Carbon Pricing and Transfers : Feasible and Effective Multilevel Climate

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Carbon Pricing and Transfers : Feasible and Effective Multilevel Climate Carbon Pricing and Transfers Feasible and Effective Multilevel Climate Policy in Federations vorgelegt von Christina Roolfs Master of Sustainability Economics and Management ORCID: 0000-0001-7731-193X an der Fakultät VI - Planen Bauen Umwelt der Technischen Universität Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktorin der Wirtschaftswissenschaften - Dr. rer. oec. - genehmigte Dissertation Promotionsausschuss: Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Stefan Heiland Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ottmar Edenhofer Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Marco Runkel Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Matthias Kalkuhl Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache: 16. November 2020 Berlin 2021 Abstract Regional and national governments face the challenge of enacting policies that rapidly decarbonize their economies so as to deliver on their climate targets. They need to fnd policy instruments that are both efective and feasible. Simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions at multiple levels is a promising step forward. By analyzing the efectiveness and feasibility of multilevel climate policies in federal systems, this thesis translates Elinor Ostrom’s polycentric governance approach to formal public economics. General equilibrium models of low to medium complexity are developed and solved analytically and numerically for this purpose. The European Union (EU) serves as the primary example. In a nutshell, the following three results are generated: First, socially optimal transfers imply rich states being donors and poor states being recipients of carbon price revenues. From the perspective of rich states, these transfers may be too large and thus become politically infeasible. Second, choosing a uniform federal carbon price that maximizes the utility of the richest state leads to a minimum federal carbon price to which all member states would agree. The existence of such a minimum federal price depends on the degree of wealth heterogeneity among member states; the federal transfer rules; and whether or not states anticipate federal transfers. While transfers based on states’ historical emission levels (sovereignty) are always feasible and efective, excessive diferences in wealth between states limit the feasibility of equal per capita (egalitarian) transfers. Transfers based on states’ actual emission payments (juste retour) render federal policy inefective if states are able to anticipate them. Third, the potential for progressive uniform federal carbon prices depends on the relationship of member states’ diferences in wealth (vertical inequality) and CO2 emission intensity (horizontal inequality). If CO2 emission intensity and wealth are inversely correlated, then a uniform federal carbon price has a regressive efect. This is the case for most countries in the EU. The EU, however, transfers a major part of its ETS revenues based on the sovereignty rule. Such transfers can counteract the initial regressive efect leading to a progressive federal carbon price. Overall, this thesis provides a systematic analysis of price-based multilevel climate policy and revenue transfers in federal systems without solving the general distributional conficts in a federation. It identifes federal carbon prices that create a win-win situation for all member states and demonstrates that at appropriate minimum prices, the largest donor state voluntarily gives transfers to other member states. The results may be of interest to policymakers seeking feasible federal minimum carbon prices, appropriate transfer designs and fair burden-sharing in federal systems. Zusammenfassung Regionale und nationale Regierungen stehen vor der Herausforderung, politische Maßnahmen zur raschen Dekarbonisierung ihrer Volkswirtschaften zu ergreifen, um ihre Klimaziele zu erreichen. Sie müssen politische Instrumente fnden, die sowohl wirksam als auch durchführbar sind. Die gleichzeitige Reduzierung der Treibhausgasemissionen auf mehreren Ebenen ist ein vielversprechender Schritt nach vorn. Durch die Analyse der Wirksamkeit und Durchführbarkeit von Klimapolitiken auf mehreren Ebenen in föderalen Systemen übersetzt diese Arbeit Elinor Ostroms polyzentrischen Governance- Ansatz in die formale, öfentliche Finanzwirtschaft. Zu diesem Zweck werden allgemeine Gleichgewichtsmodelle von geringer bis mittlerer Komplexität entwickelt und analytisch und numerisch gelöst. Als primäres Beispiel dient die Europäische Union (EU). Zusammengefasst werden die folgenden drei Ergebnisse generiert: Erstens kann eine Preisuntergrenze im Emissionshandelssystem (ETS) dessen Mängel beheben. Sozial optimale Transfers implizieren, dass reiche Länder zu Gebern und arme Länder zu Empfängern von CO2-Preiseinnahmen werden. Aus