players in it and then saying "it really is the rainbow nation" (EN/GE. 27.06.2010).

This is also used in the Algeria game, even to the bemusement of the commentator who says that there are "10 French born players in the Algeria squad… which is odd" (EN/AL.

18.06.2010).

Nationality itself seems to become an issue with England manager Fabio Capello. Being Italian, his connotations with stereotypical Italian tactics and playing style, such as cautious,

55 defensive slow paced approaches, are criticised. This is an example of a national stereotype that has been constructed and reinforced by sporting coverage. The possible language barrier, which may cause difficulties in communication and approachability between him and the players, is suggested as potentially having a damaging effect on the team, particularly in the German game (EN/GE. 27.06.2010).

Wayne Rooney's 'Performance' of Nationalism and The

Working Class Hero

Pierre Bourdieu claims that "nothing classifies somebody more than the way her or she classifies" (Bourdieu, 1989: 19), this places the emphasis on the individuals own role, this is true of

Rooney in the way in which he performs the characteristics associated with both Nationalism and the Working Class Hero within sports.

In his footballing performances he attempts to embody the somewhat unrealistic 'Roy of The Rovers' character, being the player scoring the winning goal, driving the team forward and winning games against adversity. He constantly shows his displeasure when he or the team are not playing well as well as his leadership qualities by instructing players on what to do and

56 attempting to dictate the tempo of the teams play. These qualities associated with The Working Class Hero of leadership and passion to win also fits in with the national traits attempted to be portrayed within football coverage, the proclaimed "good old fashioned English spirit" (EN/GE.

27.06.2010).

The discussed themes of Nationalism and working class hero are a complex issue. Within the context of Rooney, combined with high press coverage, this places a high expectancy for

Rooney to perform on a national level, something that is exclusive to the sports star and is not compatible within commercial celebrity culture. Failing to fulfil expectation raises questions over Rooney character and in turn effects the persona constructed, with the most notable construction being is that of masculinity.

57 Chapter 4: Gender

Gender division is clear within sport, with men and women rarely interacting (in coverage of the games I analysed there was not one single role for a woman both on and off the pitch).

Gender, as with Nationalism is something that is constructed, and naturalised through the media, Wayne Rooney is a current example of how masculinity is constructed within the media, and is a key part of his persona and success. However, with masculinity being a social construction, it is open to challenge and change as is visible through another, very different football celebrity, David Beckham.

Constructing Gender

Gender is not something that happens naturally, yet is again a process of construction. When humans are born then inhabit one of two biological sexual identities, male or female. Gender, masculinity and femininity are different though as it is not something you inherit but something that exists and is constructed culturally. Connell states that:

58 "As men or women we slip our feet into differently

shaped shoes, button our shirts on opposite sides, get

our heads clipped by different hairdressers, by our

pants in separate shops and take them off in separate

toilets" (Connell, 2002: 3)

Therefore we can think of manhood or womanhood and the masculine and feminine attributes associated with them as being so embedded with social norms that it becomes seemingly normal, and transgressors become "un-natural" as

Connell goes on say:

"These arrangements are so common, so familiar that

they can seem part of the order of nature. Belief that

gender distinction is 'natural' makes it scandalous when

people don't follow the patterns for instances, when

people of the same gender fall in love with each other,

so homosexuality is declared 'un-natural' and bad"

(Connell, 2002: 3-4)

Connell also claims that the gender roles are "constructed through practice" (Connell: 2005: 37) therefore the media has a huge impact on the way in which these roles are constructed, yet also that people construct themselves, which relates to

59 Goffman's theory of performance (1959). However, whilst gender and masculinity is performed by individuals, norms and social facts of gender attributes "can be changed by social process" (Connell 2005: 23). Wayne Rooney is an example of how masculinity is constructed through both self and through the media such as the tabloid press and sports coverage.

