Analysis of End Markets for Collected Minnesota Household E-

Prepared For: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Date: 06-28-13

Submitted By: Greeneye Partners LLC. Reclay StewardEdge Inc.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 3 1.1 Background to the Project ...... 3 1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Project ...... 3 1.3 Structure of the Report ...... 3 2. APPROACH ...... 4 2.1 Goals ...... 4 2.2 Survey of Recyclers ...... 4 2.3 Survey Questionnaire ...... 5 2.4 Response to the Survey ...... 5 3. MARKET TRENDS ...... 6 3.1 General Industry Trends for ...... 6 3.2 E-Waste Certifications ...... 9 4. SURVEY RESPONDENTS’ PROCESS METHODOLOGY ...... 11 4.1 E-Waste Recycling and Recovery ...... 11 4.2 Downstream Processing versus On-Site Processing /Dismantling ...... 13 4.3 Remarketed versus Recycled ...... 14 5. HAZARDOUS AND NON-HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ...... 15 5.1 Hazardous Materials ...... 16 5.2 Non-Hazardous Materials ...... 33 6. OBSERVATIONS ...... 40 7. REFERENCES ...... 42

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Percentage of Household E-Waste Remarketed vs. Recycled ...... 14 Table 2: E-Waste Material Breakdown ...... 15 Table 3: Refining Companies ...... 18 Table 4: Circuit Board Categories ...... 18 Table 5: Sample of CRT Glass Recyclers in the ...... 24 Table 6: Retort Facilities ...... 28 Table 7: US Battery Sorting Facilities ...... 30 Table 8: US Facilities ...... 30 Table 9: Processing Methods and End Markets for Batteries ...... 31 Table 10: North American Reclaimers and Brokers of E-Waste ...... 35

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: PY5 Minnesota Recycler Certification Status ...... 10 Figure 2: Weight Processed by PY5 Recycler Type ...... 10 Figure 3: General Treatment Flow of Household E-Waste in Minnesota ...... 11 Figure 4: Final Known Destinations of Hazardous Material Types ...... 12 Figure 5: Final Known Destinations of Non-Hazardous Material Types ...... 12 Figure 6: Percentage of respondents who shipped e-waste Whole vs. Dismantled On-Site ...... 13 Figure 7: Survey Results for Circuit Boards ...... 17 Figure 8: Survey Results for CRT Televisions & Glass ...... 21 Figure 9: Diagram of LCD Display Device ...... 25 Figure 10: Survey Results for Fluorescent Tubes ...... 27 Figure 11: Survey Results for Batteries ...... 29 Figure 12: Survey Results for ...... 33 Figure 13: Survey Results for Wood ...... 36

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Project

Greeneye Partners and Reclay StewardEdge Inc. responded to the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency’s (MPCA) request for proposal (RFP) titled “CR 5544 E-Waste Analysis” to conduct a third-party analysis of the end markets for collected Minnesota household e-waste. The information provided within this report provides the findings from this third-party analysis. The observations from this analysis can be used by the MPCA e-waste program to gain a better understanding of where collected e-waste is flowing for recycling and management and to help to determine if end markets are handling the e-waste materials responsibly.

1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Project

The aim of this analysis was to gain a better understanding of the following: · The flow of Minnesota household collected e-waste within the State; · How collected e-waste was being dismantled/processed for recycling; · How various components of collected household e-waste are being handled and processed; · The final disposition of collected household e-waste components that are being reported as recycled.

1.3 Structure of the Report

The remainder of this report is structured as follows: · Part 2: The approach to the project; · Part 3: General market trends; · Part 4: How material is handled by survey respondents; · Part 5: Discussion of Hazardous and Non-hazardous materials by category, including survey results and commodity markets; · Part 6: Observations from the analysis; · Part 7: References.

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2. APPROACH 2.1 Goals

The goal of this project was to provide the State of Minnesota with valuable data on the end markets of collected Minnesota household e-waste. This data has significant implications for environmental protection as it can be used to support the responsible handling of household e-waste. The data collected has helped to answer the following questions within this report: · Where are the hazardous components [e.g. cathode ray tube (CRTs), mercury containing equipment, circuit boards, etc.] of household e-waste going for further processing? · Where are non-hazardous components (e.g. metals, plastics, wood, etc.) of household e-waste going for further processing? · What are the final end uses being produced from components of e-waste? · What are the economics within the various commodity markets? · What components are not being recovered for recycling, but could be, to highlight market development needs? To collect this data a two-prong approach was undertaken which consisted of: · An online survey, with telephone follow-up where necessary, targeting all PY5 registered Recyclers;i · Desk-based research on end markets for e-waste components. Due to commercial confidentiality, the names of the Recyclers that responded to the survey as well as the downstream vendor names and their locations that were reported in the survey will not be stated in this report.

2.2 Survey of Recyclers

The project team designed and sent an online survey by email in December 2012, which encouraged participants to complete the survey by December 14, 2012. Two reminder emails were also sent to Recyclers who had not responded, including one which notified Recyclers of an extension to allow them to submit the survey. According to the 2011 Evaluation Report on the Minnesota Electronics Act, the top 10 Recyclers in Minnesota account for 95% of the weight recycled. The project team followed-up by telephone with any top 10 Recyclers who had not completed the online survey because they represent such a high percentage of the total weight of e-waste recycled in the state.

i PY5 refers to program year 5. PY5 ran from July 1 2011 to June 30, 2012.

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2.3 Survey Questionnaire

The online questionnaire focused on the following main lines of inquiry: · Determining if Recyclers shipped Minnesota household e-waste whole to downstream vendors. o Included determining which material categories (for example or fax machines) were shipped whole and the identity of downstream vendors for those categories. · Determining if Recyclers dismantled Minnesota household e-waste on-site. o Included determining which material categories (for example laptops or fax machines) were dismantled on-site and determining the identity of downstream vendors for the e- waste once dismantled (for example the downstream vendors for batteries, plastic, CRT tubes, etc.). · Determining if Recyclers handle e-waste at their premises in any other way apart from shipping e-waste whole or dismantling the e-waste on-site. · Determining the percentage of Minnesota household and non-household e-waste received by Recyclers that is reused, versus the percentage of Minnesota household and non-household e- waste received by Recyclers that is recycled.

2.4 Response to the Survey

The online survey was distributed to 87 Recyclers via email, and 23 survey responses were received, representing a 26% response rate. Respondents included the top 10 Recyclers by weight recycled, representing 94% of the total weight recycled in Program Year 5 (PY5). The results presented in Section 4 below are weighted by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5.

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3. MARKET TRENDS 3.1 General Industry Trends for Consumer Electronics

E-Waste Composition Electronics enter the waste stream when they physically break and cannot be repaired and when consumers decide they no longer desire the product (whether it works or not). The consumer electronics segment changes rapidly; technological advances combined with sophisticated marketing campaigns and aggressive pricing strategies drive consumers to replace electronics even when their existing devices are still functional. There is typically a lag between when a consumer upgrades their electronics and when they actually drop off their older units for recycling so the composition of the e- waste stream is dynamic and not always easy to predict. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display devices, VCRs and even DVD players are examples of products consumers are replacing with newer technologies (e.g. tablets, online music/movie downloads, etc.). What may be surprising is that the CRT’s replacement – flat panel displays – is now entering the e-waste stream with recyclers reporting units that are only 4-5 years old being collected.1 With regard to the video category, flat panel technology is evolving from plasma to Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and even within the LCD category, more recent innovations have come to market with Light-Emitting Diode (LED) technologies. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) televisions are the most popular. The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) predicted that LCD display technology would account for approximately 85% of unit shipments in 2012.2 The proliferation of tablets and small hand-held devices such as and e-readers is driving change in the composition of e-waste available for recycling in the United States. According to the CEA, 45% of households in the US now own tablets while household ownership has reached 55%.3 Mobile computing devices have now exceeded televisions as the leading category in the consumer electronics industry. These smaller units are displacing desktop at a faster pace than analysts predicted as cloud computing continues to rise, the power of mobile computing devices increases and prices of smartphones and tablets become ever more affordable. This trend is confirmed by the sales figures of the world’s top vendors; they have all experienced double- digit decreases in global PC sales except for Acer and Lenovo who have exceeded industry performance by selling more affordable units in emerging markets.4 The CEA has reported that “notebooks and netbooks now outsell desktops by a factor of four to one.”5 However, it is predicted that businesses will continue to purchase desktop computers because of the superior content creation and storage they provide.6 As a result, desktop computers are entering the e-waste stream more quickly than anticipated and as new generation smartphones and tablets enter the market, consumers will discard their older units changing the composition of the e-waste stream even further.

