Dream Incubation: the Roles of Instinct and Archetype in Ritual

Dream Incubation: The Roles of Instinct and

Dr. Vincenza A. Tiberia* E.mail: [email protected]. ** E.mail: [email protected].

* ** Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Dream Incubation:

Dr. Vincenza A. Tiberia

Abstract: to show both (1) that attributing simple dichotomies to his out the relations between evolutionary biology and symbolic activity in a way that can be useful in understanding both dream symbolism and dream incubation—that is, the ritual evocation of “big and archetypes, and show the importance of the notion of psychoid process in bridging the archetypal and ritual evocation of dreams across cultures using and active imagination

Keywords: process.

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Yet this division between “rational complex and useful than any psychological man” and “irrational brute” cannot anthropologists have thus far developed. really be maintained. It is true that as Moreover, Jung’s thinking has the added one progresses along the scale of living advantage of being consonant with modern species in the direction of simpler and neuroscience, neuroethology, cognitive less intricately organized nervous systems neuroscience, developmental psychology innate behavior plays a more and more and developmental linguistics. Jungian important role, and the ability to modify theory offers ethnology a conceptual behavior in the light of experience (to bridge between biology and culture that “learn,” that is) becomes less important. can take us very far toward transcending The difference in this respect between simple mind-body, culture-biology and man and other animals is not that between nature-nurture dichotomies that seem “yes” and “no” but, rather, that between to have adhered to ethnology over the “more” or “less.” generations like bubblegum to shoe Isaac Asimov, The Human Brain leather. It is our intention in this paper to explore Jung’s view of psychodynamics INTRODUCTION and to show both (1) that attributing simple One of the major hindrances that dichotomies to his theory are wrong- have kept anthropologists from applying headed, and (2) that Jung worked-out the Carl G. Jung’s depth psychology to relations between evolutionary biology cross-cultural phenomena is the very and symbolic activity in a way that can common, but naïve and mistaken idea set ethnology back on the right track.2 that Jung posited a categorical distinction We will discuss how an application of between instincts and archetypes.1 Jungian theory can provide us a platform assuming this distinction, ethnologists for applying modern neuroscience and fail to apply one of the most powerful other biogenetic research perspectives and ethnologically useful models of to ethnological issues by showing human depth psychology available in how inherited structures produce the literature. If a symbolic activity is psychological and cultural variation. We culturally “constructed,” ethnologists will offer a number of examples of how often argue, then the activity cannot inherited structures mediate learning be archetypal in any inherited sense, and adaptation throughout the animal because the activity varies from society kingdom. Our intention is to demonstrate to society depending upon enculturative how a Jungian anthropology allows us to and environmental contingencies. Thus get rid of the old assumption that at some point in prehistory the human brain and its “nature vs. nurture” conditioning about mental functions ceased to be genetically culture and cross-cultural psychology determined and in some kind of saltation— upon a theoretical framework far more some form of Rubicon-like revolution—

460 transcended being a biogenetic organ and constitutes part of one’s distinctly human collective unconscious.3 The archetypes are structures that mediate this issue). The Jungian approach allows all we psychologically share as members embracing both the universal aspects of the human species. Depending upon of human psychology and the various adaptation to the physical and social transformations of cultural traits among environment, some archetypes develop individuals and local societies so richly while others languish in a relatively described by ethnographers. undeveloped state. When archetypes (neural circuits) develop into more elaborated structures (or networks)— INSTINCT AND ARCHETYPE IN usually amalgamating perceptual, JUNGIAN THEORY affective, cognitive, behavioral and other As some readers will already know, processes—they are called complexes. Jung concluded that the foundations Interaction with the physical and of the psyche are the innumerable sociocultural environments are primary archetypes we inherit by virtue of being in the development of complexes, and thus the entire psyche (the sum total of a detailed account of the archetypes and all archetypes and complexes, whether their relevance for anthropology). These conscious or unconscious) as a whole is archetypes are the same for everyone on the product of both genetic inheritance the planet, regardless of culture. and adaptation (including the results of enculturation). Man “possesses” many things which he Jung argued for a fully embodied his ancestors. He is not born a tabula consciousness. One complex among rasa, he is merely born unconscious. many becomes the presiding structure we call the ego (i.e., the “I”). One function are organized and ready to function in of consciousness is to maintain the relationship between the ego and the he owes to millions of years of human unconscious (Jung, CW 14, 371n). The development. Just as the migratory and development of the ego and consciousness nest-building instincts of birds were unfold hand-in-hand. Metaphorically speaking, “...the conscious rises out of brings with him at birth the ground-plan of the unconscious like an island newly his nature, and not only of his individual risen from the sea” (Jung, CW 17, 52). nature but of his collective nature. (Jung, The psyche is full of structures that CW 4, 315) mediate aspects of perception, cognition, imagination, emotion and action that The sum total of the inherited may or may not be conscious to the archetypes in everyone’s brain ego—some in fact never are. Above all,