Defining Masculinity

Attributes associated with masculinity include strength, activity, stamina, aggression and competitiveness (Feasey,

2008: 98) all of which are represented within football and in it's reporting, through players such as Rooney. It could also be said that:

"televised sport in particular can be seen to create a

hierarchy of masculinity with the forceful, powerful and

competitive image of the male as the pinnacle of

contemporary manhood" (Feasey, 2008: 98).

This again is seen through the representation of Rooney, as he is often the focal point of attention during the broadcast visuals and commentary discussion.

60

Wayne Rooney and Gender.

Wayne Rooney's gender construction is based upon construction of masculinity and works towards a representation hegemonic masculinity. In his research paper

'What Is Hegemonic Masculinity' Donaldson defines hegemonic masculinity as a "culturally idealised from of masculine character" which is "naturalised in the form of the hero and presented through forms that revolve around heroes: sagas, ballads, westerns, thrillers, in books, films television and in sporting events". Wayne Rooney falls into many of these categories, as his masculinity is not only defined through sporting events and his performances but his celebrity persona construction off the field. (Donaldson 1993).

Wayne Rooney's Masculine Construction.

90% of young males watch sport on television (MacKinnon

2003: 102) and many view sportsmen as an ideal image of adult masculinity (Swain 2000: 101). Hegemonic masculinity is enforced through Wayne Rooney with him often described as someone to aspire to be, through his technical ability and

61 heroic status. At the start of his career he was often described as a "wonderboy", (Ellis, 17.09.2002) referring to his football ability as well as commenting on his upbringing in a "tough estate in Croxeth, Liverpool", attaining to his toughness and working class status. With continuous good performances came the heroic status, following his winning goal in the Carling Cup final, The Sun claim it was "Rooney who proved to be United's hero once again"(Custis, 28.02.2010). Sometimes the extent of

Rooney's masculine representation can see him being constructed as almost sub-human, The Sun says "His skills, vision and ability to perform difficult tasks in tight spaces without thinking all mark out an exceptional ability. He operates in time and space in a different way from the average person". (Cushing, 24.06.2010). The notion of a hierarchy of masculinity can also be seen in this type of reporting of Rooney, such as "ONCE in a blue moon you see a goal like that. Once in a lifetime you score a goal like that. Unless your name is Wayne

Rooney that is" (Beasley, 12.02.2011), and also reaffirming his position as the benchmark by questioning "can anyone stop him?".

Besides its role in establishing his nationalist positioning, aggression is another key part of Rooney's masculine construction. As well as his rough upbringing, his toughness and

62 aggression are frequently referenced during football commentary, both in terms of his style of play and personal character. During the coverage of the England games, his aggression is often referenced, the "red mist" (EN/AL.

18.06.2010) as it described in the Algeria game, as well as well as frequent shots of Rooney shouting at players and the referee to reaffirm his aggression and masculinity.

The construction of Wayne Rooney's masculinity can be linked to early construction of masculinity in classical and Arthurian literature, where masculinity would be often represented through myths, Gods and heroes. Cicero wrote that "a mans chief quality is fortitude" (Meiss, 1961: 82). Courage and bravery are often played up as a big part of Rooney's game, following his goal by going in for a 'brave' header the commentator states that "Many players would have shied away from it, not Wayne Rooney" (MU/AV. 28.02.2010). Loyalty is also a value attributed to masculinity, such as in Medieval tales as King Arthur, Wayne Rooney's loyalty to boyhood club

Everton was a key factor to his construction during the early part of his career: "after being raised in an Everton-mad home,

Liverpool never stood a chance" (Ellis, 17.09.2002), when leaving Everton for Manchester United, Rooney was criticised for his lack of loyalty.