E-Waste Quantities The quantity of e-waste available for recycling is driven by the rate at which existing technologies become obsolete, pricing strategies that impact consumer spending, recycling behaviour, and the weight of the electronics themselves. The combination of design, marketing and innovation contributes to higher volumes of e-waste available for collection. , new software options and

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marketing campaigns are driving consumers to replace their electronics more quickly. As households transition to new technologies, they supplant older models which are now considered obsolete and therefore, not suitable for .7 As prices for consumer electronics decrease (in part due to “showrooming” when online retailers offer consumer electronics at deeply discounted prices to pull business away from physical stores)8 they become more accessible to the average consumer leading to increased sales and household penetration. This phenomenon, combined with planned obsolescence, will to higher quantities of e-waste available for recycling over time. However, consumer electronics are typically becoming sleeker and thinner which over time will reduce the weight of e-waste available for recycling. However, as mentioned above, heavy items like CRT displays continue to represent a large share of the e-waste stream both in terms of weight and quantity. The regulatory landscape will also impact the amount of e-waste collected for recycling in the United States. Currently, 25 states have statewide e-waste recycling laws in place and several others are in the process of introducing and passing new laws.9 In terms of performance, e-waste recycling programs in these states collect anywhere between 0.35 lbs per capita to 7.7 lbs per capita of e-waste, depending upon the scope of products covered under legislation and the sources included in their reporting (households only, households and businesses).10 As more states enact laws that mandate e-waste recycling, the quantity of e-waste collected will grow leading to higher recycling rates and increased diversion.

Critical Raw Materials Embedded within electronic products are many components, some of which (such as circuit boards and batteries) contain metals and elements that are crucial to their functioning. In recent years, concern has been mounting regarding the availability of these materials in the future, primarily because a large proportion of their global production is concentrated in only a few countries – China, Russia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Brazil. China in particular is seen as an unstable trade partner as it has restricted trade of rare earth elements with and announced in 2010 that it would reduce its overall export quotas.11 The European Commission (EC) has identified fourteen raw materials that are considered critical based on risks of supply shortage and their impacts on the economy as compared to other raw materials. Furthermore, the materials in question are not easily substituted or recycled. The critical raw materials (CRMs) identified by the EC are as follows (in no specific order)12: · Antimony · Indium · Beryllium · Magnesium · Cobalt · Niobium · Fluorspar · PGMs ( Group Metals)ii · Gallium

ii Refers to platinum, , iridium, rhodium, ruthenium and osmium

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· Rare earthsiii · Germanium · · Graphite · Tungsten These materials can be found in a range of high-tech products including clean technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines and electric vehicles, consumer electronics such as flat panel televisions and cell phones, and others. The supply risks are perceived as so threatening, especially given the emphasis on clean energy as a basis of economic and environmental policy, that several countries have conducted independent analyses on critical raw materials and the United States, the and Japan have now hosted three EU-US-Japan Trilateral Conferences on Critical Materials.13 It should be noted that what is considered “critical” is subject to change over time; governments have agreed to reassess CRM lists periodically. In the US, the government developed a Critical Raw Materials strategy in 2011 and established a research center for rare earth materials’ science and technology, known as the Critical Materials Institute (CMI), to “develop solutions to the domestic shortages of rare earth metals and other materials critical for U.S. energy security.”14 A primary focus of CMI’s work will be to develop domestic alternatives to avoid supply disruptions in the future. Recycling As a Strategy The need to preserve and maintain access to CRM supplies in the future has spurred discussion regarding the need for a lifecycle approach to materials management whereby product design, disassembly and recycling are considered from the outset to ensure that CRMs are preserved and recovered at the product’s end of life.15 Recycling is seen as an important strategy to create a secondary supply of CRMs which can be fostered domestically. For example, Japan is actively looking to recycle consumer electronics to reclaim materials critical to its manufacturing industries. According to a Japanese research group, used electronics in Japan contain an estimated 300,000 tons of rare earths representing a significant opportunity to reduce dependence on unstable export markets and leading companies such as Dowa Holdings to build facilities with the specific purpose of extracting CRMs from used electronics.16 While used consumer electronics are a source of CRMs, they are found in very low concentrations making it very costly to recover them from this waste stream. In turn, processing technologies are advancing to make it easier to reclaim them. Fluorescent bulbs found in flat-panel display devices represent an opportunity for CRM recovery as the phosphors within them contain rare earth elements which can be recovered using specialized processing technology such as the BLUBOX (as mentioned in Box 5-2). According to the BLUBOX’s designers, the rare-earth element containing layer of phosphor powder is recovered through filters and collected in closed drums. The separated powder can then be sent downstream and further processed to reclaim the rare earth elements. This equipment is being used and licensed in the United States by Creative Recycling.17

iii Refers to yttrium, scandium, and the lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium and lutetium) 8

CRMs have been identified as economically significant for a number of countries and are therefore receiving a high level of attention. Supply constraints may be alleviated in the future by phasing out the use of certain CRMs during the design process, the creation of substitutes and more efficient and cost- effective CRM recycling technologies through research and innovation, government-imposed mandates on CRM recycling creating higher prices for the materials and spurring investment in CRM recycling infrastructure, and geopolitical changes creating more stability in global CRM markets.

3.2 E-Waste Recycling Certifications

R2 and e-Stewards™ certifications, introduced in 2008 and 2009 respectively, were developed to ensure the responsible recycling and reuse of electronic equipment. The standards address proper handling of hazardous materials found in electronics such as CRTs, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), batteries, mercury-containing devices (such as fluorescent tubes in laptops and flat screen monitors) and circuit boards. Both standards focus on maximizing reuse and minimizing risks to the environment and worker health and safety. Both standards require an environmental, health and safety management system as the foundation of their standards. e-Stewards™ has licensed the ISO 14001 standard directly into its standard. Thus achieving certification to e-Stewards™ automatically achieves certification to ISO 14001. The new version of R2:2013, to be released for official use on July 1st 2013, requires certification to the Recycling Industry Operating Standard (RIOS)iv or both ISO14001 and OHSAS 18001. Both the R2 and e-Stewards™ certification programs are overseen by ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board (ANAB). ANAB ensures that programs and audits are consistently delivered by accredited certification bodies. There are currently six certification bodies that offer R2 and e-Stewards™ certification.v Certified recyclers undergo annual third party audits by the certification bodies to attain and maintain their certification. To date, there are over 200 facilities worldwide that are certified to R218 and over 100 facilities worldwide that are certified to e-Stewards™19. · A list of approved R2 certified recyclers can be found at http://www.r2solutions.org/certified/electronic-recyclers-with-r2-certified-facilities/ · A list of approved e-Stewards recyclers can be found at http://e-stewards.org/find-a-recycler/certified-recyclers/ To date, 25 states have passed legislation mandating statewide e-waste recyclingvi. Increasingly, state recycling programs are requiring third-party certifications for registered recyclers. States requiring certification include and Vermont. Recycler certification is also currently being proposed in .20

iv Recycling Industry Operating Standard found at http://www.certifymerecycling.org/ v A list of certification bodies offering R2 certification can be found at http://www.r2solutions.org/become/contact-a-certifying-body/. A list of CBs (certification bodies) offering e- Stewards™ certification can be found at http://e-stewards.org/certification-overview/certifying-bodies/ vi http://www.electronicstakeback.com/promote-good-laws/state-legislation-toolkit/

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Certification Status of PY5 Minnesota Recyclers Of the 87 PY5 Minnesota registered Recyclers · 29 Recyclers are R2 Certified · 12 Recyclers are e-Stewards Certified · 13 Recyclers are both e-Stewards and R2 certified Figure 1: PY5 Minnesota Recycler Certification Status

35% 33%

30%

25%

20% 15% 15% 14%

10%

5%

0% R2 Certified e-Stewards Certified Both e-Stewards and R2 Certified

Of the top 10 PY5 recyclers, by weight processed, eight out of the ten recyclers are currently certified to either one or both of the standards (R2 and e-Stewards™). · Five of the top ten recyclers are e-Stewards™ certified · Seven of the top ten recyclers are R2 certified · Four of the top ten recyclers are both e-Stewards™ and R2 certified Certified Recyclers processed 87% of the PY5 weight. Non-certified Recyclers processed 13% of the PY5 weight. Figure 2: Weight Processed by PY5 Recycler Type

13%

Certified Recyclers

87% Non-Certified Recyclers

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4. SURVEY RESPONDENTS’ PROCESS METHODOLOGY 4.1 E-Waste Recycling and Recovery

The following flow diagrams provide an overview of the general treatment flow of household e-waste within Minnesota and display the most common end market destinations (of those that are known) as reported by survey respondents for the hazardous and non-hazardous material types profiled within this analysis.

