UNIVERSITIES, EMPLOYABILITY AND INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT: REPOSITIONING HIGHER EDUCATION IN GHANA, KENYA, NIGERIA AND SOUTH AFRICA Acknowledgements

This report was authored by Tristan McCowan, Melanie Walker, Sam Fongwa, Ibrahim Oanda, Daniel Sifuna, Segun Adedeji, Stephen Oyebade, Eric Daniel Ananga, Vincent Adzahlie- Mensah and Emmanuel Tamanja. It is the final report of the Universities, Employability and Inclusive Development project (2013–16), commissioned by the British Council. The research was led by the UCL Institute of Education, London, in partnership with Kenyatta University, Kenya; University of Education, Winneba, Ghana; University of the Free State, South Africa; and University of Ibadan, Nigeria. We are grateful to Carole Rakodi for her comments on an earlier draft. Contents

Chapter 1 – Introduction 2 Chapter 2 – Universities and employability in South Africa: equity in opportunities and outcomes 15 Chapter 3 – Divergent narratives on graduate employability in Kenya: dysfunctional institutions or dysfunctional labour markets? 39 Chapter 4 – In pursuit of graduate employability and inclusive development in Nigeria: realities and expectations 57 Chapter 5 – Higher education and employability in Ghana 77 Chapter 6 – Enabling conditions 91 Chapter 7 – Conclusion 101

Universities, employability and inclusive development 1 I want to do something that’s going to help me change something in this country, the social ills, whether it be poverty, you know, health… Political science student, South Africa Chapter 1 – Introduction

Tristan McCowan

Higher education is now acknowledged Millennium Development Goals, as being pivotal for development at showing the increasing interest in this The promise and challenge all levels. Its role in fostering high level of education after a period of of higher education in Africa level research and technological relative neglect. Major regional events capacity in the knowledge economy such as the African Higher Education ‘[T]he dream…is just to empower is well recognised, but it has another Summit (Dakar, Senegal) in March 2015 people and just make our countries, fundamental role – that of forming the have affirmed this renewed recognition. our communities, a better living professionals who will play major roles The idea that the development of environment for all … if we are in the provision of health, education higher education is only justified for exposed to this and we get to a and a range of other services, as well wealthier countries, or a goal to be level where she can write books as public administration. The positive pursued after universal primary and about history and that changes impact of higher education, therefore, secondary education have been the education curriculum, that is not restricted to those who directly achieved, has been broadly discredited. already means that there are people study in universities, but can potentially It is now acknowledged that even the who are inspired and are empowered ripple out through the whole of society, poorest countries in the world require to do something for themselves. If as emphasised in the declaration of and deserve a vibrant higher education this dream is to change the system UNESCO’s World Conference on Higher sector, producing professionals for the of governance – not necessarily Education in 1988: 1 public sector, creating innovators to change but to improve the system Developing entrepreneurial skills develop local solutions to problems, of government – that means entirely and initiative should become major carrying out research relevant to the whole country will be improved… concerns of higher education, in development needs and providing I want to do something that’s going order to facilitate employability of direct support to communities. to help me change something in this graduates who will increasingly Africa currently boasts some of the country, the social ills, whether it be be called upon to be not only job fastest-growing economies in the poverty, you know, health … just do seekers but also and above all world,2 and the region has benefited something that’s going to get the to become job creators. Higher from increased inward investment, next person to their next level…’ education institutions should give growing trade and tourism, and the opportunity to students to fully 3 This statement, from a young political expansion of the service sector. develop their own abilities with a science student in South Africa, However, the extractive industries sense of social responsibility, highlights the transformative potential on which a number of countries rely educating them to become full of higher education – in changing still leave their economies vulnerable participants in democratic society individuals’ lives, but also changing to fluctuations in international and promoters of changes that societies for the better. She – and the commodity markets, and the resources will foster equity and justice. other two students interviewed with on which they depend will eventually be exhausted. It is essential that African her – had come from poor rural The process leading up to the countries diversify their economies and backgrounds and had beaten the odds development of the new Sustainable develop the high levels of knowledge in getting to university. Like thousands Development Goals involved much production and skills needed to sustain of others across the continent, they more discussion of higher education high-tech and creative industries. were committed to using that opportunity than during the lead up to the previous to improve the lives of others.

1. World Conference on Higher Education (1998) World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action. UNESCO. 2. Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Ivory Coast had the second, third and fourth fastest growing economies in 2014. (World Bank (2016) GDP growth (annual per cent). Available online at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?order=wbapi_data_value_2014+wbapi_data_ value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc ) 3. The Economist (2015) The twilight of the resource curse? January 10. Available online at: www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21638141- africas-growth-being-powered-things-other-commodities-twilight

Universities, employability and inclusive development 3 Furthermore, the region has the for the entrance of a number of new governance issues hampering quality fastest growing youth population in providers, particularly faith-based improvement efforts in the former. the world, with its current 15–24 age organisations, alongside the creation The lessons have not, therefore, group population of 226 million set of new regional public universities and been learned from primary education, to increase by 42 per cent by 2030. 4 expansion of existing ones. In Kenya, which, following the introduction of This so-called ‘youth bulge’ can be a for example, enrolments soared from fee removal policies and the support motor for prosperity for all in the region 219,000 to 444,000 in just three of international agencies through the if it is appropriately harnessed, but the years between 2012 and 2015. 7 This Education for All initiative, expanded prospects for doing so depend to a expansion has gone some way towards rapidly from the 1990s onwards, but large extent on universally available meeting the considerable unmet encountered significant problems and high quality education at all levels. demand, and absorbing the increasing of teacher shortages and strained Failure to address the educational numbers of secondary school leavers. 8 infrastructure. Simply piling more aspirations and needs of the youth However, attention to quantity has bodies into universities without is likely to lead not only to sluggish not always been accompanied by adequate attention to the conditions economic growth, but also to youth an adequate emphasis on quality. for learning reduces the impact of unrest, a lingering sense of injustice Many institutions suffer from very large university study, and at worst can and lack of purpose, and, in the class sizes, with numbers in excess of waste precious years of young people’s most extreme cases, to extremism 500 in an undergraduate class being lives, dash the high hopes of their and violence. common, on account of the lack of families and incur debt. Meaningful There is no doubting the impressive funds to recruit lecturers and, in some access to higher education means growth of higher education systems cases, a shortage of appropriately engaging in a high quality and relevant across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). qualified candidates. In addition, there course that will open opportunities The total number of enrolments in are complaints of inadequate physical in the broader society. the region increased from 2.3 million infrastructure, lack of laboratories and These quality challenges have in 1999 to 6.6 million in 2013 – of equipment for scientific, engineering translated into dissatisfaction with the global regions, only Asia had a and agricultural studies, outdated graduate skills in the labour market. faster growth rate in this period. 5 curricula, ineffective pedagogical While the situation of graduates is Nevertheless, SSA still has a low methods and inefficient administration. 9 uneven across the region, a recent gross enrolment ratio of 8.17 per In many cases, these challenges are study by the Inter-University Council cent (compared to the global rate of the direct result of a rapid expansion for East Africa estimated that over 32.88 per cent), 6 on account of the of the system without corresponding half of all graduates in the sub-region late development of university systems, increases in funding or concern for the are inadequately prepared for and, until recently, restriction of access students’ learning experience. These employment. 11 In many contexts, to a very small elite, in the face of a challenges are seen in both the public graduates struggle to find work. For growing youth population. In recent and private sectors, with regulation example, in 2015 the Kenyan judiciary years, rapid expansion has been difficult in the latter in the context of had to sift through as many as 80,000 enabled by liberalisation of private rapid growth spurred on by ever- applications for the 1,000 posts it had sector involvement, which has allowed buoyant student demand, 10 and advertised, while 3,000 candidates

4. United Nations Population Division (2015) Youth population trends and sustainable development. Available online at: www.un.org/en/development/desa/ population/publications/pdf/popfacts/PopFacts_2015-1.pdf 5. UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) (2016a) Education: enrolment by level of education. Available online at: http://data.uis.unesco.org/index. aspx?queryid=142&lang=en 6. UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) (2016b) Education: gross enrolment ratio by level of education. Available online at: http://data.uis.unesco.org/index. aspx?queryid=142&lang=en 7. Republic of Kenya (2015) Economic Survey. Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 8. McCowan, T (2014) Can higher education solve Africa’s job crisis? Understanding graduate employability in Sub-Saharan Africa. British Council. Available online at: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/graduate_employability_in_ssa_final-web.pdf 9. Gudo, CO, Olel, MA, Oanda, IO (2011) University expansion in Kenya and issues of quality education: challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Business and Social Science 2/20: 203–214; Wangenge-Ouma, G (2007) Higher education marketisation and its discontents: the case of quality in Kenya. Higher Education 56/4: 457–471. 10. Havergal, C (2015) Africa’s ‘teaching shops’: the rise of private universities. Times Higher Education, 22 October. Available online at: https://www. timeshighereducation.com/features/africas-teaching-shops-the-rise-of-private-universities 11. Inter-University Council for East Africa, IUCEA (2014) Regional higher education qualifications gaps Vol II.

4 Universities, employability and inclusive development applied for 28 posts in the Ports 5. Research and data. Most higher the research project, analysing the Authority. In many cases, degree education systems lack adequate challenges of graduate employability holders are forced to apply for posts information in many areas, even and the role of universities in four that require lower qualifications, relating to basic enrolments, and countries – Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and sometimes hide their higher there are significant needs for and South Africa. The report qualifications for fear of being research on universities and summarises the outcomes of three disqualified. The desperate search their impact. years of in-depth research with for graduate jobs ended in tragedy selected institutions in these countries, These challenges need to be faced in Nigeria in 2014, as candidates for leading to recommendations for head-on if the extraordinary potential the Immigration Service thronging ways forward for institutions and of higher education is to be realised. outside recruitment centres across governments in the region. It should Indeed, there are already a range of the country stampeded, leading to be read in conjunction with other initiatives at local, national and the deaths of 16 people. publications that have emerged from international levels that are tackling the project, which provide more Furthermore, brain drain has been these challenges and transforming detailed accounts of particular exacerbated by both the lack of institutions. Individual lecturers, countries and specific themes. The availability of quality higher education institutional management and national following section provides a fuller and the lack of employment agencies – in some cases supported by outline of the research project. opportunities, leading to a substantial international bodies – are introducing loss of talent and expertise. There are, new approaches and measures, and in summary, five principal challenges implementing reforms intended to Background to the project facing higher education systems in transform the quality of their systems The research project Universities, the region: and open up opportunities for new Employability and Inclusive Development 1. Expansion. In spite of the impressive cohorts of students. A number of these was commissioned by the British increases in enrolments in recent inspiring innovations will be outlined Council in 2012 in the context of the years there is still considerable in the report that follows. organisation’s broader higher education programme in SSA. It emerged from unmet demand, and the region The project from which this report a seven-country scoping study still lags well behind global emerges – Universities, Employability conducted in 2011, which identified average levels of enrolment. and Inclusive Development – directly a range of challenges faced in the 2. Equity. Access to universities is addressed the fifth of the challenges region that were seen to limit the for the most part restricted to listed above: the shortage of research positive impact of higher education the privileged few, with under- on the content and outcomes of on society, and particularly to constrain representation of many groups, university education, especially with its ability to produce employable including women (with the respect to its inclusiveness and ability graduates. The research project that exception of South Africa), lower- to produce employable graduates. was subsequently proposed sought income groups, those from rural While this is a propitious moment for to identify the changes that need to areas and those with disabilities. higher education – given the renewed be made in universities so as to make support from supranational agencies 3. Quality. Rapid expansion has them more effective in enhancing and national governments – it is placed considerable strain on the employability of their graduates. essential to have sound knowledge university infrastructure, and there The project was underpinned by a of the current system’s strengths and are substantial concerns about commitment to the development weaknesses, as well as the nature students’ learning outcomes. of higher education systems across and outcomes of recent attempts to 4. Links. Universities do not always the participating countries, as improve quality, as a basis on which to have strong relationships with part of a broader process of social develop policy. In addition, the analysis broader society, including transformation for the benefit of all. addresses the other four challenges local communities, schools In particular, the project has been through the lens of employability. and employers. informed by the human development This report presents the findings of and capabilities approaches, which