63

With Rooney being a professional footballer his masculinity is always under scrutiny and there is a constant expectancy and need to perform on the field of play as well as off it to reaffirm his masculine status. Failure to perform, especially on an international level when representing his country, can cause an emasculation of his persona. Following poor performances many questions were raised over Rooney and the attributes that connect to his masculinity. His loyalty to the country is brought into dispute: "You can bet your house that come

August, Wayne Rooney will be banging them in for Manchester

United" (EN/GE. 27.06.2010), where incidentally he is getting paid far more to do so, his technical, strength and stamina and ability: "[he] has hasn't looked properly sharp, or fit" (EN/GE.

27.06.2010). The Sun also blame Rooney for the poor World

Cup performance "Rooney, particularly had a bad World Cup"

(Custis, 27.06.2010), claiming "he has not risen above mediocre in four matches" and that his performances were "not good enough" (Custis, 27.06.2010). Also his emotions and feelings, something not associated with masculinity, being questioned with him being described as "mentally troubled" (MU/MC.

12.02.2011) and relates to Eisler and Skidmore's notion of

'Masculine Gender Role Stress' (1987: 123-136). In the press, following the World Cup, stories of scandal and infidelity

64 surrounded Rooney and further sought to emasculate his persona. However, once Rooney starts performing again he can rebuild his masculine status: "form is temporary, class is permanent"(MU/MC. 12.02.2011), the pundit claims, which unintentionally also comments upon his class status.

Wayne Rooney and Masculine 'Performance'

Erving Goffman argues that individuals, when appearing or performing before others will act in a way deemed socially acceptable and will attempt to embody attributes expected of them in the situation. He claims:

"When an individual appears before others his actions

will influence the definition of the situation which they

come to have. Sometimes the individual will act in a

thoroughly calculated manner, expressing himself in a

way given solely in order to give the kind of impression

to others that is likely to evoke from them a specific

response he is concerned to obtain. Sometimes the

individual will be calculating in his activity but be

relatively unaware that this is the case. Sometimes he

will intentionally and consciously express himself in a

particular way, but chiefly because the tradition of his

65 group or social status require this kind of expression"

(Goffman, 1959: 16-17).

This theory can be applied to Rooney's performances in the analysed games. Rooney himself, in a number of ways confirms his construction of masculinity. Firstly his appearance, something he is in control of is well built, shorthaired, unshaven which makes him easily identifiable as a strong male.

There are also examples of the use of aggression. As well as his

'aggressive' and powerful playing style, he is constantly seen shouting aggressively at other players and the referee. Whilst a decision by the broadcasters to show this it is also a decision by

Rooney use this type of aggression in public.

However, once Rooney is unable to 'perform' to a level deemed acceptable, his masculinity is brought into question and this affects other elements of his construction. Without quality performances and masculine construction Rooney loses his heroic status and his level of national commitment is brought into question. Without these key constructs the level of celebrity ascribed to Rooney goes down and interest in him is lost, and scandal is needed to reaffirm his place within the

66 tabloid press, where his construction can begin again through modes of redemption.

David Beckham and changing masculine representation

There are often many comparisons and connections made between Rooney and David Beckham with Rooney often touted as the man "to replace him as the most famous face in English football". However, the constructed persona of the two players differs greatly, and is largely evident in their masculine construction. Whilst Rooney is represented as a hegemonic, heterosexual male, Beckham often transcends gender issues and leads to a creation of a new masculinity which had not been seen in football before, and could be argued is still exclusive to Beckham.

In a paper by Helen Hacker entitled 'The New Burdens of

Masculinity' (1957: 227-33), she suggested that expressive functions were now being added to the instrumental functions of masculinity, and men were therefore expected to show increased interpersonal skills as well as being "sturdy oaks".

Also, as gender is a construction and not a fixed biological agenda, men can embody feminine traits and women masculine traits. Connell notes that gender ambiguity is not

67 rare, with masculine women and feminine men as "There are women who are heads of households, and men who bring up children There are women who are soldiers and men who are nurses" (Connell, 2003: 5) Whilst males with feminine attributes have always existed within society, the portrayal of such is a relatively new development within sport and really began with Beckham himself.

