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International Grassland Congress Proceedings XXIII International Grassland Congress

Conservation of Grassland Genetic Resources through People Participation

D. R. Malaviya Indian Grassland and Research Institute,

Ajoy K. Roy Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, India

P. Kaushal Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, India

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Part of the Plant Sciences Commons, and the Soil Science Commons This document is available at https://uknowledge.uky.edu/igc/23/keynote/35 The XXIII International Grassland Congress (Sustainable use of Grassland Resources for Production, Biodiversity and Environmental Protection) took place in New Delhi, India from November 20 through November 24, 2015. Proceedings Editors: M. M. Roy, D. R. Malaviya, V. K. Yadav, Tejveer Singh, R. P. Sah, D. Vijay, and A. Radhakrishna Published by Range Management Society of India

This Event is brought to you for free and open access by the Plant and Soil Sciences at UKnowledge. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Grassland Congress Proceedings by an authorized administrator of UKnowledge. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Conservation of grassland plant genetic resources through people participation D. R. Malaviya, A. K. Roy and P. Kaushal

ABSTRACT Agrobiodiversity provides the foundation of all food and feed production. Hence, need of the time is to collect, evaluate and utilize the biodiversity globally available. Indian sub-continent is one of the world’s mega centers of crop origins. India possesses 166 species of agri-horticultural crops and 324 species of wild relatives. India is reported to have five grass covers identified. There have been almost nil human interference in terms of selection pressure; hence, the biodiversity is well conserved in these lands. There is need of a system approach to understanding biodiversity that moves significantly beyond and species observations. In addition to forage value, many grasses hold the medicinal value. Duplication in the collected germplasm is a serious issue. Hence, molecular tools need to be employed. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi is maintaining >8500 germplasm of many fodder crops. For thousands of years farmers have been domesticating plant species thereby developing a wide range of crop varieties adapted to specific needs and environmental conditions and their rights have been protected through Indian Plant Variety Protection and Farmer’s Right Act. The use of diverse species and varieties by farmers enhances their adaptability and resilience capacity to changing environmental and economic conditions. Farmers in Manipur are conserving the biodiversity of the state by farming around 100 traditional varieties of paddy and rare medicinal . Old grasslands are very good place of conservation. Southern India forms the important genetic resource centre for many grass crops which includes cereals, millets, sugarcane, lemon grass, grass etc. farmers in Maharastra are also conserving PGR and maintaining Biodiversity Register of the grassland species under guidance of Samvedana. “Community based conservation” and “peoples’ participation” have become part of the conventional rhetoric. Wealth of segregating breeding population also need to be conserved. The grasses or other species in grasslands are growing in highly diverse and harsh condition. These are harbouring genes for tolerance to many abiotic stresses such as light, heat and salinity/alkalinity. Hence, this wide variability, if conserved suitably, can prove to be resource to address climate change issue. Keywords: Conservation, Participatory, Plant genetic resource,

Introduction protein and minerals. The share of in cultivated land remains <5% in the country With only 2% of the World’s geographical for many years. The fodder resource from area, India supports 20% of the world’s grasslands is also quite less due to denuded livestock. It holds 16% cattle and 55% of world grazing lands owing to heavy grazing buffalo population and has the world’s second pressure. Biodiversity refers to the multiplicity largest goat (20%) and fourth largest sheep of life forms that exist on the planet. (5%) population. The available forages are poor Agrobiodiversity is an evolutionary divergent in quality, being deficient in available energy, line of biodiversity concerned with agro-

