Journal of Development Innovations Vol . 4, No. 1, 2020, 151 – 178

©2020 KarmaQuest International, Canada www.karmaquest.org/journal (ISSN: 2371-9540)

Higher Education Reforms in Nepal: Review, Reflection, and Requisition

Raj Kumar Bhattarai1

ABSTRACT This paper prepares a centennial timeline of key milestones in the higher education reforms of Nepal. Reflection of the initiatives on structure of higher education

institutions, standing of the universities, students’ enrollment and production, creation of intellectual property, addition of new businesses, and commercial value addition from high technology exports have been assessed. Critics on the standings and reflections of the reforms have been revealed in consideration of the status of impactful

research, knowledge and skills transfer, employment generation, students’ perceptual judgement on their own future in their own country. In anticipation of development and innovation in the higher education system of Nepal, a requisition note for the addition of a few higher education institutions and operationalization of a Scholastic Authority has been furnished. An outline of the Authority establishment and implementation framework is suggested for further discussions.

JEL Classification: I23, O34, R38, J61

Keywords: Higher Education, Education Reforms, Intellectual Property, Immigrant Workers, Scholastic Authority

1Associate Professor of Management, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Commerce Campus, Kathmandu. E-mail: [email protected] Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020

1. Introduction The quest for excellence is seemingly a captive of self-centered tendency of the leaders and policy makers. Such tendency reduces the chance of reciprocal interdependence among the actors. Congruence in decisions and actions of higher education providers, industrial actors and public policy makers is essential because adaptive reflection of knowledge and skills necessitates for their thought and value preference. The evidence of developments and destructions in the course of human civilization are evidence of the fusion of human thoughts, skills, and value preferences. The quest of the day is promotion of a common platform of higher education institutes and public policy makers, which provides an ample avenue for the practice of evidence-based decisions and actions. Diversified knowledge and skills as well as power preference of individuals, institutions, and regimes is shaping the pace of humanoid progression. The rise and fall of an institution or a nation is contingent upon changes of never-ending nature. Thoughts about ourselves are leading toward the knowledge and skills that are taken as power to realize our value preference. Our quest for excellence demands for empirical research, teaching and constructive collaborations. Educational odyssey in Nepal began from antiquity and passed through the ages of Rajarshi Janak and Gautam Buddha as well as Lichchhabi, Malla, and Shah Dynasties. The country flourished in arts and culture in the Lichchhavi dynasty. The Malla dynasty further added architectural advancements. The country used to transfer-out its knowledge and skills beyond its border as Arniko transferred Pagoda style to China. Unfortunately, the odyssey reversed its path in the Shah dynasty; transfer-in of knowledge and skills increased dramatically, which is continuous till today. Eventually, original knowledge and skills of the nation cornered to the path of its extinction. The roots of higher education are connecting values and power preferences of the then regimes. Frequent changes of regimes and public policies indicate ineffectiveness of higher education. This paper argues that effectiveness of higher education depends on the value preferences of the regimes. An effective education system ensures the sustainability of a regime. National higher education system needs to ensure predictive validity of its policies and programs. The frequency of education reform commissions in Nepal indicates a distinct mismatch of higher education reforms and the power of knowledge and skills for socio- economic development of the country. 1.1 Knowledge and state power The practice of integrating knowledge and state power is continuous from the mythological epochs of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Princes used to go to their Guru’s Ashram in search of knowledge, which would be useful for them in the days ahead. Kings used to seek advice from their Gurus as and when necessary. Knowledge without power is meaningless but power without knowledge is disastrous. A pragmatic fusion of knowledge and power in a nation is necessary for public policy practices. This paper considers higher education institution (HEI) as think tank (TT) that are instrumental in bridging the gap between knowledge and power by enhancing the knowledge base; informing, educating and advising the policy-makers and the public at large; encouraging public discourses; and providing evidence to legitimate decision-making (Srivastava, 2011). Abundantly created knowledge from the very beginning of human civilization cannot be confined in the mental custody of an individual, but it can be captured in the records of institutions. Mastery in one or two areas is not enough to give solutions to the complex

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 problems of modern days. Institutional knowledge custody, mainly the digital memory, can accommodate more knowledge, which is useful to answer complex problems. The government of today, also considered as state power in this study, needs to harness the evidence, knowledge and ideas of TTs to address the diverse issues and complex problems. 1.2 Problem statement Higher education seems dearer for parents but heavier for the students in the context of Nepal. One of the reasons could be missing links between the HEIs, industrial actors, and public policy practitioners leading the society in multiple parallels. The paths are too traditional of ad hoc kinds. For instance, the HEIs are not offering appropriate programs and curriculums for the enhancement of national interests, and the government is not seeking the ways of maximizing national interests from the HEIs. Effective links between HEIs and government is essential for their reciprocal interdependence. Such dependency promotes understanding, coordination, and collaboration for national interests. The fundamental question is—how to bring the HEIs and the governments together for national interests? This paper argues for a common “Scholastic Authority” of the HEIs, industrial actors, and the government as an answer to the question. There is a long-standing concern of intellectual and professional exercises for public policy interventions. This concern is continuous from before the country’s unification to present time. Before 1990, use of HEIs, if any, were directed to support the regimes of different times. After the 1990 and federal setting of 2015 onward, it seems that mobilization of HEIs has gone far from the control of state power. In either case, policy interventions did not serve the national interests and priorities at their best. HEIs roles could not be seen in the public policy process as it could be. One of the main reasons was the absence of institutional space between HEIs and public policy-makers. Missing chain of targets: Evidence-based policy interventions are very rare in the history of Nepal. Rana rulers consulted British India neglecting the significance of policy dialogues within the country. Tendency of making ‘change of change’ pushed the country far from its prosperous potentiality. For example, when the people and political parties came against the Rana rulers, the first target was ‘the end of Rana regime’ but nothing as such for the second target—what’s next to the regime? The first target achieved, and state power came to the court of the King and political leaders, and a new regime started. Only the next regime started as ‘change of change’, i.e., we changed one regime and got another regime. In absence of a second target (firm commitment to the expectations of the post Rana regime), the country experienced a transition of about a decade. The then inexperienced King and leaders had no option than waiting for miracles or seeking and following the advicece of outsiders. Similar scenario also emerged after the major movements of 1990 and 2006. During the movement of 1990, the first target was ‘the end of Panchayat System’ and during the movement of 2006, first target was ‘the end of the monarchy’. All of the three costly movements could not incorporate a well-crafted second target. The practice of paying total efforts to the first target was unable to bring the opportunity of reaping the fruits of the second target for which the first target was set. In fact, the country is continuously suffering from the notion of ‘change of change’, i.e., change of one regime for the next regime, or a change from one government to the next. Missing links to agendas and concentration areas: Nepali HEIs are not well- connected with their peer institutions for knowledge creation and skills building agendas. They pursue the agendas of their own, which is usually constrained by resources. Such agendas are also not in balance—either missing or scattered or bulged. For instance, one can