Beckham worked to challenge stereotypes existing within football culture, he "violated every known norm associated with testosterone-pumped, homophobic, macho footballers" and captivates "a global audience that includes young females who have no obvious interest in sport, gay men [and] working class kids who proclaim their nationalism though their champion and countless other groups who have become enamoured with him" (Cashmore, 2004: viii, 6). Beckham sought to represent a more positive image of sporting masculinity. Pre-Beckham young footballers were described as people who "seem to believe a role model is something to do with a bedroom conquest, not good manners and dignified behaviour" (Evison, 1998:2). Beckham represented masculinity as well as changing the defining attributes of it. On the pitch whilst being competitive, heroic and dedicated, Beckham also represented more positive attributes such as self-control,

68 discipline and respect. Off the pitch he represented a loving and caring husband and father.

Rooney has also often been portrayed as a family man and his relationship with his wife Coleen and children often being mentioned and centrepiece within press reporting, such as in the staged photograph in Figure 8. However the use of the father image can also be seen as being used to reaffirm his masculinity and celebrity persona. As a family man his portrayed as leader, and as a 'good' and 'strong' one. The idea of the family image is used in many spheres, such as politicians during election campaigns who surround themselves with family to convey their leadership and persona in an image that

"seems simultaneously nostalgic and contemporary" (Marshall,

1997: 218). The family man representation of Rooney, like his working class upbringing provides a "technique that provide the sentiment of a common bond with the people" (Marshall,

1997: 210).

69

Figure 8: Rooney the family man (Daily Mirror, 2010)

David Beckham can be seen as combining gender attributes, containing stereotypical attributes associated with masculinity such as strength, stamina and competition with more traditionally feminine aspects of sensitivity, empathy and emotional maturity (Feasey, 2008: 104).

It is as if Beckham has single-handedly disbanded

traditional gender roles and offered audiences an

empowered and empowering image of the

contemporary male (Feasey, 2008: 105)

Beckham used the medium of football and his celebrity status to challenge the core values associated with football culture

70 and masculine construction and his relationship with art, fashion and family can be seen as having altered society's perception of appropriated manhood, and exposing masculine construction as a historical and social construct that can be both exploited and altered.

However, in light the findings above, the success and importance of David Beckham is an anomaly in British football celebrities. Whilst Wayne Rooney is largely seen as the 'next big thing' in terms of both football success and commercial success the two have very little in common in terms of their celebrity construction. Whilst Beckham embraced art and fashion,

Wayne Rooney has had nothing to do with either. Whist the family aspect could be seen as similar, with Rooney and

Beckham both having high profile wives living celebrity lifestyle's in the public eye, Rooney's family image has been somewhat ruined by the infidelity claims made by the tabloid, further distancing the similarities of Rooney and Beckham.

Whilst Beckham challenged and defied gender constructions,

Rooney embodies and embraces hegemonic masculinity.

71

Figure 9: Different - David Beckham broke stereotypes for footballers (Armani, 2009)

Post-Beckham, there is evidence of a shift in ideals in football culture, as recent treatment of Ashley Cole suggests. Cole has seemingly lost his allure and status not because of his performances on the pitch due to his mistreatment of celebrity girlfriend Cheryl Cole, however the evidence suggests that as successful Beckham was, he a one off, and has not dramatically changed the values he challenged. Comparisons with Rooney suggest that the success of Beckham and his construction are reliant on a level of control. Rooney's construction is often effected by outside factors beyond his control such as his class positioning whilst Beckham was constructed in a way in which he could re-construct his image through various platforms, which led to his success as a commercial product.

72

Conclusion

British football has undergone many changes since the start of its relationship with the media. The key development of the game into its current form was the creation of the Premier

League in 1992, which has seen increased exposure and money involved with the game and its players. This has led to numerous 'celebrities' or 'sports stars' emerging from the game. Wayne Rooney embodies many of the aspects of both celebrity construction and the changing face of the game.