318 Proceedings of 23rd International Grassland Congress 2015-Keynote Lectures Conservation of grassland plant genetic resources through people participation ecosystems and variation in agriculture related Indian sub-continent represents a wide plants, animals, fish, insects and other flora spectrum of eco-climate ranging from humid and fauna in agro ecosystems as well as tropical to semi-arid, temperate to alpine. 550 elements of natural habitats that are part of tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups are food production cycle. Agrobiodiversity spread over 5000 forested villages. Agro- bio- provides the foundation of all food production. diversity in India is distributed in eight very Hence, need of the time is to collect, evaluate diverse phytogeographical and 15 and utilize the biodiversity globally available agroecological regions. These areas possess for welfare of mankind. In the present article unique gene pools comprising land races, focus will be more in Indian context. primitive forms and wild relatives. Indian Grassland Biodiversity Based on reconnaissance survey, India is reported to have five grass covers identified i.e. Indian sub-continent is one of the world’s Sehima – Dichanthium type, Dichanthium- mega centers of crop origins and plant diversity Cenchrus-Lasiurus type, Phragmites-- as it represents a wide spectrum of eco-climate. type, Themeda-Arundinella type, and Genetic diversity comprising native species Temperate Alpine type. These naturally and land-races occurs more in Western Ghats, maintained grasslands are beautiful example Deccan Plateau, Central India, North Western of conserving large number of genera Himalayas and North Eastern Hills. India has represented by various species and genotypes. 141 endemic genera belonging to 47 families In fact, there have been almost nil human of higher plants. Of the 4200 endemic species, interference in terms of selection pressure, Himalaya accounts for 2532 species, followed hence, the biodiversity is well conserved in by peninsular region (1788 species ) and these grazing lands. Andaman and Nicobar islands (185 species). The Sehima-Dichanthium grass cover, lying India possess 166 species of agri-horticultural approx between 8o and 28oN and 68o and 87o crops and 324 species of wild relatives. It also E, is represented by perennial grasses viz. possesses rich genetic diversity with regard to Dichanthium annulatum, Sehima nervosum, native grasses and legumes. There are reports pertusa, Chrysopogon fulvus, of 245 genera and 1256 species of Gramineae, Heteropogon contortus, Iseilema laxum, Themeda of which about 21 genera and 139 species are triandra, Cynodon dactylon, Aristida setacea, endemic. One third of Indian grasses are Cymbopogon, Apluda mutica, Bothriochloa considered to have fodder value. Most of the intermedia, Arundinella nepalensis, Desmostachya grasses belong to the tribes Andropogoneae (30 bipinnata, Eragrostis and Eragrostiella spp. %), (15 %), and Eragrosteae (9 %). Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus grass cover, Similarly, out of about 400 species of 60 genera between 23 o and 32o N and 68o and 80oE, is of Leguminosae, 21 genera are reported to be mingled with grass species such as Cenchrus useful as forage. Some of the genera exhibiting ciliaris, C. setigerus, D. annulatum, Cymbopogon wide forage biodiversity includes legumes like jawarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine Desmodium, Lablab, Stylosanthes, Vigna, compressa, Laesiurus sindicus Sporobolus Macroptelium, Centrosema and grasses like marginatus, Dactyloctenium sindicum, Bothriochloa, Dichanthium, Cynodon, Panicum, etc. Important associate Pennisetum, Cenchrus, Lasiurus. species are: Chloris, Desmostachya, Heteropogon

Proceedings of 23rd International Grassland Congress 2015-Keynote Lectures 319 Malaviya et al. contortus, Saccharum bengalense, Vitevaria security and ecosystem services that are facing zyzanioides, etc. Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata Governments worldwide, need to understand grass cover, between 26o and 32oN and 74o to how the ecosystem works. Hence, there is need 96oE, represents perennial species Imperata of a system approach to understanding cylindrica, Saccharum arundinaceum, S. biodiversity that moves significantly beyond spontaneum, Phragmites karka, Desmostachya taxonomy and species observations (Hardisty, bipinnata, Bothriochloa intermedia, Vitevaria 2013). zizanioides, Imperata cylindrica, Chrysopogon In addition to forage value, the grassland aciculatus, Panicum notatum. Themeda- species have wide diversity and economic Arundinella grass cover, between 29o and 37oN, value. Grasses have been on this earth as and between 73o and 81oE, and between 22o monocotyledonous plants and have been a and 28.5oN, and 88o and 97oE possesses grass survivor on the planet despite of various vegetation with representation of Arundinella ecological changes. Many grasses hold the benghalensis, A. nepaolensis, Bothriochloa medicinal value and are a repository of some intermedia, Chrysopogon fulvus, Cymbopogon unique medicinal properties. It is very essential jwarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon for humans to identify such important grasses contortus, Themeda anathera, Euloliopsis binata, and develop a strategy for their conservation Ischaemum barbatum, Apluda mutica, Arundinella (Dashora and Gosavi, 2013). khaseana, Pennisetum flaccidum, Chloris, Desmostachya. The temperate alpine grass cover, Conservation of Forage Genetic o o o between 29 and 37 N, and between 73 and Resources 81oE, has wide diversity of species such as Agropyron conaliculatum, Chrysopogon gryllus, The systematic work on the collection, glomerata, Danthonia cachemyriana, evaluation, documentation and conservation alpinum, Carex nubigena, Poa pratensis, of germplasm of forage species, including wild Stipa concinna. Poa alpina, Festuca lucida, and seedy taxa has been paid serious attention Eragrostis nigra, Bromus ramosus. in the last few decades. In a concerted efforts by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Genetic Resource Conservation germplasm of selected species were collected by ICAR Institutes State Departments of Across the globe there is large number of Agriculture/ Agricultural colleges of the State long term and midterm storage facilities of Agricultural Universities in the states. Most of germplasm of various crops in addition to them were evaluated for morphological traits. huge number with active germplasm centres However, for forage crops we need to adopt for regular use by breeders. Biodiversity modern rapid and automated chemical informatics plays a central enabling role in the analyses regarding in vitro digestibility and research community’s efforts to address nutritive value. scientific conservation and sustainability issues. Great strides have been made in the Duplication in the collected germplasm is past decade establishing a framework for a serious issue because it is increasing the sharing data. The database has pivot around volume. Through morphological evaluation it species name. However, to address the urgent appears difficult to strike out the duplicates questions around conservation, land-use, because of high environmental interaction. environmental change, sustainability, food Hence, molecular tools need to be employed.