Figure 3: General Treatment Flow of Household E-Waste in Minnesota

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The following flow diagram shows the final known destinations for hazardous material types profiled within the analysis.

Figure 4: Final Known Destinations of Hazardous Material Types

The flow diagram below shows the final known destinations for non-hazardous material types profiled within the analysis. For more information, a list of some of the world’s largest precious metal refining companies can be found on page 18 and plastic reclaimers and brokers on page 35.

Figure 5: Final Known Destinations of Non-Hazardous Material Types

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4.2 Downstream Processing versus On-Site Processing /Dismantling

The responses to the online survey provided the following results in terms of the respondents who sent e-waste whole to downstream processors versus those respondents who processvii/dismantle e-waste on-site: · 13% of respondents ship whole electronics to downstream vendors for further processing, without conducting any on-site processing/dismantling. · 26% of respondents do a combination of shipping whole units to downstream vendors and processing/dismantling electronics on-site. · 61% of respondents process/dismantle all electronics on-site and do not ship whole electronics to downstream vendors.

Figure 6: Percentage of respondents who shipped e-waste Whole vs. Dismantled On-Site

13%

Ship Whole Electronics to Downstreams (no on-site 26% dismantling) Combination of Ship 61% Whole and Dismantle Electronics On-Site Dismantle all Electronics On-Site

vii Processing is any form of modifying the electronics. It could mean removing the plastic housing off the CRT, shredding a or removing memory from a computer. Dismantling is one form of processing.

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4.3 Remarketed versus Recycled

The results presented in Table 1 below outline the percentage of Minnesota household e-waste that is remarketed and the percentage that is recycled to highlight which e-waste categories are most commonly sold directly into reuse markets rather than recycled. The results are weighted by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5.

Table 1: Percentage of Household E-Waste Remarketed vs. Recycled % Remarketed % Recycled Household CRT Monitors & Televisions 1% 99% Household Flat Panel Monitors & Televisions 4% 96% Household Desktop Computers 3% 97% Household Laptops 4% 96% Household Peripherals 1% 99% Non-Household CRT Monitors & Televisions 3% 97% Non-Household Flat Panel Monitors & Televisions 22% 78% Non-Household Desktop Computers 26% 74% Non-Household Laptops 31% 69% Non-Household Peripherals 7% 93%

Box 4-1. Markets for Reusable Electronics In March of 2013, the United States International Trade Commission (USITC), published a study titled Used Electronic Products: An Examination of U.S. Exports. The report is based on data collected through a nationwide survey of 5,200 refurbishers, recyclers, brokers, information technology asset managers, and other used electronics products handlers. The USITC researchers found:

· In 2011, 70 percent of exports, by value, were tested and working products sent for reuse.

· U.S. enterprises reported $20.6 billion in total sales of used electronics in 2011, with $19.2 billion in domestic sales and $1.45 billion in exports. The study concluded that selling functioning products suitable for reuse is more lucrative than selling components.

· Demand for used electronic products for refurbishment and repair is reportedly strong in Mexico and parts of Asia, especially India and China. These countries have established capacity in domestic industries that repair used electronic products and resell products locally. Source: United States International Trade Commission. February 2013. Used Electronic Products: An Examination of U.S. Exports. Available here.

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5. HAZARDOUS AND NON-HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

The sections below outline the material category components found in e-waste covered under Minnesota’s e-waste regulation. A profile for each material details the following: · The household electronics the material is found in; · Whether the material is hazardous or non-hazardousviii; · The survey results weighted by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5ix; · The method used to process the material into commodity-grade subcomponents or prepare it for proper disposal; · The end markets for commodity-grade subcomponents and the economics of the recycling process.

Minnesota recyclers processed approximately 35 million pounds of electronics in PY5. An estimate of the compositional breakdown of e-waste in Minnesota is presented in Table 2.x

Table 2: E-Waste Material Breakdown Material Weight Non-leaded Panel Glass 16,771,000 6,182,000 Plastics 4,954,000 2,090,000 Circuit Boards 1,913,000 Leaded Funnel Glass 1,759,000 LCD Glass 192,000 Wood 821,000 Aluminum 262,000 Electrolyte/Ethylene Glycolxi 31,000 Batteries 20,000 Mercury-Containing Fluorescent Bulbs 5,000 Total 35,000,000

viii As determined by a TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure) test. Materials that could fail a TCLP test are considered hazardous in this report. Materials that could pass a TCLP test are considered non-hazardous. It should be noted that regulations such as ROHS, which eliminate the use of lead solder on circuit boards, are changing the nature of hazardous vs. non-hazardous. ix Meaning if survey only had two Recyclers and Recycler 1 handled 90% of the weight and Recycler 2 handled 10% of the weight, the survey results would indicate 90%/10% not 50%/50%. x Material breakout was calculated using data provided by Hennepin County based on material collected in 2012 as well as data derived from the following source: Ontario Electronic Stewardship. September 2010. Request for Proposals: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Processing Services. xi Ethylene glycol is a non-hazardous liquid coolant found in CRT displays that protects the CRT from overheating.

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5.1 Hazardous Materials

5.1.2 Circuit Boards

Circuit boards are found in any household electronic with a plug or battery, such as video display devices (including monitors, televisions and laptops), computers, printers, fax machines, mice, keyboards, fax machines, DVD players and VCRs. Circuit boards are classified as Hazardous because they may contain lead solder, mercury switches or batteries. Circuit boards may contain the following elements21:

Possible Elements Found in a Printed Circuit Board Aluminum (Al) Titanium (Ti) Sodium (Na) Copper (Cu) Calcium (Ca) (Ag) Sulphur (S) Magnesium (Mg) (Fe) Platinum (Pt) Strontium (Sr) Nickel (Ni) Manganese (Mn) Arsenic (As) Zirconium (Zr) Antimony (Sb) Lead (Pb) (Cr) (Au) Zinc (Zn) (Sn) Potassium (K) Barium (Ba) Palladium (Pd)

According to federal regulation 40 CFR 261.4: 1. Whole used circuit boards meet the definition of spent materials but also meet the definition of scrap metal. Therefore, whole used circuit boards that are recycled are exempt from the regulations. 2. Shredded circuit boards are excluded from the definition of solid waste if they are containerized (i.e., fiberpaks) prior to recovery. These shredded circuit boards cannot contain mercury switches, mercury relays, nickel batteries, or lithium batteries. If these materials are not treated this way, then they are considered hazardous waste and must be treated as such.22

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Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5, Minnesota recyclers reported that: · 74% of circuit boards are sent directly to secondaryxii copper/precious metal refineries. · 26% of circuit boards are sent to intermediate processors then to secondary copper/precious metal refineries. · 100% of circuit boards are processed in an OECDxiii country.

Figure 7: Survey Results for Circuit Boards Circuit Boards

26% Sent directly to Copper/Precious Metal Refineries

74% Sent to Intermediate Processors then to Copper/Precious Metal Refineries

Processing Method Circuit boards are typically extracted from electronic products manually; however, more sophisticated operations will shred the material first and separate the resulting material into different streams (copper-rich, aluminum, steel, plastic, dust, etc.). Once the circuit boards are separated from the electronic unit, they are traded globally to secondary precious metal refineries (there are no secondary copper refineries in the US that process circuit boards).23 Some of the world’s largest precious metal refining companies are listed in Table 3 below.

xii “Secondary” refers to all non-primary sources, including slag, , consumer waste and e-waste. Primary copper refineries produce copper from copper sulfide ore concentrates.

xiii OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries are 34 developed and democratic countries that have established various trade agreements, including agreements pertaining to hazardous materials and waste. The OECD Council Decision C(2001)107/FINAL, commonly known as the Amber/Green decision, classifies waste according to their hazard potential. Circuit boards are classified as "green" (i.e. non-hazardous) and can be shipped freely between OECD countries.

