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Introduction 1 Cultural Translation Notes Introduction 1. Some of the criticism of these three poets is cited in the chapters on their work. There have also been studies confined within the framework of indi- vidual nations, such as works by Bruce King (on India) and Paul Kane (on Australia), which are cited in the chapters on Ramanujan, Wright and Murray and listed in the bibliography. Works which attempt to cross national bound- aries include Jahan Ramazani, The Hybrid Muse: Postcolonial Poetry in English (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001), Rajeev S. Patke, Postcolonial Poetry in English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) and James Wieland, The Ensphering Mind: History, Myth and Fiction in the Poetry of Allen Curnow, Nissim Ezekiel, A. D. Hope, A. M. Klein, Christopher Okigbo, and Derek Walcott (Washington: Three Continents Press, 1988). Patke makes similar points about the place of postcolonial poetry in literary studies (p. vii). 2. My expression ‘colonial divide’ is a provisional way of speaking, since this whole book is in effect a study of how that divide is constantly being transgressed. 3. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 6. 4. Seamus Heaney, An Open Letter (Derry: Field Day, 1983). The anthology in ques- tion was The Penguin Anthology of Contemporary British Poetry (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982). 5. Seamus Heaney, ‘Through-Other Places, Through-Other Times: The Irish Poet and Britain’, in Finders Keepers: Selected Prose 1971–2001 (London: Faber and Faber, 2002), pp. 364–82 (p. 368). 6. See, for instance, Ngugi’s Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (London: James Currey, 1986). 7. Heaney, ‘Through-Other Places’, p. 366. 8. Terence Patrick Dolan, A Dictionary of Hiberno-English: The Irish Use of English (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1998), p. 271. 9. Heaney, ‘Through-Other Places’, p. 379. 10. Peter Hulme, ‘Including America’, Ariel, 26. 1 (January 1995), pp. 117–23 (p. 120). 11. Bart Moore-Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory: Context, Practices, Politics (London: Verso, 1997), p. 12. 12. See note 3 of chapter 1. 1 Cultural Translation 1. A sample of well-known essays on the term might include Ella Shohat, ‘Notes on the “Post-Colonial”’, Social Text, 31–2 (Spring 1992), pp. 99–113; Arif Dirlik, ‘The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism’, Critical Inquiry, 20 (1993–4), pp. 328–56; Anne McClintock, ‘The 184 Notes 185 Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term “Post-colonialism”’, Social Text, 31–2 (Spring 1992), pp. 84–98; Aijaz Ahmad, ‘The Politics of Literary Postcoloniality’, Race and Class, 36.3 ( January 1995), pp. 1–20; Stuart Hall, ‘When Was “The Post-Colonial?” Thinking at the Limit’, in The Post-Colonial Question: Common Skies, Divided Horizons, ed. Iain Chambers and Lidia Curti (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 242–60; and Vijay Mishra and Bob Hodge, ‘What is Post(-)colonialism?’, Textual Practice, 5 (1991), pp. 399–414. 2. I have in mind Vicente L. Rafael’s Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (1988; Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993). A concise discussion of metaphoric uses of translation is Ruth Evans’s article ‘Metaphor of Translation’, in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. Mona Baker, assisted by Kirsten Malmkjær (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 149–53. 3. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London; Routledge, 1994). Essays in which he deals with cultural translation include ‘The Commitment to Theory’ (pp. 19–39) and ‘How Newness Enters the World: Postmodern Space, Postcolonial Times and the Trials of Cultural Translation’ (pp. 212–35). As a rough idea of what I mean by ‘mainstream’ in this context, I would point to the student-oriented text Beginning Postcolonialism by John McLeod (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). This is not a criticism of McLeod’s helpful book; I intend only to indicate that the topics discussed in it are generally taken to be the central areas of postcolonial theory. Another introductory book, Robert J. C. Young’s Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) does discuss translation (chapter 7), but without really moving beyond the parameters of accounts such as Bhabha’s. 4. Ethnographic essays relevant to postcolonialism include those in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986). Talal Asad’s ‘The Concept of Cultural Translation in British Social Anthropology’ in this book (pp. 141–64) is a well-known example. A convenient and compact guide to postcolonial translation studies is Douglas Robinson, Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained (Manchester: St Jerome, 1997). In chapter 2 of Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism and the Colonial Context (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), Tejaswani Niranjana offers a critique of how both translation studies and ethnography have failed to engage with postcolonial asymme- tries of power but her primary emphasis falls on post-structuralism. Her book deals mainly with the work of Walter Benjamin, Paul de Man and Jacques Derrida. 