Universities, employability and inclusive development 5 emphasise the need for a broad vision The partnership network of the five • How have universities sought to of human well-being (involving cultural lead universities (in addition to the enable the development of and political as well as economic broader group of case study institutions) employable graduates through the elements), recognise the diversity was also intended to have a role in curriculum and targeted initiatives, of individuals and societies, and promoting innovation and successful with what outcomes and why? acknowledge the need to ensure that practice relating to employability and, • How do universities in the five all human beings have the wherewithal more broadly, ways of improving the countries address widening to pursue the life goals they value. quality of teaching and learning. participation, so that access, The research project ran from March The research addressed the following completion and preparation for the 2013 to February 2016, and involved questions: world of work are more inclusive? five countries – Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Main research questions • Which university conditions of South Africa, and for comparative governance, teaching and learning • Given the increasing global purposes, the UK. The research was quality, and research and innovation importance attached to led by the UCL Institute of Education, support the education of employable employability, how are universities London, and was conducted in graduates? in the five countries contributing partnership with four universities, to the preparation of graduates for • Which contextual and policy one in each of the focus countries: work and participation in society? conditions enable or restrict the University of Education, Winneba, education of employable graduates? Ghana; Kenyatta University, Kenya; • Furthermore, how does a cross- University of Ibadan, Nigeria; and country comparative perspective The research study, therefore, University of the Free State, South Africa. influence understandings and focuses primarily on the teaching explanations of graduate function of universities, rather than In addition to developing employability, and with what research and community engagement – new knowledge about the role of implications for policy and practice? while acknowledging that the latter universities, it also aimed to engage two also play an essential part of Sub-questions a range of stakeholders and promote the university’s role in enhancing a effective practice. Consequently, • How do students, employers country’s development. In addition, dissemination and stakeholder and universities understand in order to maintain a viable scope, it engagement events have been built employability and the contribution focuses primarily on undergraduate into the research schedule at every of graduates to society? education, rather than postgraduate stage. Each country had a stakeholder • How is graduate readiness for the level and the training of researchers, group involving relevant policymakers, world of work and participation although there are issues of academics, university senior in society perceived? What are employability relevant to all levels. management and employers that students’ attributes (knowledge, met periodically to discuss, develop skills, values) on leaving university? and disseminate the work. In each country, the research partners studied a number of institutions.

6 Universities, employability and inclusive development The impact of different factors within the university on employability and on local and national development (involving positive economic and social transformation) – and their conditioning by factors outside – are portrayed in the following chart:

Supranational and national policy; historical factors; context Labour market dynamics

Previous schooling Degree subject Employment

Students Broader entering learning university exprerience Graduates Development

Targeted Other initiatives influences (family,

media etc.) engagementCivic

University conditions: curriculum, teaching and learning governance, research and innovation

Universities, employability and inclusive development 7 This framework allows us to place Phase 2 and their assessment of their prospects the impact of university education In-depth analysis of employability for employment. The data collection in perspective. Higher education practice within a small number of and analysis are described in the influences students in three ways: case study institutions: country chapters that follow, and through their formal studies, their further details are available in the • Institutional statistical information. experiences more broadly in the previous project reports. university (including extra-curricular • Governance documents and As outlined above, the second phase of activities such as music, drama interviews. the research involved the selection of and sports, participation in student • University staff interviews. case study universities in each country, societies, the students’ union etc.) • Students: as listed below: and targeted employability initiatives –– cohort interviews such as careers advice and Ghana entrepreneurship courses. However, –– questionnaire • University of Ghana the influence of university education –– focus groups • Kwame Nkrumah University on students is conditioned by their –– follow-up interviews. previous experiences, including their of Science and Technology school education and everyday lives. • Observations. • University for Development Studies Furthermore, the university experience • Targeted initiatives. • Ashesi University is located within a web of national Kenya and institutional policy and contextual Phase 3 factors. Finally, while university • University of Nairobi Build, develop and share models experience is significant in terms of • Moi University of effective practice: determining a graduate’s employment • Daystar University and other forms of participation in a. Innovative practice cases. society, it is not the only influence, b. Employer survey. Nigeria with labour market dynamics also c. Employability scorecard. • Imo State University playing a significant role. d. University action plans. • University of Ibadan In order to address the research e. Main dissemination of findings • Bingham University questions outlined above, data to stakeholders. South Africa collection and dissemination in each f. Academic publications. of the four African countries was • University of the Witwatersrand g. Policy dialogues. organised in the following three phases: • University of the Free State The second phase was by far the most • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Phase 1 substantial, and involved extensive University Overview of national level trends qualitative and quantitative data • University of Venda involving: collection in the case study universities. The ‘cohort interviews’ were carried a. A literature review of existing out with a group of 12 final year These universities were selected to published research on employability students in each university: there was cover the major institutional forms, and higher education. then a follow-up interview with the including public and private, those b. An analysis of relevant statistical same students a year later, to explore located in the capital and elsewhere in information at national level. how their perceptions had changed the country, academic and vocational, c. Assessment of relevant national following their entry into job-seeking and old and new. They are not intended policy on higher education and and the labour market. A questionnaire to be representative of the entire employability. survey of a total of approximately higher education system. The purpose of the case studies was to generate d. Interviews with policymakers 6,000 final year students across all of in-depth perspectives on the processes and other key stakeholders. the institutions was also carried out to gauge their views on their institutions of formation of graduate attributes through teaching and learning and

8 Universities, employability and inclusive development career support, and the ways in which on their recruitment needs, their had gained from their studies and what specific activities were informed by preferences for different kinds of advice they would give to new students institutional and national policies. For graduate, the skill levels of the graduates arriving at the university. the most part institutions have not they had recruited, and their perceptions As noted above, the UK was also been anonymised since the contextual of the contribution of the university. a partner country in the research factors are important for understanding Second, three innovative cases were project. Given the significant economic, the data. However, the identity of the chosen in each country, to provide social and cultural differences from the institution has not been stated in some examples of experimentation and African countries, it was not considered cases in which the authors felt that it effective practice at local level. Some fruitful to conduct the same form of would present an unconstructive or of these were located in one of the data collection in universities in the misleading comparison. The in-depth 14 case study institutions, while some UK. Instead, the UK team conducted analyses of the selected universities were drawn from other universities. four pieces of research to inform the were complemented by national Vignettes of each of these cases emerging findings from the African overviews in each of the countries. are provided in this report, drawing countries. The first of these related to Accounts of the findings from the on documentary sources and key institutional partnerships: it assessed second phase, particularly data informant interviews, to identify the the potential of UK–Africa university collection with students, have been key aims, activities and outcomes of links for enhancing employability provided in previous publications. 12 the initiatives. These cases captured and identified some principles for This report therefore provides an diverse forms of intervention related effective partnership working from overview of the findings across the to employability: most common the experience of UK and African three years of the project, with were business incubators and policymakers and universities with particular emphasis on the third phase. entrepreneurship courses, but a variety of partnership links. 13 The First, it reports on the findings from a examples of leadership development, second piece of research was a survey of employers in each of the four careers advice, teaching and learning systematic review of research studies countries. In each case, a selection reform, other skills development on employability interventions globally, of employers in the public and private programmes and industry links were in order to map the available evidence sectors were surveyed, representing also identified. and identify impactful practices in a range of different fields (including different contexts. The last area of new data that this manufacturing, leisure and tourism, report presents are the follow-up A further two pieces of research were financial services, education, interviews with the 12 students at each carried out to complement the main civil service, non-governmental institution, who had been interviewed study. An early finding of the project organisations [NGOs] and agriculture). first when they were about to graduate. was that concerns about graduate Due to difficulties of access, it was The follow-up interview one year after attributes were strongly linked to not possible in all cases to obtain graduation aimed to identify any poor quality learning and teaching representation from all these areas changes in their perceptions that had environments in universities. As a (for example, in some contexts it was taken place during the process of result, it was considered essential to not possible to interview many public making choices on careers, looking carry out some dedicated research on sector representatives). In some cases, for jobs and, in some cases, taking up teaching quality, focusing particularly employer organisations were also full-time employment. In the in-depth on support mechanisms for lecturers to included in the sample. Face-to-face interviews, the graduates were asked develop their practice, outlined in the or telephone interviews, or in some to reflect on their experiences since Enhancing Teaching report. 14 cases written questionnaires, were leaving university, what they felt they conducted to gauge employers’ views