461 consciousness for Jung is not a thing, nor an entity, but rather a very Jamesian and are mediated by neural circuits higher up in the central nervous system called “innate releasing mechanisms.” Once or complex enters ego awareness. triggered, instinctual structures produce a Consciousness usually manifests with the largely invariant, all-or-none, behavioral ego at its center. response (like a computer subroutine).4 The relationship between the archetypes and the instincts is not a in the animal world and include most simple duality in Jung’s thought. The aggression displays and courtship rituals, relationship is rather more complex than as well as protective, predator-avoidance that, and is at the very core of the powerful responses—e.g., moths upon hearing a model that Jungian theory potentially bat’s echolocation sounds will instantly provides for anthropology. fold their wings and head for the ground. Instinctive mental processes are characterized by (1) being motivated Instincts by unconscious “inner necessity,” (2) For Jung the instincts are inherited occurring universally among a species, (3) structures that are more complex than are “wired” to adaptational sense when examined react to a stimulus instantaneously, and the evolutionarily, and (5) being inherited response is completed within a fraction of channels of libido (or “psychic energy; a second. “When I speak of instinct …I Jung, CW 5, 128-131, CW6, 765). As mean what is commonly understood by Jung wrote: this word, namely, an impulsion towards Only those unconscious processes certain activities. The impulsion can which are inherited, and occur uniformly come from an inner or outer stimulus and regularly, can be called instinctive. At which triggers off the mechanism of the same time they must show the mark of instinct psychically, or from organic sources which lie outside the sphere of 5 psychic causality” (Jung, CW 6, 765). For example, when a doctor taps our knee or ankle with her little rubber hammer, the more complicated. …Instincts share with is rapid and totally unconscious because as well as the unconsciousness of their it is mediated by mechanisms at the motivations (Jung, CW 8, 131). spinal cord level. Instincts are the more An immediate aversion to snakes is complex structures that mediate behaviors an instinctual reaction (Jung, CW 8, 130- of the kind that ethologists today call

462 including humans. The response is analogies between the forms and motifs unconscious, and demonstrates the “inner of autochthonous myths. The universal necessity” (or unconscious motivation) similarity of human brains leads to the element. The response makes perfect universal possibility of a uniform mental sense in terms of adaptation over functioning. This functioning is the thousands of years to potential danger, collective psyche… . (Jung, CW7, 147) however unlikely that danger is to crop- As we shall see later on, this up today among people living in, say, “uniform mental functioning” propels all Nunavut, downtown Manhattan, or Al human societies to perform collective, instinctual actions we call “rituals.” In to heights, deep water, spiders or stinging any event, being a social creature, the insects are common across cultures and extent to which mental functions become are comprehensible when considered developed, or lay dormant, and become evolutionarily. Undoubtedly an aversive relevated into individual consciousness, response to these dangers, so common or remain relegated to the unconscious, during prehistoric times, was selected for is determined in part by social factors. early-on in primate phylogenesis. On the There is no better example than the myriad other hand, alektorophobia, the fear of of ways societies have of regulating, chickens, is not universal and makes no fostering, inhibiting and channeling sense adaptationally (Junb, CW 8, 131), sexual energies among their peoples. and in all probability occurs in individuals A number of phenomena were considered instinctive by Jung, some of Humans are a very social species of which were shared with other animals, primate, and as such may be characterized and some characteristic of humans alone. as sharing social instincts. Among the cross-species instincts are …every man is born with a highly hunger (“a characteristic expression of differentiated brain and is thus assured of the instinct of self-preservation;” Jung, a wide range of mental functioning which CW 8, 116), sexuality (which “undergoes is neither developed ontogenetically nor a radical psychization which makes it possible for the originally purely brains are uniformly differentiated, the instinctive energy to be diverted from mental functioning thereby made possible its biological application and turned into is also collective and universal. This other channels;” Jung, CW 8, 116-117) explains, for example, the interesting fact and the drive to activity, including the that the unconscious processes of the most play instinct widely separated peoples and races show long before more recent research on displays itself, among other things, in mirror neurons and empathy (see De the extraordinary but well-authenticated Waal, 2009), that empathy is instinctive in

463 humans, and perhaps other social animals fragmentation of the psyche. “That as well, and is a fundamental ingredient of is evidently an attempt at self-healing transference (Jung, CW 4, 285). He also on the part of Nature, which does not agreed with Freud in positing an inherent death instinct, an “…inner longing for from an instinctive impulse” (Jung, CW the stillness and profound peace of all- 9i, 388). It is here that we can see that knowing non-existence, for all-seeing sleep in the ocean of coming-to-be and conscious will and action. For instance, passing away” (Jung, CW 5, 356). the instinctive response to a dangerous The compulsions are clearly situation may be to run, but the conscious instinctual, for as Jung wrote, they are infantile and “blind” cravings (Jung, CW operate most smoothly when there is no 7, 86, 104). Yet, Jung also added the which he considered to when what consciousness there is remains This is the tendency to direct attention no longer applies even to primitive man, images, impulses, reactions, etc. work which are in some measure opposed “ is a turning inwards, with the to pure instinctuality” (Jung, CW5, 227). result that, instead of an instinctive action, Keeping in mind that the instincts for there ensues a succession of derivative Jung are inherited channels of energy— contents or states which may be termed neural, endocrine and circulatory circuits, to put it in more modern anatomical of the compulsive act there appears a parlance—then the operation of certain degree of freedom, and in place of consciousness may well interfere with, predictability a relative unpredictability as to the effect of the impulse” (Jung, CW 8, 117). These aspects of psychic operation example: Many of us live very stressful come together in the transference—a lives. What this means physiologically patient’s unconsciously generated is that, whereas the body is genetically affective projection upon, and bond designed for short periods of stress with the therapist—and in Jung’s view, accounts for the stubborn adherence to 1974) followed by lengthy periods of rest that relationship, even after a great deal of and recuperation, we choose to follow CW7, 133). considered by Jung to be an instinctive and recuperation. Moreover, many of response to psychic disturbances and us walk through our lives in a perpetual state of anxiety, as though we were