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In such an effort, Chandra et al. (2006) studied available in India. Some of the important the random amplified polymorphic DNA species introduced in recent past are Berseem polymorphism in Dichanthium and identified (Trifolium alexandrinum), Oats (Avena sativa), genotype-specific markers. Similarly Cresswell Lucerne (Medicago sativa), Stylos (Stylosanthes et al. (2001) used amplified fragment length sp.), Subabul (Leucaena leucocepahala), polymorphism markers to assess genetic Stylosanthes spp, Cenchrus spp etc. However, diversity of Lolium species from Portugal and much needs to be done as far as the reported genetic variation within and between introductions are concerned. populations from the extremes of latitude and altitude. Participatory Biodiveristy Conservation Indian Grassland and Fodder Research There are two main approaches to Institute, Jhansi has good collection of diversity conserve plant genetic resources i.e. In-situ - of these forage crops. The institute is conservation which is the protection of maintaining >8500 germplasm of many fodder biological resources in their native crops and range species collected through environments and Ex-situ conservation, explorations and exchange. Proper particularly where in-situ conservation cannot documentation, indexing and deposition of be practiced or will not be sufficient to ensure reference seeds in National Gene Bank, adequate protection for genetic. NBPGR are some of the steps taken to stop In the era of intellectual property rights, misuse of our forage genetic resources. human race has become commerce minded. For The increasing demand for biomass leads everything in kind or intellect, we need to pay. to increasing pressure on land which can result However, there are international platform in land-use changes, such as conversion from which protect human welfare rights jointly grassland to crop land. Recent findings from with IPR. Byerlee and Fischer (2002) marginal grasslands show that increasing emphasized that partnerships are particularly pressure on them can negatively influence relevant in PGR activities where the technical ecosystem functioning, potentially requirements include access to cutting-edge compromising long-term production research tools, intellectual property, advanced potentials. On the other hand, grassland scientific expertise, expensive and communities in Europe suffer from sophisticated equipment and solid mismanagement or under-management. In infrastructure. Public Private Partnerships Europe many grasslands are no longer have become order of the day in several CGIAR harvested however, the maintenance of centres to address specific areas which different grassland species requires cutting included apomixis in maize (CIMMYT-PHI, (Hilger et al., 2015) Syngenta, Limagrain), and grasses are the main source for apomixis gene. Forage Germplasm Introduction in India has traditionally been rich in forage India and fodder resources. Since ancient times, During the last few decades introduction Indians have practiced mixed farming where of new species, ecotypes, biotypes, wild livestock formed an integral part of agriculture. relatives and improved have Rich genetic diversity of both cultivated and considerably enriched the genetic diversity rangeland species including trees, browse