12. Ananga, E (2015) University Education, Employability and Skills Gap in Ghana: Perspectives of Students. Research brief, British Council; Oanda, I, Sifuna, D and Ongwenyi, Z (2015) Expansion of University Education and the Challenges of Quality and Graduate Employability in Kenya. Research brief, British Council; Adedeji, S and Oyebade, S (2015) Graduate Employability in Nigeria: Thoughts, Travails and Tactics. Research brief, British Council; Walker, M (2015) Student Perceptions of Employability and Inclusive Development: South Africa. Research brief, British Council. Available online at: https://www. britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/2.5_student-perceptions-of-employability-inclusivity.pdf; McCowan, T (2015a) Students in the Driving Seat. British Council. Available online at: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/2.5_students-in-the-driving-seat_report_overview.pdf 13. Smail, A (2015) Bridging the Gap: Enabling Effective UK–Africa University Partnerships. British Council. Available online at: https://www.britishcouncil.org/ sites/default/files/2.5_bridging-the-gap.pdf; Schowengerdt, B (2016) Building Effective UK-Africa University Partnerships: Perspectives from Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa. British Council. 14. Brewis, E and McCowan, T (2016) Enhancing teaching in African higher education. British Council.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 9 The focus of the project was on multifaceted one, involving not through the last century, national universities’ contribution, rather just immediate questions but also development has often delivered than labour market dynamics. underlying ones of a fundamentally benefits to a small proportion of However, employability cannot be economic and political nature. the population, while the majority fully understood without evidence This project will focus specifically struggle to lift themselves out of on the labour market destinations of on the educational dimension: the poverty. Higher education systems graduates, and any such analysis has development of employability attributes have often been too small and been severely restricted by the dearth in preparation for work. Employability restrictive of access to allow entry of graduate tracer studies in the four can relate to entrepreneurship to students from disadvantaged countries under study. It was, therefore, and the creation of new economic backgrounds. Linking the project considered important to assess the opportunities, as well as acquiring to the goal of inclusive development possibility of developing effective salaried employment. It is recognised involves a commitment to developing alumni tracer studies. To this end, a that, while universities play an forms of higher education that pilot graduate destinations survey was important role, the employability of contribute to the formation of a conducted in 2015 in Kenya, focusing individuals depends on the quality fair and prosperous society. on three universities. As outlined in a of their primary and secondary level Inclusive development of society separate report, the experience of education and other learning in non- involves three elements. First, it running the pilot study was used to formal contexts. implies a fair distribution of the draw out recommendations for a full The kinds of attributes seen to be benefits of development (economic national graduate destinations survey important in employability vary and otherwise) across the population, in Kenya, and potentially in the other between contexts and between and allows equitable access to valued project countries. stakeholders, for example, from a opportunities. Second, while upholding narrow conception of work-specific equality of all before the law and Key concepts and definitions knowledge and skills to a broader in terms of social welfare, it also A number of the central concepts conception of graduate identity. 16 recognises and values social diversity. in this research are ambiguous In this project, employability was Third, it engages individuals and or contested and require some understood in a broad sense, as communities in the task of deciding definition of their use, most including job-specific skills, generic the shape that society will take, importantly employability, inclusive work skills, personal qualities (such through the democratic participation development and the university. as reliability and time management), of all segments of society. knowledge and understanding of Higher education can foster all three society, and moral values. The latter Employability of these through enabling equitable are important: according to the vision The basic concept of employability access to degree programmes, offering underpinning this project, universities refers to the ability of an individual a space for deliberation on and critical should form graduates who are not to gain and maintain employment. It scrutiny of society, producing research only employable workers, but are involves a range of attributes, involving for the public benefit, and forming also ethical members of society who knowledge and skills, but also values highly skilled and ethical professionals can contribute to the broader good and social networks. Employability, through high quality teaching and through the exercise of citizenship. however, is not identical to employment. appropriate curricula. Whether a graduate will actually be Inclusive development employed is dependent partly on their The university employability, but also on a range of The ultimate goal of forming As stated above, the research project other factors, most importantly the employable graduates is to contribute focused on the contribution of availability of jobs. 15 The challenge of to the positive development of society. universities to employability, while graduate unemployment is therefore a However, as seen in numerous cases

15. McCowan, T (2015b) Should universities promote employability? Theory and Research in Education. 13/3: 267–285; McGrath, S (2009) What is Employability? (Learning to support employability project paper 1). School of Education, University of Nottingham. Available online at: www.nottingham.ac.uk/shared/shared_uccer/epa_docs/what_is_employability.pdf 16. Hinchliffe, G and Jolly, A (2011) Graduate identity and employability. British Educational Research Journal 37/4: 563–584. Holmes, L (2001) Reconsidering graduate employability: The ‘graduate identity’ approach. Quality in Higher Education 7/ 2: 111–119.

10 Universities, employability and inclusive development acknowledging the range of other A second element of the capabilities The capability approach has some influences on graduates’ knowledge, and human development paradigm is obvious applications to the idea of skills and values. The ‘university’ is that it looks beyond purely economic employability. While employment rates defined in varying ways in different gauges of well-being, to acknowledge and salary levels are important, we contexts, but normally refers to an the broad range of sources of value in must look beyond these to understand institution of higher learning involved individuals’ lives. The development of the capabilities that graduates have in the three functions of teaching, a society, therefore, cannot be reduced to pursue their visions for their lives. research and community engagement. to its GDP, but involves a range of non- A graduate who is building a grassroots Universities are often distinguished economic dimensions, as captured organisation in a township in from other post-secondary institutions, in the Human Development Index. Johannesburg, or developing a such as polytechnics, teacher An underpinning principle of this start-up technology company in education colleges and vocational approach is that the good life will be Nairobi, may appear a ‘failure’ in terms training centres. This project focused different for different people and of employment outcomes, at least in primarily on institutions of ‘university’ societies, depending on their values the short term, but could be making status. Although it retained awareness and goals, and thus what is considered a significant contribution to society. of the full diversity of the tertiary ‘development’ will also vary. The kinds Furthermore, we need to think in education sector, it did not focus on of support or interventions that a multidimensional way about youth and adult education and training individuals need will also be different, employability attributes. Employability outside higher education. given the particular circumstances in requires technical skills, job specific which they find themselves. and generic cognitive attributes, but also a range of other qualities including Theoretical framing: the Furthermore, there is a counterfactual communication, empathy, intercultural capabilities approach element to capabilities. It matters not awareness and so forth. As in the only what we do, but also what we have In understanding employability, and bicycle example above, the capabilities the capacity to do but decide not to. the life chances for graduates more approach also alerts our attention to So for example, if people devote their broadly, this study draws on the idea the internal and external dimensions lives to raising a family, or looking after of ‘capabilities’ proposed initially of employment, involving not only the an ailing relative, it matters whether by the Indian economist and attributes of graduates, but also the 17 they had a range of options open to philosopher Amartya Sen and resources available to them and the 18 them – including well-paid rewarding developed by Martha Nussbaum. social norms and availability of jobs employment – or whether they were In Sen’s conception, well-being is in a society. Such a perspective confined to those destinies. Capabilities, not just a question of the quantity of guards against a reductive ‘skills gap’ therefore, represents an important resources at people’s disposal, but of diagnosis of the problems of graduate departure from human capital theory. their freedom to realise the things they unemployment. have reason to value. In order to have In simple terms, it looks beyond the this freedom to pursue their vision of purely economic to acknowledge There is also an egalitarian dimension life (and exercise agency), people need broader dimensions of human life, to capabilities. In this perspective, both internal capacities and favourable including the intrinsic value of everybody’s capabilities matter equally, external circumstances. Sen uses the education, health, democracy and so and we therefore have to pay particular example of a bicycle to explain this forth. It also opens our perspective to attention to ensuring that those from point. In order to ride a bicycle, we the idea that some people may not disadvantaged backgrounds have the need not only the physical bicycle necessarily seek to maximise their support they need to pursue their life itself, but also to have learned how incomes, but may make choices in their goals on an equal footing with others in to ride it, and to live in a society in life courses that have a great deal of society. As has been seen in the four which it is possible to do so (i.e. there value to them but are ‘irrational’ from countries in this study – as well as in are no social norms forbidding bicycle a strictly economic perspective. high-income countries such as the USA riding, there are cycle lanes etc.). and UK – socio-economic privileges are

17. Sen, A (1992) Inequality Re-examined. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Sen, A (1999) Development as Freedom. New York: Knopf. 18. Nussbaum, M (2000) Women and Human Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 11 compounded by access to elite of their own students, but these are entrepreneurship courses, 21 employers’ institutions, as well as greater time only occasionally disseminated in views, 22 work placements, 23 and resources for enrichment activities the public sphere. There is little unemployment 24 and graduate skills. 25 outside the formal curriculum, leading research evidence relating to graduate However, there are significant gaps to enhanced CVs, and greater ability destinations, the attributes of graduate in the research, and an insufficient to compete in the labour market. recruits, or interventions in universities knowledge basis to form coherent policy. Significant interventions are needed to to improve employability and their In 2015–16, the research team for ensure that those from disadvantaged effectiveness. this project undertook a systematic backgrounds can not only enter some However, it is important to highlight review of research on employability form of salaried employment, but also that there are some significant interventions undertaken by pursue the forms of work they find differences between South Africa and universities. The review identified rewarding. the other three countries in this regard. studies from around the world These ideas from the capabilities The academic field of educational showing evidence of student outcomes and human development paradigm research is highly developed in South resulting from targeted interventions will underpin the discussions of Africa, and there are a significant in universities, including attributes employability and development in number of publications relating to such as critical thinking, problem the chapters that follow. higher education policy and practice. solving, cross-cultural communication, While there are still some gaps, there is negotiating skills, self-confidence Existing literature on a much richer array of research studies and job application writing skills. graduate employability on employability in higher education Some 600 studies in English were than in other African countries. In identified in the period 2005–15, the in Africa addition, there are some in-depth vast majority of which had been carried African newspapers are replete with studies of graduate destinations, out in the USA, UK and Australia. While stories of the hardships graduates most notably that of the Cape Higher generating some illuminating findings face in finding employment, and Education Consortium (CHEC), which on interventions in those countries, employer dissatisfaction with the in 2012 surveyed alumni of the four the review revealed the critical lack graduates seeking employment, universities in the Western Cape to of research of this type on the African especially their poor preparedness for determine graduate destinations as continent. Only 12 studies from Africa the workplace: a frequent descriptor well as the linkages between those were identified, of which seven were is that they are ‘half-baked’. 19 These outcomes and characteristics of the from South Africa, two from Ghana, one narratives are repeated so frequently graduates’ university experience. 20 from Morocco, one from Uganda and that the problems of employability South Africa also has more extensive one from Botswana. have become common knowledge and reliable statistical information at While caution is needed in directly in society. It was surprising then to both national and institutional levels. extrapolating from the studies to discover that there is very little in the In Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria, the overall different cultural contexts, the global way of research or even reliable basic body of literature on higher education review identified some important information on the topic. Countries is of a fair size, but only a small part of findings that have implications for rarely have national level statistics on this provides rigorous evidence relating African countries. The findings revealed the proportion of graduates who are to employability. As will be explored positive results from a range of unemployed, or on the types of job further in the following chapter, some different interventions, including that those in employment have. Some studies have been carried out on service learning, work placements, individual universities run tracer studies

19. Nganga, G (2014) Survey finds most East African graduates ‘half-baked’. University World News, 23 May. Available online at: www.universityworldnews. com/article.php?story=20140523130246934 20. Cape Higher Education Consortium (CHEC) (2013) Pathways from University to Work. Cape Town, South Africa: CHEC. 21. For example, Ekpoh, UI and Edet, AO (2011) Entrepreneurship Education and Career Intentions of Tertiary Education Students in Akwa Ibom and Cross River States, Nigeria, Journal of International Education Studies, 4/1. 22. For example, Inter-University Council for East Africa, IUCEA (2014) Regional higher education qualifications gaps. Vol II. 23. For example, Ayarkwa J, Adinyira E and Osei-Asibey, D (2012) Industrial training of construction students: Perceptions of training organizations in Ghana. Education and Training 54/2–3: 234–249. 24. Baah-Boateng, W (2013) Determinants of Unemployment in Ghana, African Development Review 21/4: 385–399. 25. For example, Pitan, OS and Adedeji, SO (2012) Skills Mismatch among University Graduates in the Nigerian Labour Market Journal of US-China Education Review 2: 90–98.

