Undergraduate Review

Volume 9 Issue 1 Article 5

1996

Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre

Anne Barker '96 Illinois Wesleyan University

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev

Recommended Citation Barker '96, Anne (1996) "Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre," Undergraduate Review: Vol. 9 : Iss. 1 , Article 5. Available at: https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol9/iss1/5

This Article is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by Digital Commons @ IWU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this material in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This material has been accepted for inclusion by faculty at Illinois Wesleyan University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ©Copyright is owned by the author of this document. Barker '96: Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre r r

Speculations on the Death of Roman Theatre

Anne Ba..ke..

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1996 7 1 The Undergraduate Review Speculations on tJ Undergraduate Review, Vol. 9, Iss. 1 [1996], Art. 5

Ancient Roman theatre is a continuation of the Greek theatre. regular street audience member claimed th Between these two periods drama had survived and flourished for actress strip and perform in the nude (Har well over 1,000 years. Yet by the seventh century, theatre in the sordid theme and the startlingly indecent 1 Western world had ended and didn't reappear until the birth of acteristic of the mime" (Beare 239). Indiv liturgical drama in the tenth century. How could such a long­ mary importance in the eyes ofspectators; standing classical tradition die? Many scholars believe that the would often take the side of their favorite; death of Roman theatre was a result of Christian influence. fights during performances (Chambers 6-7 However, the Church was not opposed to drama per se. It was as sacrilege in the Greek theatre was now c opposed to the immorality at the core of Roman theatre. The true ing. death of theatre took place over centuries of artistic decline. The Over the course of the years, the mim Church had a large part in its legal death, but the theatre itself had that even the emperors had ethical problen already deteriorated to such a point that its collapse was inevitable. examples include Tiberius, who rejected th Roman drama had never been much more than a plagiarism of their lack of morality; Marcus Aurelius, wh Greek tragedy and comedy. Very little original drama was devel­ his theatre box with his eyes on a book or • oped in the Roman Republic, but there had at least been some watch the spectacle; and Julian, who orden interest in literary drama. Unfortunately, as far as Roman drama on Sun avoid the theatre (Chambers 10). The the whole is concerned, it is clear that "no one wrote for the stage Rome embraced the mimes, and the empel except to make money" (Beare 235). Cities such as Pompeii, in as part of their "bread and circus" prograrr which the majority of people were slaves and foreigners, showed a However, this did not require that they en; distinct lack of interest in the literary theatre. For this reason selves. "something cruder developed" (Chambers 3). The aesthetic tastes This deterioration in quality oftheatre of the Roman people centered on the sensual; by the first century greater lack of morality throughout Rome AD, "mime and pantomime had replaced literary drama" (Vince Roman thinkers alike. "Charges oflicentic 79). Mime was a completely separate entity from true tragic of the theatre were made by both Christiar drama. Farce and pantomime came to replace comedy and tragedy (Vince 84). Christians saw the support of in the Roman Empire. by the general population as proofofthe r: These mimes were centered around themes of murder and State as a pagan institution (Beacham 194: adultery: the amount of indecency was incredible. In a warped even Livy "regarded the theatre of his day sense of Realism, emperors could command a real sex act to take morals and the existence of the state" (23E place on stage. Emperor Heliogabalus was one such ruler who was Titus Livius, wrote Historiae ab Urbe' desired real adultery in his theatre (Beare' 240). In addition, the tory of Rome from its founding until the ( https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol9/iss1/5 2 8 Speculations on the Death ofRoman Theatre Barker '96: Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre eatre is a continuation of the Greek theatre. regular street audience member claimed the right to make an lods drama had survived and flourished for actress strip and perform in the nude (Harris 14). In general, "the Yet by the seventh century, theatre in the sordid theme and the startlingly indecent language seem to be char­ ed and didn't reappear until the birth of acteristic of the mime" (Beare 239). Individual actors gained pri­ :enth century. How could such a long- mary importance in the eyes of spectators; audience members Ion die? Many scholars believe that the would often take the side of their favorite actor and engage in huge : was a result of Christian influence. fights during performances (Chambers 6-7). What was once seen vas not opposed to drama per se. It was as sacrilege in the Greek theatre was now commonplace and excit­ tlity at the core of Roman theatre. The true ing. lace over centuries ofartistic decline. The Over the course of the years, the mimes became so disgusting t in its legal death, but the theatre itself had that even the emperors had ethical problems with them. Some such a point that its collapse was inevitable. examples include Tiberius, who rejected them in part because of never been much more than a plagiarism of their lack of morality; Marcus Aurelius, who would sit dutifully in ledy. Very little original drama was devel­ his theatre box with his eyes on a book or state papers, refusing to public, but there had at least been some watch the spectacle; and Julian, who ordered that the priests of the lao Unfortunately, as far as Roman drama on Sun avoid the theatre (Chambers 10). The common people of , it is clear that "no one wrote for the stage Rome embraced the mimes, and the emperors had to tolerate them , (Beare 235). Cities such as Pompeii, in as part of their "bread and circus" program for social complacency. 'eople were slaves and foreigners, showed a However, this did not require that they enjoy the spectacle them­ in the literary theatre. For this reason selves. eloped" (Chambers 3). The aesthetic tastes This deterioration in quality of theatre was seen to reflect the entered on the sensual; by the first century greater lack ofmorality throughout Rome by both Christian and nime had replaced literary drama" (Vince Roman thinkers alike. "Charges of licentiousness and immortality" )letely separate entity from true tragic of the theatre were made by both Christians and non-Christians omime came to replace comedy and tragedy (Vince 84). Christians saw the support of theatre by the rulers and by the general population as proof of the moral collapse of the centered around themes of murder and State as a pagan institution (Beacham 194). Beare comments that findecency was incredible. In a warped even Livy "regarded the theatre of his day as a danger to public :rors could command a real sex act to take morals and the existence of the state" (238). Livy, whose real name or Heliogabalus was one such ruler who was Titus Livius, wrote Historiae ab Urbe Condita, a complete his­ .his theatre (Beare' 240). In addition, the tory of Rome from its founding until the death of Drusus in 9 BC.