464 forever in a state of danger; a condition that psychologists used to call “neurosis.” mediate species-typical psychic functions Conscious schemes—so typical of higher across all cultural boundaries (Jung, CW cortical system “planning,” modulation of emotion, tagging action to memory 1969, p. 270; Hillman, 1985, p. 12) For and social values—may stand in the example: way of the instinctual structures of the Instincts are given in the case of every unconscious, and thus, as it were, “dam- newborn individual and belong to the energy and proclivity (Jung, CW 5, 139). characterize a species. What psychology It is well worth noting in this designates as archetype is really a anthropological context that many cultural practices are carried out as aspect of instinct, and is just as much an antitheses of instinctual processes. a priori factor as the latter. (Jung, CW Many religious and spiritual traditions 9i, 388) utilize such mechanisms as fasting, The unconscious bases for dreams and fantasies are only apparently infantile of fear, physically stressful ordeals, reminiscences. In reality we are concerned sleep deprivation and so forth as means with primitive or archaic thought-forms, of driving individuals to experience based on instinct, which naturally emerge alternative states of consciousness. Many more clearly in childhood than they do of these drivers infantile, much less pathological. …The their effects precisely because they are instinctive, archaic basis of the mind antithetical to the natural instincts like is a matter of plain objective fact and hunger, pain avoidance, expression of is no more dependent upon individual intense emotion, the sleep drive, etc. experience or personal choice than the inherited structure and functioning of the brain or any other organ. (Jung, CW 5, Archetypes 38) While one may point out numerous The archetype is a symbolic formula occasions in which Jung refers to both which always begins to function when the instincts and the archetypes, he had there are no conscious ideas present, early-on concluded that the archetypes or when conscious ideas are inhibited are an evolutionary elaboration of the for internal or external reasons. The instincts. That is, the archetypes are contents of the collective unconscious archaic, instinctive mental structures are represented in consciousness in (or “primordial images;” Jung, CW6, the form of pronounced preferences 747) that mediate operations of the

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These subjective tendencies and views see that when you grasp something (e.g., are generally regarded by the individual coffee cup, pencil, steering wheel) you as being determined by the object— can see both the function and to some incorrectly, since they have their source extent the structure of grasping.7 This in the unconscious structure of the psyche is because the elements of grasping— and are merely released by the effect of the muscle contractions, movement of object. They are stronger than the object’s bones, swelling of veins, so forth—are that they superimpose themselves on all the conscious will to grasp? Can you impressions. (Jung, CW6, 377) see the act of will, or do you know it only by its psychological and behavioral terms, the archetypes are neural circuits expressions? The body has no sensory that are genetically inherited and system that can be directed at internal organized during the neurogenesis of the (usually unconscious) operations of its young brain, whether the brain be that of brain—from the phenomenological point a human, or that of a monkey, elephant or of view, the brain and its structures do not 6 move. Hence, while we can see and feel the behavioral act of grasping, we cannot James Hillman (1985, p. 13) and others directly perceive or be aware of the structure of the instinct or archetype. We Jung’s distinction between the archetypes are only able to perceive the experiences as unknowable structures (i.e., they are (images, thoughts, actions, etc.) they “psychoid;” see below) in themselves and archetypal images and ideas as can see both what the structures are and knowable transformations of those what they do, whereas we cannot see structures (expressions or “contents”). (unaided by technology) what neural They do so on the dubious grounds that, structures look like, but only what they if the “archetypes in themselves” are in do.8 principle unknowable, then how can we know anything about them? This We have gone into great detail about criticism is a serious error that further the nature of the archetypes elsewhere confuses the underlying ontological would be tedious to go through that Moreover, it is a view that is both over- lengthy presentation here. In summary, rationalized and phenomenologically we showed that for Jung the archetypes: Are the result of the evolution of us suggest a simple phenomenological the structure of the human psyche over exercise that will illustrate what Jung was millions of years. getting at. If you focus your attention Undoubtedly have changed during our evolutionary past, but in their present

466 form they encode the recurrent structures upon their various transformations— that mediate the typical experiences of upon their manifestations in dreams, human beings over hundreds of millennia fantasies, projections, myths, art, etc.—a and across all cultural boundaries (Jung, structuralist methodology very similar to Carvalho, 2002, p. 149). May endlessly change their Underlie all recurrent, pan- eidetic form within the experience of the humanly “typical” ideas, images, individual, among individuals in a group, categories, situations, and events that and across cultures. arise in experience (Hillman, 1985, p. 12; May develop during ontogenesis while at the same time retaining their Have no inherent content, but exist essential character (Jung, CW 13, p. 272). Are not merely theoretical representing merely the possibility of concepts, but are derivable from a certain type of perception and action” introspection of patterns in one’s own (Jung, CW 9i, p. 48). direct experience (Jung, CW 9i, p. 56). Mediate images and ideas that arise in the symbolism of our experience, sense of numinosity in direct experience or that we deduce from the ideas and (Jung, CW 8, p. 205, CW 14, pp. 390, images found in texts and other symbolic 524), an affective pairing which may lead media (Jung, CW 9i, pp. 56-57, CW 8, to fascination, conversion and faith (CW 213). 5, 232), and even to states of possession Are not material that was once conscious and became lost either in early childhood, or in some archaic hominin 7). age, but rather, have never been conscious Most discussions of the archetypes, during the course of either ontogenesis or including Jung’s own at times, tend phylogenesis (Jung, CW 9i, p. 42, CW 8, to emphasize a handful of relatively 210). “big,” dramatic mythic themes; e.g., Underlie and generate the the Wise Old Man, the Great Mother, symbolism that is so fundamental to all “internal” marriage, the anima and mythological and cosmological systems, and are responsible for the patterned Tree, the Divine Child, the hero, the similarities among these systems (Jung, Kore or Divine Maiden, the Trickster stories), and sundry spiritual journeys