Proceedings of 23rd International Grassland Congress 2015-Keynote Lectures 321 Malaviya et al. species, shrubs and herbaceous grasses and Grassland Research Station Rožnov – Zubøí legumes. For thousands of years farmers have took the lead and brought the first documented been domesticating plant species thereby work on grass genetic resources linked to the developing a wide range of crop varieties establishment and development of the adapted to specific needs and environmental Grassland Research Station (GRS) in Rožnov conditions. An excellent example of protecting pod Radhoštìm in 1920. Since 2003, the GRS farmer’s right over their natural resource in Zubøí has become a participant to the National terms of landraces is provided in Indian Plant Programme with the responsibility for the Variety Protection and Farmer’s Right Act. This collections of grasses and grass-like species. was done with the concept that informal The collection consists now of 2357 accessions. community gene bank, i.e. farmer’s Long-term preservation of seed grass is maintaining biodiversity, exist at the village provided by the Genebank of the CRI in Prague level, but these need to be formalized. (Dottlacil et al., 2013). Traditionally farmers use diverse crops, The Banni grasslands in the great and the trees and wild plant species, livestock and little ranns of Kachchh in India were the old aquatic species to sustain/enhance their arms of the sea in the old geological period. livelihood. The use of diverse species and Due to the eruption and formation of the Allah varieties enhances their adaptability and Bund near the Kori Creek, the lands in the Great resilience capacity to changing environmental and Little ranns got blocked up and were filled and economic conditions. Genetic diversity is up by the deposits brought down by the Indus a key element in farmers livelihood strategies river. This is a place of naturally conserved particularly in areas under high ecological, grasses/legumes and shrubs. Vegetation of climatic and economic stresses and risks these grasslands comprises of, Dichanthium- (Sthapit, et al.,2009) annulatum, Sporobolus helvolus, Chloris barbate, Cenchrus biflorus, Eleusine bianata, Elysecarpus Manu (2015) reports that Potshangbam rugosus, Heylandis latebrosa , Digitarea Devakanta from Manipur shows the way in sanguinalis, Var Ciliaris, Crotolaria medicaginea, conserving the biodiversity of the state by Indigofera spp. Sida spp. Malanocenchrus farming around 100 traditional varieties of jacquemontii, Sporobolus diander, Cenchrus paddy and rare medicinal plants. This is smart setigerus, Aristida adscensionis, Aristida and eco-friendly methods of farming to ensure funiculata, rhachitricho, Eragrostis minor his harvest is satisfactory year after year. He and major, Eragrostis trimula, Cyprus rotundus, showed passion to conserve a wide variety of Desmostachya bipinnata, Cyperus rotundus, rice in his organic farm, including a black rice Cressa cretica, Eragrostis bulbosa , Kochia spp. variety with medicinal properties, and other Suaeda fruticosa -resistant varieties rich in antioxidants. Devakanta, who won the PPVFRA (Protection The Peninsular India forms the important of Plant Varieties And Farmers Rights genetic resource centre for many grass crops Act) conservation award in 2012, also which includes cereals, millets, sugarcane, cultivates five varieties of the rare and highly lemon grass, ginger grass etc. About 50 wild nutritious variety of black rice, called ‘chakhao relatives of relevant grass crops in Southern poireiton’. western Ghat region are documented from here (Raj and Sivadasan, 2006). The grasses like As a private partner, OSEVA PRO, Ltd. Arundo donax L., Cynodon dactylon Pers.,