Footballer stars such as Wayne Rooney are now as a viable for celebrity status and commodification as any other 'types' of celebrity. Wayne Rooney is a product of careful construction by a range of PR agents, whilst also needing to perform at a high level in the public eye on the pitch. The majority of Rooney's celebrity construction comes in the tabloid press. With the increased visibility of sport on television, the tabloid press have had to find a new way to use sport to sell their papers and use sports stars private lives and a amount of sensationalism in their sport. My thesis has been able to demonstrate the relationship between celebrities like Rooney and the tabloid press is one that needs each other, with the celebrities needing

73 the tabloid press for exposure and the tabloid press needing celebrities to sell their product. The success of this relationship for Rooney has seen increased interest in him and his wife as a

'brand' and has led to him now being involved with many high profile, and high paid advertising deals.

Through my study I have found that the construction of Rooney predominantly comes from two different platforms and whilst the tabloid press constructs his celebrity image, construction of other elements of his persona comes through media coverage within this setting, which I have examined in terms of the commentators address and the choice of camera angles and shots used combined with Rooney's own performance.

Rooney is often constructed, mainly through his footballing performances, as a Working Class Hero. My thesis has demonstrated how this construction often comes through his match winning performances, and attitude towards the game yet also highlights the changing face of heroes produced within football culture. Rooney represents a link between the old style, gentlemen heroes, such as Stanley Matthews who were known for their ability and passion to win, the 'Laddism' heroes of Tony Addams and also the new 'family man' image of David

Beckham. Rooney's own performances both on and off the

74 pitch are it intentional of not, often confirming the stereotypes ascribed to him.

Gender is also another area that is constructed, and Wayne

Rooney's gender construction works towards that of

'Hegemonic Masculinity'. In the games I analysed I found the key areas to Rooney's masculine construction to mirror that of classical literature, with key themes of strength, aggression, stamina, bravery and loyalty to be common within both. These, and other positive qualities highlighted through Rooney, such as his desire to win and passion are also examples of desired national qualities becoming naturalised through the medium of sport.

Contrasts can also be drawn with fellow sports star and former

England teammate David Beckham, particularly within the category of masculine construction. However, I have found

David Beckham to be more in control of his image and a figure who actively seeks to change the stereotypes involved with football. Some values such as the family image which can be seen through Rooney and treatment of women, something which may have been overlooked before, can be seen again through Rooney and Coleen but more noticeably the reaction to Ashley Coles treatment of Cheryl Cole, Beckham is an

75 anomaly in celebrity footballers construction and is a process that hasn't worked since and would work with someone like

Rooney.

Rooney's perfection lies in his capacity to encapsulate the desires of British fans, but there too also lies his problems as the values of Rooney's persona raised above are also always under threat and failure to perform on the pitch can lead to ramifications to his masculine construction which effect his heroic and celebrity status. My research demonstrates this by highlighting the change of emphasis and tone towards Rooney after his failure to perform for the England football team and the scandal involving his infidelity.

Overall my thesis has demonstrated Wayne Rooney to be a perfect example of the construction of the modern day footballer and that his persona is a construction of both the media and sports culture. He also represents how the game has and still is changing and also how the tabloid press, football coverage and the players themselves interact to construct different elements of a famous yet marketable persona. I have demonstrated that modern day footballer stars can define their own image through football and drawn parallels with David

Beckham but would suggest that Rooney's construction to be

76 more vulnerable as it is centred around expectations of class, nationalism and gender deployed within two critical areas of the media, the tabloids and televised football coverage.

Rooney's success depends rather upon forces that operate and performed through him as much as by him.

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89

Appendix

90 Appendix A

Information on matches used.

Manchester United vs Aston Villa (MU/AV. 18.06.2010)

28th February 2010, 15.00

Wembley Stadium, London. Attendance 88,596

Carling Cup Final

Final Score: Manchester United 2 - Aston Villa 1

Broadcast Live on Sky Sports.