467 and initiations, etc. These few forms Oppenheimer, 1970), as well as from his are those that are particularly salient in important dreams and myths, whereas see Falzeder, 2007), both of whom made most archetypes mediate the “little” early arguments that most operations of mental operations—the very mundane subcortical mentation are both inherited functioning of perception, cognition and unconscious to the individual. For and activity in everyday psychological Psychoide is the sum of all the purposive, mnemonic, and life- object, causation, linear and cyclical preserving functions of the body and time, distance and space, face, hand, central nervous system, with the exception water, air, etc., may rise to the level of of those cortical functions which we “big” archetype if used metaphorically have always been accustomed to regard in myth (e.g., the air element, the face of water)—take as an excellent example Jung’s treatment of the tree as both “little” problematic. “If I make use of the term tree of perception and “big,” archetypal ‘psychoid’ I do so with three reservations: “philosophical tree”9 (Jung, CW 13, pp. 272-349). In most cases, it is the “big” archetypes that concern anthropologists the proper sense of the word is implied, as they deal with dreams and mythic texts, and that will concern us eventually in linking dream symbolism and ritual. meant to distinguish a category of events from merely vitalistic phenomena on the Psychoid Process processes on the other” (Jung, CW 8, p. 177). the key to understanding the instinct- What Jung is driving at here is that archetype relationship in evolution and mental (or neural) functions lay on neurogenesis, and one that is commonly a gradient from those that serve as “organic material substrate” (Jung, Jungian thought, is the concept of the CW 8, p. 183), the “merely vitalistic” psychoid process (aka psychoid factor, processes, like regulation of the vital psychoid nature or ; Jung, functions (heart rate, blood pressure, CO2 content, etc.) which go on in the background and are never conscious, to those mental functions that mediate 2011, pp. 168-170). Jung borrowed phenomena that are either conscious, or the term “psychoid” from the vitalist lay in the unconscious and are potentially biologist, Hans Driesch (1867-1948; see

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factors in the unconscious psyche, the and instincts to the archetypes residing archetypes, which constitute the structure in the middle of what we may term of the collective unconscious. The latter the psychoid-psyche continuum. Jung represents a psyche that is identical in reserves the term “psyche” for any mental all individuals. It cannot be directly functions that may become conscious perceived or ‘represented,’ in contrast to and that “…can be brought under the the perceptible psychic phenomena, and on account of its ‘irrepresentable’ nature The instincts are forever outside the I have called it ‘psychoid’” (Jung, CW 8, psyche, for they are outside our capacity p. 436). the psychoid nature of the archetypes between blind instinct and will (freedom that allows the planting of the roots of of choice). Where instinct predominates, psychoid processes set in which pertain to nature of inorganic matter (1982, pp. 70- the sphere of the unconscious as elements 71). To our reading at least, Jung certainly incapable of consciousness. The psychoid seemed to be thinking in this direction: process is not the unconscious as such, for this has a far greater extension” (Jung, In cases where neither our sense organs CW 8, pp. 183-184). Now, to make things really interesting, mount enormously, so that one feels the archetypes in and of themselves are tempted to assert that there is simply no psychoid processes. As we said above, they real object present. I have never drawn cannot be known phenomenologically, but this overhasty conclusion, for I have never only by the effects they mediate. If this been inclined to think that our senses sounds peculiar, consider this analogy: were capable of perceiving all forms of When we run fast, we breathe faster. being. I have, therefore, even hazarded We are aware of our deepening breath, the postulate that the phenomenon of but can never be aware of the structures in the medulla oblongata and pons of psychic par excellence may be founded our brain stem that regulate respiration. upon a psychoid base, that is, upon an only partially psychic and possibly while running, but cannot be aware of altogether different form of being. (Jung, 1963, p. 351) instinctual processes that are psychoid. All of life is evolved from, comprised In the same sense, the archetypes are of, grows out of and depends upon psychoid; hence, so too is much, if not the inorganic materials available on all of the collective unconscious: “I will only point out that it is the decisive Whiteheadian10 continuum of organization

469 from inorganic matter/energy up emphasis added) through levels of organic organization, culminating in consciousness and will must draw its sustenance from the prima material of the instinctual stratum of hence the powerful symbolism of the the unconscious, and the unconscious is chock-a-block with potentially semi- 11 2002[1912], pp. 246-247). The instincts independent structures, many of them (or “drives”) channel libido (i.e., metabolic psychoid in nature. These structures energy) upwards, as it were, from the are evolutionarily designed to channel “roots” into the higher cortical “branches” energy into the pursuit of biological of the psyche and its archetypes—as Jung adaptation and survival (Jung, CW4, noted, “…instinct, the most original force pp. 122-124). In more modern terms, of the unconscious…” (Jung, CW 9i, p. all operations of the brain, including 303). With respect to mythic symbols, the psyche, are essentially trophic in Jung wrote “The onslaught of instinct then becomes an experience of divinity, of cells compete for their share of the providing that man does not succumb to body’s limited metabolic resources. The it and follow it blindly, but defends his channels of metabolic energy upon which humanity against the animal nature of the brain cells depend are inherent in the the divine power” (Jung, CW 5, p. 338; structure of the brain as an organ. As the emphasis added). The “animal nature” reader may know, it is upon the brain’s to which he refers are the lower instincts trophic nature that the measurement being expressed through higher mythic symbols. In warning of the dangers of brain scan studies depends. Active regression, for instance, Jung wrote: cellular structures draw upon the body’s Regression carried to its logical stock of metabolic energy to a greater conclusion means a linking back with the world of natural instincts, which Neurophysiologically speaking, any in its formal or ideal aspect is a kind of mental operation will “feed” upon prima material. If this prima material energy provided by inherited metabolic can be assimilated by the conscious structures—operations including those mind it will bring about a reactivation the archetypes—all psychoid processes. if the conscious mind proves incapable of assimilating the new contents pouring from the unconscious, then a dangerous Archetypes and Dreaming situation arises in which they keep As everyone knows, Jung was their original, chaotic, and archaic form extremely interested in dreaming as a phenomenological window into the consciousness. (Jung, CW 5, p. 408; archetypes and the collective unconscious