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Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf, Heteropogon Chitrakathi tribals, is working to help tribals contortus L., Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty, earn a living in new ways. Seeing people in C. aciculatus (Retz.) Trin., Saccharum spontaneum Masa and Vadhavi move on their own into L., etc. are widely used as traditional medicines animal husbandry and nomadic trading, in Western Ghats region. There are 7 species Kaustubh, working with Samvedana, is belonging to 2 genera (Chrysopogon Trin. & helping to replicate such models of alternate Cymbopogon Spreng.) from which aromatic employment. The initiatives by Samvedana grass oils – Vetiver oil, Palmerosa oil, Citronella include preparing a Peoples Biodiversity oil, Lemon grass oil, Ginger grass oil – are Register of the grassland species in Akola and extracted and used (Raj and Sivadasan, Washim, campaigning to create awareness on 2007a). Dry grassland biomes of peninsular sustainable use and conservation of India are prime habitat for several endangered grasslands, and experimenting in-situ species. The patchy distribution of grasslands conservation efforts for the lesser florican. in the hot and semi-arid states of India requires The Plant Genome Savior Community urgent, but systematic planning and Award instituted by Protection of Plant management as they are diminishing at an Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act (PPV & unprecedented rate. Conservation of dry FRA), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of grasslands is a global challenge (Vanak, 2013). India, was awarded to a Seed Saver Farmers’ Similarly in Kerala State, the land of Group of Jawhar tribal block in Thane district backwaters, is endowed with rich plant of Maharashtra, Indian in 2013 for the efforts diversity. The wetland ecosystems of the state of small and marginal farmers and are usually located in the low altitude regions communities in conservation, improvement that comprise a high species diversity and and preservation of genetic resources of endemism among grasses. Out of the economic plants and their wild relatives in approximately 400 grass species recorded from areas identified as agro biodiversity hotspots Kerala, about 230 species belonging to 22 in the country. The community-led Crop genera are inhabited in both uplands and Germplasm Conservation Programme for wetland areas. Among those, about 140 species conservation, revival and sustainable use of are exclusively found in wetlands. The genera crop genetic resources through people’s such as Aeluropus, Echinochloa, Elytrophorus, participation was initiated by BAIF Hygroryza, Hymenachne, Leersia, , Development Research Foundation through its Phragmitis, Pseudoraphis, Sacciolepis, Associate Organization, Maharashtra Institute Acroceras, Spinifex, etc.are found only in for Technology Transfer in Rural Areas wetland or coastal region in the State (Raj and (MITTRA), in Jawhar, tribal block of Thane Sivadasan, 2007b). district and Dhadgaon tribal block in Nandurbar district of Maharashtra in 2007. Another example of participatory The main crops cultivated were Paddy, Finger Grassland Biodiversity Conservation is millet, Common millet, Pigeon pea and Black Samvedana. Phasepardhis, one of the gram.The terrain – Thane district wandering tribes of the Maharashtra region, have traditionally engaged in hunting as a The tribal families in this cluster have means of livelihood. Samvedana, an traditionally cultivated over 300 diverse organization comprising Phasepardhi and varieties of rice with specific attributes such as

Proceedings of 23rd International Grassland Congress 2015-Keynote Lectures 323 Malaviya et al. hunger satiation, instant energy provision incentives for the conservation and sustainable during peak workloads and for medicinal use. use of wildlife, protected areas, forests, This wonderful diversity of rice has formed the wetlands, grasslands and other biodiversity basis of a nutritious and secure diet for the tribal rich areas. However, the practice of community population. Dhadgaon block of Nandurbar based conservation remains problematic district has an amazing diversity of Maize, because of its high dependence on centralized Sorghum, Finger millet and other food and bureaucratic organizations for planning and plants. It has conserved 170 landraces of implementation (Pimbert and Pretty, 1997). paddy, 27 landraces of finger millet and 10 Community based conservation is likely to be landraces of Proso millet in addition to 72 wild more cost effective and sustainable when food resources documented. Two innovative national regulatory frameworks are left flexible farmers, Mavanji Pawar from Chowk village enough to accommodate local peculiarities. and Sunil Kamadi from Kamadipada in A number of national and international Jawhar block, were also selected for Plant policy processes are underway to allow for the Genome Savior Farmer Recognition 2011-12 for development of sui generis systems to protect their valuable contribution in conservation of local natural and genetic resources and related crop genetic resources. knowledge about their management, use and The traditional farming systems have a maintenance. Despite agreements reached on key role in in situ conservation of plant paper at international and national levels, diversity. The traditional farming systems were such as the Nagoya Protocol on access to developed by farmers over years of experience genetic resources and the fair and equitable to suit specific ecological conditions with a sharing of benefits derived from their use, and view to attaining stability and diversification the International Treaty on Plant Genetic in production (Singh and Misri 1995). The Resources for Food and Agriculture, progress objectives of adopting mixed cropping were to in implementation has been slow and in many reduce the risk of total crop failure due to countries, painful. Promising examples from uncertainty of monsoons and to have a variety the field could stimulate policy debates and of products, etc. As in Ladakh depending upon inspire implementation processes (Vernooy the local conditions, double or mixed cropping and Ruiz, 2013) system is practiced (Dhar et al., 1994). Seeds of local cultivars of pea are always grown as a Breeding material mixed crop in Ladakh. Amongst A lot of segregating material is being pseudocereals, buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is generated across the word through cultivated as a regular mixed crop and utilized intervarietal crossing, interspecific crossing, as food, fodder, etc. wide hybridization and mutation. However, Thus, “Community based conservation” breeders after selecting the plant types with and “peoples’ participation” have become part desirable traits expressed in the given of the conventional rhetoric and more attention environment are being selected and rest is being paid by international and national discarded. If this wealth is made available for conservation organisations. There are now evaluation in different environment, it can several examples of projects which involve enrich germplasm resource and enhance local communities and seek to use economic breeding pace. Some of the novel germplasm