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1996 3 9

;'''''',­ The Undergraduate Review Speculations on tl Undergraduate Review, Vol. 9, Iss. 1 [1996], Art. 5

Even from such an early stage of Roman theatre, conservatives usually slaves or freemen. This was also thl saw the mimes as a threat to the morals of the the people. In his came from (Harris 15). The Church could book Germania, Tacitus compares the immorality and corruption of ments about the actors without the possibi the Empire with the "unsophisticated vigor of the Germanic tribes" their congregation. It was decreed that no (80). Despite the threat these barbarians presented, he considered performer. Although they probably wishee them better than the immorality that presently ruled Rome. Both actors from their fold altogether, it was alle Tacitus and Juvenal complained that the princes were now starting could marry actors, but only if the actor ha to act in mimes. In the past only "infames" (slaves and the like) forsworn acting (Chambers 12). were a part of these spectacles (Chambers 9). They saw the inclu­ Church fathers made several appeals te sion of royalty in lists of performers as one more example of the up the spectacles on their own. In 200 AI corruption that had seeped into the upper ranks of the government. Spactaculis in which he used three argumel It was into this theatrical environment that the early Christians ment of Christians in the theatre. He belie were introduced to Roman theatre. By the time of the early resented pagan gods, that they ministered 1 Christian fathers, theatre was "devoted to sex and sensationalism" man, and that they occurred in festivals hOI (Harris 10). For a people whose religion was based on purity and 15 ). Tertullian also argues that, because th moral integrity, the Roman theatre never stood a chance. The early pagan practices, it is "impossible for a Coo: Christians saw the theatre as an institution based in paganism and them without being guilty of idolatry and , rooted in the ideals of hedonistic immorality. It is no wonder that faith," and that attendance at these spectac: the Christian Church, whose only experience with theatre was the sions and therefore undermines moral disci Roman mimes, condemned theatre in Rome and in general. With believed that Christians forswore such ente its attack on the Roman mime, the Church brought forth another ing the devil at Baptism. Tertullian admon development in the mime itself. The mime actors retaliated by their entertainment in the writings of the c mocking the Church and its most sacred institutions, the sacra­ "here are nobler poetry sweeter voices, rna: ments. Nicoll writes that the most popular mimes that mock melodies more dulcet, than any comedy ca­ Christianity included a depiction of baptism (121). The rite of is truth instead of fiction" (Chambers 11). baptism was a source of great amusement to Roman citizens and be just as exciting as any mime, and the au­ was frequently mocked in the new mimes. to worry about being deceived. The Church, seeing the tolerance of theatre by the emperors, The Church realized that the theatre .. took it upon itself to abolish the practice. However, they had to be prohibit laymen from going to mimes. We. very careful in their attacks against the mimes and the actors. Most excommunication for simply going to ash. of the newly converted Christians were members of the lower class, of losing all of their new flock. They bega­ https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol9/iss1/5 4 10 ~eView Speculations on the Death ofRoman Theatre Barker '96: Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre early stage of Roman theatre, conservatives usually slaves or freemen. This was also the class most the actors :at to the morals of the the people. In his came from (Harris 15). The Church couldn't make brash com­

