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Kaplan Pragmatism and Feminism Kaplan, Pragmatism, t is by now generally accepted that Pragmatism as Data Gathering Mordecai Kaplan's Reconstruc- There are tremendous overlaps Itionist Judaism bears many of the between Kaplan's work and that of marks of American pragmatist philos- William James and John Dewef- ophy I will begin here to take that Dewey's A Common Faitb, for exam- general acknowledgement in a direc- ple, is extraordinary in its subtle artic- tion unlike its usual one: I will sketch ulation of a naturalist theology that how a serious commitment to the sort many of us are familiar with from of pragmatist (methodological) prin- reading Kaplan. The connections ciples that so influenced Kaplan with James seem less obvious. It is entails a serious commitment to femi- only sometimes acknowledged that nism, at least feminism of a certain James was profoundly religi~us.~His kind. I am interested in arguing this 'religion' was deeply naturalist, com- because I believe that Kaplan is usual- mitted to our being intimately and ly seen merely as a defdcto feminist. I ultimately tied up with nature and want to say something stronger, some- thus to whatever source of life there thing that goes beyond the psycholo- was: "Every bit of us at every moment gy that Mordecai Kaplan contingently is part and parcel of a wider self, it happened to have, and how he hap- quivers along various radii like the pened to behave. I want to say that if wind-rose on a compass, and the actu- we understand the methodological al in it is continuously one with possi- basis of Kaplan's work, it behooves ble~not yet in our present ~ight."~ those of us who consider ourselves But James was also a 'methodolog- inheritors of his Judaism to help cre- ical naturalist.' He was committed to ate feminist Judaism' at a theoretical a sort of down-to-earth data gathering level-or, at least, to understand how when he wanted to make important a theoretically grounded feminism generalizations: "the only things that emerges out of Reconstructionism. shall be debatable among philoso- Marcia Lind is an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Duke University. She has recent- ly become extremely interested in Judaism and plans full-time gaduate study of Judaism in the near future. The Reconstructionist Fall 1995 47 phers shall be things definable in 'scouring the landscape,' is to canvass terms drawn from experience." Even only those people his metaphysics more strongly: "Woe to him whose allow him to consider as fully human. beliefs play fast and loose with the That does not include, for example, order which realities follow in his slaves and women."y our current experience; they will lead him lights, Aristotle left out whole groups nowhere or else make false connex- of people who should have been ions."" included in his data base had he really And it is that parallel in Kaplan- been 'scouring the landscape' for the methodological naturalism-that opinions in the way his methodology I am interested in here-particularly required. as it gets transformed and applied in The story is much the same in Kaplan's views on community and the David Hume, and it emerges most importance of everyone's voice being clearly in his aesthetic theory."' present in the creating of rules or laws Hume's aesthetics depend on a figure governing Jewish community. he calls 'the good critic.' The 'good critic,' like the 'impartial/ideal observ- Some History: Empirical Ethics er' in his ethics, is supposed to repre- But first, some history, The com- sent how all people-merely by virtue mitment to what I am calling of being human-react when they are 'methodological naturalism' or 'the 'healthy' or 'well-functioning.' The pragmatist/naturalist methodology' good critic is supposed to represent derives from sources anterior to prag- the 'natural' (and thus, normative) matism-call it the empirical strain in reactions of all humans. ethics-that I want to quickly (and But upon closer inspection, it very selectively) canvass. turns out that the 'good critic' is not Let's look at two philosophical pre- a mere 'well-functioning' or 'healthy' decessors regarding empirical human, who can represent the reac- methodology: Aristotle and Hume.: tions of all people. Rxther, the 'good Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethic? is critic,' for Hume, is a kind of com- committed to a naturalist/empirical posite derived from the reactions of method that entails 'scouring the only certain kinds of people: those landscape.' To 'scour the landscape' who have been educated in the appre- would be to take the opinion of every- ciation of 'superior' beauties. And one into account regarding (to take Hume tells us explicitly that 'Indians but one of Aristotle's questions) what and savages' can never become good happiness consists of. Is happiness, critics. 