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 find more institutions working on environment protection but few on technology development; similarly, one can find more in banking and finance but less in entrepreneurship or working hard to support policy-makers but less to support the policy- adapters. Absence of balanced interconnectedness of the HEIs’ agendas/concentration areas including their knowledge and skills couldn’t build synergy to serve the national interest and developmental interventions. Obviously, HEIs are multidisciplinary; therefore, interconnectedness among the HEIs’ agenda/concentration areas is essential to make a synergetic impact in policy interventions. This paper claims that there is a gap of an effective scholastic authority deliberately involved in fueling for synergy among the HEIs. Missing common institutional space: Growing thematic areas and the necessity of a multi-disciplinary approach in actions are major concerns of HEIs and public policy-makers. Advances in information and communication technology are fueling the challenges by making the policy intervention process more complex. For instance, the government has attempted to address more than 80 broad thematic areas in its 15th plan approach paper (National Planning Commission [NPC], 2019). But there is no single entity, either with the government or with the private/social sector, that has the expertise in all those 80 plus areas of national interests and priorities. However, it is obvious that the policy-makers need to excel for evidence at an accelerated rate in all the areas to ensure the policy interventions more effectively. A couple of outlier HEIs having their own agendas and concentration areas are not sufficient to avail sufficient knowledge and evidence. Conveniently, Nepal has many HEIs working in a variety of thematic areas. The government, universities, private/social sector organizations, political parties, and individuals can develop mastery in their particular areas. However, there is no single institutional space that is connecting the expertise and evidence. When such space will be in effect, the HEIs and government would be facilitated, and their effectiveness will be enhanced. 1.3 Scope of knowledge sharing Institutional scope of HEIs is broad in nature. The government, social organizations, business houses, political parties, advocacy and special interest groups are developing mastery in their respective fields. It is nearly impossible for an institution to specialize in every area of significance. Even the good universities have become selective in specialization and most of them are specializing through separate schools and wings as knowledge creators. Similar situations exist in case of business houses, governmental and non-governmental organizations. When one uses the lens of common institutional space of HEIs, he/she can find varieties of institutions working in the country, but in scattered ways. In fact, society needs skills in numerous areas like business, governance, economy, advocacy, ideology, foreign affairs, and security among others. Functional scope of HEIs consists of different priority sectors of the country. Every sector adapts a large number of policies. Every policy demands evidence and specialization in numerous areas. In the context of Nepal, the HEIs require to develop mastery at least in 84 areas under eight broad sectors to support for efficiency and effectiveness of dozens of policies in each area. In a nutshell, the eight-sectors and 84 areas (macroeconomics-12, private and cooperatives-6, fiscal-10, social-11, infrastructure-15, democracy and governance-13, inter-related- 12, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation-5) are reflecting the focus areas of the government of Nepal (NPC, 2019). All the sectors are obviously tracking more specialized and synchronized evidence, knowledge and ideas.

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Additionally, other areas like foreign affairs; regional economic groupings; bilateral, multilateral and international organizations; corporate social responsibility; transparency; ethics; culture and religion; distributive justice; sectoral interest and priorities among others are seeking knowledge and ideas for the notion of a happy and prosperous Nepal. There are opportunities and challenges in the field of public policy for the government and the HEIs. Nominal practice of evidence-based policy in the country is a strong indication of opportunities ahead for HEIs. However, there are challenges for creating, integrating and synchronizing the knowledge, ideas and evidence for efficient and effective policy interventions. Scoping of the functional areas of HEIs from the lens of common institutional space, at least, to support a few policies under the eight priority sectors and beyond of the government of Nepal is an urgency of this time. 1.4 Objective In the pursuit of building a strong bridge between knowledge reservoirs, industrial actors, and unlimited state power (the government), integration and synchronization of worthy knowledge, ideas, skills and evidence deemed necessary. In search of an answer to the fundamental question—how to bring the HEIs and the governments together for national interest? —this paper aims: To review the higher education reform efforts of the government of Nepal; To assess the reflections of the reform efforts on the status of universities, enrollment and production of students, registration of intellectual property, and high-tech commercial export value creation; and To prepare a requisition note for integration, development, and innovation of higher education in Nepal. Additionally, this paper intends to invite discussions on the requisition note and presents a policy description and an implementation framework for an authority anticipated by the requisition note. 1.5 Methods Basic assumption of this study is an urgency of reciprocal interdependence among the higher education providers, industrial actors, and public policy makers—the governments. This paper builds its arguments on the premise that policy reforms in higher education must be reflected in the standing of the universities, students’ enrollment, employment generation, and creation of intellectual property and high-tech commercial export value for the nation. This paper refers to the university’s institutional existence, i.e., its constituent colleges and affiliated colleges as well as students’ attractions as the standings of the universities. The number of students’ enrollment, with some exceptions, is considered as an indicator of the attractions. The number of constituent and affiliated colleges is taken as an indicator of organizational complexities. Similarly, high-tech export is considered as a measure of commercial export value addition. The amount of high-tech export as well as ownership of intellectual property are considered as the key measures of higher education effectiveness. High-tech exports including new business establishment and graduate production were used to draw inference as to what extent the HEIs are instrumental in commercial value addition. An exploratory investigation was made to determine the basic and strategic milestones in the process of higher education reform in Nepal. Major policy interventions and institution building attempts were reviewed and a timeline has been prepared for interpretation and analysis.

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Secondary data from the ministries and departments of the government of Nepal as well as from the universities were obtained. The published reports and webpages of the respective organizations including the institutions like University Grant Commission, the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and so on were the sources of key information. The author’s diaries and memories of teaching bachelor and master levels courses of national and international universities were also used to prepare a requisition note for additional HEIs and a Scholastic Authority. Cross verification of data and discourses was made as far as possible to ensure the reliability of data because inconsistency in secondary data was obvious. The information provided on the concerned authority’s reports and websites were considered more authentic for their use and interpretation. A master list of key milestones was prepared for reviews and reflections. Total timeline of more than 100 years was divided into different perspectives. The perspective specific reflections were explored and analyzed to link to the policy interventions. Intuitive reasoning was used to prepare a requisition note for the enhancement of higher education in the country. 1.6 Delimitation This paper is descriptive and conceptual. It provides perceptual interpretation of the selective events and attempts of higher education reforms in Nepal only. The review section does not make any comparison with the contexts of higher education reforms elsewhere. It only covers a) actions taken to reform the higher education in Nepal; b) reflection of the reforms on the number of HEIs, enrollment and production of students, high-tech export, new business, and c) foreign employment. There are exclusions of the matters like the extent of autonomy of the HEIs, effectiveness of the programs/courses of the HEIs, and so on. Data inconsistency in the secondary sources were source of confusion. For instance, the date of a university establishment was different in the records of the education management information system (EMIS) published by the University Grant Commission (UGC) and the webpage of the respective university. Some of the differences in date could be due to optional use of bikramsambat (BS) and anno domini (AD) in the sources. The data were taken from diverse sources to determine the key milestones excluding the physical facility aspect of the HEIs—the universities. The requisition note is a concept of the author. Program and curriculum specific effectiveness is considered as a matter of further study and excluded in this paper. There is exclusion of the justifications for the effectiveness of the reform attempts, HEIs, industrial actors, and the governments. The conceptualization is primarily based on intuitive reasoning of the author. It does not cover the legal matter, operational manual, organogram, personnel roles and responsibilities, funding, scheduling, and controlling facets of the proposed Authority and additional HEIs. 2. Review Education could not become a responsibility of the State before and even after the unification of Nepal. In antiquity, Vedic and Puranic education under the Gurukul system were very limited in different geographic regions of the country. Formal education began only in the middle of 1850s with the establishment of Durbar High School in 1954 (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2020). Seeds of higher education were planted only in the beginning of 1920s but, the first University established almost four decades later in 1959. Tribhuvan