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Table 3: Precious Metal Refining Companies Metal Refinery Primary Location Metals/Elements Recovered Umicore Belgium Gold, silver, copper, lead, nickel, platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, selenium, tellurium, and indium24 Boliden Sweden Zinc, copper, lead, gold, silver25 Aurubis Germany Copper, lead, gold, silver, platinum, palladium, and rhodium26 Xstrata Copper Canada Copper, gold, silver, platinum and palladium27 Teck Canada Zinc, lead , germanium, indium, cadmium, arsenic, mercury , copper, gold, silver28 Dowa Japan Precious metals and nonferrous metals (including copper, nickel, tin, lead, gold, silver, palladium, bismuth, tellurium)29

Refineries feed the material into a furnace producing a metal output that can then be further refined to recover critical raw materials such as indium, selenium and platinum as well as precious metals such as silver and gold and others that may be contained within circuit boards.30 The challenge with circuit board shredding is that high value metals such as gold, silver and palladium are embedded amongst lower value materials such as plastic; unselective shredding can lead to losses of high value material.31 This can be combated through the use of sorting technology such as magnetic separators for ferrous metals, eddy current separators for non-ferrous metals and floatation technology or optical sorters for sorting plastic.32

End Markets & Economics Circuit boards are typically categorized from low grade to high grade. These categories do not denote that circuit boards generate high economic returns compared to other materials such as precious metals; but rather are a way of classifying electronic scrap. As an example, the precious metal refinery Umicore, uses the following categories based on the gold (Au) content of the material33: Table 4: Circuit Board Categories Low Grade Medium Grade High Grade (<100 ppm Au) (100 to 400 ppm Au) (>400 ppm Au) Display device boards Desktop computer boards Mainframe circuit boards

Shredded bulk material after Laptops Some mobile phones Al-/Fe-separation Tablets Cordless phones, calculators Some mobile phones Multilayer ceramic chip

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High grade circuit boards have more recoverable precious metals and are therefore worth more than low grade boards. Refineries will sometimes charge a fee to receive lower grade boards because the cost of processing outweighs the value of the metals that can be recovered. In some cases, recyclers will blend low grade and high grade circuit boards to offset processing charges.

5.1.3 CRT Monitors & Televisions Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) are found in household electronics including monitors and televisions. CRTs are classified as Hazardous due to the lead found in the funnel glass, frit line and potentially in the panel glass.

A CRT contains the following components34: · Funnel Glass: Rear portion of the CRT composed of leaded glass. · Panel Glass: Front portion of the CRT composed of non-leaded glass. · Phosphor Powder: Coating on the inside of the panel glass. · Frit: High lead content solder used to fuse the funnel and panel glass. · Neck: Glass tube that contains the electron gun. · Yoke: Copper wire that surrounds the neck of the CRT. · Electron Gun: Steel gun that creates the electron beam. · Banding: Metal banding that surrounds the CRT. · Shadow Mask: Metal screen with tiny holes that controls the path of electrons. · Protective Shell or Case: Often plastic for computer monitors and televisions, wood for large console televisions and metal for other displays.

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Box 5-1. The Changing Landscape of CRT Glass Processing With the advent of flat-screen technology, CRT sales in the United States have plummeted and the quantity of CRT televisions in the e-waste stream has risen dramatically. The recycling solution for CRT glass had been a processing method whereby the leaded funnel glass and non-leaded panel glass were separated using a specially-designed machine. The leaded funnel glass was then sent to CRT glass-to- facilities where it would be melted in a furnace and the leaded glass reused in the manufacture of new CRT glass. However, demand is contracting for secondary CRT glass cullet to make new CRTs as markets in developing countries begin the transition to flat-panels just as the US market did beginning two decades ago. Already, CRT Glass‐to‐Glass furnaces have closed in China, Malaysia and India.1 The traditional processing method produced glass that still contained lead and therefore was unsuitable for most consumer glass applications. Contracting demand for CRT glass is occurring simultaneously with an increase in the collection of end-of-life CRTs. End markets for CRT leaded glass have diminished to such an extent that US recyclers have stockpiled 660 million pounds worth of the material according to a recent report.2 Recognizing that new markets are needed, the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) and the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI) have now launched two CRT Challenges to find “financially viable, environmentally conscious proposals for utilizing recycled Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT) glass from used televisions and computer monitors.”3 In response, a number of companies are researching recovery alternatives for CRT glass including Closed Loop Refining & Recovery, Nulife Glass, Universal Recycling Technologies, Dlubak Glass and ECS “Regenesys” Glass Processing.1 Closed Loop Refining & Recovery has developed a technology whereby the glass is melted at lower temperatures which allows the lead to be safely “isolated from the molten glass without it becoming vaporized, allowing for the safe extraction and capture of the lead from the funnel glass.”4 By removing the lead, this technology will enable a much wider range of use for recovered funnel glass creating new markets for this material. Nulife Glass – a company based in the United Kingdom and the first winner of the CRT Challenge – has also developed a solution to separate the lead from the funnel glass and the resulting de-leaded glass has been successfully used as an aggregates replacement in construction products such as floor screeds and worktops and to produce glass tiles.5 Nulife Glass is bringing this technology to the United States. A facility is under development in New York (expected to open in Fall 2013)6 and the company is also looking to site facilities in Washington State and Arizona7. Sources: 1Cauchi, David. 2012. CRT Recycle Market Overview: Recycling Industry Perspective. Available here. 2Transparent Planet. January 2013. Stakeholders Gather on CRT Glass Stockpiling. Available here. 3Consumer Electronics Association (CEA). 2013. Cathode Ray Challenge #2: New Uses for Recycled Glass. Available here. 4Closed Loop Refining and Recovery. 2011. Newsletter. Available here. 5Nulife Glass. Glass Products. Available here. 6Fox, Greg. Observer Today. June 2013. New business coming to area. Available here. 7New York Power Authority (NYPA). March 2012. Application Summary. Available here.

Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recyclers processed in PY5, 70% of the CRT glass weight was processed on-site. Processing glass on-site refers to the manual or mechanical separation of the funnel and panel glass within the recycler’s facility. 50% of the respondents processing glass on-site are sending the non-leaded panel glass for use in industrial/commercial end markets. Markets used for leaded funnel glass include lead refineries and glass furnace operations. 20

As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5, 30% of Respondents are sending CRTs/display devices to a downstream processor. Of the Respondents sending CRTs/display devices to a downstream processor, the end markets are the same as those of respondents processing glass on-site, including the industrial/commercial markets for the non-leaded panel glass and the lead and glass furnace operations for the leaded funnel glass. The advantage of processing glass on-site is the ability to sell the commodity outputs, including non- leaded panel glass and leaded funnel glass directly to end markets, versus paying a downstream processor. The market value of the glass, recycler efficiencies and the volume generated determine the profitability/sustainability of processing glass on site. The disadvantage of processing glass on site is the potential for workers to be exposed to heightened levels, near or above the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) required limits, of lead and cadmium, as well as other workplace hazards such as machine guarding and hazardous energy. Processing technologies and industrial hygiene programs can be implemented to mitigate these risks and provide a work environment well within the OSHA’s permissible exposure limits.35

Figure 8: Survey Results for CRT Televisions & Glass

30%

Glass is Processed On-Site

70% Sent to Downstream Processors

CRT Processing Methods CRT display devices are dismantled by recyclers to separate the CRT from the other components that make up televisions and computer monitors (e.g. plastic housing, circuit boards, etc.). Once the CRT has been removed, it is either processed on-site or sent downstream for further processing. CRTs can be handled by recyclers in three ways: 1. Ship CRT Whole to Downstream Vendor · Remove the CRT from the plastic housing, circuit board and wiring. · Manually remove the copper yoke from the back of the CRT. · Ship the CRT to a downstream processor.

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· Ship the copper yoke and wire to a copper refinery. · Ship the plastic housing to a plastics recycler. · Ship the low grade circuit board to a refinery.