12 Universities, employability and inclusive development pedagogical innovations such as This final report summarises findings universities, the employer survey and problem-based learning and careers from the whole of the project, leading innovative cases – and an assessment support. These suggest promising on to a vision statement of ways of the implications of the findings for areas for initiatives, as well as the forward. It presents a holistic policy and practice. The country- urgent need for research in this area perspective on the issue, juxtaposing specific chapters are followed by a in the African context. the views of all the major stakeholders comparative analysis, focusing on – government, employers, university ‘enabling conditions’, the pieces in Aim and structure of management, lecturers and students – the puzzle that are necessary to ensure the report so as to understand the tensions, a vibrant learning environment, so synergies and possibilities for change. that all students can develop the This report is the last in a series of In particular, the report highlights attributes necessary for pursuing their three summarising the findings from a range of innovations that already goals in life and making a meaningful the research project as a whole. exist, including schemes for supporting contribution to their societies. It is The first, Can higher education solve disadvantaged students, incubation argued that universities should keep Africa’s job crisis?, posed the overall hubs, dynamic careers services, a balanced perspective on learning problematique of the research in terms community placements and across the ‘3Cs’ – classroom, of the challenge of employability and entrepreneurship education. While campus and community – ensuring inclusive development. It identified the these innovative initiatives cannot be opportunities for student development gaps in evidence and put forward a transplanted in an identical form to within degree courses, through theoretical framework and proposal different contexts, they do provide extra-curricular activities and work for a research agenda. The second, inspiring examples and ideas that can placements, and by volunteering Students in the driving seat, outlined the be generative in devising approaches outside the university. In the final findings from the major phase of data to enhancing practice elsewhere. chapter, recommendations are drawn collection in selected universities in the out for the four countries and the There follows a chapter on each of four countries, focusing particularly region as a whole, to guide the the four focus countries: South Africa, on the views of final year students. evolution of higher education systems Kenya, Ghana and Nigeria. For each, The report argued that student voice is that will contribute to the inclusive the analysis includes a discussion of a significant missing link in approaches development of societies. to quality enhancement and addressing the higher education context and major employability in Africa, and that policies in the sector, an outline of the empowering students can be a first findings from the research – the main step in a virtuous cycle of change. data collection in the case study

Universities, employability and inclusive development 13 Overall, while a university cannot do everything to get jobs for its students, it can do a great deal in terms of teaching and learning, developing an ethos and values, actively encouraging and promoting extra-curricular participation, and filling in social capital ‘gaps’ to enhance the employability of individual students.

14 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 2 – Universities and employability in South Africa: equity in opportunities and outcomes

Melanie Walker and Samuel Fongwa

careers services and extra-curricular reported on here included a desk- offerings. The findings are based on based review of literature, which was 1. Background interviews and focus groups with conducted during the first year of the students in their final year of study and project, and an empirical phase in the This study 26 addresses the challenges individual interviews with academic and case study universities, which followed South Africa faces, given the support staff across four universities. during the second and third years. characteristics of the higher education Selected innovative practices in Qualitative data was collected from system, the labour market and the teaching and learning for better final year students and staff across context in which both labour market graduate outcomes are also presented, these universities. A sub-sample of and higher education operate. while findings from follow-up interviews these students was later tracked Findings from the research provide with 24 graduate students who are after graduation to capture their post- new perspectives on the role of higher already in employment are summarised graduation experiences. Quantitative education in employability and inclusive briefly. 3) The third section presents the data was collected through an online development, through the graduates perceptions of employers about the survey of all final year students in universities educate. They also graduates they recruit. These include the four case study universities. In demonstrate that universities can be the readiness of graduates for the addition, a total of 147 interviews spaces either for the reproduction or world of work, the values and attributes were conducted with university leaders, reshaping of unequal social structures. employers look for when they recruit, lecturers and students across the It is important to consider the role and their views on how graduate humanities, sciences and business that enhancing the employability employability can be enhanced. disciplines, as well as teaching and of graduates might play in enabling 4) The final section outlines the learning development staff and careers greater social mobility and for whom, key lessons learned and proposes officers, together with a survey of even under less than ideal labour recommendations. 17.5 per cent of all final year students. market conditions. As discussed in The research involved case studies of this chapter, the link between obtaining 2. The economic, political a degree and both employment four South African universities, which prospects and level of earnings allowed us access to students and and social context staff after ethical approval had been has clear equity and social mobility 2.1 A snapshot of the South implications for achieving more negotiated. The universities have different histories and national rankings: African higher education inclusive access to higher education, (HE) system more inclusive success in completing two are historically advantaged (HAI, degree programmes, and more formerly white) research and teaching Higher education in South Africa inclusive employment outcomes. universities – the University of the falls under the Ministry of Higher Witwatersrand (WITS) and the Education and Training (MHET) and The chapter is divided into four University of the Free State (UFS), the operational Department of Higher main sections. 1) The first section one a historically disadvantaged Education and Training (DHET), led by provides a broad overview of the (HDI, formerly black) institution, the a director-general. Two other relevant socio-economic and political context. University of Venda (Univen), and the higher education organisations are It analyses the complex relationship fourth a comprehensive university (that The Council on Higher Education (CHE), between higher education and the combines more traditional research which advises the MHET on policy and labour market, as South Africa tries and teaching with vocationally oriented quality assurance through its Higher to shift from its apartheid past to a diploma qualifications), Nelson Mandela Education Qualification Committee non-racial democracy. 2) The second Metropolitan University (NMMU). (HEQC); and Universities South Africa section considers how South African Univen also now describes itself as a (UniSA), which is composed of the universities promote graduate comprehensive university. Of the four Vice Chancellors from all 26 public employability, and assesses their universities, Wits is the most highly universities. UniSA has a mandate to commitment to inclusive human ranked nationally and internationally facilitate the development of policy on development, through the core and has the strongest research and HE and to encourage co-operation functions of teaching and learning, graduate student profile. The research between universities and government,

26. The report draws on the following documents produced over three years: literature review, statistical profile of the higher education system, four university case studies, consolidated university case study report, analysis of survey results, employer report, and graduate students report.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 15 industry and other sectors of society. one million (See Table 1 below). Organisation for Economic Cooperation The South African HE system is While there has only been a slight and Development (OECD) countries dominated by the public universities, increase in the headcount numbers of (1.21 per cent), and the rest of the with a very thin and, to date, somewhat white students, the numbers of black world (0.84 per cent), South Africa lags ineffective further education and students have almost doubled, showing behind. Higher education expenditure training sector. The private university the result of efforts to address inherited as a percentage of education sector is highly regulated (unlike in inequalities by widening access. expenditure in Africa was 20 per cent; other parts of Africa) and accounts However, while the overall participation for OECD countries it was 23.4 per for less than ten per cent of all rate in the eligible age group was 19.5 cent, and for the world 19.8 per cent enrolments. University mergers in per cent in 2013, only 16 per cent of in 2006 (closest year). However, in 2005 sought to address apartheid eligible/all black students matriculating 2011, South Africa’s estimated higher race-based university divisions, while from secondary school were enrolled education expenditure as a percentage also increasing efficiency by reducing compared to 57.7 per cent for white of total education expenditure was only the number of institutions from 36 students. 27 about 12 per cent. to 23. There are now 26 universities, Table 1: Public university headcount Funding for HE comes from three main following the creation in 2014–15 enrolment increase by race 28 sources: government subsidies and of Sol Plaatje University in the grants, student fees and third stream Northern Cape, and the University Country 2000 2013 income. DHET funding is estimated of Mpumalanga and Sefako Makgatho African/ 340,670 689,503 to account for 40 per cent of the Health Science University in Pretoria. black university incomes. Other funding The public universities are divided into: sources include tuition fees, 1) traditional research and teaching Coloured 30,472 61,034 accommodation fees, research income, universities, which offer degrees Indian 39,495 53,787 and donor funding. The DHET budget such as BA and BSc, and professional for universities has increased from undergraduate degrees such as White 162,868 171,927 R9,879 billion in 2004–05 to R30,338 BSc Eng, as well as a wide range of Others 4,629 7,447 billion in 2015–16. These amounts postgraduate qualifications (honours include funding for NSFAS, which masters’ and doctoral degrees); Total 578,134 983,698 reached R4,095 billion in 2015–16. 2) universities of technology which enrolments However, from 2004–05 to 2014–15 offer mainly vocational or career- there was a decline in real terms in the focused undergraduate diplomas, Source: Higher Education Data Analyser DHET block grant of -1.35 per cent. 30 and the BTech, which serves as a (HEDA) (2015). Nonetheless, most universities remain capstone qualification for diploma According to the DHET, 29 in 2011 South dependent on incomes from the DHET graduates, plus a limited number of Africa’s national (public) budget for grant and tuition fees. masters’ and doctoral programmes; universities, including funding for the and 3) comprehensive universities, NSFAS was introduced in 1999 to National Student Financial Aid Scheme which offer programmes typical of increase access to HE for previously (NSFAS, see below), as a percentage the traditional universities, as well as disadvantaged groups. Over the last of GDP was 0.75 per cent, which was vocational programmes typical of a ten years, about R12 billion has been slightly lower than for Africa as a whole university of technology. distributed to some 700,000 students; (0.78 per cent). In 2015–16, South overall NSFAS supports 25 per cent of Despite declining state funding, public Africa’s national budget for universities, the student intake. However, despite university composite headcount including NSFAS, is 0.72 per cent of the the significant increase in NSFAS enrolments expanded between 2000 GDP, lower than it was in 2011. The payments to students, the allocated and 2013, from 578,134 to just under DHET notes that, when compared to

27. DHET (2015) Are we making progress with systemic structural transformation of resourcing, access, success, staffing and researching in higher education: What do the data say? Paper prepared for the second national Higher Education Transformation Summit, and Institute of Race Relations (IRR) (2015) Fast Facts, February 2015, Issue 282. 28. Statistics are still collected by race in South Africa to monitor transformation changes. The term ‘black’ refers to African students. 29. DHET, op. cit. 30. DHET, op. cit.

16 Universities, employability and inclusive development funds have not been able to meet laying the foundations of a critical civil minimum time, and only 35 per cent the increasing demand for financial society by fostering a culture of debate, graduate with a three year degree after support. This has been reflected in tolerance and critical engagement. six years of study. 38 This of course the recent #Feesmustfall campaign It was also expected to address the sharply reduces the numbers of and now #AccessmustRise campaigns. human resource needs of the country, graduates seeking employment at Moreover, NSFAS recovered only providing the labour market with the degree level, while also increasing 10.9 per cent of loans from 1999 to high-level skills needed for participation unemployed numbers with lower levels 2014 (although some of the funds are in the global economy. of education, accounting for the high allocated as or converted to bursaries number of youth not in education, The Higher Education Act of 1997 with no repayment required). 31 employment or training (NEET) – these assigned responsibility for quality youth constitute about 46 per cent of As in other countries, the HE system assurance in higher education in South all the unemployed. 39 is linked to the social and political Africa to the CHE, to be discharged landscape. Pre-1994, HE was used through HEQC, with a mandate which as a tool to enforce apartheid ideology includes quality promotion, institutional 2.2 Employability and by creating separate HE systems for audit and programme accreditation. employment dynamics the white and black 32 populations. In 2004, the CHE began the first quality It emerged from our research that, Post-1994, transformation, equity assurance cycle, which lasted until the employability and employment and inclusive participation are the 2011. A key activity in this period was to of graduates hinges on: 1) contextual watchwords of the HE policy landscape, conduct institutional audits of HEIs. At factors; 2) demand for graduates; and although their meanings are by no the end of 2013, it was agreed that the 3) graduate supply factors. Within the means uncontested. Of particular focus of the second quality assurance context, demand and supply interact importance is the 1997 White Paper 3 cycle would be on improving student and affect employability positively on Transformation, 33 which continues to success, both at individual institutions or negatively. The important point to underpin subsequent policy, including and across the higher education sector. note here is that employability and the 2001 National Plan of Higher This focus was operationalised through employment are different concepts, the Education, 34 the university mergers the Quality Enhancement Project former relating more to what happens process of 2005, and the 2013 White (QEP). The use of the term ‘quality in universities, and the latter more to Paper. 35 The 1997 White Paper mapped enhancement’ signals an intention to what happens in the labour market. out a broad transformation agenda follow up the recommendations of Graduates may be very employable underpinned by the core principles of HEQC evaluation to help institutions to and still struggle to find employment equity (of access and the distribution increase levels of quality. 36 One way if labour market conditions are of success along lines of race, gender, to understand quality is by looking at unpropitious; on the other hand under class and geography), and redress of staff–student ratios, which are higher at these conditions more employable past inequalities. Higher education the HDIs compared to the HAIs, varying graduates are more likely either to be was seen as an important vehicle for from 15 to one at Wits to 40 to one at able to establish their own businesses achieving equity in the redistribution of Univen. 37 Another way of assessing or take up the job opportunities that opportunity and achievement among attempts to improve student success are available and hence to be more South African citizens. It was to provide rates is to look at attrition rates: 40 per socially mobile. Who is more employable access to learning and enable the cent of students drop out in their first and why are thus significant questions fulfilment of human potential, as well as year, only 15 per cent finish in the for inclusive social mobility.