5. Chapters 1 and 2 of Robinson, Translation and Empire summarize some of the issues involved here. 6. Some criticisms are outlined in Douglas Robinson’s article ‘Hermeneutic Motion’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. Mona Baker, pp. 97–9. 7. George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 312. 8. Ibid., pp. 313, 314, 315, 316. 186 Notes 9. Ibid., p. 316. 10. Ibid., p. 317. 11. Ibid., pp. 316, 416. 12. Ibid., p. 318. 13. Ibid., pp. 318, 423. 14. Ibid., p. 121. 15. Ibid., p. 47. 16. Friedrich Schleiermacher, ‘On the Different Methods of Translating’, trans. Susan Bernofsky, in The Translation Studies Reader, 2nd ed., ed. Lawrence Venuti (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 43–63 (p. 43). 17. Both the epistle and the address to the reader are conveniently reprinted in Douglas Robinson ed. Western Translation Theory: From Herodotus to Nietzsche (Manchester: St Jerome, 1997), pp. 131–5. The quotations can be found on pp. 131 and 134 respectively. 18. Schleiermacher, ‘Different Methods’, p. 49. 19. Walter Benjamin, ‘The Task of the Translator: An Introduction to the Translation of Baudelaire’s Tableaux Parisiens’, in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (London : Fontana, 1973), pp. 69–82 (p. 80). A full discussion of the two strategies and their implications can be found in Lawrence Venuti’s The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (London: Routledge, 1995). 20. Venuti, ed., Translation Studies Reader, p. 16. 21. Donald Davie, Poetry in Translation (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1975), p. 13. 22. Schleiermacher, ‘Different Methods’, p. 53. 23. Lawrence Venuti, Introduction to Rethinking Translation: Discourse, Subjectivity, Ideology, ed. Venuti (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 1–17 (p. 5). 24. Eric Cheyfitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 59. 25. Anthony Pym, ‘Schleiermacher and the Problem of Blendlinge’, Translation and Literature, 4 (1995), pp. 5–30 (p. 7). 26. Robinson, Translation and Empire, pp. 110–13, discusses a few other criticisms of a sharp distinction between domestication and foreignization, some of which draw on his earlier review ‘Decolonizing Translation’, Translation and Literature, 2 (1993), pp. 113–24. 27. Davie, Poetry in Translation, p. 13. 28. Ibid. 29. Godfrey Lienhardt, ‘Modes of Thought’, in E. E. Evans-Pritchard et al., The Institutions of Primitive Society: A Series of Broadcast Talks (Oxford: Blackwell, 1954), pp. 95–107 (pp. 96–7). 30. Ibid., pp. 97–8. 31. Niranjana, Siting Translation, pp. 69–70. 32. Clifford Geertz, ‘Found in Translation: On the Social History of the Moral Imagination’, in Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (1983; London: Fontana, 1993), pp. 36–54 (p. 44). 33. Clifford Geertz, ‘“From the Native’s Point of View”: On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding’, in Local Knowledge, pp. 55–70 (p. 70). Notes 187 34. A cogent account of this problem of power is Asad’s ‘The Concept of Cultural Translation’ (see note 4). 35. Samia Mehrez, ‘Translation and the Postcolonial Experience: The Francophone North African Text’, in Venuti, Rethinking Translation, pp. 120–38 (p. 121). 36. Cheyfitz, Poetics of Imperialism, pp. 51–2. 37. Robinson, ‘Decolonizing Translation’, p. 121. This passage is also incorpo- rated into his Translation and Empire, p. 108. 38. Octavio Paz, ‘Translation: Literature and Letters’, trans. Irene del Corral, in Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida, ed. Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 152–62 (p. 154). 39. This book has recently been retranslated: O. Chandumenon, Indulekha, trans. Anitha Devasia (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005). Chandumenon’s account of the origins of the novel is given in the ‘Preface to the First Edition of Indulekha’, pp. 237–40. 40. The classic study in English of the development of fiction in Indian lan- guages is Meenakshi Mukherjee’s Realism and Reality: The Novel and Society in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985; repr. with corrections, 1994). 41. Robinson, Translation and Empire, p. 106. 42. Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, p. 211. 43. Helpful discussions of these ideas are Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira, ‘Liberating Calibans: Readings of Antropofagia and Haroldo de Campos’s Poetics of Transcreation’, in Post-colonial Translation: Theory and Practice, ed. Susan Bassnett and Harish Trivedi (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 95–114; and Bassnett’s Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), pp. 153–6. 44. The translation is by Mary Ann Caws and Claudia Caliman and can be found in Exquisite Corpse: A Journal of Letters and Life, Cyber Issue 11 (Spring/ Summer 2002), http://www.corpse.org/issue_11/manifestos/deandrade.html (accessed 3 June 2006).
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