I compares the immorality and corruption of ments about the actors without the possibility of offending most of nsophisticated vigor of the Germanic tribes" their congregation. It was decreed that no Christian could be a t these barbarians presented, he considered performer. Although they probably wished they could exclude the lmorality that presently ruled Rome. Both actors from their fold altogether, it was allowed that Christians ilplained that the princes were now starting could marry actors, but only if the actor had been baptized and had past only "infames" (slaves and the like) forsworn acting (Chambers 12). ctacles (Chambers 9). They saw the inclu­ Church fathers made several appeals to their converts to give f performers as one more example of the up the spectacles on their own. In 200 AD, Tertullian wrote De ped into the upper ranks of the government. Spactaculis in which he used three arguments against the involve­ atrical environment that the early Christians ment of Christians in the theatre. He believed that the mimes rep­ nan theatre. By the time of the early resented pagan gods, that they ministered to the baser passions of e was "devoted to sex and sensationalism" man, and that they occurred in festivals honoring Dionysus (Harris 'ple whose religion was based on purity and 15). Tertullian also argues that, because the mimes developed from nan theatre never stood a chance. The early pagan practices, it is "impossible for a Christian to participate in re as an institution based in paganism and them without being guilty of idolatry and without injury to his ledonistic immorality. It is no wonder that faith," and that attendance at these spectacles "excites violent pas­ vhose only experience with theatre was the sions and therefore undermines moral discipline" (Vince 84). He ned theatre in Rome and in general. With believed that Christians forswore such entertainments by renounc­

I mime, the Church brought forth another ing the devil at Baptism. Tertullian admonished Christians to find ne itself. The mime actors retaliated by their entertainment in the writings of the church. He states that ld its most sacred institutions, the sacra- "here are nobler poetry sweeter voices, maxims more sage, at the most popular mimes that mock melodies more dulcet, than any comedy can boast, and withal, here depiction of baptism (121). The rite of is truth instead of fiction" (Chambers 11). Church practice could :- great amusement to Roman citizens and be just as exciting as any mime, and the audience would not have in the new mimes. to worry about being deceived. g the tolerance of theatre by the emperors, The Church realized that the theatre was far too popular to )olish the practice. However, they had to be prohibit laymen from going to mimes. Were they to threaten lCks against the mimes and the actors: Most excommunication for simply going to a show, they ran a sizable risk Christians were members of the lower class, of losing all of their new flock. They began by forbidding clergy

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1996 5 11 The Undergraduate Review Speculations on th Undergraduate Review, Vol. 9, Iss. 1 [1996], Art. 5