2. Separate the Glass Components Prior to Shipment to Downstream Vendor A CRT is made up of two types of glass, leaded funnel glass and non-leaded panel glass, which is fused together by frit – a high lead content solder. Typically, recyclers will separate the two types of glass to enhance their revenue potential. The separation process yields more panel glass by weight than leaded glass.36 Described below are two methods commonly used to separate funnel and panel glass: Method 1 · Remove CRT from unit as described above. · Place the CRT in machinery designed to separate the two glass types. · A laser beam (or heat band with other technology) cuts or breaks the CRT above the frit line. · The machine operator separates the funnel glass from the panel glass. · Phosphors are vacuumed from the panel glass. · Metal shadow mast is removed and sent to a metals recycler. Method 2 · The CRTs are dropped into a large trommel which tosses the pieces of glass together removing the phosphor coating and reducing particle size. Some trommels use sand as an abrasive, while others let the glass itself be the abrasive agent. This produces large cullet that is sorted with laser technology to separate the funnel glass from the panel glass or manually by visible inspection as the pieces cross a conveyor. · This method produces: o Clean separated leaded and non-leaded cullet materials; and o Phosphor and lead-contaminated dust or fines which is either managed as a hazardous waste or sent for metal recovery.

3. Lead Refining The funnel and panel glass are not separated. Instead, the CRT is sent whole to a lead refinery. · In the traditional refining process, lead is partially recovered because various contaminants or agents in the process alter how effective the refinery operates. · Lead refineries use the silica in the glass as a flux to heat the furnace. · The silica is then burned off in production and a non-hazardous or hazardous slag is produced. · Depending on the technology the slag may be re-introduced into the refinery or buried in a hazardous waste landfill for encapsulation.

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CRT Glass Processing Methods

For those recyclers using Option 2 above, once the two glasses have been separated, they are sent downstream for further processing. CRT glass recycling scenarios are described in more detail below.

Scenario 1: CRT Glass-to-Glass Recycling 1. In order to process panel glass into a usable commodity, the hazardous phosphor powder that coats the inside of the glass must first be removed by either mechanical processing or manually with high powered vacuums with high quality filters.37 2. Once step 1 is complete, the separated leaded funnel glass and non-leaded panel glass is placed in a specially-designed glass furnace, fluxing agents are added and the resulting melted glass is poured into molds to create glass flat screen TVs still popular in Asia. There is no residual waste (slag) in this process and the CRT glass is 100% recycled.

Scenario 2: De-leaded Glass-to-Glass Recycling As markets for leaded glass contract, emerging technologies are being developed like the one described below to take advantage of a broader range of end markets. 1. The leaded funnel glass is placed in a specially-designed glass furnace that through proprietary technology extracts the lead from the glass. 2. The output is clean glass cullet and lead ingots.

Scenario 3: Glass Feedstock 1. The separated funnel and panel glass is crushed and blended with other glass categories to meet the cullet specification of customers.

End Markets As described above, the various materials (copper, plastic, metal, circuit boards) that result from partial disassembly of CRT display devices are sent to the appropriate downstream processors – copper refineries, plastics recyclers and metals recyclers/refineries. With regard to CRT glass, glass-to-glass recycling has traditionally been considered the preferred method because the lead is used in new applications rather than partially lost in the refining process. For instance, CRT glass sent to glass-to-glass recyclers is used in the production of new CRTs. Through the use of new technologies, clean, lead-free, glass cullet, which is derived from non-leaded panel glass as well as from funnel glass that has been de-leaded, can now be used to make ceramics, fiberglass, building blocks, mining proppantsxiv, flat panel displays, insulation, decorative tile, work surfaces (like countertops) and in road aggregate.38 A sampling of CRT glass recyclers in the United States can be found in Table 5 below. The companies listed do not necessarily represent the downstream markets for survey respondents. As for the lead recovered from CRT glass, it can be sold as a feedstock for the production of batteries and other lead products.39

xiv A granular substance (sand grains, aluminum pellets, or other material) that is carried in suspension by the fracturing fluid.

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Table 5: Sample of CRT Glass Recyclers in the United States Company Location Products Dlubak Glass Ohio, Lead-containing cullet is sold for use in the manufacture of new CRTs, Arizona industrial glass panels, and decorative glass products and tile, and for use in refining operations.

Uses for clean glass cullet (i.e. not containing lead) include fiberglass applications, sandblasting abrasive and as a “frictionator” for lighting matches and detonating ammunition. The clean cullet can also be used as a manufacturing input for recycled glass containers, “glassphalt” for road surfaces, backfill and storm drainage systems, reflective paint, ceramic tiles, costume jewelry and marbles.40 Nulife Glass New York. Facility is Presumably, Nulife’s American operations would market the resulting currently under de-leaded CRT glass as an aggregates replacement in construction renovation and new products such as floor screedsxv and worktops and to produce glass construction. tiles as it currently does in the United Kingdom. Closed Loop Arizona De-leaded cullet markets include41: Refining & · Fiberglass Manufactures Recovery · Glass Beading Manufactures · Glass & Ceramic Proppants Manufactures · Flat Panel Display Manufactures Universal Processing facilities Lead-containing cullet is sold for use in the manufacture of new 42 Recycling located in Wisconsin, CRTs. Technologies New Hampshire, Oregon and Texas. URT also operates a collection and transfer facility in Minnesota. ECS Refining California, The panel glass is sold for use in applications in the automotive, Texas fiberglass, bead, and lighting industries. The leaded funnel glass is sent to a lead refinery.43

Economics CRT display devices are expensive to recycle due to the presence of toxic materials (i.e. lead), the challenges in handling and transporting bulky devices, the extent of processing needed to convert the funnel and panel glass into market-grade glass, and the low end-market value of CRT subcomponents and in particular the glass.44 The market value for CRTs and their components do not cover processing costs; however, electronics manufacturer takeback programs in the US provide payment to recyclers for the sound management of used CRTs. According to a recent report by Transparent Planet, the economics of CRT recycling is worsening due to the contraction of glass-to-glass end markets and the high cost of sending CRT glass to lead refineries. In

xv A floor screed is a thin, final surface traditionally made of sand and cement applied to a floor.

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2004, US recyclers could earn $205 per ton for CRT glass but are now paying $200 per ton to recycle it. The report claims that the loss in value caused by market disruptions overseas is not being compensated by recycling payments offered through electronics manufacturer takeback programs in the US which has led some CRT recyclers to bill for more than what they actually receive to cover the cost of managing the glass (a practice known as “air pounds” or “ghost weight”).45 Where CRT glass-to-glass markets are available, the economic viability of this option is hindered by the transportation costs involved in shipping recovered CRT glass to overseas facilities where new CRTs are produced. However, as new technologies are developed and put into operation, such as those being put forward by Nulife Glass and Closed Loop Refining & Recovery (described in Box 5-1) , there will be more cost-effective domestic end markets for CRT glass in the future.46

5.1.4 Fluorescent Tubes/Mercury Containing Devices Fluorescent tubes are found in household electronics including laptops, flat panel monitors and flat panel televisions. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) televisions and monitors are commonly backlit using cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) (also known as fluorescent tubes) which contain a small amount of mercury – a hazardous material. See figure 9 below for a diagram of an LCD display. The State of Minnesota prohibits the disposal of mercury-containing devices without first removing the mercury for reuse or recycling.47 Figure 9: Diagram of LCD Display Device

Source: Wikimedia Commons. TFT LCD. Available at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TFT- LCD.jpg