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University singly shouldered the burden of higher education for almost three decades. Later part of the decade of 1980s and onwards remained successful to add 14 additional universities in the country’s fold (see Key Milestones for details). 2.1 The perspectives Intellectual autonomy and professional freedom have been captive of state rulers from the very beginning of the history of Nepal. There are happenings of numerous remarkable power-shifts in the country, but no more shifts have been directed to link HEIs with the national interest and progression of public policy practices. If any attempts were made in this regard, they had been directed to strengthen the then regime itself, but not to excel the national interests. Before unification (1744): Nepal was divided into many small Kingdoms—also known as Baise (22 principalities) and Chaubise (24 principalities) states. The policies of the Kings were self-centered in most of the principalities. However, the justice policy of Gorkha principality was exemplary. There was a saying—if you seek justice, go to Gorkha. Brahmans were considered as preceptors or Gurus. They were not only educators but also thinkers and advisers. Gurus were ‘higher education institutes’ of that time. One of the duties of the Gurus was to show the way forward to their Kings in the process of administration and governance. Chumlung played an important role in policy-making during the Kirata dynasty (900 BCE to 300 CE). In the Lichhavi dynasty (250 to 800 AD), Kings were dedicated to promoting the welfare of people and they ruled the country in accordance with the Hindu religious scriptures (Thapa, 2010). During the Malla dynasty (10th to 18th century), there were officials advising the King—for instance, to the King Moti Singh whose administrative set up consisted of Gurus along with Pradhans, Maskeys and Amatyas under the King. Tantrics were also considered important because temples were built after the tantric fashions (Shrestha & Singh, 1972). During and after unification (1744-1846): King Prithivi Narayan Shah conquered Nuwakot in 1744 and expanded the boundaries of the state of Gorkha. Ambitions and intuition of the then rulers—mainly the king and his close allies—were influencing the public policies. During the unification period, policies concerning the wars were more contributory for the country’s gain and loss. The policies were successful to unite the dozens of principalities into a unified nation; however, this was not only a success story but also a story with substantial loss. For instance, when captain Kinloch’s expedition to Nepal was badly defeated in 1767, the then British East India Company sent five friendly missions to Nepal during 1770-1801; however, these missions could not be successful because of distrust on the Nepalese side (Army Command & Staff College [ACSC], 2012). Most probably, Nepal could have gained diplomatically if there was use of independent HEIs or TTs. Instead, Nepal engaged in wars, lost a significant part of its land, and made unfavorable Sugauli Treaty with British India in 1816 (Britannica, 2020). Rana regime (1846-1951): Founder of the Rana regime and most influential Prime Minister Junga Bahadur Rana himself was not well-educated. Ill intention of him towards the citizens’ access to education was obvious. In his opinion, if ordinary people were well- educated, they would not allow him to stay in power. He innovated an unprecedented peculiar polity to his own interest and that of his family.

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The members of the Rana oligarchy were the Rana family members who were included into the ‘roll of succession’, and the regime was geared largely to fulfil the interest of their families by curving down the role of the kings to zero in public policy practices (Thapa, 2010). There was no space for independent HEIs and TTs; therefore, the role of higher education institutes shriveled throughout the regime of 104 years. The intention of the regime toward education could not be changed as it could be. Nevertheless, formal education began with the establishment of Durbar High School in 1854. The School was only for the sons and daughters of the elite ruler class people specifically for the Ranas and their relatives. However, in the later days, a few Rana prime ministers opted for formal education and established a couple of educational institutions but still ordinary citizens had very limited access to these institutions. Tri-Chandra was the first college established in 1918 in affiliation with Calcutta University (see Key Milestones). However, only males were enrolled in the college for decades. When permission for co-education was granted in 1955, females could also attend the college (Department of Education [DoE], 1961). Post Rana regime and Panchayat (1951-1990): This period covers the period of post Rana regime and thirty years of party less Panchayat system under active monarchy. At the beginning, the legacy of Rana regime was not encouraging for HEIs. Ordinary citizen’s access to formal education increased only after the end of Rana regime in 1951. The statistics of 1951—literacy rate- about 2%, primary schools- 321, secondary school-11, one college, one Sanskrit school, and one Ayurveda school—indicate a low-level of educational development in the country (MoE, 2020). There were a few scattered educational institutions in the country but none of specific government’s authority to look after the institutions. National monitoring unit was established to maintain direct contact with the institutions only in 1953, which consisted of one controller, 3 deputy controllers and a few assistants (College of Education [CE], 1956). The movement of 1951 (2007 BS) accelerated the pace of higher education. There were 5 colleges (MoE, 1998) form the government and 16 colleges from non-government at the time of establishment of Tribhuvan University in 1959 (CE, 1956). Along with the University, altogether there were 25 HEIs imparting higher education to 5,000 students (National Education Commission [NEC], 1992). This period began a significant move of knowledge and skills transfer to the country by preparing foundations for education in support of the United States of America (CE, 1956). This move succeeded in multiple aspects including establishment of Universities. Moreover, the country started to realize the importance of higher education and research while preparing for a journey of planned economy. The country introduced its first periodic plan in 1956. The number of HEIs reached 49 and the number of students reached 17,000 in 1971 (NEC, 1992). The National Education System Plan for 1971-76 introduced four levels of higher education consisting certificate-level, diploma-level, degree-level, and research-level. Field work of one-year duration was compulsory to get a degree of higher education. The students had to go to a village and perform some services (MoE, 1971). The programs were administered under a semester system; however, sometimes the programs were administered under an annual system. Many institutes in different fields—engineering, medicine, forestry, agriculture and animal sciences, law, education, humanities and social sciences, business and public administration, science and technology, and research— were established in this period. In