men from entering a theatre. In addition, they prohibited laymen The State had not yet outlawed the mimes from going to the theatre on Sundays and other Church holidays continued unabated. and festivals with a threat of excommunication (Chambers 12). The most apparent example of the con They continued their attacks on actors and in 309 AD, an assembly 399 AD during Easter. This year, Easter fe of bishops met in Spain at the Council of Elvira. Here they decid­ the Ludi Romani festival. Throughout the ed that "those who had offered spectacles would be treated as adul­ Friday, Holy Saturday, and Easter Sunday, t terers (because of the immorality of the theater) or murderers and the churches were empty. During the (because of the gladiators)" (Chuvin 15). Christian religion, celebrating its very faunl Throughout the rest of the fourth century AD, the State also drawn away all of the Christian converts. 1 began to pass laws ofincreasing severity in an attempt to suppress major battle. During his sermon on that E pagan practices. This was relatively easy because most actors were preached about the corruption of the theat slaves and freemen; they had no legal rights. It was impossible for enforce the punishment of excommunicati( the actors to fight these laws. In 346, public worship of pagan went to the theatre rather than to church a gods was banned and, in 356, the pagan temples were closed. In another State law was passed prohibiting ar 391, pagan cults were banned entirely. People were forced to con­ taking place during Holy Week (Chambers vert to Christianity in 395. (Beacham 194-195) During the late The Christian Church was a force ded: fourth century, Theodosius passed several laws aimed specifically at of the Roman theatre. However, not all hi actors. were opposed to drama itself. In the West. He banned performances on Sunday and during the most revival in literary interest in the fifth centw sacred times of the Christian year. He also forbade actors from read plays by Menender and Terence with : dressing as nuns, which suggests that the mimes had not stopped St. Augustine also distinguished between tI their mockery of the Church. It was also decreed that actors could forms of drama, arguing that it was accept<: not be in the company of Christian women and boys (Harris 16). in an effort to further a person's educatiolll These new state laws demonstrate the growing power of the performances of mimes that these men Christianity and they made it much easier for the Church to fight drama in its literary form. However, many the theatre. However, despite all of these victories, the Church still not overlook the immorality prevalent in R had battles before them. Theodosius still tolerated the theatre. Jerome argued against St. Augustine, prote: Despite all of his laws restricting theatre, he also passed some laws comedies by priests. Eventually, this view I to protect the actors. He would not allow them to be deported Ecclesiastical law (Harris 17). It is evident simply because they were actors. He also relaxed the marriage laws, debate about and the concern over the the which stated that an actor could not marry outside his or her class. turies after the battle was begun. https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol9/iss1/512 6 ~Vjew Speculations on the Death ofRoman Theatre Barker '96: Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre leatre. In addition, they prohibited laymen The State had not yet oudawed the mimes and their popularity tre on Sundays and other Church holidays continued unabated. at of excommunication (Chambers 12). The most apparent example of the continuing war occurred in :tacks on actors and in 309 AD, an assembly 399 AD during Easter. This year, Easter fell in the same week as at the Council of Elvira. Here they decid­ the Ludi Romani festival. Throughout the weekend of Good .offered spectacles would be treated as adul­ Friday, Holy Saturday, and Easter Sunday, the theatres were full; nmorality of the theater) or murderers and the churches were empty. During the most sacred event of the Irs)" (Chuvin 15). Christian religion, celebrating its very foundation, the theatre had st of the fourth century AD, the State also drawn away all of the Christian converts. The theatre had won a Icreasing severity in an attempt to suppress major batde. During his sermon on that Easter, St. Chrysostom 'as relatively easy because most actors were preached about the corruption of the theatre and threatened to f had no legal rights. It was impossible for enforce the punishment of excommunication on anyone who ever : laws. In 346, public worship of pagan went to the theatre rather than to church again. In 400 AD, n 356, the pagan temples were closed. In another State law was passed prohibiting any performances from lanned entirely. People were forced to con­ taking place during Holy Week (Chambers 15-16). 95. (Beacham 194-195) During the late The Christian Church was a force dedicated to the destruction 'sius passed several laws aimed specifically at of the Roman theatre. However, not all high ranking Christians were opposed to drama itself. In the Western Empire, there was a nances on Sunday and during the most revival in literary interest in the fifth century. The bishop Sidonius istian year. He also forbade actors from read plays by Menender and Terence with his son (Chambers 17). suggests that the mimes had not stopped St. Augustine also distinguished between the higher and lower lurch. It was also decreed that actors could forms of drama, arguing that it was acceptable for plays to be read of Christian women and boys (Harris 16). in an effort to further a person's education (Harris 16). It was to :monstrate the growing power of the performances of mimes that these men objected, not to classical ade it much easier for the Church to fight drama in its literary form. However, many church leaders could despite all of these victories, the Church still not overlook the immorality prevalent in Roman theatre. St. I. Theodosius still tolerated the theatre. Jerome argued against St. Augustine, protesting the reading of estricting theatre, he also passed some laws comedies by priests. Eventually, this view became Roman -Ie would not allow them to be deported Ecclesiastical law (Harris 17). It is evident, however, that the re actors. He also relaxed the marriage laws, debate about and the concern over the theatre continued for cen­ tor could not marry outside his or her class. turies after the batde was begun.

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1996 13 7 The Undergraduate Review Speculations on tJ Undergraduate Review, Vol. 9, Iss. 1 [1996], Art. 5

When all things are said and done, it was barbarian attacks that BIBLIOGRAPHl finally killed the theatre in both the Eastern and the Western

Empires. The last known protest against theatre came in the fifth Beacham, Richard C. The Roman Theatre ~ century from the French father, Salvian. He wrote that with the Harvard University Press. Cambridge, barbarians literally at the gates of Carthage, its inhabitants were still Beare, William. The Roman Stage. Methl going to the theatre (Harris 17). After centuries, the Church still and Littlefield. Totowa, NJ : 1977. had not defeated theatre. Salvian believed that theatre ended Chambers, E. K. The Mediaeval Stage Vol because of the barbarian hatred of it, not from the effects of Press. New York: 1967. Christianity (Chambers 18). Half of the Roman Empire had been Chuvin, Pierre. A Chronicle ofthe Last Pa~ attacked by the barbarians; no one could afford to go to the theatre Press. Cambridge, MA : 1990. anymore. When the Lombards took over the Western Empire in Dill, Samuel. Roman Society in the Last Ce 568, they had no interest in the theatre or in any other aspect of Empire. Meridian Books. New York: Roman culture (Harris 17). In an effort to try to restore the Gibbon, Edward. Christianity and the De£ morale ofa defeated people, Pope Gregory made the Church cen­ Books. New York: 1962.