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(see Jung, 1963, 1974, CW 8, pp. 237- about not only our unconscious personal 297, also Moorcroft, 2003, pp. 174-178, self, but about the primordial, archetypal Hunt, 1989, Chap. 10). For him, the nature of our species. In other words, ordinary Western everyday dream is “a dreams depict the entire hierarchy of fragment of involuntary psychic activity, primordial structures from the ground of just conscious enough to be reproducible energy/matter up thought the psychoid in the waking state” (Jung, 1974, p. 68).12 instincts and archetypes and into the Dreams are neither deliberate nor personal unconscious and the phenomena arbitrary fabrications; they are natural of consciousness. phenomena which are nothing other Jung acknowledged that dreams may than what they pretend to be. They do express repressed desires, but unlike not deceive, they do not lie, they do not Freud he considered there to be much more distort or disguise, but naively announce what they are and what they mean. They (Jung, 1933, p. 11). That archetypal are irritating and misleading only because dreams exist is no longer in dispute (see we do not understand them. They employ have been numerous experimental studies but inform us of their content as plainly demonstrating the archetypal loading of as possible in their own way. ...they are certain types of dreams. H.Y. Kluger invariably seeking to express something (1975) carried out a statistical study of that the ego does not know and does not Jungian archetypes in manifest dream understand. (Jung, CW 17, p. 103) content. “Dreams were gathered from 218 Dreams are selfscapes—dreams “... subjects. In the effort to tap archetypal dream material three types of dreams her current organization of self relates various parts of itself to itself, its body, dreams, and recent dreams. ...Childhood and other people and objects in the world” and so-called ‘vivid’ dreams were found (Hollan, 2004, p. 172). As such, dreams have their own logic, are often irrational dreams than those recent dreams. The – even surreal and bizarre – and often results indicated that archetypal dreams fragmented, full of puzzling and disturbing do exist as a differentiable category of events and images. For this reason, Jung dreams and that archetypal phenomena says, most Westerners choose to ignore may be discerned on the basis of the their dreams as “stupid, meaningless and criteria set forth by Jung...” (Tiberia, worthless” (Jung, 1974, p. 69). However, 1981, p. 35). Cann and Donderi (1986) dreams are, in fact, the expressions of replicated Kluger’s methods and tested the “dark recesses” of the unconscious, hypotheses concerning the relations and if studied in the right way, may, as among personality types and the recall of we shall see, deliver valuable information archetypal dreams. Dream reports were collected from subjects in two stages: “...

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value and involvement in dream sharing and earliest remembered dreams (N = is discouraged in childrearing. 146), and then dream recall on awakening, Among polyphasic cultures—the over an average of 23 nights, from 30 of great majority of cultures on the planet— experiences arising during dreaming and dreams was recorded. ...The dream diary other alternative states are considered to recall data showed that Jungian intuitives, be real and thus are important sources of information about the normally hidden scores, recalled more archetypal dreams; aspects of reality. What this means introverts …recalled more everyday from a Jungian point of view is that among polyphasic peoples (and among recalled fewer archetypal dreams. The individuals in monophasic societies that results support several propositions of do pay attention to their dreams), dreaming Jungian personality theory.” Tiberia provides the individual, and via dream- has importantly demonstrated the cross- sharing the group, with a window onto not cultural incidence of archetypal dreams only their personal issues and concerns, using comparative methodology with but onto a living depiction of our species’ data from the Human Relations Area primordial past. In a very real sense, our brain “knows”14 its own evolutionary 1981). course and its inherent relations with the THE CULTURAL DIMENSION While dreaming is universal to humans and other animals, sociocultural treatment of dreaming varies considerably. It is useful and is able to portray that knowledge in for ethnologists working with alternative a symbolic language that for polyphasic states of consciousness to distinguish societies informs their cosmology, their between monophasic and polyphasic dream culture, their social organization cultures.13 Monophasic cultures are those and their understanding of the self. that pay scant attention to experiences had during dreaming and other alternative states of consciousness. Monophasic The Myth-Ritual Complex and the culture is typical of technocratic societies, Cycle of Meaning materialistic economies and fairly secular societies. Only states of consciousness how does a society’s stock of symbolic from which veridical information about and cosmological information—both the external world are considered worthy archetypal and more developed—get of attention. Hence, in monophasic transformed into the direct experience cultures, dreams are considered of little