324 Proceedings of 23rd International Grassland Congress 2015-Keynote Lectures Conservation of grassland plant genetic resources through people participation in forage species developed in India and Agricultural Biotechnology in Developing conserved at NBPGR are listed here under: Countries. World Development 30(6), 931– 948. Chandra, A., R. Saxena and A. K. Roy. 2006. Climate change and genetic resource Polymorphism and genotype-specific markers for Dichanthium identified by The grasses or other species in grasslands random amplified polymorphic DNA. are growing in highly diverse and harsh Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: condition. These are harbouring genes for 1521–1529. tolerance to many abiotic stresses such as light, Cresswell, A., N. R. Sackville hamilton, A. K. Roy heat and salinity/alkalinity. Hence, this wide and B. M. F. Viegas. 2001. Use of amplified variability, if conserved suitably can prove to fragment length polymorphism markers to be resource to address climate change issue. assess genetic diversity of Lolium species from Many studies and reports discuss the Portugal. Molecular Ecology 10: 229–241. importance of plant genetic resources for crop Dashora, K. and K. V. C. Gosavi. 2013. Grasses: An production in view of climate change and their Underestimated Medicinal Repository. key role in adapting to adverse climatic Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 1(3):151-157. conditions and, hence, for food security. Dhar. U., V. Jee and P. Kachroo. 1994. Ladakh: An Important is that underutilized or minor crops update on natural resources In: Y.P.S.Pangtey often harbour high levels of genetic diversity and R.S.Rawal (eds). High Altitudes of being maintained on-farm in small-scale Himalaya. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. farming systems; however they are relatively Pp 102-114. neglected by formal research and development Dotlaèil, L., V. Zedek, L. Papoušková, I. Faberová strategies, including breeding programs and V. Holubec. (Eds) 2013. 20 years of the (Galluzzi et al., 2014). National Programme on Conservation and Utilization of Plant GeneticResources and In the debate on climate change and Agrobiodiversity. Published by the Ministry agriculture, the role of in situ conservation and of Agriculture of the Czech Republic Tìšnov. on-farm management of agricultural Galluzzi, G., R. Estrada, V. Apaza, M. Gamarra, A. biodiversity is seldom discussed with the Pérez and G. Gamarra. 2014. Participatory attention it deserves. It is important to consider breeding in the Peruvian highlands: whether climate change will affect on-farm Opportunities and challenges for promoting management of cultivated landraces and their conservation and sustainable use of underutilized crops. Renewable Agriculture wild relatives. Jarvis et al.(2008ab) used current and Food Systems. 2014; 1-10. DOI: 10.1017/ and projected future climate data for ~2055, S1742170514000179 (in press). and a climate envelope species distribution Hardisty, A., Roberts, D. and The Biodiversity model to predict the impact of climate change Informatics Community. 2013. A decadal on the wild relatives of groundnut (Arachis view of biodiversity informatics: challenges hypogea), potato (Solanum tuberosum) and and priorities. BMC Ecology 13:16. http:// cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). They reported that www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6785/13/16 wild groundnuts to be the most affected group Hilger, T., I. Lewandowski, B. Winkler, B. and cowpea to be the least affected Ramsperger, P. Kageyama and C. Colombo. 2015. Seeds of Change — Plant Genetic References Resources and People’s Livelihoods. Byerlee, D. and K. Fischer. 2002. Accessing Modern INTECH. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59984. Science: Policy and Institutional Options for Jarvis, A., A. Lane and R. J. Hijmans. 2008a. The

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