tral to their lives. Theatre was removed as a necessity and all the Harris, John Wesley. Medieval Theatre in I theatre buildings were converted to barracks or government store­ Introduction. Routledge. New York: houses (17). Jeffers, James S. Conflict at Rome: Social Despite popular belief that Christianity was the force that killed Early Christianity. Fortress Press. Mi ancient theatre, many other aspects played a part. The aesthetic Mann, David. "The Roman Mime and M. decline in the Roman mind and theatre lead to an institution with Theatre NotebookV46 : 1992. 136-14 many enemies, including top State officials. The Fathers of Molinari, Cesare. Theatre Through the ABe Christianity fought a long hard battle against theatre in Rome, but Company. New York: 1975. they were mainly opposed to the mimes which they saw as a threat Nicoll, Allardyce. Masks Mimes and Mirac to the moral fabric of society. In all those long years of fighting, Company. New York: 1931. the theatre never lost to the Church. The fight continued until the Vince, Ronald W. Ancient and Medieval 1 barbarians removed the need completely. If anyone thing can be Historiographical Handbook. Greenwc pointed to as having caused the collapse of Roman theatre, it is the : 1984. Roman mind set itself. Watson, Alan. The Law ofthe Ancient Ron Methodist University Press. Dallas: 1 Williams, Arnold. The Drama ofMedieval State University Press. 1961. https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol9/iss1/5 8 14 P i Review Speculations on the Death ofRoman Theatre Barker '96: Speculations of the Death of Roman Theatre re said and done, it was barbarian attacks that BIBLIOGRAPHY 'e in both the Eastern and the Western ,wn protest against theatre came in the fifth Beacham, Richard C. The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. ch father, Salvian. He wrote that with the Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA : 1992. he gates of Carthage, its inhabitants were still Beare, William. The Roman Stage. Methuen & Co Ltd Rowman larris 17). After centuries, the Church still and Littlefield. Totowa, NJ : 1977. reo Salvian believed that theatre ended Chambers, E. K. The Mediaeval Stage Vol 1. Oxford University m hatred of it, not from the effects of Press. New York: 1967. s 18). Half of the Roman Empire had been Chuvin, Pierre. A Chronicle ofthe Last Pagans. Harvard University ians; no one could afford to go to the theatre Press. Cambridge, MA : 1990. .ombards took over the Western Empire in Dill, Samuel. Roman Society in the Last Century ofthe Western 'est in the theatre or in any other aspect of Empire. Meridian Books. New York: 1962. i 17). In an effort to try to restore the Gibbon, Edward. Christianity and the Decline ofRome. Collier eople, Pope Gregory made the Church cen­ Books. New York: 1962. atre was removed as a necessity and all the Harris, John Wesley. Medieval Theatre in Context: An converted to barracks or government store­ Introduction. Routledge. New York: 1992 Jeffers, James S. Conflict at Rome: Social Order and Hierarchy in dief that Christianity was the force that killed Early Christianity. Fortress Press. Minneapolis, MN :1991. other aspects played a part. The aesthetic Mann, David. "The Roman Mime and Medieval Theatre". mind and theatre lead to an institution with Theatre Notebook V46: 1992. 136-144. ng top State officials. The Fathers of Molinari, Cesare. Theatre Through the Ages. McGraw-Hill Book Dng hard battle against theatre in Rome, but Company. New York: 1975. )sed to the mimes which they saw as a threat Nicoll, Allardyce. Masks Mimes and Miracles. Harcourt, Brace and society. In all those long years of fighting, Company. New York: 1931. to the Church. The fight continued until the Vince, Ronald W. Ancient and Medieval Theatre: A e need completely. If anyone thing can be Historiographical Handbook. Greenwood Press. Westport, CT aused the collapse of Roman theatre, it is the : 1984. Watson, Alan. The Law ofthe Ancient Romans. Southern Methodist University Press.. Dallas: 1970. Williams, Arnold. The Drama ofMedieval England. Michigan State University Press. 1961.

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1996 159

.~ I