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1982, the Royal Higher Education Commission suggested multiple universities in the country. In line with the recommendation, Mahendra Sanskrit University was established in 1986. Higher Secondary Education System envisioned for phasing-out of Proficiency Certificate level program from university (see Key Milestones). Post Panchayat and constitutional monarchy (1990– 2015):This perspective consists of the transitional period from party-less system to multi-party system under constitutional monarchy and a decade long Maoist insurgency for federalism. Despite the difficulties in the political scenario, HEIs continued expanding with the establishment of 11 additional universities. The universities offered about a dozen broad areas of higher education programs—agriculture, animal sciences, Ayurveda, education, engineering, forestry, humanities and social sciences, law, management, Sanskrit, science and technology. The government intended to adapt an education system that would develop competency, specialty, and personality of the students. The then government did not agree with the education system practiced by the governments of the Panchayat regime. The charge to the previous government was that the education was controlled, and it was against the ideals of democracy (NEC, 1992). This period envisioned to make higher education more open, accessible, and instrumental in solving national problems. In anticipation of advancement in higher education, the UGC was established in 1994. A series of higher education reform projects continued from 1998 under the assistance of the World Bank. Open and distance learning policy issued in 2005. UGC launched the Quality Assurance and Accreditation (QAA) program in 2007 (see Key Milestones). Policies of the time acknowledged the interdependence of teaching and research and provided avenues for open universities and distance/online learning (MoE, 1998). The period emphasized for decentralization of higher education facilities by establishing universities and campuses in different parts of the country. Privatization of education is encouraged as well. Eventually, this period marked an increase of HEIs (Asian Development Bank [ADB], 2015) including foreign universities presence in the country (MoE, 2016). Under the federal system (2015 to present): Increment of HEIs continued in this period as the number of constituent colleges reached 96, community colleges reached 429, and private colleges reached 751 in 2016 (MoE, 2016). In the year 2019, the number of colleges reached to 1407 consisting 98 constituent colleges, 532 community colleges, and 777 private colleges (see Table 1). The Education Policy 2018 issued to integrate the HEIs with the national need and international development scenarios. The policy has divided higher education in two categories—general higher education and technical higher education. It has intended to make private sector HEIs service oriented. Provision of a research fund to promote research among the faculties and students has been envisioned by the policy. Standardization and uniformity in management and operation of HEIs are a few ways forward for the government. Similarly, National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2019 issued with the commitments of expanding institutional capability of schools and universities and enhancing innovation (see Key Milestones). The perspectives of the 1990s and onwards were directed to a more liberal economic system. Privatization of public enterprises was considered necessary to ensure economic freedom. The logic of ‘urgency of public enterprises’, more specifically for the conditions of crisis and government interventions, failed in this perspective. Privatization of already established enterprises expedited. A large number of institutions emerged in the form of non-

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 governmental organization (NGO) and international non-governmental organization (INGO)—mainly from the 1990s and after the earthquake of 2015—became dramatically active. Emergence of such institutions shadowed the role of the government’s institutions and HEIs in policy formulations and intervention processes. In-fact, the state power remained ineffective to minimize the role of the NGOs, INGOs, donors, and multinational institutions by enhancing HEIs and TTs of the country. 2.2 Constitutional provisions The constitution of Nepal 2015 Schedule-5.15 grants power to the federal government concerning the central universities, central level academies, universities standards and regulation of central libraries. The Schedule-6.8 grants power to the State government concerning the state universities, higher education, libraries, and museums. Similarly, the Schedule-6.18 grants power to the State as protection and use of languages, scripts, cultures, fine arts and religions. The Part-4.51.h.1 of the Constitution prescribes policies of the state as to prepare human resources that are competent, competitive, ethical, and devoted to national interests, while making education scientific, technical, vocational, empirical, employment and people- oriented. The Part-4.51.h.2 further ensures to make private sector investment made in education service-oriented by regulating and managing such investment, while enhancing the State’s investment in the education sector. Likewise, Part-4.51.h.3 commits to make higher education easy, qualitative and accessible, and free gradually. 2.3 Notion about the HEIs

The country needs to acknowledge the role of HEIs in knowledge creation, transfer, policy dialogues, and interventions for national interest maximization. Any type of control over the higher education institutes in absence of assessment of the impact of their work on national interests only widens the gap between policy interventions and outcomes thereof. The government should not be alone in public policy interventions. Reciprocal interdependence between the HEIs and governments at Federal, State, and Local levels has become an urgency. Validity of the higher education institutes’ work needs to be established through evidence-based dialogues, disseminations and policy intervention feedback. When the dialogues, disseminations, and interventions become only formalities of the HEIs and the government, obviously the national interests will be jeopardized. 3. Reflection The number of universities, campuses/colleges, and students are taken as principal actors reflecting the higher education reform efforts of Nepal. Knowledge creation and transfer as well as development of skills and competency are considered key indicators of the effectiveness of the HEIs and their students. Protection and promotion of national interests are considered as ultimate aims of higher education reform efforts and adoption thereon. 3.1 Structure of HEIs The universities are independent entities established under their own Act. However, the government is keeping some space for its influence through the respective ministries (see Figure 1). The Ministry of Education and Ministry of Health are exercising controls on the universities. The Ministry of Finance is allocating funds, but not exercising controls as of the other ministries. The University Grant Commission is adapting the measures concerning budgetary and quality controls among other measures. Basically, the Education and Health

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 ministries are concerned with the program design and management of the universities. The constituent and affiliated colleges/campuses are running the programs of their respective universities. The affiliated colleges/campuses are under the ownership of either community or private sectors; therefore, they enjoy more freedom in their managerial process activities. 3.2 Establishment of universities One century long odyssey of higher education in Nepal has added a number of universities and colleges in the country. However, entry of new universities increased significantly only after the decade of 1990s (see Figure 2). At present, there are 15 universities and more than 1,400 colleges/campuses providing higher education to hundreds and thousands of students.

Figure 1. Structure of higher education institutions.

Figure 2. Number of universities.

Higher education reform efforts have resulted with many institutions involved in about a dozen broad areas as discussed earlier. The number of students’ enrollment is

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 encouraging. The quantity of universities, colleges/campuses, and students is fairly enough, but there is still a huge challenge of their quality to cope with the changing environment. 3.3 Status of universities The current standing of universities and their colleges is not bad as it was before a couple of decades. For instance, in 1954, there were 7 intermediate-level colleges and 7 degree-level colleges with 915 students and 86 teachers. At the end of the first academic year 1959/60 of Tribhuvan University, 19 colleges were affiliated, and the student enrollment was 2,500. In 1967, the number of affiliated colleges had reached 31. In 1984, the total students’ enrollment was 55,332 with the highest number of enrollments in humanities and social sciences (Martin Chautari [MC], 1990). In 1990, Tribhuvan University (TU) had 63 constituent colleges and 79 affiliated colleges. As of 2018, the standing has been changed significantly (see Table 1). The number of colleges reached 1407 and the number of students reached 486,623. Table 1 Standing of Universities and Colleges (2018/19) University Estd. Number of Colleges/Campuses Constituent Community Private Total Tribhuvan University 1959 60 524 577 1161 Nepal Sanskrit University 1986 14 2 2 18 Kathmandu University 1991 6 0 15 21 B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences 1993 1 0 0 1 Purbanchal University 1994 5 6 130 141 Pokhara University 1997 4 0 58 62 National Academy of Health Sciences 2002 1 0 0 1 Lumbini Buddhist University 2005 1 0 5 6 Patan Academy of Health Sciences 2009 1 0 0 1 Mid-Western University 2010 1 0 0 1 Agriculture & Forestry University 2010 2 0 0 2 FarWestern University 2011 1 0 0 1 Karnali Academy of Health Sciences 2011 1 0 0 1 Nepal Open University 2016 0 0 0 0 RajarshiJanak University 2017 0 0 0 0 Total 98 532 777 1407

Source: High Level National Education Commission Report 2075; Economic Survey 2018/19.