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Box 5-2. The Rise of the LCD Flat panel display devices are now ubiquitous in American households; according to the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA), market penetration of flat-panel televisions is now approaching 90%.1 Leading that growth are LCD televisions which currently account for the majority of flat panel sales in the United States. Light- emitting diode (LED) displays (a type of LCD display) are growing in popularity but are more costly than non- LEDs and plasma display sales are now in rapid decline in the US.2 Given the high penetration rate, sales are expected to decline; however, consumers will begin to upgrade their current models creating renewed opportunities for growth and therefore, a rise in flat panel displays in the e-waste stream available for recycling. A significant increase in the number of flat panel display devices in need of recycling is therefore anticipated in the years to come.3 Unfortunately, recycling flat panel displays, and in particular LCDs, is not without its challenges. LCDs are commonly backlit using CCFLs which contain mercury. The amount of mercury in an LCD will depend upon the manufacturer and the size of the display – a larger display will have longer and a higher number of backlights and therefore, more mercury. According to a report by the UK’s Environment Agency, a typically contains one backlight, a PC monitor between 1-5 backlights and a television between 6-20 backlights depending on the size of the display.4 During the transportation and loading of end-of-life LCDs, there is a risk of dropping and breaking the units which can result in the release of trace amounts of mercury. Typically, the recycling process has involved the manual removal of hazardous components prior to recycling. LCDs can also be backlit using light emitting diodes (LED); these displays do not contain mercury making them less challenging to recycle. Both CCFL-backlit and LED displays contain liquid crystals which contain harmful chemicals such as chromium and arsenic but appear to have low toxicity to humans. Plasma displays contain neither mercury nor liquid crystals and are generally considered non-hazardous.4 With volumes rising, e-waste recyclers are proactively developing more cost-effective and efficient processing solutions to deal with LCD devices. A fully automated process to safely process CCFL-backlit LCDs has been developed. The BLUBOX machine can process all types of flat screens up to 100 cm in length, fluorescent tubes and lamps up to 3 metres in length, and all electronic compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), among others and is in use in the United States by Creative Recycling – an electronics recycling company based in Florida.5 The recovered materials from flat panel recycling include ferrous and non-ferrous metals, glass, and powders such as fluorescent powder, glass dust, and metal dust.6 Sources: 1 Consumer Electronics Association (CEA). 2012. Digital America 2012: CEA Market Research. Available here. 2 Border, Edward. 2012. Plasma’s Share of U.S. TV Retail Falls to More than One-Year Low in July as Prices Rise. Available here. 3 Bambridge, Steve. 2013. Global LCD TV Sales to Show Slight Growth in 2013. Available here. 4UK Environment Agency. July 2012. Storage and Treatment of Flat Panel Displays. Available here. 5 BLUBOX Trading. Wastes to be Processed. Available here. 6 WRAP. September 2010. Demonstration of Flat Panel Display Recycling Technologies. Available here.

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Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5: · 89% of fluorescent tubes are sent to intermediate processors, with the final destination being mercury retort facilities. · 11% of fluorescent tubes are sent directly to end processors/mercury retortxvi facilities.

Figure 10: Survey Results for Fluorescent Tubes

11%

Sent to Intermediate Processors Sent directly to Final 89% Processors

Processing Method Manual Processing Being very fragile, fluorescent tubes are manually removed from and sent to either an intermediate processor or a mercury recovery operation. Traditional shredding of LCD display devices in an e-waste shredder is generally discouraged as it may result in the release of mercury into the air.48 The process that follows is the separation of the lamp’s components into glass, end caps and mercury- containing phosphor powder. This is typically done by grinding or crushing. The mercury containing phosphor recovered from this process is sent to a mercury retort facility. Mercury recovery operations use a retorting process to distill the phosphor powder to remove the mercury.49 A sampling of mercury retort facilitiesxvii operational in the United States is listed in Table 6 (these facilities are not necessarily receiving mercury-bearing material from survey respondents).

xvi The definition of “retort” is to heat in a furnace in order to separate. The first step in mercury retort is a furnace to heat the mercury containing phosphor powder. Once heated, the mercury is liberated from the other material as mercury vapor. The mercury vapor is then condensed through cooling and the elemental mercury is captured. This process can also be described as “thermal distillation”. The “thermal” is the heating process and the “distillation” is the vapor, cool and extract process. xvii These facilities use retort technology to extract the mercury from fluorescent tubes and other devices.

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Table 6: Mercury Retort Facilities Facility State USA Lamp & Ballast Recycling, Inc (USA Lamp) Ohio Fluorecycle Illinois Bethlehem Apparatus Co. Inc. Pennsylvania Veolia Environmental Services Arizona Mercury Waste Solutions, Inc. (a Waste Wisconsin Management company) Lighting Resources Indiana

Mechanical Processing Technology has been designed to safely shred and separate LCDs, laptop screens and whole fluorescent tubes. In a dry, mechanical process, the tubes are fed whole into a shredder and then a rotating mixer. Mercury, rare earth metals, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, glass and plastics are separated using filters, a magnet and an eddy current. The metals, glass and plastics are then further sorted using a rotary sieve into different size categories.50

End Markets & Economics Mercury is sold by recovery operations as a commodity to manufacturers of products or devices containing mercury.xviii It is used directly in the production of new mercury-containing devices.51 The mercury contained within fluorescent tubes is a revenue generator because the output of the retorting process is commodity-grade mercury which has a positive market value. However, the development of substitutes for mercury (in response to environmental and health concerns and subsequent regulations) may negatively affect the economics of fluorescent tube recycling.52 In 2008, the United States federal government enacted an export ban on mercury intended to “reduce the availability of elemental mercury in domestic and international markets”.53 The purpose of this ban is to reduce the use of mercury in artisanal mining globally – a practice that is laden with health and safety dangers for both humans and the environment. The economics of the mechanical process described above are reported as favorable, given that recovered metals from fluorescent tubes currently have good market value, as does the rare earth metals (found in the phosphor powder). Finally, the glass cullet is valuable and is sold for use in the manufacture of new fluorescent tubes.54

xviii Mercury is used in many different consumer and commercial products, such as lighting, thermostats, thermometers, mercury switches and mercury relays. Refer to http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/imerc/pubs/ for a listing of mercury-added products.

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4.1.5 Batteries

Batteries are found in all forms of household electronics including computers, laptops and other peripheral devices such as keyboards and mice. Common battery types found in electronics include alkaline, lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium and nickel metal hydride, and lead acid. Due to the heavy metals they contain, batteries are considered hazardous.

Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5: · 64% of batteries are sent to intermediate processorsxix, with final destination being battery recycling facilities. · 36% of batteries are sent directly to battery recycling facilities. Figure 11: Survey Results for Batteries

36%

Sent Directly to Battery 64% Recyclers Sent Directly to Intermediate Processors

xix Intermediate processors sort by chemistry and ship like batteries to a battery recycling facility. 29

Provided in Tables 7 and 8 below are battery sorting and recycling facilities in the United States.55

Table 7: US Battery Sorting Facilities

Company Location Main Consumer Other Consumer Batteries Batteries Sorted Sorted Battery Solutions Michigan Alkaline, Ni-MH, Alkaline, Zinc Carbon, Lithium‐ion Ni‐Cd, Lithium, Primary, Silver Oxide & other button cells Toxco Baltimore Ohio Ni-Cd, Lead Acid Ni‐MH, SSLA Wistron Greentech Texas Sorting center for Not known rechargeable batteries

Table 8: US Battery Recycling Facilities

Company Location Main Consumer Batteries Other Consumer Processed Batteries Processed Exide Technologies California Lead-Acid No Known Metal Conversion Georgia Lead-Acid, Dry Cell, No Known Technologies, LLC Lithium, Lithium‐Ion, (MCT) Ni‐Cd, Ni‐MH Kinsbursky Brothers California Ni-Cd, Lithium, Ni-MH, alkalinexx Lead Acid Toxco Lancaster, Ohio Ni-Cd Ni‐MH, SSLA Inmetco Pennsylvania Ni-Cd, Ni-MH Alkaline, Zinc Carbon

Processing Method & End Markets Typically, batteries are removed manually from e-waste and sent downstream to battery recyclers for processing. Best practices for proper battery transportation and storage commonly consist of taping battery terminals and in the case of button cells, wrapping them in clear tape or placing them in plastic bags to keep them separated during transport.56 This is to prevent friction between batteries which can result in a fire. Batteries are processed in a variety of ways depending upon their chemistry as outlined in Table 9 below.

xx The battery chemistries listed for Kinsbursky Brothers in the CBR report have been updated. Source; http://www.kinsbursky.com/battchemistries.html

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Table 9: Processing Methods and End Markets for Batteries57 Battery Alkaline Lithium Ion Nickel-cadmium, Lead Acid Type Nickel metal hydride Processing Manual removal Manual removal Manual removal Manual removal from e- Method from e-waste from e-waste from e-waste waste followed by followed by followed by followed by mechanical processing mechanical mechanical mechanical processing processing processing Description Room Room Plastic and metals Typically a hammermill is temperature temperature, are separated. used to break apart the process used to oxygen-free battery. The broken pieces The metals separate battery process used to are then separated into components are into 3 separate battery lead, acid and plastic using then smelted. components: 1) into 3 components: screening and gravity High-melt and Zinc and 1) Cobalt & Lithium separation. low-melt metals Manganese Salt Concentrate, are separated and Lead is smelted, refined Concentrate, 2) 2) Stainless Steel, recovered in this and cast into lead ingots. Steel, 3) Paper 3) Copper, process. and plastic Aluminum and Acid is neutralized plastic. returning it to water or converted to sodium sulfate. End Components are Components are Components are Lead ingots sold to be Market sold as inputs for sold as inputs for sold as inputs for used in the production of new products new products new products new batteries and other products. Plastic is sent to a plastics recycler who extrudes it and creates pellets for resale. Sodium sulfate is used in laundry detergent, glass, and textile manufacturing.