31. DHET, op. cit. 32. Black in this context refers to African, Coloured and Indian population groups, as was common in the struggle for democracy pre-1994, although the apartheid state still used white, African, Coloured and Indian classifications and established universities accordingly. 33. DOE (1997) White Paper. Pretoria: DHET. 34. National Development Plan (2011) Vision 2030. Pretoria: National Planning Commission. 35. DHET (Department of Higher Education and Training) (2013) White Paper on Post-School Education and Training. Pretoria: DHET. 36. See www.che.ac.za 37. Republic of South Africa (2010) Education Statistics in South Africa 2009. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. 38. CHE (2013) A proposal for undergraduate curriculum reform in South Africa: The case for a flexible curriculum structure. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education. 39. OECD (2015) Employment: Tackling high youth unemployment. South Africa Policy Brief. Available online at: www.oecd.org/southafrica/south-africa- tackling-youth-unemployment.pdf

Universities, employability and inclusive development 17 2.2.1 Contextual factors industries, generating a demand for Accelerated and Shared Growth South Africa’s economic outlook is new skills suitable for the current Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA) 44 not promising, with stubbornly high knowledge economy. was launched in 2006 to address skilled labour shortages amplified by unemployment of around 36 per cent, Politics and policy issues: Employment the legacy of apartheid spatial patterns and a schooling system which is still in South Africa has been shaped both and to lift barriers to competition in failing to deliver good compulsory by the continuing apartheid legacy certain sectors of the economy. Some education for all, with the Minister of of white economic and educational progress has been made, particularly Basic Education recently describing the privilege and post-apartheid policies a tripling in black graduates from state and state-aided schooling sector aimed at improving equality and equity 200,000 in 1995 to 600,000 in 2011. as consisting of two systems, a ‘high in the workforce. To take three Overall, therefore, the labour market performance system with pockets of examples: 1) The Employment Equity policy climate supports measures to excellence [primarily formerly white Act (1998) applies to all employers ensure more equitable employment schools, often called Model C schools] (including universities) – it prohibits opportunities and outcomes. and a Cinderella system …characterised unfair discrimination in employment by pockets of disaster [primarily black policy and also requires designated 40 2.2.2 Demand factors urban and rural schools]’. Inequality employers (those with over 50 remains a tremendous problem, employees) to put in place affirmative The number of degree holders in the with South Africa’s finance minister action measures for designated labour market grew from 463,000 in 46 admitting that ‘we are leaving the poor groups (women, black people and 1995 to 1.1 million in 2011. In 2001, 41 behind’. In an international survey, people with disabilities) by putting the graduate unemployment rate 47 South Africa was placed 138th of in place employment equity plans reached 18 per cent; however, 149 countries for its ability to turn the and submitting regular reports to the recent studies have shown a significant country’s wealth into well-being for Department of Labour. 2) Broad-based drop in graduate unemployment 42 people. In our survey of students, Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) figures. Thus Van der Berg and van 48 58.1 per cent were concerned about which established a policy framework Broekhuizen argue from their analysis the impact of the economic climate for codes of good practice and of labour force data that only about five on their employment prospects. transformation charters to encourage per cent of university graduates were unemployed between 1995 and 2011, The changing labour market: meaningful black participation in the while unemployment rates are highest Other scholars 43 have reflected on economy, and a racially diversified among those with only post-secondary the shifts in the demand for labour in employee profile in favour of diplomas and certificates (16 per cent). South Africa, observing that overall, the previously disadvantaged social For those without any qualifications, structure of employment has shifted groups. Compliance is assessed unemployment is higher still. There from manual work in manufacturing according to a scorecard of the labour is, therefore, no obvious graduate to jobs in the service sector, which force, as well as top management unemployment challenge at present, require higher levels of knowledge positions. Nonetheless, there is but this may change as more graduates and skills. The demand has shifted evidence to suggest that the economy complete their studies and fewer from low-skill occupations and labour is still largely in the hands of a white 45 opportunities become available in intensive industries towards high-skill minority and this informs some of the the over-large state sector. occupations and capital-intensive trends in graduate employment. 3)

40. Masondo, S (2016) Angie reads the riot act, City Press 24 January 2016, page 1. 41. Zwane, T (2015) Africa rising leaves the poor behind, Mail and Guardian Business, 29 May to 4 June, page 4. 42. The Economist 30 May 2015, 35. 43. Letseka, M, Cossar, M, Breier, M, and Visser, M (2010) Student retention and graduate destination: Higher education and labour market access and success. Cape Town, Human Science Research Council Press. 44. Kraak, A (2010) The collapse of the graduate labour market in South Africa: evidence from recent studies, Research in Post-Compulsory Education 15/1: 81–102. 45. Babarinde, OA (2009) Bridging the economic divide in the Republic of South Africa: A corporate social responsibility perspective. Thunderbird Inernational Business Review 51: 355–368. 46. CDE (2013) Graduate Unemployment in South Africa, a much exaggerated problem, Johannesburg::Centre for Enterprise Development. 47. Labour Force Survey (2000–07). 48. Van der Berg, S, and van Broekhuizen, H (2012) Graduate Unemployment in South Africa: A Much Exaggerated Problem. Stellenbosch University Economic Working Paper, 22/12.

18 Universities, employability and inclusive development Employer expectations: Griesel opportunities may be fewer than 2.2.3 Supply factors 49 and Parker identified four principal in major metropolitan areas like Field of study: Table 2 below provides skills components of employers’ Gauteng, Durban and Cape Town. It a general summary of unemployment expectations in the South African has, however, been observed that, in patterns experienced by South African context: basic skills and understanding, some fields, such as school teaching, graduates by field of study. The high knowledge and intellectual ability, good employment opportunities for employment rate in science, engineering workplace skills and knowledge young graduates can be found in rural and technology (SET) related fields application, and personal or interactive areas, as most qualified teachers and (most strikingly in medicine) can be skills. They note that there is less other professionals want to work in attributed to restrictions on the numbers 52 of a gap between universities and urban areas. entering the degree programmes, employers than some assume and Field of study and race: Looking despite continuing scarcity of skills in suggest that it is possible to build at mobility between labour market these fields. dialogical bridges between universities sectors by fields of study and racial and employers. In contrast, in a study Table 2: Unemployment by groups, Moleke 53 observes that, while of 2,841 graduates from NMMU field of study white graduates have increasingly between 2005 and 2008, employers obtained employment in the private Percentage of from most sectors expressed concern rather than the public sector, black graduates that graduates seemed to know a lot of graduates have increasingly obtained experiencing theory but frequently not how to apply Field of study unemployment posts in the public sector, as post-1994 it practically. 50 Moreover, in a study employment opportunities have Natural science 5.1 by the South African Qualification opened up in government. Within both Authority (SAQA) and Higher Education Engineering 1.0 racial groups, in the decade after the South Africa it was found that, ‘there end of apartheid, there was a shift Agriculture 1.0 was a huge gap between what towards self-employment, although employers expected and what they Medical 1.5 this was greater for white graduates got after hiring a graduate straight science (3.6 per cent to 12 per cent), than from tertiary studies’. 51 Thus there for black graduates (0.35 per cent Humanities 53.3 is a possible mismatch between what to 2.4 per cent), possibly because and arts graduates bring and what employers there are now fewer opportunities in want, but in the absence of more Education 17.9 government. There was a decrease research and better university data in the number of Indians in both the Law 9.7 collection the extent of the gap is public and private sectors, matched by not clear. Economics and 10.3 increase (1.8 per cent to 12.1 per cent) management Provincial/spatial variations: The in the proportion in self-employment. studies spatial distribution of socio-economic The majority of Coloureds still obtained Total 100 opportunities in South Africa affects employment in the public sector graduate employability; the mobility of (56.6 per cent to 57 per cent), but Source: Moleke (2006). graduates and where they study then there was a small shift towards self- becomes significant. In economically employment (1.2 per cent to 3.7 per less well-off largely rural regions like cent), and a small decrease in private the Free State and some parts of sector participation (42.2 per cent to Eastern Cape and Limpopo, graduate 39.1 per cent).