3.4 Structure of higher education The students are eligible to pursue their bachelor-level (undergraduate) study only after completion of their secondary education, i.e., passing the grade 12 examinations. There is a requirement of completion of bachelor-level for master-level and master-level for doctorate-level. However, master-level completion is necessary to be eligible for a Master of Philosophy (M. Phil.). Postgraduate Diploma (PGD) is a professional and optional course, which does not bar a candidate from being eligible for master’s courses. Duration of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) may vary depending on the norms of the concerned institute/faculty/department. Normally, one can complete higher education in 4-5 years (see Figure 3).

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PhD: 4-5 plus years

M. Phil. 1-1.5 years

Master 2 years

PGD 1-1.5years

Bachelor 4 years

Years 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th

Source: Education in Figures 2017, Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology. Figure 3. Higher education structure.

3.5 Enrollment of students Enrollment of students in higher education is a reflection of intellectual progression of a society. The enrollment has been more than doubled in the period of about a decade. The nation’s move to the multi-university concept of early 1980s immediately added Nepal Sanskrit University. The decades of 1990s and onwards remained very prosperous for new university establishments. Increases in the number of universities are adding value in different disciplines, more specifically in the field of medical sciences. B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences was the first institute of imparting education in the field outside university and now additional three institutions of that kind have been added in the field of medicine. Attraction of students to Sanskrit has decreased since the period of Maoist insurgency. The University’s share of students’ enrollment decreased by two percent. If the University could have been able to maintain its share as before and according to the directive policies of the Constitution, there would be about 14,500 (3% of 486,623) students studying at Sanskrit University. Similar decreases and even more are seen in the programs of culture, languages, and literature. Going deep to the statistics, an inference can be drawn that the country’s originalities and fundamentals like values, arts, culture, languages, and literature are in a dangerous path. In fact, the Constitution protects the national originalities and fundamentals though. Tribhuvan University has a huge responsibility of shouldering the challenge of imparting education to the youths. Its burden has not been reduced yet even after the entry of more than a dozen of universities. Only about one-fourth of the total students are pursuing their higher education in rest of the universities (see Table 2). More than 80% of students’

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 attraction to Tribhuvan University indicates that higher education is not a commodity that can be purchased instantly for a particular use. Table 2 Enrollment of Students in Higher Education University % of students’ enrollment 2008/09 2011/12 2014/15 2017/18 Tribhuvan University 82 85 80 81 Nepal Sanskrit University 3 1 1 1 Kathmandu University 4 3 4 4 B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences <0 <0 <0 Purbanchal University 7 6 6 6 Pokhara University 4 5 7 6 National Academy of Health Sciences <0 <0 <0 Lumbini Buddhist University <0 <0 <0 Patan Academy of Health Sciences <0 <0 <0 Mid-Western University <0 1 Agriculture & Forestry University <0 1 FarWestern University <0 1 Karnali Academy of Health Sciences <0 Nepal Open University <0 Rajarshi Janak University <0

Total number of students 208,956 437,564 374,647 486,623

Source: Adapted from Economic Survey 2018/19.

3.6 Outflow of students A large number of students are leaving the country every year for higher education. The number is almost doubling each year as there was a seven-fold increase in eight years of recent times. No objection certificate (NOC) was issued to 67,226 students during the period of January 14, 2017 to March 14, 2018 to pursue higher education in 74 countries. In the year 2018/19 as many as 56,216 students (5.45 times more than 2012/13) went to foreign countries. In 2012/13, the outflow of students was 10,324 (Nepali Sansar [NS], 2019). The outflow of students is also draining out creative brains and hard-earned foreign currencies. Moreover, in absence of creative minds in the classrooms, the quality of teaching and learning process is deteriorating. The students pursuing higher education abroad are comparatively richer. Years after years of brain drain of economically richer students is impacting the HEIs very adversely. Increasing number of poor students’ access to higher education means high chances of resource constraints in HEIs and entry of poor-quality workforce in the job markets of all sectors including higher education itself. Lower quality teachers are rarely producing a higher quality workforce. Alarmingly, there is emerging risk of damaging the glory of HEIs in Nepal.

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3.7 Outflow of labors The number of people seeking jobs in foreign countries is increasing year after year as is the outflow of students. During the period of a decade, the number has more than doubled. The growth of female workers is even more, almost three times higher (see Table 3). As discussed earlier, if higher education was instrumental to add jobs in the societies, this case would be reversed shortly. Table 3 Work Permit Issued for Foreign Employment Year Number of workers Male Female Total 2009/10 284,038 10,056 294,094 2013/14 498,848 28,966 527,814 2017/18 577,722 32,966 610,688 Growth % 1.03 2.28 1.08

Source: Economic Survey 2018/19.

3.8 Status of intellectual property This paper assumes that intellectual property is one of the indicators of higher education effectiveness. The effectiveness increases with an increase in properties. The patents, designs, and publications of scientific/technical journal articles are more reflective indicators including trademarks. Yearly average of domestic patents registration was less than one (0.7), which is a very poor indicator of HEIs effectiveness. Industrial design is seen comparatively better but not commendable. Publication of 44 scientific/technical journal articles per year could be better. The number of trademark registration is quite satisfactory. It is obvious to expect more registration of all the intellectual property (IP) by domestic owners, but the statistics indicate similarity with the foreign owners (see Table 4). 3.9 Status of high-technology, business, and graduates It is assumed that commercial value addition is another key indicator of education. Moreover, higher education is expected to add more value through the production of graduates, establishment of new business ventures, and increasing export of high-tech products. The growth of high-tech export is satisfactory, but its size is small. Share of high-tech manufactured products is very poor; however, the growth is satisfactory. Similarly, increasing the number of new business registration is considered good but production of graduates in TU is not good as such (see Table 5). However, there is no acceptable benchmark to evaluate the status of high-tech, production of graduates, and new business establishment. 4. Discussion Nepal could not realize the urgency of higher education for a longer period till 1918. Even after its realization, the country could not recognize the significance of education for national development. Politics was considered a principal driver of development initiatives and emphasis was given to the political system. Eventually, the education system became a sub-system of the political system. Politicians became successful without support of

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 educationists, but educationists could not be successful without support of politicians! Eventually, the entire higher education system became a captive of national politics. Table 4 Number of Intellectual Property Registered Year Patents Design Trademark Scientific Journal articles Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign 2009/10 1 0 0 0 889 675 391 2010/11 1 0 0 0 850 657 388 2011/12 1 0 4 3 456 1,230 398 2012/13 1 0 13 1 1,473 1,089 413 2013/14 0 0 1 0 1,084 920 481 2014/15 1 0 6 5 1,080 992 520 2015/16 0 0 8 3 1,032 1,366 538 2016/17 0 0 5 16 1,020 1,260 632 2017/18 2 0 4 4 1,047 1,224 674 Total 7 0 41 32 9791 9963 4,435 Average 0.7 0.0 4.1 3.2 97.91 99.63 44.35

Source: Economic Survey 2018/19; The World Bank.