472 of individuals? How do societies transmitted via a corpus of sacred stories make sure that just the right archetypes and often given behavioral expression by become activated and “do their thing” way of ceremonial rituals. in mediating experience? The answer to This relationship between myth and ritual is perhaps easier to understand if we place it in a more general model we can call a society’s cycle of meaning (see the “myth-ritual complex:” Figure 1). I propose there is a powerful inbuilt mechanism encouraging us to act out our thoughts. This proclivity is especially [Figure 1 about here] powerful when our thoughts and words Traditional worldviews are expressed form a learned, closed cognitive system and transmitted via the societies’ mythopoeic system, which includes of the reciprocal representation of the their mythology, ritual, mobiliary and content of the major neural systems, parietal art, architectural constructions, human beings are naturally disposed drama, performance, sacred landscape to act out their myths, but not by using ordinary motor behavior. They usually choose some form of rhythmic motor pp. 214-225). All the different symbolic behavior. This propensity to enact a myth media comprising a traditional symbolic in rhythmic motor form is responsible system tend to be interconnected and for the myth-ritual complex. Humans integrated within the context of a single reach far into their evolutionary past and cosmological understanding. These graft an ancient motor behavior onto media are variant expressions of a single the product of their neocortexes, that is, reality as understood by the people. The myth. Why should we do so? The answer symbolic system “comes alive” when it lies in the consideration of the nature of is enacted by the people in some way, through a ceremonial ritual (like the 261) In a very real sense, ritual and myth the Moslem Salat al Jama’a, a mystery are two sides of the same coin. Myth play (Hopi Wuwuchim and other annual refers to a primordial mode of knowing, ceremonies, Japanese Noh theater), a while ritual is the process of enactment sacred game (Navajo Keshjee’ (see Turner, 1969, 1974, 1982). As Game), or, germane to our present Anthony F.C. Wallace (1966) was fond purposes, a pilgrimage to a dream of saying, “ritual is the work of religion.” A traditional (especially a polyphasic) pilgrimage; see Morinis, 1982). society’s worldview or cosmology is

473 enactments often have extraordinary carried around in people’s brains, aided by symbolically rich, verbally transmitted be due to ritual drivers embedded in mnemonic materials like myths, fairy the enactment—drumming, ingesting tales, oral histories, iconographies, etc., psychoactive drugs or “entheogens,” the cosmology is a living reality among fasting, dancing, painful ordeals, chanting, people, not a textbook-type theory 2001). As Alfonso Ortiz (1972, p. 135) 147). The key to understanding the emphasized, the associations, principles cycle of meaning is that such experiences and assumptions upon which a traditional (dreams, visions, body transformations, cosmology is founded are rarely, if spirit possessions, speaking in tongues, ever, worked out by people. Rather, etc.) arising in the context of the most people accept and participate in enactment are then interpreted, either by accordance with the worldview they the participant herself, or as is often the inherit from their culture. 15 case, by a shaman or priest. A society’s cycle of meaning is never the interpretation of the experience is static, of course—it is never totally always couched in terms of the culture’s worldview and mythopoeic system. This positive feedback is essential, for direct process is usually a negative feedback experiences can, upon occasion, provide loop, as the experience is seen as novel information leading to alterations instantiating, intensifying and reinforcing in interpretations, which in turn can that people’s worldview. change cosmological understanding, the A society’s worldview as expressed elements of a cultural theory, and the symbolically is part of a living system of meaning for people born under the found in myth, stories, songs, procedures, etc. Indeed, the evidence of historical stable traditional culture. As Turner ethnology supports the notion that people have to change their life-ways from time- meaning arises when we try to put what to-time in order to adapt to changing culture and language have crystallized environmental and social conditions. It from the past together with what we is no surprise that many such changes feel, wish, and think about our present in a people’s worldview occur as a point in life.” The cosmology and its symbolic representations are not merely rife with examples of prophetic dreaming informative, they are lived, and in the leading to cultural change over time. All living, the cosmology is animated and of the world’s major religions provide self-validated within the crucible of each evidence of the power of dreaming as person’s consciousness. Keeping in mind a catalyst of culture change. Anthony that a traditional cosmology is mainly Wallace (1956, 1957) demonstrated

474 the necessity of “revitalization” of (Jung, CW 9, p. 209). The archetypal worldviews faced with massive change. process of transformation is also expressed in Islamic legend and through Khidr in Islamic mysticism. Jung on Ritual, Myth and the Psychoid Process “an almost perfect picture of a psychic transformation or rebirth which today, What we are arguing here is that the with our greater psychological insight, we would recognize as an individuation “myth-ritual complex”—the inherent and process” (Jung, CW 9, p. 258). universal association of myth and ritual— is due to the psychoid process. That is, ritualization of behavior is instinctual Dream Incubation and Active while myth is the expression of archetypal structures. Imagination Myth, ritual, dreams and imagination As a Jungian therapist, one of are expressions of archetypal processes the authors (VAT) knows that dream which wield transformative power over incubation is a psychic ritual central to consciousness. The psychoid nature of the facilitating the Jungian individuation archetypes of the collective unconscious process. The Jungian therapist typically provides a creative force which can result works with dream material which is in an upheaval and eventual rearrangement analyzed during the session. More often of conscious contents, a psychic than not the modern “novitiate” is not transformation akin to rebirth, which Jung “connected” to their dreams. Newcomers to the Jungian analytical process may in its very nature, the individuation process fact categorically state that they do not is fraught with “great psychic danger” dream. When this happens, VAT explains that this is most likely because they had not ego-consciousness with the self” (Jung, given their dreams much importance up CW 9, p. 254). until now. Then she instructs them to give themselves a “suggestion” before going Jung expounded on the transcendental to sleep that they will remember their aspects of individual and group dreams and to prepare to write down their experiences induced through ritual, dreams by having a pen and paper on their nightstand. The therapeutic “suggestion” not a repetition of the historical event that the “novitiate” will remember their dreams starts the “incubation” process The experience of the Mass is therefore a and almost invariably they will return to participation in the transcendence of life, the next session with dream material. which overcomes all bounds of space and time. It is a moment of eternity in time” The process of deciphering dream

