GROUNDS FOR PERMANENT WAR Land Appropriation, Exceptional Powers, and the Mid-Century Militarization of Western North American Environments by Brandon C. Davis A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (History) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) May 2017 © Brandon C. Davis, 2017 ABSTRACT Few areas across globe have escaped the pressures of militarization. Despite the many significant developments and repercussions tied to the military control of vast areas of national territories, the complex intersections between militarization and the environment have only recently attracted scholarly attention. This dissertation argues that the contemporary condition of global permanent war and ongoing state of emergency are rooted in the military control of land and other natural resources. During the mid-twentieth century buildup of North American defense forces, the practice of military land appropriation not only legitimized and expanded certain types of unilateral, emergency powers but also produced secret and legally permissive spaces in which the exercise of such extraordinary powers and related military land use practices could be more freely conducted. A major impetus driving these mid-century land use developments was the rise of unconventional weapons of mass destruction. Not only did such weapons technologies destabilize the global political order but they also brought about a multitude of disruptions at local sites. By investigating the establishment and operations of two of the world’s largest, most secretive, and longest-lasting chemical and biological weapons proving grounds—the U.S. Army’s Dugway Proving Ground in western Utah and the Canadian-and U.K.-controlled Suffield Experimental Station in southeastern Alberta—this study reveals how the imperatives of permanent war have had critical influence in shaping the workings of power between local citizens, government, and the environment in western North America. At its core, this dissertation pushes back against the various assumptions and prerogatives driving the establishment of a permanent military presence in the North American West. All four chapters examine how varying elements of exceptional, emergency executive and administrative powers have shaped military land claims and practices of military land use. The study uncovers and demystifies the procedures, policies, and practices governing the establishment, operational activities, and ongoing control of North American defense lands. It provides a critical examination of the legal, material, and figurative grounds of our continuing and permanent global state of war. ii LAY SUMMARY Few doubt that militaries need substantial amounts of land for their operations, yet the question of why they need these lands, or how they acquired and have used them, has typically been taken as a given. This study examines the establishment, early operational activities, and ongoing control of North American defense lands. Chapter 1 looks into how the U.S. Defense Department acquired so much land, and highlights how the military’s claims to these lands rested on shaky legal foundations. Chapters 2 and 3 both investigate how militaries appropriated large tracts of western land for the establishment of permanent chemical and biological weapons testing sites. Chapter 4 looks beyond land claims and more closely at how the military’s control of land has facilitated the practice of controversial defense-related research activities. The study makes a case for the importance of investigating the origins and functions of North American defense lands. iii PREFACE This dissertation is an original, independent work by the author, B. Davis. A version of chapter 1 has been published in E.A. Martini, ed., Proving Grounds: Military Landscapes, Weapons Testing, and the Environmental Impact of U.S. Bases (2015). All materials reprinted by permission of the copyright holder, the University of Washington Press. All images are reprinted in accordance with usage agreements and citation guidelines for the reproduction of government and unpublished archival materials. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................. ii Lay Summary ...................................................................................................... iii Preface ................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................. v List of Figures ...................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... viii Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 Defending the Nation, Protecting the Land: Emergency Powers and the Militarization of American Public Lands ............. 36 Chapter 2 Military Sacrifice Zones and the Art of Permanent War: The Establishment of Utah’s Dugway Proving Ground, 1942-1954 .................. 79 Chapter 3 Military Dispossession and the Mobilization of History: The Establishment of Alberta’s Suffield Experimental Station, 1939-1947 .... 135 Chapter 4 Exceptional Weapons, Spaces, and Powers: Experimentation and Development at Suffield Experimental Station ........... 188 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 245 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 262 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Dugway Proving Ground .............................................................14 Figure 2: Map of Suffield Experimental Station ..................................................... 15 Figure 3: Ralston, Alberta ...................................................................................... 27 Figure 4: The Goshute Tract .................................................................................. 92 Figure 5: Dugway’s Dog Area (known today as Ditto Area) ................................ 105 Figure 6: The Road to Dugway............................................................................. 105 Figure 7: Dugway Golf Club .................................................................................. 111 Figure 8: Dugway as American Suburban Community ........................................ 111 Figure 9: The Final Two Choices for an Experimental Station .......................... 150 Figure 10: Agricultural Areas, Southeastern Alberta .......................................... 159 Figure 11: Suffield Block Landowners Moving Out ............................................ 170 Figure 12: National Defence moving into the Suffield Block .............................. 171 Figure 13: Layout for Field Trial .......................................................................... 216 Figure 14: Observer 25F of Suffield Field Experiment 229 ................................. 220 Figure 15: Health Consequences of Mustard Gas Exposure ............................... 229 Figure 16: Protective Gear Makes a Difference ................................................... 231 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BW—Biological Warfare CBW—Chemical and Biological Weapons CW—Chemical Warfare DHH—National Defence Headquarters Directorate of History and Heritage DND—Department of National Defence DOD—Department of Defence DPG—Dugway Proving Ground DRDC—Defence Research and Development Canada DTIC—Defence Technical Information Center FDR—Franklin Delano Roosevelt LAC—Library and Archives Canada MGO—Master-General of the Ordnance NRC—National Research Council NACP—National Archives and Records Administration at College Park RCMP—Royal Canadian Mounted Police UXO—Unexploded Ordnance vii AKNOWLEDEGEMENTS My name stands alone on the cover, but this work owes its existence to a rich network of people who have generously supported the author’s efforts. First and foremost, I am grateful to my dissertation supervisor Tina Loo for her encouragement, advice, patience, humour, and unapparelled professionalism and expertise. Thank you for your dedicated support in seeing this project through. I’m also deeply appreciative of Jessica Wang’s commitment to this work, and for always asking the right questions. I’d also like to express special gratitude to Matthew Evenden for his consistent, thoughtful, and long-term support; to Coll Thrush for being both a grounding influence and source of inspiration; to Bob McDonald for the many engaging conversations and for always having my back; and to Eagle Glassheim for his advocacy and guidance. I’ve also benefited greatly from the University of British Columbia's substantial support. The Phil Lind Award in U.S. Studies, the Alice H. Sorila Memorial Scholarship in History, and numerous University Graduate Fellowships made my studies possible. The History Department’s Graduate Research and Writing Fellowships also funded several research trips and provided a critical source of funding when completing this dissertation. For this assistance, as well as numerous teaching and