Table 5 Status of High-tech, Graduates and New Business Year High-tech High-tech New business Students production export* export** registered in TU 2009/10 2.5 0.43 9,893 69,023 2010/11 4.3 0.69 9,750 52,896 2011/12 2.8 0.41 10,000 71,230 2012/13 0.8 0.14 10,456 78,267 2013/14 1.9 0.32 9,359 54182 2014/15 4.4 0.72 11,971 62,428 2015/16 2.8 0.64 12,446 83,428 2016/17 4.2 0.82 17,222 68,575 2017/18 5.9 1.18 19,268 74,788

Source: The World Bank Economic Survey 2018/19. *Current US$ in million. **% of manufactured export.

4.1 The critics The education system could not promote impactful research activities. It could not develop skills but imparted more theoretical knowledge. Employment could not be created in the absence of appropriate skills. Neither the government engaged in workforce planning nor the HEIs became instrumental to create jobs for their graduates. The author’s longitudinal classrooms survey of 17 years indicates that about 97% of students enrolled in management

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 programs do not believe that they would be able to create employment. The university graduates (about 97% in management) are not confident in their achievements that they would be able to create or get a job after their graduation. In the same line, the HEI’s personnel and research outcomes are powerless in solving problems of the governments at all levels—federal, state, and local. The distance between the HEIs and national interests is increasing year-by-year. One of the standing challenges of higher education is increasing dependence on imported knowledge for every curriculum of more than a dozen broad areas of study. The curriculums are in distance from job creation and employment. Almost all the curriculums are too conventional and to some extent obsolete in value addition. Agriculture, forestry and animal sciences is one of the subsistent areas in which only about 1% students are enrolled in higher education. The students enrolled as such are under the condition of resource constraints to pursue research and experiment in their chosen field for innovation. A series of regime changes, standing of HEIs, and the evidence indicate that neither the higher education system could advance the original knowledge and skills, nor could it absorb the transferred knowledge and skills. Ultimately, the system could not establish national identity in the field of knowledge and skills. Even the efforts of higher education reform could not prioritize the enhancement of knowledge and skills inherent in the society. Instead, directly or indirectly, the system insisted to overthrow the inherent knowledge and skills as the jobs of blacksmith, tailors, shoemakers, farmers, carpenters, and so on never came into the purview of higher education reforms, teaching, and research. The initiatives taken by the State in the field of agriculture, forestry, handicrafts and cottage industries were neither industrialized by increasing exports nor remained self- sustained by reducing imports. In another context, a decrease in students’ enrollment in humanities and social sciences indicates downgrading of human and social values. In the same line, an increase in the enrollment in business management courses indicates an increased tendency of becoming employees (but not to become employers). Moreover, management education could not promote indigenous products, and the science and technology education could not integrate with business management courses. Product development and product promotion could not move together. Management education focused only on sales of goods and services—mostly imported goods and services. Higher education in Nepal is also affected by high politicization (ADB, 2015) along with absence and/or unreliable data about national need, priorities, and labor market. Eventually, educational institutions either emerged as political playground or acted as business entities. The educational degrees started to become a matter for outer display like cosmetics or ornaments. An increasing tendency of avoidance of the principles of ‘quality first’ in almost all levels of education in the country seems one of the reasons for increasing outflow of students in search of quality education. Increasing tendency of downgrading own socio-cultural values are further degrading the significance of national identity and interests. 4.2 Standing challenges Institutional parallelism is distancing the entities like the National Planning Commission and Universities. There is no synchronization of the policies and programs of the education providers and job providers. The recipients of education obtain one set of knowledge imported from elsewhere and go to the job market. The job market needs skills necessary to give solutions to their original problems. The task of knowledge translation into skills is becoming ineffective. Eventually, higher education graduates are unable to meet the expectations of their prospective employers.

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Absence of home-grown curriculum is leading to imposing incompatible, irrelevant, and obsolete matters in almost all levels of higher education. Moreover, the author has witnessed the tradition of imposing semester-wise fixed subjects as too taxing for the students. For instance, undergraduate programs in management imposes 5 courses of 3 credit hours each in first semester, i.e., no less and no more subjects the students can pursue in the semester. Similar impositions are continuous throughout the remaining seven semesters of the program. Such practices are not only affecting the time and efforts of the students, but also preventing them to opt for particular courses of their choice. Further, the fixed courses continue for years to decades as there are no efforts of introducing new/updated syllabus in every semester i.e. syllabus of previous batch/class is being repeatedly used in forthcoming batches/classes from years to even decades. This practice has become one of the major impediments in making the higher education system useful in Nepal. In fact, there could be options for students to select the subjects of their own choices at every semester of every batch/class. The tendency of making others’ past as their own future is pushing the nation backward. National-need based program design is necessary to move forward. Imported programs could not transform the socio-economic status of the country in a sustainable manner. Absence of a single program designed to make fit for the enhancement of indigenous knowledge and skills looks embarrassing. The practice of going to the classroom with the knowledge and skills developed outside the country by outsiders cannot advance the country’s original knowledge and skills. Avoidance of higher education policy audit is missing the verification of the accuracy between the academic programs and their outcomes. The Jaagire mentality (preferring to be an employee than an employer) among the youth is another challenge. The mentality of becoming only an employee in an already established entity is an alarm of higher education failure. For instance, one will be the happiest and consider himself/herself as great achiever of his/her own life if he/she gets a permanent job offer in government offices—specifically in civil services. It is not bad, but the dream of becoming government’s employee among the youths is not good for the economy. In fact, the youths need to be creative and innovative for employment creation; they need to establish and operate their own ventures. Unfortunately, the students are more serious about becoming a Jaagire. The immunity to change—the immunity of students to new venture development, immunity of faculty members to adaptive pedagogy, and immunity of the HEIs to design effective programs—is another standing challenge in higher education in Nepal. 5. Requisition Higher education needs to be more competitive. Access of a mass to higher education may lead to a state of mass unemployment when business sector doesn't move in compatibility'. When we make higher education more competitive, there will be entry of talent students who have exhibited their excellence in their higher secondary level examinations and entry level assessments. This paper argues that talent students themselves make the quality of higher education improved. Instead, if there are incompetent students in higher level, the outcomes of our efforts would not be encouraging. In fact, society does not only need undergraduate and postgraduates, but it needs people of lower levels as well. In other words, every child is not interested in higher education, and if higher education compels for all of them, it would be a disaster.