475 symbolism is often challenging as the which ‘want’ to become conscious” (CW language of the unconscious mind is 9, p. 101). The psychoid nature of the by its very nature foreign and even archetype creates the climate, so to speak, threatening to ego consciousness. “Active for its own expression by organizing an imagination” is a therapeutic method interface between the psyche and the invented by Jung which “is part dream, external world. part vision, or dream mixed with vision. The researcher’s goal of isolating . . .One concentrates one’s attention archetypal material may be achieved by on some impressive but unintelligible analyzing dream series which contain dream-image, or on a spontaneous visual certain symbolic elements which evolve impression, and observes the changes through time. Jung elaborates by saying taking place in it” (Jung, CW 9, p. 319; see that “the same method can be applied also Jung, CW 8, p. 211, and Jung, 1997). to the products of active imagination. . The process of dream incubation may be continued in a directed manner on a more the impression of being an archetype by conscious level through the use of “active its behaviour in the series of dreams or visions. . . .one can discover interesting weakening of the conscious mind and its facts about the variations undergone inhibiting effect, which suppresses the by a single type. . . .its variants too unconscious” (Jung, CW 9, p. 320). The can be substantiated by evidence from comparative mythology and ethnology” must be transcended and expanded for (CW 9, p. 110). the language of the unconscious to be understood and for psychic integration Hence the psychoid nature of the to occur. Dream incubation and active archetype not only serves to organize the imagination comprise the psychic rituals collective unconscious but the individual of the individuation process. psychic experience of all human beings as well which gives rise to common Akin to the transcendental experiences psychological, social and cultural induced by ritual. “Dreams contain images and thought-associations which we do not to be human. Archetypal manifestations create with conscious intent. They arise continue to evolve as their psychoid spontaneously without our assistance and nature communes with modern day are representatives of a psychic activity vicissitudes and the ever-changing aspects withdrawn from our arbitrary will.” of the physical and social world. The (Jung, CW 7, p. 131). Active imagination archetype of the “marriage” which may as a form of dream incubation is a means have given rise to the primitive religious of uncovering archetypal “motifs which rituals centering around “fertility magic” could not possibly be known to the nowadays continues to express itself as dreamer” (Jung, CW 9, p. 100). According a psychological process culminating in to Jung, “dreams often contain fantasies

476 what Jung called, the “marriage of the I am in a hairdresser salon with big opposites” (Jung, CW9, 297). windows which open up over the street The following examples of an (we are high up). The room is white, evolving archetypal motif have been naturally lit and kind of “empty” with a taken from a series of dreams recalled distribution almost “geometrical” with half of life, going through an accelerated there are a series of stalls divided among process of psychic integration which them with big “chunky” walls, with empty Jung called “the individuation process.” chairs in each and every one of them. Much of the dream material centers on Opposite to it . . . there is a big mirror the heiros gamos or sacred marriage of and a group of people. There is a young the opposites. The archetypal theme of the coniunctio develops as the “feminine “the hairdresser.” He is talking to a group consciousness” of the dreamer begins of people (faceless women?) complaining the psychological process of integrating about the two women behind him: a young one standing by an old one sitting the unconscious,” an archetypal process on a chair. The man says that—at the which also forms the basis for the “mythological hermaphrodite” (Jung, look after the old one at meal times, CW 9, pp. 295-297). The archetypal feeding her, when she should do things coniunctio is thereby transformed into a by herself as she is not incapable. I can “psychological process” which combines feel his frustration, his tiredness as well elements of consciousness and the as the understanding—maybe agreement unconscious and becomes a symbolic too—of the group of females he is talking marriage of the opposites. The feminine too. I feel the same and I agree with the aspects of a male dreamer would be guy: it is a burden. I am behind him when symbolized by the anima whereas the he is talking to the woman and then I masculine aspects of the female dreamer cannot see the window anymore, just a are symbolized by the animus (Tiberia, door ahead . . .and a goldy light. . .and I— 1977). the hairdresser will “solve” his problem taking that door—have the feeling that The following dream excerpts show I have to cross it . . .leave the burden the parallel development of the coniunctio behind me and leave through that door. I archetype and the personal symbol of the am in the same salon but now alone and “hairdresser” who prepares the “bride” for out of the “half-dark and gloomy area,” the ceremony. The “hairdresser” prepares although not completely in the light. I the bride in the literal sense much as the am beautifully dressed as a bride, with a psychoid process prepares the psyche luxurious, shiny bridal gown. for the symbolic union or marriage. The dreamer recalls: Jung describes the archetypal aspects of the mother daughter motif in myth