Economics The economics of battery recycling depend on chemistry type and market prices for chemical elements. According to available research, the amount of zinc and other valuable material contained within alkaline and zinc carbon batteries is not enough to offset the cost of recycling and therefore, a processing fee is typically charged by recyclers to handle these chemistry types. In contrast, lithium ion and nickel metal hydride batteries may be a revenue generator for e-waste collectors when market

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prices are high as they contain sufficient levels of cobalt and nickel to cover and sometimes exceed the cost of recycling.58 Lead acid batteries have positive market value as 70% of their weight contains reusable lead which can be sold to battery manufacturers and other users.59

4.1.6 Observations: Hazardous Materials Survey results indicate that hazardous e-waste generated in Minnesota is being diverted from landfill through the use of conventional e-waste processing methods. Circuit boards are being sent to refineries where precious metals are recovered. While circuit board removal and some processing is being done in Minnesota, all of the major end markets are outside the United States. Precious metals refining is currently the best technology available to recover the precious metals found in circuit boards. By weight, a large portion of CRT glass (69%) from Minnesota households is being processed on-site by Recyclers. Recyclers with this capability have the ability to reuse both the non-leaded glass and the leaded funnel glass. There is currently only one CRT glass-to-glass manufacturing plant in the world still producing new CRTs; Videocon in India is supplying CRTs to other markets worldwide. Their projection is that this market will continue well into 2017. CRTs entering the waste stream are currently exceeding recycling capacity causing recyclers to send the leaded funnel glass to lead refineries for processing. As was mentioned earlier, new technology is being developed to capture a higher percentage of lead in the melting process; however, most of this technology is still in its infancy. All mercury-containing devices from Minnesota households are being processed by a handful of mercury retort facilities. Although elemental mercury has value, recyclers are incurring a cost to process the devices. As for batteries, all Minnesota household batteries are being processed by a small number of battery recyclers.

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5.2 Non-Hazardous Materials

5.2.1 Plastic Plastic is contained in printed circuit boards, outer casings, connectors and cables. According to Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP UK), plastics represent approximately 32% of the overall composition of e-waste, of which acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is found most often.60

Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5: · 77% of plastic is sent to brokers. · 23% of plastic is sent to intermediate processors. · 99.8% of the end-processing takes place in international markets for plastics. · 0.2 % of the end-processing country is unknown for plastics.

Figure 12: Survey Results for Plastics

0.2%

Final Destination is International Final Destination is 99.8% Unknown

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Processing Method Plastics can be either manually or mechanically separated from e-waste. E-waste recyclers extract plastics from e-waste using the following techniques: Manual Removal Some recyclers will manually remove plastics from the e-waste stream. Shredding Recyclers will either shred the entire unit or disassemble it prior to shredding. The e-waste material will go through a series of separation processes that will extract the metals and result in a stream of material mainly composed of plastic. Further downstream, mixed plastics and other scrap material will be further shred by plastic reclaimersxxi into smaller particles and separated by type and grade using proprietary technology. The plastic material is then upgraded into pellets that can replace virgin plastics.

End Markets E-waste consists of a broad range of plastics of mixed formulations which must be sorted and/or tested prior to sale. Separation technologies have come a long way and e-waste recyclers are increasingly able to separate different plastics by type or color yielding better prices for extruded pellets.61 The more sophisticated plastics recyclers have developed proprietary technologies that separate plastics into grades that command high prices owing to levels of quality exceeding that of virgin plastics.62 The recyclability of e-waste plastic and its potential for reintegration into production cycles is determined by the type of plastic and what it contains. The presence of flame retardants and other chemicals can reduce the recyclability of plastic and therefore its market value.63 In the US, it is common practice for recyclers to sell mix loads of e-waste plastic to consolidators or brokers for export to other markets. According to the US International Trade Commission’s (ITC) 2011 study on US exports of e-waste, the largest share of scrap plastic exports were sent to China (49%), followed by Hong Kong (27%) and Canada (10%).64 According to the ITC, the majority of plastic exported by US e-waste recyclers (by volume) is sold in bulk to manufacturers who use it to make new products.65 Plastics recovered from electronics are used to produce lumber, home and gardening products, toys, roadbed materials, camera casings, battery boxes, hot mix , and high quality pellets for use in molded plastic parts (for the manufacture of computers, automobiles, etc.).66 A sample of e-waste plastics reclaimers and brokers operational in North America are listed in Table 10 below. These do not necessarily represent the downstream vendors of survey respondents.

xxi Plastic reclaimers transform plastic from used products and turn them into feedstocks such as plastic pellets, flakes and regrind, for manufacturing new plastic products. They are also referred to as plastic recyclers.

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Table 10: North American Reclaimers and Brokers of E-Waste Plastic Company Location Type APC Recycling LLC Connecticut Broker Global Green Solutions Indiana Broker International, LLC Kadisal Quebec Reclaimer Lavergne Group Quebec Manufacturer Lynx Recyclers California Exporter MBA Polymers California Reclaimer National E-Cycle & Salvage, Corp. Florida Broker, Drop Off, Reclaimer Omni , Inc. California Manufacturer, Reclaimer Owl Plastic New York Broker, Exporter PARC Corporation Illinois Broker, Exporter, Manufacturer Post Plastics Ontario Reclaimer Recovery Processes Innovations Utah Reclaimer SBC Recycling Ohio Reclaimer Star Plastics West Virginia Reclaimer World Wide Recycled Polymers California Reclaimer

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5.2.2 Wood Wood is contained in television casings/housings on older models (wood has been replaced with plastic in new designs).

Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5: · 74% of wood is sent for waste-to-energy recovery in the US. · 26% of wood is sent for other recovery.

Figure 13: Survey Results for Wood

26%

Sent for Waste to Energy Recovery 74% Sent for Other Recovery

Processing Method & End Markets Some Minnesota Recyclers are manually dismantling televisions to remove the wooden casing. The wood is then sent to waste-to-energy facilities and used as an alternative fuel source or to pallet recycling companies where it is shred and used as mulch.67 Wooden television housings have been shown to contain very small amounts of brominated flame retardants68 which may limit their reuse in some applications (e.g. animal bedding).

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5.2.3 Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals Steel, aluminum and copper make up the structural pieces within laptops, desktops, etc.

Survey Results Copper As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5, Minnesota Recyclers reported that 100% of copper is sent to an intermediate processor. As copper can take the form of many different alloys, it needs to be sent for grading, consolidation and cleaning before reaching the final end market. This may help to explain the high percentage of copper being sent to an intermediate processor. Steel Minnesota Recyclers reported that: · 39% of steel is sent directly to steel refineries. · 61% of steel is sent to intermediate processors. Aluminum Minnesota Recyclers reported that: · 36% of aluminum is sent directly to aluminum refineries. · 64% of aluminum is sent to intermediate processors.

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Processing Method The processing method will differ depending on the recycler. In some cases, recyclers will manually disassemble e-waste to separate valuable metal from other commodities. The metals will either be sent as-is to a metals refinery or shredded on-site prior to shipment. Alternatively, after hazardous components have been removed, recyclers may shred e-waste units to release the various materials for further separation. Magnets are used to separate ferrous metals (steel and iron) and trommel screensxxii and eddy currents separate the aluminum and copper from plastics and other remaining materials. To ensure the recovery of valuable copper, some recyclers with shredding equipment will cut off easily accessible copper wires before placing units in the shredder or manually remove copper from the shredded feed.