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5.1 Addition of HE institutes The existing HEIs are immune to go for transformational change of their practices and organizational settings (Bhattarai, 2018). A strong measure for breaking the immunity is necessary to meet the expectations of the National Education Policy 2019. Additional institutional build up is necessary to explore and advance the indigenous knowledge, skills, and resources. Education for promotion of inter linkages of the indigenous resources creates multiplier effects in socio-economic status of the local communities. The interlinkages strengthen the backward and forward integration of industries. Sustainable replacements of existing dependence on remittance and higher education immediately require alternatives. New institutional settings for advancing studies on special areas like high altitude sporting, Himalayan studies, geo-diversity, mountaineering, and highland wellness programs have great potential for attracting international students. Similarly, programs directed to export languages, literature, culture, artifacts and natural beauty and diversity are other attractions. Those initiatives will be considered instrumental in building the strength of HEIs. HEIs for renovation of conventional kitchens with the use of green energy and environment is another urgency. Reengineering of cottage and small industries opens multiple avenues of higher education. Transformative studies on foods, shelter, health, and mobility of Nepali people will produce notable knowledge and skills for income and employment generation. Similarly, at least one polytechnic/monotechnic institute in each province having a world-class laboratory will be instrumental to support research and skills building initiatives. Well-equipped studios and stadiums at selected locations add value to the films and sports studies. A few ultra-modern institutes of disaster management at least one at federal-level and one at province-level are additional requirements. 5.2 Establishment of scholastic authority Intellectual property (IP) is shaping our future. Natural intelligence equipped with artificial intelligence is increasing the accuracy of our decisions and actions. HEIs are principal creators, defenders, and promoters of intellectual property. However, the existing contributions of HEIs in Nepal including the National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) and Nepal Academy (NA) are insufficient to address the national concern of IP management for employment generation and high-tech value creation. Therefore, this paper advocates for an urgency of establishment and operationalization of a Scholastic Authority (SA) in the country. 5.3 Policy description in brief The policy description of SA is based on the premise of IP and information technology (IT). Primary assumption of this policy description is that every HEI holds IP and adapts IT. Each college will maintain one Scholastic Unit and the Unit regularly maintains the college’s IP accounts in support of the IT unit. There is a similar unit at the University that links the units of its colleges. The national level Scholastic Authority established at selected location maintains the nation’s IP accounts and links the Scholastic Units of the HEIs and others. Functional modality of this Authority will be quite different than the existing authorities such as the Telecommunication Authority. It will not act as a regulator; instead, it will be accounting, auditing, defending, promoting, and encouraging the creators and potential creators of it. At the beginning, it will emerge as a ‘scholastic bank’ and become a

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 common platform for all concerned for their presentation, validation, and adoption of IP. Gradually, it will take its shape as a contributory authority. Network structure: Blurred boundaries and shifting priorities from unilateral approach of policy interventions to multilateral approach encourage inter-institutional cooperation among the higher education institutes—either of private sector or public sector or universities. The cooperation transforms their competitive characteristics to complementary one (Bajenova, 2016) so that the HEIs can best address the need of multidisciplinary and multilateral approach to public policy practices. This network refers to a‘Knowledge Platform’ established and operated under the leadership of SA. The structure of the networking framework shall be as mentioned in Figure 4. The ‘SUu’ and ‘SUc’ in the structure refers to the ‘scholastic unit at university’ and ‘scholastic unit at campus, respectively.

Figure 4. Networking of IP framework.

Functional modality: In view of effective participation of the HEIs in public policy practices and impact maximization thereof, promotion of a Knowledge Platform is essential. An effective networking framework of HEIs is essential as there are scattered and limited research initiatives of both the private and public sectors. The research, if any, are demand driven, i.e. research on client’s requirement. Such research, mostly of the TTs, based on their client’s terms of reference are hardly serving in proactive public policy interventions. Most of the HEIs in Nepal are crushed with financial and personnel constraints. Most of them are working to meet the conventional requirements. There is no more genuine research and/or no practice of stocktaking of those researches. Policy interventions are naturally interdisciplinary and one HEIs rarely holds expertise in every discipline. One can be best in one’s field, and someone else can be the best at their own respective field. When there is a common knowledge platform, it produces synergy by integrating and synchronizing

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 the worth and excellence of its network members. This paper suggests a 4Rs framework for the proposed Knowledge Platform (see Figure 5). The Platform will be instrumental to meet the primary thrusts of accounting and auditing of IP, and policy interventions’ outcome effectiveness of the HEI programs.

Figure 5. 4Rs framework of knowledge platform.

Research: The Knowledge Platform will be involved in identifying, integrating and synchronizing the knowledge and ideas that are available with individuals and institutions within and beyond the network. Moreover, the network shall conduct collaborative research by forming joint-venture with other institutions of public and private sectors, universities, NGOs and INGOs. Reposit: The HEIs and other institutions including individuals will engage in their own research and dialogues that may bring excellent findings. They shall put their findings in the repository of the Platform. The matters of repository will be records or reference of IP including extended abstract, policy briefs, audio-videos, documentary or any other forms as prescribed by the SA. Review/release: The SA shall release/publish the knowledge, ideas and evidence in digital and/or print form. However, anything that is adversely affecting the national, organizational and individual image and interest shall not be made public without cause. It will review the knowledge, ideas, evidence and expertise to avail to the policy-makers, policy advocates and public at large. Refine: SA not only synthesizes but also analyzes the knowledge, ideas and research findings of different institutions and individuals. The knowledge from different sources including its own repository shall be made secured, purified and appropriate for their use. It can rearrange the knowledge as required. In order to refine the knowledge/process/model, it shall use its roster of institutions and individuals. Recommend: SA shall recommend information and ideas to the adaptors, policy advocates and decision-makers. The recommendations of SA would be free from unwanted bias.

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5.4 Implementation framework The networks shall be engaged in maintaining inventory of IP, knowledge and ideas of institutions and individuals. It will be integrating and synchronizing the HEIs and TTs’ knowledge, ideas, skills and evidence by conducting collaborative research, maintaining the platform and organizing policy dialogues regularly. Maintaining rosters of institutions and individuals: The SA associates will be diverse in their priorities and areas of expertise. It will be identifying and updating the rosters of institutions and individuals of different sectors—government, academia, business, development, media, and politics. Integrating and synchronizing skills, knowledge and IPs: The associates of SA are pursuing research for solving problems and creating knowledge. Integration of exemplary research works, knowledge, evidence, ideas and expertise of institutions and individuals is essential. Any individual or institution having exemplary work or idea that is likely to impact public policy formulation or implementation will find a platform for presentation in this network. This network will be also instrumental to bring public and private think tanks together. Regularizing policy dialogues, cooperation and collaboration: The network involves a variety of activities like public policy dialogues, discussions, workshops, consultative meetings and providing venues for the policy-makers. Policy-makers—the politicians and bureaucrats—are engaged in their routine activities and cannot get sufficient time to research on a large number of issues. They are finding an avenue to build shared understanding and/or get solutions to the pertinent issues facing the country. Enriching the knowledge platform: A loose network of SA and HEIs as envisioned herewith shall work together to make the Platform efficient and effective. The HEIs shall contribute their IPs including publications, research reports, interviews, dialogues, ideas and agendas in this Platform. Primary challenge and opportunity of the KP are to harness the IPs, knowledge and ideas available with all of its members. It shall help its members to be more future-oriented, better able to generate new thinking, be effective enough in collaboration, and be smarter to deal with the complexities of policy issues and interventions. 6. Conclusion A series of regimes and public policies changes do not favor the enhancement of higher education. Higher education system in Nepal is in distance from achieving the mission of ensuring the future of the youths in their own country. The notion of compatibility between national interests and youth mobilization schemes is very blurred. The education system is creating a gap between the youth’s value preference and the country’s originalities and fundamentals like values, arts, culture, languages, literature, and the Constitutional policies. Derailment of the attempts of skills development and job creation in the country is forcing the youths to see their future in foreign countries. The attempts of higher education reforms could not ensure a balanced development of universities, faculties, and production of graduates. The burden of Tribhuvan University has not been reduced even after the establishment of more than a dozen of universities. Excessive enrollment and production of students in management faculty and very few or nominal enrollment and production in science, technology, humanities and social sciences faculties are damaging the national strength and integrity. The outdated and irrelevant higher