49. Griesel, H and Parker, B (2009) Graduate attributes: A baseline study of South African graduates from the perspective of employers. Report for South African Qualification Authority and Higher Education South Africa. 50. Nel, H and Barnard, A (undated) Graduate employability: A case study of Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. NMMU Strategic and Institutional Planning. 51. City Press (2012) Young, jobless and desperate – degrees with no guarantees. Online publication available online at: www.citypress.co.za/news/young- jobless-and-desperate-degrees-with-no-guarantees-20120616/ 52. Van der Berg, S and van Broekhuizen, H (2012) op. cit. 53. Moleke, P (2006) Finding work: Employment Experiences of South African Graduates. Cape Town: HSRC.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 19 In contrast, over half of humanities evidence also shows that graduates (publications), which in turn affects and arts graduates and nearly a fifth from historically disadvantaged/black their funding. The role of the state of education graduates experience institutions (HBIs) take a much longer was reiterated by the current Minister difficulties finding employment. time to be absorbed into the labour of Higher Education and Training, 61 A study in the Western Cape Province market than those from historically who in 2013 maintained that ‘unless confirmed that graduates from the advantaged/white institutions (HWIs), the state is prepared to intervene humanities experience more time who are absorbed within the first few decisively in all spheres of public before securing employment than months following graduation. 58 A study life – the economy, education system, those in any other field, 54 and by Bhorat et al. 59 also revealed research system … and so on – to especially compared to graduates from institutional variations in the ensure that transformation takes place, science-related fields like engineering. unemployment rate of graduates – then it will not [occur]’. The 2013 White In a more recent study than Moleke’s, 55 ranging from 67 per cent for Fort Paper on post-school education and Van der Berg and van Broekhuizen 56 Hare (HDI) graduates, 30 per cent for training pays attention to employment, claim that, while the field of study is University of the Western Cape (HDI/ while still retaining social justice important for employability, graduates Coloured) graduates, 23 per cent for concerns, specified as a requirement with degrees have similar chances of the University of Witwatersrand (HAI) that students should ‘have an employment regardless of their field of graduates to 13 per cent for understanding of their society, and be study. They concede that humanities Stellenbosch (HAI) graduates. A more able to participate fully in its political, graduates are less likely to find work recent study by Rogan and Reynolds 60 social and cultural life. 62 This seems to immediately, but find that they are more comparing graduation prospects for locate the policy framework somewhat likely to do so within six months than students from Rhodes University and beyond human capital needs and the commerce graduates. Overall, those Fort Hare found a seven per cent assumption that more and better with some level of tertiary education unemployment rate among Rhodes education will solve problems of (youth) have close to double the chance of graduates but a 20 per cent rate unemployment. However, the White finding employment than those with among Fort Hare graduates. Paper notes the practical reality of matric only. 57 a stuttering economy and suggests that: ‘few can argue with the need to Institution type and levels: Evidence 2.5 Policies that shape higher improve the performance of the from the South African Graduate education and employment economy, to expand employment and Development Association (SAGDA) 2.5.1 Funding to equip people to achieve sustainable reveals that 9.7 per cent of unemployed livelihoods.’ It explains that the social graduates completed their studies in a The state uses its funding to steer and economic challenges facing South traditional university and 16.2 per cent and/or intervene in governance issues Africa have shifted national priorities in a university of technology. Given at system and institutional levels. in the face of structural challenges the demand for technical skills it is Thus, while universities still have a high associated with unemployment, poverty somewhat difficult to explain why degree of autonomy and academic and inequality, so that economic graduates from universities of freedom, HEIs are required to report development has been prioritised, technology have a higher unemployment to the DHET on an annual basis with together with the role of education rate beyond the possibility that respect to a number of indicators, and training as a contributor to such employers prefer more traditional including student outputs and development. Thus the policy university qualifications. However, the enrolments and research outputs

54. CHEC (2013) Pathways from University to Work. Wynberg: Cape Higher Education Consortium. 55. Moleke, P (2006) Finding work: Employment Experiences of South African Graduates. Cape Town: HSRC. 56. Van der Berg and van Broekhuizen (2012) op. cit. 57. Branson et al., (2009) HE demand for tertiary education in South Africa. SALDRU Report. 58. See CHEC (2013); Letseka et al. (2010); Oluwajodu et al. (2015). 59. Bhorat, H, Visser, M and Mayet, N (2010) ‘Student graduation, labour market destinations and employment earnings’, in Letseka, M, Cosser, M, Brier, M, and Visser, M. Student Retention and Graduate Destination: Higher Education and Labour Market Access. Pretoria Human Sciences Research Council. 60. Rogan, M and Reynolds, J (2015) Schooling inequality, higher education and the labour market: Evidence from a graduate tracer study in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Pretoria: Labour Market Intelligence project. 61. Nzimande, B (2013) Why state intervention is needed in our universities. CEPD, Solomon Mahlangu Lecture of June 10. 62. Republic of South Africa (2013) White Paper for Post-school Education and Training. Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.

20 Universities, employability and inclusive development acknowledges the need for economic South Africa’s future innovation’ (ibid.). 2.6 Challenges growth, but takes social justice to mean According to the NDP, universities ‘education as a way out of poverty’ have three key roles in the knowledge 2.6.1 Equity versus development in order to enable people to access economy (presented in this order of The first challenge is the continued economic opportunities, noting that priority): 1) educate and train people tension in policy between redress and ‘Education will not guarantee economic with high-level skills for employment future development. The 2011 National growth, but without it economic growth in the public and private sectors; Development Plan emphasised the role is not possible and society will not fulfil 2) be the dominant producers of of universities in enhancing knowledge its potential with regard to social and new knowledge and the application production for national development, cultural development.’ 63 Nonetheless, of existing knowledge; 3) provide relegating transformation and redress the wider development (development opportunities for social mobility and to third place on its list of priorities. not just growth) message is not evident simultaneously strengthen equity, social HE has been criticised by various in the White Paper as whole. If we look justice and democracy. While the NDP government departments, other at word counts as a rough indicator of does not provide an implementation public sector stakeholders, business, emphasis we find: quality 207, diversity framework for achieving its stated and chambers of commerce for not 96, equity 14, social justice seven, objectives by 2030, it does, as a high producing the relevant skills needed empowerment zero, agency in the level planning document, provide broad for national development (often, form of ‘social agency’ one, poor indicators (for example a 30 per cent however, without clear evidence). students three, poor five, access 89, HE participation rate) and pointers to With the increased emphasis on transformation 11, throughput rates ten. the expectations of every sector of the science, engineering and technology- But we also have: skills 215, economy/ society and economy. related fields by the Department of development/developmental state Science and Technology (DST) and in 233 (together more mentions than 2.5.3 Labour Market Intelligence the National Development Plan, there anything else), employment 25, Partnership (LMIP) Project is a tension between a narrowed efficiency and efficient nine, so that Launched in 2012, this multimillion instrumental role for higher education economic development, led by the rand project aims to set up systems and the equity discourse still central state, is emphasised. Even setting aside for the collection of reliable data to higher education policy. the assumption of a causal relationship indicating skills needs and supply and between education and skills through demand in the labour market in a 2.6.2 Population group/race education and the achievement of manner that will enable South Africa, inequalities development objectives, there does including government and business, Race still plays a significant role in seem to be a clear policy focus on to plan better for the human resource employment outcomes. Black and preparation for employment and this development needs of the country. 65 coloured graduates have fewer may become more prominent in The Minister has argued that the tools prospects for employment compared universities’ future responses. that have been used to prioritise skills to their white and Indian counterparts. development have been based on a In a recent study, population group 2.5.2 National Development limited understanding of shifts in the emerged as the strongest socio- Plan (NDP) economy and labour market. Through demographic predictor of employment, The NDP emphasises the role of this project, the Minister expects that a with slightly more white and Indian universities in economic development: Labour Market Intelligence System graduates being employed (96 per stating that ‘Higher education is the (LMIS) capable of facilitating a closer cent) than coloureds (91 per cent) and major driver of the information/ alignment of South Africa’s education many more than Africans (77 per cent) knowledge system, linking it with and training system with the economic in 2012. 67 Furthermore, it found that economic development’. 64 It further priorities outlined in the New Growth virtually all white graduates seeking suggests that ‘[G]ood science and Path and National Development Plan employment were absorbed into the technology education is crucial for 2030 will be established. 66 workforce within a year of beginning

63. Ibid. 64. Republic of South Africa (2011) National Development Plan: Vision 2030. Pretoria: National Planning Commission. 65. See www.hsrc.ac.za/en/media-briefs/education-and-skills-development/Minister-launches-Labour-Market-Intelligence-project#sthash.5oVMRGij.dpuf 66. Labour Market Research (2012). 67. CHEC (2013) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 21 searching; with 92 per cent finding 2.6.4 An (un)differentiated field of study, and involvement in extra- employment within six months. 68 In HE system curricular activities (ECA) also influence contrast, only 56 per cent of African A further challenge is the absence graduate outcomes in South Africa, graduates had found employment of a differentiated system. Using the and are in turn shaped by structural within six months. Another recent study CHET differentiation grouping, 72 arrangements such as race, social observes that unemployment rates for HEIs have sought to define themselves class, and the economy. black and white graduates respectively based on their purpose, so that are 8.6 per cent versus 3.0 per cent, each university has a clear mission 3.1 Understanding employability showing that black graduates are three that sets out its unique contribution Staff and students understand graduate times more likely to remain unemployed to knowledge production and national employability primarily in human capital than their white counterparts. 69 development. However, in practice terms – graduates’ ability to gain a However, looking at unemployment rate there are variations on a homogenous decently paid job. In our data, more figures from 2000, which showed white system rather than differentiation, with than 80 per cent of the staff and unemployment at one per cent and continued inherited stratification both students interviewed see employability black at 16 per cent, the 2012 labour between HDIs and HAIs and also as developing the right set of skills and force figures indicate that there has internally where HAIs have merged attributes needed for securing a job been a closing of the unemployment with former HDIs. and being adaptable to the labour gap by race. The racial differentiation market. A student in the economics of employment outcomes for graduates 3 University provision to department at Wits explained: from single institutions is also striking. For example, black graduates from enhance graduate ‘I think it’s when you get an Wits University experienced an employability individual who has certain qualifications that the employer unemployment rate of 29 per cent Empirical data collected for the wants, yes, what the employer wants compared to white graduates with an research project from university staff in their employees. And if the person unemployment rate of seven per cent – and students aimed at gaining an doesn’t have that then they’re not more than four times lower. 70 understanding of how graduate very employable. And it’s basically employability is understood and the being able to adapt to the working 2.6.3 Access to and quality of main factors affecting graduate environment and applying theory teaching and learning outcomes during and after degree into your actual work.’ A major concern is the effect of the programmes. Findings can be divided poor schooling system on the quality into three themes: 1) understandings There was a general alignment and university readiness of the of and factors affecting graduate between the responses and a undergraduate intake. In a cohort study employability; 2) perceptions of the human capital conceptualisation of from 2005 to 2010, student attrition most important graduate attributes employability as having the knowledge rates were observed to reach 46 per and how universities are enhancing and skills ‘needed by employers’. cent for contact students and up to the development of these attributes; Respondents placed less emphasis 68 per cent for distance students. 71 and 3) students’ perceptions of their on a broader view of employability. This challenge affects most sectors readiness for the world of work and Of relevance is the perception, of the higher education system and society. Overall, we found that, while especially by historically disadvantaged ultimately affects the quality and the quality of degrees remains groups in South Africa, that education number of graduates entering the important, other aspects, such as and higher education will open the job market. social capital, reputation of a university, door to economic opportunities.

68. Letseka, M, Cossar, M, Breier, M, and Visser, M (2010) Student retention and graduate destination: Higher education and labour market access and success. Cape Town, Human Science Research Council Press. 69. Van der Berg and van Broekhuizen (2012) op. cit. 70. Bhorat et al. (2010) op. cit. 71. John, V (2013) Dropout rates point to lack of support. Mail and Guardian Online, 17 May. Available online at: http://za.news.yahoo.com/dropout-rate- points-lack-support-084600715.html 72. The grouping classifies HEIs into three broad groups using particular input and output variables. The ‘red group’, which consist of white HAIs, produces the bulk of research outputs and academics for the next generation, while the ‘blue group’ (all Universities of Technology and two comprehensive universities) provides access and skills for better job prospects, while the ‘green group’ (the remaining nine universities) has yet to clearly define its roles (CHET, 2010).