477 and ritual as an important aspect of the because I want her to do my hair for my “expansion of consciousness” which also occurs as part of a woman’s individuation again at the front room over the garden process, stating: and I can see the moon light. I wait and Demeter and Kore, mother and daughter, wait in the darkness and nothing happens. extend the feminine consciousness both How can this be? I told [my hairdresser] upwards and downwards. They add it was my wedding. I go into another an “older and younger,” “stronger and room in the back. . . Other two young weaker” dimension to it and widen out the women came for me; I recognized one of narrowly limited conscious mind bound them, who also does and looks at me with in space and time, giving it intimations distress. I ‘ignored’ her and said nothing of a greater and more comprehensive of knowing each other. I left the room and personality which has a share in the eternal go down the corridor. I go by a toilet and course of things . . . The individual’s end up in the same front room as at the life is elevated into a type, indeed it beginning, but now there is another room becomes the archetype of a woman’s coming out of it, “whitely-lit” with [my fate in general. . . . An experience of this hairdresser] washing the hair of another kind gives the individual a place and a meaning in the life of the generations, so had another client. I listen in disbelief and that all unnecessary obstacles are cleared with a tint of irritability. How come? It is out of the way of the life-stream that is my wedding! individual is rescued from her isolation series” the bride—the feminine ego— and restored to wholeness. All ritual unexpectedly meets the animus/shadow— preoccupation with archetypes ultimately has this aim and this result. (Jung, CW 9, suddenly transformed: p. 316) all covered in wooden panels, walls, individuation process and the archetypal ceilings, desk but the chairs are not so big theme of the wedding is developed further and impressive. There is a yellow light on in the following dream: the ceiling that shows the brown color, I am in a small house, white inside, kind of dull, of the wood. I am sitting at with a narrow corridor and many rooms the corner of one of the front rows, in the out of it. It is a hairdresser salon. It is middle section. In front of us there is a daytime and I am at the front room with a stage . . .at a higher level. I am not alone: big window over the garden. . . . My . . besides me I feel other young women, .hair dresser is with me doing my hair. It both on the same row and across the looks beautiful and everyone compliments “corridor” up. In front of me the place is me for it. I told her I will be back later reserved for Obama (?). I leave my place.

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“We” are trying wedding dresses. I am by archetypal process as symbolized by the the side of the stage, sitting on a chair that sudden realization that the feminine ego of the dreamer is “beautifully dressed” or a man with black skin) surrounded by in full wedding attire and that the union a group of people. I realized I’m dressed of the opposites is immanent. True to beautifully, with a long and rich gown, on the psychoid nature of the archetypal a nice pair of high heels. I wake up. process, the transformation occurs The etymology of the word outside of conscious awareness and is “parliament” derives from the French only perceived after the fact right before parler which means “to speak”. The the dreamer “wakes up” or comes to setting of the dream is in a ceremonial waking consciousness again. room where communication, discussion According to Jung, “natural and legislation take place, symbolically transformation processes announce themselves mainly in dreams” (Jung, CW “talking” eventually leads to the 9, p. 235). The resistance of the ego to mobilization of psychoid forces which the process of psychic integration is also drive the individuation process. The a natural one and is to be expected since conscious ego is at the beginning of the “we . . . prefer to be always ‘I’ and nothing dream seated in a lowly position “sitting else” (CW 9, 235). In reference to the goal on a chair that looks poor”, surrounded of the individuation process, Jung points by unintegrated, split-off aspects of out that the “other being” is really the consciousness made up of persona, “larger and greater personality maturing ego and the generalized feminine other within us” (CW 9, p. 235). Apropos to (“young women”). The focus of the the experience of the dreamer in the dreamer and the other “young women” “parliament,” Jung describes a process of is the anticipated arrival of the animus/ “talking to oneself,” calling it the “simplest and most natural thing imaginable” (CW who paradoxically emerges at an elevated 9, p. 236). The dream as selfscape sets the level and occupies a higher position stage for the predominantly unconscious in consciousness also surrounded by a “group of people.” The ego consciousness becomes aware of its lowly status while anticipating the emergence of the animus/ the “generalized other.” shadow on the stage of consciousness. The animus/shadow arrives on stage which instantly transforms the dreamer’s CONCLUSION ego consciousness and prepares the ego We began our discussion by for the sacred union of the opposites. This highlighting some of the erroneous notions transformation is sparked and mobilized ethnologists have about Jungian thought, by the conscious ego’s insight into the and thus have missed an opportunity to

479 apply Jung’s concepts to cross-cultural between monophasic peoples who do the mistakes anthropologists make is in not pay attention to their dream life, attributing a dualism between instinct and polyphasic peoples who do. Among and archetype—a distinction that Jung the latter, people will undergo certain did not make. Instinct and archetype are ritual procedures in order to “incubate” both inherited and are more like two sides important dreams. As we all know, Jungian psychology recognizes the importance of dreaming as a means of exploring and can lay the foundations for a more the “selfscape” dimension of being and accurate account of cultural differences provides incubation-like methods for in how both instincts and the archetypes bringing the process of dreaming into may develop in local situations. We that of individuation. Jungian therapists went into great depth in discussing the use the method of “active imagination” instincts and archetypes in order to make to encourage involvement in dream work Jung’s thinking clearer. Often missed by and to develop an individual’s skill in anthropologists and others is the factor of accessing and interpreting archetypal the psychoid process, those “psyche-like” material. neurophysiological processes that act like It may well be argued that the process the psyche, but which can never become of individuation—of personal psychic conscious. Archetypes are psychoid development—becomes distorted for processes. monophasic peoples who are conditioned Dreaming, being a universal state during childhood to ignore their inner of consciousness, presents to the selves and to pay attention primarily to consciousness a “self-scape”—a domain the outer world of material existence. of experiences where the archetypes may The introduction of dream work, generate imagery related to the greater realm of the self. Also, for traditional incubation, can go a long way to correct peoples who consider dreams to be another this distortion of individuation. Indeed, domain of reality, archetypal material are we can see that this is happening in seen as forms from the spiritual world, many communities in Western society replete with ancestors, demons, gods today. It will be interesting to track this and goddesses and everyday objects and process and explore the cultural changes activities having other than everyday unleashed, if any.

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Endnotes

th century was as envisioned by Bastian was essentially a structuralist one. neuropsychological and motor structures our human biogram. of the animal. classic text, Principles of Psychology neurognostic structures McManus and d’Aquili 1990). Process and Reality 15- Specialists are sometimes involved in the ritual and the interpretive phases of the

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