der Perspektive reicher Länder können diese Transfers zu groß und damit politisch undurchführbar sein. Zweitens führt die Wahl eines einheitlichen föderalen CO2-Preises, der den Nutzen des reichsten Landes maximiert, zu einem föderalen CO2-Mindestpreis, dem alle Mitgliedsländer zustimmen würden. Die Existenz eines solchen föderalen Mindestpreises hängt ab vom Grad der Wohlstandsheterogenität zwischen den Ländern, von den föderalen Transferregeln und ob die Länder föderale Transfers antizipieren oder nicht. Während Transfers auf der Grundlage des historischen Emissionsniveaus der Länder (Souveränität) immer durchführbar und wirksam sind, schränken übermäßige Wohlstandsunterschiede zwischen den Ländern die Durchführbarkeit gleicher (egalitärer) Pro-Kopf-Transfers ein. Transfers, die auf den tatsächlichen Emissionszahlungen der Länder beruhen (juste retour), machen die föderale Politik unwirksam, wenn die Länder in der Lage sind, diese zu antizipieren. Drittens hängt das Potenzial für progressive einheitliche CO2-Preises auf föderaler Ebene vom Verhältnis zwischen den Wohlstandsunterschieden der Ländern (vertikale Ungleichheit) und der CO2-Emissionsintensität (horizontale Ungleichheit) ab. Wenn reiche Länder eine niedrigere CO2-Emissionsintensität haben als arme Länder, dann hat ein föderaler CO2-Preis einen regressiven Efekt. Dies ist für die meisten Länder in der EU der Fall. Die EU transferiert den größten Teil der Einnahmen aus ihrem ETS auf der Grundlage der Souveränitätsregel. Solche Transfers können dem anfänglich regressiven Efekt entgegenwirken und zu einem progressiven föderalen CO2-Preis führen. Insgesamt bietet diese Dissertation eine systematische Analyse der preisbasierten Mehrebenen-Klimapolitik und Transfers in föderalen Systemen ohne die allgemeinen Verteilungskonfikte in einer Föderation zu lösen. Sie identifziert föderale CO2-Preise, die eine Win-Win-Situation für alle Mitgliedsländer schafen und zeigt, dass bestimmte CO2-Mindestpreise gewährleisten, dass das größte Geberland freiwillig Transfers an andere Mitgliedsländer zahlt. Die Ergebnisse können für politische Entscheidungsträger von Interesse sein, die nach machbaren föderalen CO2-Mindestpreisen, geeigneten Transferdesigns und fairen Lastenverteilungen in föderalen Systemen suchen. vi Table of Contents Abstract iii Title Page ii Zusammenfassungv List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii 1 Introduction1 1.1 Economics of climate change and public economics . .5 1.1.1 Multilateral climate policy: Limits and solutions . .5 1.1.2 Voluntary provision of public goods . .6 1.1.3 Distributional concerns and fair burden-sharing . .8 1.1.4 Fiscal federalism and its application to multilevel climate policy9 1.2 The European Union as a laboratory for multilevel climate policy . 11 1.2.1 Multilateral climate policy . 11 1.2.2 Voluntary participation of member states in contributing to EU climate targets . 12 1.2.3 Burden-sharing and transfers . 13 1.2.4 The federal European Union . 14 1.3 Objectives and outline . 18 References . 23 2 Agreeing on an EU ETS Price Floor 29 Key Points for Policymakers . 30 2.1 Introduction . 30 2.2 The Main Shortcomings of the Current EU ETS Price Signal . 33 2.3 Guiding Principles for EU ETS Design with Heterogeneous Member States 36 2.3.1 Efciency Transfers and Solidarity . 36 2.3.2 National Preferences and Subsidiarity . 39 2.3.3 Institutional Design in a Non-Optimal World . 41 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.4 Illustration of the Efects of an EU ETS Price Floor . 44 2.4.1 Cushioning Intra-ETS Leakage with a Carbon Price Floor . 44 2.4.2 Implications for the European Power Sector: Numerical Simulation 46 2.4.3 Some Implementation Issues . 49 2.5 Concluding Remarks . 52 References . 53 3 Make or Brake 61 3.1 Introduction . 63 3.2 Literature review . 66 3.3 The model . 69 3.3.1 Private sector agents . 71 3.3.1.1 Firms . 71 3.3.1.2 Consumers . 71 3.3.1.3 Market clearing and reaction of private sector . 72 3.3.2 Multilevel emission policy . 72 3.3.3 State policy . 73 3.3.4 Decentralized policy equilibrium . 76 3.3.5 Federal policy . 76 3.4 Impact of transfer rules . 78 3.4.1 Analytical results . 78 3.4.1.1 Main fndings . 79 3.4.1.2 Capital-homogeneity-restriction of egalitarian transfers 83 3.4.1.3 Transfer anticipation and state policy in multilevel equilibrium . 84 3.4.1.4 Aggregate emission reduction at the federal minimum price . 86 3.4.2 Numerical analysis . 86 3.4.2.1 Assumptions and specifc functional forms . 87 3.4.2.2 Results . 88 3.5 Conclusion . 94 References . 97 Appendix 3.A First-order conditions of states . 102 Appendix 3.B Stackelberg-Leader’s frst order conditions . 103 Appendix 3.C Cobb-Douglas technology . 103 3.C.1 Firm’s problem . 103 3.C.2 Market clearing and reaction functions of frms and consumers 103 Appendix 3.D Proof juste retour anticipated* . 104 Appendix 3.E Proofs Proposition2...................... 105 3.E.1 Egalitarian unanticipated
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