22 Universities, employability and inclusive development Our analysis, however, generates characteristics and trends and public a more complex interpretation policies). This challenges the view of employability than that of our that individual attributes, skills and respondents, with three overlapping competencies alone determine success factors (see Table 3 below) shaping or failure in graduate employment economic opportunities: personal outcomes, or research that blames background, institutional provision either graduates or universities for (what the university provides or offers), an apparent skills ‘gap’. and external factors (labour market

Table 3: Graduate employability in multiple dimensions

External (social/economic/ University factors Personal factors political) factors Field of study Socio-economic background Structure of the economy and labour (type of school), race, gender, market; ‘scarce skills’ discourse/field income (NSFAS loan) of study; equity employment policies Quality of degree – knowledge and Confidence, ‘attitude’ and personal skills, theory-practice alignment, ethos ‘motivation’ (to work hard; to take of hard work fostered; educational advantage of university opportunities experiences that foster confidence e.g. ECA; to find part-time jobs with or without social capital networks, etc.). Reputation of university Genuine opportunity to choose Employer perceptions of university university and/or degree programme reputation and quality of graduates Links to industry and employers (and Social capital and networks Location of university, internships concern with graduate employment and work experience post-university); work experience opportunities available University values, leadership Personal values oriented to the public Extent to which inclusive development opportunities, diversity fostered, good; diversity valued is valued and practised inclusive citizenship encouraged Extra-curricular activities (ECA) Proactive involvement in ECA, Participation in university ‘careers fairs’ and effective careers office accessing careers service

3.2 Knowledge and critical attributes needed to gain employment and specific subjects in particular, such thinking as the most important and be successful in the workplace. as accounting or engineering, is graduate attributes Knowledge is understood as both considered more important than skills knowledge of one’s subject and being such as communication, collaboration, Analysis of the qualitative and able to apply this knowledge in the and even social citizenship. Though quantitative data obtained from staff work place. Broader knowledge of the need for softer skills has been and students provides evidence of society and values is not included, we proposed in the literature, 74 the their perception that knowledge and found, as an attribute that will improve combined evidence from the staff and critical thinking (the core skills employment prospects, outside student data reveals an emphasis on demanded by employers, according to of specific disciplines such as hard (knowledge, technical) skills from 73 Griesel and Parker, and see Chapter 4) sociology. Knowledge of the subject, a university perspective. are the two most important graduate

73. Griesel and Parker (2009) op. cit. 74. See Fallows and Stevens (2000) Pittenger et al. (2004).

Universities, employability and inclusive development 23 3.3 Factors affecting graduate Figure 2: Selected factors affecting access and success across the four universities employability 120 The significant factors affecting 100 graduate employability emerged as: 100 1) student background; 2) linked to 89 this, students’ social capital and work 82 aspirations; 3) university attended; and 80 77 75 75 4) field of study. Gender did not feature 68 67 62 as a strong influence on graduate 58 60 55 54 53 employability in our data. 51 50 44

The data indicates that a student’s response Percent 39 40 35 background is considered to 32 31 27 significantly determine their 23 24 24 employability. Firstly, it is said to 20 largely determine if students will be 8 10 able to go to their university of choice 0 0 0 and study a programme of their choice, or if they will be forced to go to another university and even study a programme First universitychoice Percentage Forced here by they would not otherwise have chosen, white students private school From township or Funds from NSFAs, other constraints Adequatesupport academic provided simply in order to go to university rural (black) school From former Module C/ and gain a degree to improve their job prospects. 75 Most students from scholarships and other loans poor working class homes, especially NMMU UFS UNIVEN WITS at the only historically disadvantaged university in the study (Univen), There is evidence of a correlation a recipient has to study. In contrast, reported that they could not have between studying in the historically most (but certainly not all) students in afforded to attend the more reputable disadvantaged university and other the HAIs are relatively well prepared, universities, even if they were qualified. variables (recognition of a university coming from good schools and having Thus a lecturer from Univen reflected: by employers, type of secondary been able to choose their university ‘Most of the students, when they or high school attended), which (one perceived as favourably came to the University of Venda, it together makes students feel less recognised by employers, see section wasn’t even their first choice, some employable and which students 4) and field of study, thereby, in their of them landed up in certain degrees think may negatively affect their view, enhancing their employability. not because those were the degrees employment outcomes. However, graduates from Univen show a stronger sense of social responsibility that they wanted, but [because] From Figure 2 above, it can be and willingness ‘to give back’ to their that is what was available… So you observed that students studying in disadvantaged communities and end up being forced to go [in]to Univen have experienced inequality families, an issue we revisit later. agriculture, and yet agriculture in access. Due to a combination of was never your first choice. Under their previous schooling and limited This further links to the future those circumstances, the whole resources, few reported that they had opportunities which graduates expect motivational aspect is just a zero.’ been able to attend their preferred to be able to mobilise based on their university (mostly the well-recognised own social capital (contacts through Social class background (which is in universities). Instead, they noted that university peers, friends and family). turn linked to social capital and study they have to depend on government In our data, most students from middle opportunities) thus emerged as a support through NSFAS (an indicator of class backgrounds consider that they key background factor affecting low income) or other bursary providers, are well positioned to make use of graduate employment prospects. which name the degree programme internship opportunities which arise

75. See CDE (2013) Graduate Unemployment in South Africa, a much exaggerated problem, Johannesburg: Centre for Enterprise Development.

24 Universities, employability and inclusive development because of their social capital. of those who attended other types standing in determining employment These provide students with practical of schools prefer to seek work in the opportunities for graduates, as well experience, improving their work private sector. This is not surprising, as the effect of its location (urban or readiness, and contributing to them in that between 2008 and 2012 the rural). There is a general consensus later being employed in the same private sector shed jobs while the that graduates from what are perceived business, or being better placed to number of jobs in the public sector to be the most reputable universities get a job elsewhere. On the implications grew. 76 However, there are signs that (in our study, Wits) have better of social capital, a Wits BA Law/ public sector employment is no longer opportunities, while those from the less Philosophy student explained: ‘If you growing and this may generate an reputable universities will struggle (in are from a poorer background and external driver for greater attention to our study, Univen). As a microbiology probably black or previously be paid to employability in universities. 77 student from Univen commented: ‘I disadvantaged, then the likelihood The research project data (from 2014) don’t think there’s an advantage of of you having strong contacts is shows that there is still a correlation being a graduate of Univen. Unlike unlikely. If you are from a wealthier between the type of school attended most universities, the name itself, white or advantaged background then (less or more advantaged) and despite your grades, will speak on it’s ten times easier. Just from the students’ aspirations, because the your behalf to people who are going people I graduated from high school public sector is seen as providing to employ you. If I did my degree at with, you can just tell that certain more secure employment. There is Wits, obviously you are going to have people are set from the get go. some interest in self-employment, with a better advantage than a person Irrespective of what they are studying 11.4 per cent of black students and who has done a degree here. It has they can always land on their feet. So 29 per cent of whites planning to be a negative effect because it seems you may be lucky and have a contact self-employed, but more students we are well known for being under- or two in a very influential position, from University of the Witwatersrand qualified for most of what we do.’ it’s not impossible, it does happen, (19 per cent) and NMMU (25 per cent) A UFS lecturer commented that a but the likelihood isn’t strong [if you and fewer from University of Venda student who graduates from the are from a disadvantaged background].’ (six per cent) would opt for this choice, University of Cape Town (UCT) or Another student, this time from suggesting a possible correlation from the University of Pretoria ‘would NMMU, explained that in his practical between advantage and being in a probably be looked at more favourably year, his parents knew the owner of position to take greater employment than from here, and certainly than from the company for which he worked, risks (although as noted above, this Limpopo’, while a Wits engineering and his brother had been at school may change). However, more data is student said that because Wits is with the man’s son. This construction needed on aspirations, how they are internationally known, ‘It gives us the management student continued: ‘I went formed and how university experiences confidence that if we ever want to and spoke to him, and he obviously might influence aspirations for future work in South Africa or elsewhere, that remembered me from a kid, and he career choices. To this end, it would the reputation is there’. Moreover, we took me on board. If I was a random be helpful if all universities put found much evidence from interviews person, I don’t think he would have graduate tracking mechanisms with staff in particular that links to just said, yes, come work for me.’ in place and conduct regular employers are stronger and easier to employer satisfaction surveys. pursue for urban universities than those Also linked to background are work in rural areas, and such links in turn aspirations. The data shows that the Linked to social capital and its role in multiply work experience opportunities majority of students from the former reinforcing or diminishing opportunities, for students and graduates. coloured schools (66 per cent), staff and students across all four township schools (47 per cent) and universities considered the important rural schools (48 per cent) want to role played by the reputation of work in the public sector. The majority the university and its international

76. Duncan, F (2013) Employment trends: a hard look at the numbers. Available online at: www.moneyweb.co.za/archive/employment-trends-a-hard-look-at- the-numbers/ 77. Statistics South Africa (2014).

Universities, employability and inclusive development 25 The field of study also emerged best. What I have noticed is that most Another told us: as a key factor in student and of the students that we train here, they ‘I lead a Christian organisation staff understanding of graduate go on to do their master’s, Honours and so I know how to communicate employability. Both staff and students PhDs in big universities like Cape Town, with people, how to treat people perceive better employment prospects for instance. If the University of Venda as a leader.’ for graduates in SET-related fields. The can lift a student from that [original] (Univen student) perception that humanities degrees level to the level of competing with (which include social science in South those who were considered to be the Africa) make one less employable was cream, for me, that’s a big positive.’ And a third, who led a student society, strong, however intrinsically valuable All the case study universities offer shared his experiences: the knowledge gained may be. Thus a range of ECAs, as well as support ‘Because I was president of the a UFS sociology lecturer expressed from a careers service, to enhance her concerns: ‘I’m getting more and Society it allowed me the opportunity graduate employability; both emerge to make so many contacts with the more worried that it might be that as important. As one UFS student most graduates will not be employed, working world. I was chatting to affairs officer remarked: ‘Everything people that are head of departments especially in the humanities and social in student life is about employability. sciences’, while a Wits Sociology/Law in some of the big five companies. So student life consists of sporting I was on speaking terms with the student remarked: ‘I call this degree my experiences, the arts and culture, useless but powerful degree. I love head of a big company here in Port leadership opportunities and Elizabeth. It does give you a lot of sociology, I’ve learned a lot of skills, I’ve development, volunteer training, learned how to use my brain, in politics contacts and it also allows you the community service projects. I would opportunity to organise events … how to argue my case, but I just feel say the most significant things to that in terms of BA, to be quite honest, so there was quite a lot of event do would be to participate in planning and coordination and you get paid R5,000 to R6,000 when associations: societies, clubs.’ you leave here; personally I wonder working with different people, ECA includes participation in student how I would feed my kids with that which is to me, all about learning.’ representative councils, volunteering, salary. I find my degree useless [for (NMMU student) sports, student subject associations, employment] but powerful in the arts and culture, religious societies, knowledge that it has [imparted].’ and so on. While the opportunities Nonetheless, not all of the students 3.4 Enhancing graduate to do so were more extensive at the participate, or realise the importance urban campuses, they do exist at all employability of participating, in ECA for their career four universities. Where students get and personal development; nor Across the four universities, in addition involved in ECA activities, they believe indeed, according to our data, do the to regular degree programmes, there that they gain immensely. For example, universities understand the importance is evidence of various initiatives to 71 per cent of the students in our of getting students from disadvantaged enhance graduate experiences and survey believe that volunteering backgrounds involved in career- increase their employability. Some will increase their employability. building ECA even where student academics and departments, conscious In the in-depth interviews also, they mobility and money are constraints. of the needs of their students, try to ‘add commented on the value of ECA, Students from less advantaged value’ to students from disadvantaged for example: universities may need more support backgrounds. This is well put by a ‘In my first year I joined an to make more of whatever personal lecturer at Univen: ‘We lecturers are organisation on campus … the capital they have through taking aware that we are teaching students association required me to go and up valuable and enriching ECA who otherwise would have been kicked speak to big business… I think that opportunities, yet we found that they out of the system and not given a was where I got the practical seem least aware of how to do this chance. The majority of us don’t experiences of being able to and of why it is important for their lecture, we teach, and when you do articulate myself in a professional futures, and also have the least that the students seem to grow, and manner.’ means to enable them to participate. they grasp the skills easily. Once they grasp them, they can compete with the (UFS student)