'Negroes,' as he calls them, Aristotle wants to know, about mak- simply don't have-and can't ever be ing money, or living the political life, educated to have-the capacities and or having a life of study or of contem- judgments of those (such as, he plation? What Aristotle does in order believes, Caucasians) who are further to answer this question, instead of along the evolutionary scale. Whatev- 48 Fall 1995 The Reconstructionist er the composite of the 'good critic' is on the same plane with minors, is, under the rubric of representing slaves, and people of unsound mind. the universal (when well-functioning) Like them she is exempted from all human reaction, Hume has represent- observances which are intended for ed only the reactions of a very small fixed times, with very few excep- sub-set of people. The conclusions he tion~."'~"Since we cannot honestly gets about what are the 'correct' aes- assume that the laws as formulated in thetic reactions are therefore seriously the traditional codes meant women to biased. enjoy [that] equality, we must, if we There is a common problem, then, believe in the equality of the sexes, in Aristotle and Hume; in neither case make the necessary changes in law do they take their own methodologies and custom as a conscious and delib- seriously enough. They do not really erate amendment to earlier standards. 'scour the landscape;' rather, they This is an example of a planned scour it selectively. For to really jcour reconstruction of Jewish law and Jew- the landscape' is not to leave whole ish life."" groups out ofyour data base. When Kaplan talked about 'proper and proportionate' representation for Kaplan's Inclusiveness all Jews, he meant women as well as By the time this empiricistlnatural- men-and knew just how difficult it ist method got to Mordecai Kaplan, it would be to achieve this. I submit that was clear how important it was to not Kaplan really was committed to leave any relevant groups out of con- 'scouring the landscape,' attempting sideration. Because of his views about to properly use the method that the human equality and representation of pragmatists and Kaplan himself had that equality, Kaplan was well-placed inherited. The flawed empiricism of to understand this. Witness his say- the past would no longer do. ing, "not only must no Jew be exclud- ed from the Jewish community for his Feminist Theologies opinions and beliefs, but the commu- Now look at breakthrough feminist nity must provide in its administra- theologies in this light: tion for a proper and proportionate Plaskow: "The need for a feminist representation of every Jewish Judaism begins with hearing silence. It trend."" begins with noting the absence of Further, Kaplan knew, at least as women's history and experiences as regarded women, that this would shaping forces in the Jewish tradition. mean tremendous work within Half of Jews have been women, but Judaism. "Whatever the woman's lot men have been defined as normative may have been in past Jewish life, tra- Jews, while women's voices and expe- ditional Jewish law undoubtedly treat- riences are largely in~isible."'~ ed her as a lower type of human being Ruether: "The naming of males as than man. In Jewish law, the woman norms of authentic humanity has The Reconstructionist Fall I995 49 caused women to be scapegoated for sin are now widely questioned. Feminist and marginalized in both original and philosophers doubt whether the redeemed humanity.. .Women, as the 'female' voice is indeed the voice of denigrated half of the human species, emotion, whether the 'female' context must reach for a continually expanding is indeed 'community,' and, perhaps definition of inclusive humanity- most importantly, whether there is inclusive of both ~genders."" any such viable notion as a 'female' or The demand is for a voice-to be 'maternal' voice at all." Rather, this taken into account. In the terms I 'female' voice, whether represented as have been describing above, the the voice of 'care' or as something else, demand is that the methodology not was seen to represent only a small slice be [gender] biased. This is a of what a small group of women felt demand-as I hope is now appar- or thought. Thus, "feminism has been ent-very much in the spirit of the preoccupied with gender... [but] the pragmatic, empirical methodology phrases 'as a woman' and 'oppressed as that underlay Kaplan's Reconstruc- a woman,' and attempts to isolate tionism. Ironically, feminism has itself gender from race and class, typically risked replicating the very problem it . .obscure the race and class identity was ~oisedto solve-making sure of white middle-class women."lx everyone was represented. A quick That is, talk about 'women' or the historical sketch will be helpful.
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