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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 1, 2020 education programs/courses imparted the knowledge to the students but could not develop sufficient skills and competencies to meet the requirements of contemporary society. The missing chain of targets, agendas, and national interests of key stakeholders has urged for a unique movement to establish and strengthen linkages across the targets, agendas, and interests. This paper concludes with a requisition note demanding for a couple of additional HEIs committed to advance the originalities and fundamentals of Nepal and a Scholastic Authority for effective management of intellectual property. 7. Key milestones The conclusion of this paper invites further discussions and investigations in consideration of the higher education reforms in Nepal. Furthermore, following key milestones provide insights into the deliberate attempts directed to enhance the effectiveness of the country’s higher education system. Interestingly, similar reform attempts were ongoing irrespective of the changes of political regimes and systems. In fact, the reflections presented in this paper insist for system thinking under different facets of higher education in the country. Table 6 Key Milestones

Year Actions and achievements

1918 Tribhuvan Chandra College (now Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus) established on 21st day of August in affiliation first with Calcutta University and then with Patna University. The college started teaching Mathematics, History and Language courses from 29th August

1920 Intermediate of Science (I. Sc.) program started in affiliation with Patna University

1921 Department of Economics established in Tribhuvan Chandra College

1924 Bachelor of Arts (B. A.) program started in the College The College renamed as Tri-Chandra College

1948 Department of Geography established in Tri-Chandra College Bachelor of Science (B. Sc.) program started in Tri-Chandra College Nepal Sanskrit College established and offered Uttara Madhyama and Shastri courses Department of Political Science established in Tri-Chandra College 1950 Intermediate of Science (I. Sc.) in Zoology and Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Botany started in the College 1954 Department of Commerce established in Tri-Chandra College on 27th September Intermediate degree in Commerce (I. Com.) started in the College

1955 Nepal National Education Planning Commission prepared a basis for national education system; and prescribed for a university to address the need of the country

1956 College of Education started

1957 Nepal Sahitya Kala Academy (now Nepal Academy) established

1959 In the 14th day of July (30th of Ashad 2016) Tribhuvan University (TU) established under the Chancellorship of the King Mahendra

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Year Actions and achievements Tri-Chandra College renamed as Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus Institute of Education established (started as college of education in 1956) Institute of Law established Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences established

1960 TU started to conduct all the examinations of the colleges of Nepal

1961 Comprehensive National Education Committee formed in an attempt of making education time- relevant, professional, technical, and useful for the nation, society, and individuals

1962 The Central Library at Lal Durbar merged with the University library Master’s level programs introduced in Education

1965 Central Department of Chemistry founded

1966 Master’s level programs introduced in Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Zoology

1969 Centre for Economic Development and Administration (CEDA) established Central Department of Physics established

1970 Master’s program in Sanskrit established

1971 National Education System Plan (NESP) for 1971-76 initiated with one of its primary objectives of meeting the manpower requirements of the country. The Plan assimilated all public colleges under Tribhuvan University Tribhuvan University Act 1959 amended

1972 Institute of Nepal and Asian Studies (now, Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, CNAS) established Institute of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, Institute of Forestry, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science established Central Department of Statistics established

1972 Institute of Medicine, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Institute of Engineering and Institute of Science and Technology established

1973 All government as well as private colleges integrated into the folds of the University under NESP Institute of Law; Institute of Education; Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences and 1974 Institutes of Business Administration, Commerce and Public Administration established 1975 Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development (CERID) established

1977 Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) established

1982 The Royal Higher Education Commission submitted its report with numerous recommendations including the recommendation for the establishment of Mahendra Sanskrit University Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (now Nepal Academy of Science and Technology) established to promote science and technology Tribhuvan University allowed individuals, groups, and communities to open colleges under its affiliation Institute of Business Administration, Commerce and Public Administration converted into

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Year Actions and achievements Faculty of Management Institute of Education converted into Faculty of Education

1985 Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences converted into Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

1986 Mahendra Sanskrit University established Sanskrit campuses transferred to Mahendra Sanskrit University

1989 Higher Secondary Education System envisioned phasing-out the Proficiency Certificate Level program from the University Institute of Science and Technology established

1991 Kathmandu University established

1992 The National Education Commission submitted its report indicating higher education as general and technical. The report included the recommendation for establishment of University Grant Commission

1993 B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences established TU Organization and Academic Administration Rules 2050, TU Staff Service Rules 2050 and TU Financial Management and Procurement Rules 2050 came into effect

1994 University Grant Commission (UGC) established Purbanchal University established

1997 Pokhara University established

1998 Higher Education Project (1998-2002) initiated with focus on reforming curricula, institutional infrastructure, and financial and academic management Tribhuvan University Decentralization Rule 2055 issued

1999 The High-Level National Education Commission submitted its report giving emphasis on regionally balanced higher education, public-private partnership, institutional capacity buildings, and so on

2002 National Academy of Medical Sciences established Directive for operation of higher education in affiliation with foreign educational institutions 2003 issued 2005 Lumbini Buddhist University established Tribhuvan University Autonomy Rule 2062 issued

2007 Higher Education Project 2007-2014 initiated with focus on quality, efficiency, and relevance through systemic reforms Open and Distance Learning (ODL) policy 2063 issued Quality Assurance and Accreditation (QAA) program launched by UGC Tribhuvan University came under the Chancellorship of Prime Minister of Nepal

2009 Patan Academy of Health Sciences established

2010 Mid-Western University established

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Year Actions and achievements Agriculture and Forestry University established

2011 Far Western University established

2013 Karnali Academy of Health Sciences established Discussion initiated to promote TU as the Central University

2015 Higher Education Reform Project activated to support reforms in selected institutions for improving quality, relevance, and efficiency; and to assist under-privilege students for equitable access Open and Distance Education Center (ODEC) established in TU

2016 Higher Education Policy 2072 issued with commitments like linking higher education programs with the national priorities Nepal Open University established

2017 Rajarshi Janak University established

2019 National Education Policy, 2076 issued with the aim of making all levels of education competitive, technology-friendly, productive, employment oriented, development of human resources according the national need National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2076 issued with the commitments of expanding institutional capability of schools and universities and enhancing innovation

Source: Webpages of the ministry of education, universities, commissions, NGOs, INGOs, academic and research centers and institutions.

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