Commentators: Alan Parry andAndy Gray

Manchester United Team:

Kuszczak

Rafael

Evans

Vidic

Evra

Fletcher

Valencia

Carrick

Park Ji-Sung

Owen

91 Berbatov

Substitutes: Foster, Neville, Brown, Scholes, Gibson, Rooney,

Diouf

Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson.

Aston Villa Team:

Friedel

Cuellar

Collins

Dunne

Warnock

Young

Milner

Petrov

Downing

Heskey

Agbonlahor

Substitutes: Guzan, Young, Beye, Sidwell, Delph, Carew,

Delfouneso

92

Manager: Martin O'Neill

93 Manchester United vs Manchester City (MU/MC. 12.02.2011)

12th February 2011 12.45

Old Trafford, Manchester. Attendance 75,322

Barclays Premier League game.

Final score: Manchester United 2 – Manchester City 1

Broadcast Live on Sky Sports.

Commentators: Martin Tyler and Alan Smith

Manchester United Team:

Van der Sar

O'Shea

Smalling

Vidic

Evra

Fletcher

Scholes

Anderson

Nani

Rooney

Giggs

Substitutes: Carrick, Berbatov, Lindegaard, Brown, Owen,

Hernandez, Rafael Da Silva.

Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson.

94

Manchester City Team:

Hart

Richards

Kompany

Lescott

Zabaleta

Milner

Barry

Yaya Toure

Kolarov

Silva

Tevez

Substitutes: Dzeko, Wright- Phillips, Given, Boateng, Viera, Jo,

Toure.

Manager: Roberto Mancini.

95 England vs Germany (EN/GE. 27.06.2010)

27th June 2010, 15.00

Free State Stadium, South Africa. Attendance 40,510

2010 World Cup, Knockout Stages, Round of 16.

Final Score: England 1 – Germany 4

Broadcast Live on BBC.

Commentators: Guy Mowbray and Mark Lawrenson

Germany Team:

Neuer

Friedrich

Lahm

Mertesacker

Boateng

Khedira

Schweinsteiger

Ozil

Podolski

Klose

Muller

Manager: Joachim Low

96 Substitutes: Kiessling, Gomez, Trochowski, Wiese, Butt, Jansen,

Tasci, Bastuber, Aogo, Kroos, Marin, Cacau.

England Team:

James

G. Johnson

A. Cole

Terry

Upson

Gerrard

Lampard

Barry

Milner

Rooney

Defoe

Substitutes: Green, Hart, Dawson, Warnock, Carragher, King,

Lennon, J. Cole, Wright-Phillips, Carrick, Crouch, Heskey.

Manager: Fabio Capello

97

England vs Algeria (EN/AL. 18.06.2010)

18th June 2010, 19.30.

Green Point Stadium, Cape Town, South Africa. Attendance

60,000.

2010 World Cup, Group Stages.

Final Score: England 0 – Algeria 0.

Broadcast Live on ITV.

Commentators: Clive Tyldsley and Andy Townsend

England Team:

James

G. Johnson

A. Cole

Terry

Carragher

Gerrard

Lampard

Barry

Lennon

Rooney

Heskey

98 Substitutes: Green, Dawson, Crouch, J. Cole, Warnock, Upson,

Milner, Wright-Philips, Defoe, King, Carrick, Hart.

Manager: Fabio Capello

Algeria Team:

M'Bohli

Bougherra

Belhadj

Yahia

Kadir

Yebda

Lacen

Halliche

Boudebouz

Ziani

Matmour

Substitutes: Gaouaoui, Mansouri, Ghezzal, Saifi, Djebbour,

Bellaid, Laifaoui, Guedioura, Medjani, Mesbah, Abdoun,

Chaouchi.

Manager: Rabah Saadane

99