End Markets & Economics E-waste recyclers will send separated metals to intermediate processors and/or directly to refineries. Intermediate processors are used to create volume and ensure source control. Refineries melt the metals in furnaces and pour molten metals into molds. The resulting ingots are then sold on the commodities market for use in new applications. Processed ferrous metals are sold to steel mills, electric arc furnaces, foundries and secondary refineries.69 Secondary non-ferrous metals such as aluminum and copper typically command higher market values than secondary steel as they do not degrade through the various stages of production and use. The revenue that is generated by metal recycling will depend on the degree of purity that is retained by the recycler prior to sending for further processing and refinement.70

5.2.4 Ink and Toner Cartridges Ink and toner cartridges are contained in printers and copiers. In Minnesota, ink and toner cartridges fall under the regulation if they are contained within a covered electronic device such as a printer.xxiii Ink cartridges contain liquid ink and are used in inkjet printers. Toner cartridges are used in laser printers and are often much larger than ink cartridges and have more mechanical parts. Of the two types, toner cartridges are typically easier to refill.71

xxii A trommel screen is a screened cylinder used to separate materials by size. xxiii Chapter 115A. . Video Display and Electronic Device Collection and Recycling. Peripheral" means a keyboard, printer, or any other device sold exclusively for external use with a computer that provides input or output into or from a computer.

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Survey Results As represented by the percentage of weight the Recycler processed in PY5: · 99.98% of inks and toner are sent to toner recycling facilities. · 0.02 % of inks and toner are sent to intermediate processors.

Processing Method Ink and toner cartridges are manually removed from printers and copiers and sorted according to type. The cartridges are evaluated for functionality to determine whether they should be remanufactured or recycled. Remanufacturing If deemed suitable for remanufacturing, cartridges are sent to a refilling facility. The processing method described below is for toner.72 1. Cartridges are disassembled to replace critical wear components and clean out excess toner. 2. Non-conforming components are recycled. 3. The plastic toner hopper is then split apart using an automated splitting process and the old toner is removed and disposed and the hopper is refilled with new toner. 4. The toner hopper is then sealed. 5. If new parts are needed, a technician will then assemble the unit with the necessary components. 6. Compressed air is used to force any remaining old toner out of the cartridge. 7. The cartridge is put through a post-testing process to ensure the unit is in good working order. A simplified method is used to process ink cartridges; because they have fewer mechanical parts, the assembly stage is not necessary.73

Recycling Once sorted, the cartridges are disassembled, typically by mechanical separation by the recycler, to liberate the plastic, metal, ink and foam. These components are then recycled and/or properly disposed. In the United States, one example of such a facility is Clover Technologies. Non-reusable cartridges may also be sent to waste-to-energy facilities where they are burned at high temperatures in incinerators with energy being recovered through the combustion process.

End Markets & Economics Cartridge plastic that has been separated from other cartridge components is ground and the resulting plastic regrindxxiv can be reused to manufacture new products.74 Metal components such as blades and

xxiv Regrind plastic is plastic that has been through at least one processing method such as molding or extrusion and the resulting sprue, runners, flash, and rejected parts are ground or chopped. Regrind plastic can be mixed with virgin materials and remolded. (Source: Bozzelli, John. Regrinding Plastics. Available at: http://articles.ides.com/regrinding_plastics.asp)

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gears are sent to scrap metal refineries. The recycling of ink and toner cartridges is a profitable venture. Prices are influenced by market conditions but recyclers have been willing to pay anywhere from $0.10 to $19.00 for used cartridges depending on their type (ink or toner) and size.75

5.2.5 Observations: Non-Hazardous Materials

Non-hazardous materials, including plastics, wood, ferrous and non-ferrous metals and inks and toners are being sent to end markets that handle the materials responsibly. Plastics, ferrous metals, non- ferrous metals and ink and toners are revenue generators for the recyclers, so there is no surprise that recovery rates are 100%.

A large percentage of wood from electronics from Minnesota households (75%) is being processed in waste-to-energy facilities. Flame retardant chemicals in the wood make these materials difficult to recycle.

6. OBSERVATIONS

The electronics collected from Minnesota households appear to be ending up in end markets deemed responsible according to survey results. This is supported by the fact that of the top 10 recyclers by weight processed, eight out of the ten recyclers are currently certified to either one or both of the R2 and e-Stewards standards. Certified recyclers processed 87% of the PY5 weight. Industry-wide certifications help ensure the responsible handling of electronics by requiring recyclers to undergo annual third party audits that verify the processing of electronics in accordance with processing technologies/downstream vendors that ensure environmental compliance, protection of worker health and safety and conformance with US export laws. Survey results of recycled versus remarketed (whole units reused for the same purpose as they were designed) indicates a low remarket rate for household electronics. This is not surprising to the researchers for two reasons. Firstly, electronics received from households are typically older than re- marketable electronics. Secondly, the remarket rate for household electronics is low based on the manner in which it is collected and transported to the recycler. Household electronics are typically collected in roll-offs and gaylord boxes. Little is done to protect them during storage or shipment. Thus, the condition in which they arrive at the recycler inhibits reuse. Additional screening at the collection facility for reusable electronics and requirements for packaging of potentially reusable electronics could increase reuse. Survey results indicate that the vast majority of components from collected household electronics are being recycled (with the exception of wood). There are components being recycled that could have higher recovery/beneficial use rates such as those that contain platinum group metals and rare earth elements, referred collectively as critical raw materials (CRM) but this phase of the recovery process is not easily influenced by the Minnesota recycling industry. Currently, the recycling rates for CRMs from e-waste are low; however, as rare earth strategies are implemented in the United States and elsewhere and if global supplies of CRMs remain unstable, we may see more interest in reclaiming these materials from e-waste in the future.

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Based on the survey results, the Minnesota electronics recycling market is dominated by a small number of recyclers that primarily dismantle e-waste into its component parts and then send that material downstream for further processing. (As noted above, ten recyclers handled 94% of the PY5 weight recycled in Minnesota.) Downstream markets are sometimes within the state or elsewhere in North America and overseas, and often the chain itself involves the active participation of several downstream players. The determining factor of whether electronics are processed on-site or shipped whole to a downstream vendor is assumed to be based on the on-site processing technology available and the financial decision of whether the value of processed/dismantled commodities outweighs the cost to process/dismantle the unit. It is assumed that the larger recyclers have the capital and processing infrastructure to provide these value-added processing services. With regard to the price that recyclers pay e-waste collectors, this is determined by not only the changing commodity markets, but also by the excess supply of e-waste credits from prior program years which strongly influences prices that manufacturers pay recyclers, and in turn the price recyclers can pay collectors.

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7. REFERENCES

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66 American Chemistry Council. 2003. An Industry Full of Potential - Ten Facts to Know about Plastics from Consumer Electronics. Available at: http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/An-Industry-Full-of-Potential- Consumer-Electronics MBA Polymers. Accessed April 2013. What We Do. Available at: http://www.mbapolymers.com/home/mba- polymers-video-library 67 E-cycle Recovery. Accessed April 2013. The Process. Available at: http://www.ecyclerecovery.com.au/theprocess.htm#metal 68 Morf et al. 2005. Brominated Flame Retardants in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: Substance Flows in a Recycling Plant. Environmental Science & Technology. Available at: http://www.pops.int/documents/meetings/poprc/submissions/Comments_2006/brominated.flame.retardants.ele c.waste.pdf 69 AMG Resources. Scrap Processing. Accessed April 2013. Available at: http://www.amgresources.com/scrap- metal/services/scrap-processing 70 Nickel Institute. Economics of Recycling. Accessed in April 2013. Available at: http://www.nickelinstitute.org/en/Sustainability/LifeCycleManagement/RecyclingofNickel/EconomicsOfRecycling. aspx 71 Arnold, Joel. 2012. What Are the Main Differences Between Ink Cartridges and Toner Cartridges? Available at: http://www.inkpal.com/ink-news/what-are-the-main-differences-between-ink-cartridges-and-toner-cartridges/ 72 InkCycle. 2010. E-waste: How to Recycle Ink and Toner Cartridges. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qysyue9FFU CloverTech. Accessed April 2013. 10-Step Laser Toner Remanufacturing Process. Available at: http://www.clovertech.ca/ten-step-laser-toner-remanufacturing-process 73 Clover Technologies. Accessed April 2013. 8-Step Ink Cartridge Remanufacturing Process. Available at: http://www.clovertech.ca/eight-step-ink-cartridge-remanufacturing-process. 74 Clover Technologies. Accessed April 2013. End-of-life 6 Step Grinding Process. Available at: http://www.clovertech.ca/end-of-life-six-step-grinding-process 75 Greentec. 2013. Selling to Greentec. Available at: http://www.greentec.com/selling2.aspx?typeval=Inkjet

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