26 Universities, employability and inclusive development Careers services at the four universities now we are all depending on our ‘Our practical component is very include: career guidance officers with individual strengths, because if we important for us, that the student the task of linking students to potential get to the workplace tomorrow we gets practical experience. In our employers, providing opportunities won’t know what to do.’ third year, we’ve got two years within for internships or work placements, the classroom, the third year the as well as training final year students 3.5 Being able to apply theory/ student has to work for eight months, in job seeking skills such as CV writing, subject knowledge to practice [a] minimum [of] eight months on a interviewing and work etiquette. Typically, in the workplace farm, and so that just adds onto a the NMMU office explained how: ‘We While there is evidence that students student’s employability.’ have been putting the vast majority of from the better regarded universities, (School of Environmental Science, our first year students through this as well as those in the SET disciplines, Agriculture department, NMMU) programme….like CV development, are more optimistic about their presentation skills, time management, employment prospects, there is financial management. [These] now get general agreement across students However, resourcing practical captured onto the co-curricular activity and staff that they experience a experience is a challenge in some record, so in addition to the students’ significant lack of practical exposure universities, where academic staff academic record, they now also have and application of theory during their struggle with limited infrastructure an NMMU co-curricular activity record.’ degree programmes, even though even for university-based practicals: However, overall, we found a low students feel that the theory part of ‘Well, they’re trying to address it, level of participation in the available their curriculum is good. Academic because the main problem, we don’t activities aimed at supporting and staff, especially in the traditional have infrastructure, we don’t have enhancing the employment of universities, agree that the practical buildings, and the university is a graduates after graduation. In most of component is thin, because academics bit slow in response, but they are the universities, most of the students in inevitably focus more on theory. coming up now with equipment their third year (in one university up to Nevertheless, while universities are not for practicals, but we don’t have 90 per cent) did not know about the narrowly conceived training institutions, anywhere to house them, and then careers office or did not know where most academics believe that more the students are disadvantaged in the office is physically located. Where can be done to provide students with terms of acquiring practical skills – students had heard of and knew about practical learning opportunities as those practical skills they need the work of the support services, some part of the curriculum: when they go out.’ of the programmes clashed with their ‘I think a lot of our courses don’t (Environmental Studies, Univen) academic timetables, while in some actually connect back into the universities (Wits notably) careers practical application of what we support came via departments and do. So they will be very theoretical, With regard to students, while overall their lecturers’ own industry contacts very conceptual. And then we just they valued knowledge as the most (another form of social capital) rather expect the students to naturally important graduate attribute (as noted than from central services. Overall, the understand and apply by themselves earlier), a significant concern is the survey responses showed that less … So we need to probably be doing limited opportunities to integrate and than half of the students think that the more to create that bridge which apply theory at practical level. As student placement office or careers I then think will enhance the students explained, access to work service at their university is supportive employability of our students.’ experience enhances learning and and informative. This percentage, opens more opportunities: coupled with the 36 per cent who (Geography and Environmental Studies academic, Wits) neither agree nor disagree, suggests ‘internships give you the experience that the placement office is not a of what it’s actually like to work primary source of support for students. in that field … a chance to see There is evidence that some what different employers are like, As a Univen student observed, perhaps academics, particularly at NMMU, what different companies have as somewhat unfairly: ‘There is no careers make a conscious effort to integrate a culture.’ guidance. This is a group that should practical dimension as part of the (WITS BA Law/English student) be actually nurtured, but that doesn’t three- or four-year degree programme: happen around here… So, right

Universities, employability and inclusive development 27 ‘Here we get theoretical information graduates struggle less to obtain significant efforts during and after their and you need experience … they employment than black graduates. degree programmes to gain additional are not offering practical learning, Underlying factors may include the skills or competencies, which in their only theory.’ fact that white graduates have stronger view had enhanced their employment (Univen BCom student) social networks and support structures outcomes. These activities had which can facilitate employment in included internships, vacation work, the areas of their choice, and also being active in a student organisation, If work experience is not enabled by they attend better universities. Some volunteering on or off campus and the university in which they are 71 per cent of white graduates were being active in job seeking initiatives. studying, this particularly affects employed at the time of the follow-up This group of 24 graduates were asked students from poorer backgrounds who interview, while only 41 per cent to reflect on their university experience lack the social capital to find vacation of black graduates had secured and how it had contributed (or not) work in order to apply their knowledge employment. to their current employment situation in a work situation and be better placed Furthermore, the findings show that and their perception of the contribution for employment. The theory–practice graduates from the better known they were making to society. With 15 of misalignment thus has unexpected universities, such as Wits, had all gained the 24 graduates (60 per cent) in some equity effects for students who also employment, with two having chosen form of employment, knowledge of lack networks with potential employers, postgraduate study. Of the six students their field of study and critical thinking both public and private; such students followed up from Univen, only two were the two attributes they felt had struggle to obtain work experience if had gained employment, while three contributed to their success in this is not part of the formal curriculum. were unemployed at the time of the obtaining employment. However, this interviews and one had obtained a shifts slightly when looked at by field 3.6. Postgraduation student scholarship and decided to further of study and each university. Graduates interviews her studies. Five of the seven students from Wits emphasised attributes such The research project tracked a sample followed up from UFS were employed. as hard work: they observed that their of 24 students from the four case Only one student from NMMU was departments had demanded rigorous study universities roughly one year unemployed, three were employed, academic work which, although difficult after graduation to understand their and two were pursuing postgraduate at the time, had prepared them for post-university experiences in the studies before entering the job market. working life. Engineering graduates labour market. From these interviews, a These employment outcomes are not who had held bursaries also noted number of findings emerged regarding dissimilar to those revealed by the the practical vacation work, which graduate employability in South Africa. earlier research when analysed by field they were encouraged to undertake 1) Most bachelor (three-year) degree of study. Half of all the graduates who as part of their degree, had provided graduates in South Africa see the need had gained employment were in SET- them with valuable experience and to obtain an honours degree before related fields, while none of those in social contacts, which had assisted going into the job market. While this this small sample with a BA degree who them in securing their current is a prerequisite for some professional had gained employment had secured a employment: fields, in which graduates gain job related directly to their field of study. ‘I think what also helped is [as part accreditation through the board Geographical location also emerged a of the bursary agreement], doing exams they write at the end of the important. Most of those employed vacation work in my third and fourth honours programme, other graduates found jobs in the major economic year. So because of that as well, (as well as employers) consider the regions such as Gauteng, while other it really gave me some exposure honours degree an important transition graduates continue to aspire to migrate to what kind of work I’d be doing, space from theory to application of from less urbanised areas to the big and the whole work environment knowledge. Regarding the employment cities. Another finding from the follow-up in general.’ experience of graduates, a trend interviews is the role of personal agency (Wits engineering graduate) (also noted in the literature) 78 observed in gaining employment. Most of the from this sample of 24 is that white employed graduates had made

78. See Bhorat et al. (2010) op. cit.

28 Universities, employability and inclusive development Wits graduates believe that besides This reflection also applies to most aspirations. About 60 per cent of hard work, the Wits ‘name’ also boosted of the graduates from the other those in postgraduate studies, their ability to secure employment. universities where they reported especially graduates from Univen However, graduates from other that they had learned to engage with and UFS, had resorted to studying universities also showed confidence, diversity at different levels and to break due to the challenges they had which they thought had been down their own prejudices around experienced in securing a job. developed internally and was not race, people and gender. A final necessarily linked to the status of attribute for which graduates praised 3.7 Innovative employability their university. This was very evident their university experience was the initiatives amongst the graduates from Univen, ability to work with others or work in a South African universities have who think that, even in the face of team. Most recognised the importance introduced a variety of initiatives potential limitations such as the of teamwork, skills in which they had designed to enhance student reputation of their university or their developed through group work, employability and social contributions. background, their self-confidence assignments and other practical As part of this research, those being was a key factor in them getting and experiences. The same engineering tried by the case study universities and thriving in their current employment: graduate from Wits reflected on his by other institutions were documented, good co-ordination skills, attributing ‘if you are a graduate you have and three are described below. Two them to: ‘We did a lot of projects at to think like a graduate, like a specifically address business-type university, a lot of project or people person who has knowledge, think skills; the other focuses strongly on management, in terms of working in of changing other people’s lives, or quality, with the aim of turning this groups, having the people skills to work impacting other people’s lives, or into academic success and economic in teams, even in some cases where making a change in the economy.’ opportunities. The first, from NMMU, you don’t get to choose the people that (BComm graduate working explores how employability and you work with. So I think I’ve been quite for Deloitte) citizenship values are enhanced appreciative of that.’ through a social entrepreneurship Most of the graduates with jobs project within the Department of Another attribute which emerged in this group of 24 reported that they Management Practice. A fundamental across all the universities as important were currently satisfied with their aspect of the initiative is blending is being able to work with people. employment outcomes in relation theory and a hands-on approach to Especially in universities with a diverse to their university experience. This learning that seeks to develop student profile, graduates feel that may be due in some cases to the employability skills such as time engaging with students from different modest expectations they had upon management and business backgrounds during their degree registration and also in the light of the development, but also engages experience had enhanced their ability high unemployment rates currently students with issues of inequality, social to adapt in the workplace. A UFS affecting the economy. However, justice and giving back to society and graduate who was working with the especially those still struggling to the community. A similar initiative has Student Representative Council while gain employment, reiterated that been taken at the Vaal University of studying part time reflected as follows: there had not been sufficient practical Technology. However, a key aspect of ‘I come from a community where … exposure during their degree courses this programme is its diverse access we have our own set of problems and felt that their BA degrees were routes, which aim to provide access to but then race is not one of them. too broad and not focused enough higher education for those who would We are uniform… So for me the for them to obtain employment. otherwise not be able to access higher most important thing was [personal] Other graduates feel that their writing education. Furthermore, the initiative growth. I don’t think if I hadn’t studied and communications skills are still attempts to develop entrepreneurship in South Africa I would have gained this insufficiently developed, while some skills, which have been observed to be [ability to work with diverse people] and Univen graduates continue to feel that lacking among South African youth. know how people behave [differently].’ the reputation of their university is Through its teaching and learning hindering them in achieving their curriculum, the Entrepreneurship

Universities, employability and inclusive development 29 Development Programme (EDP) attracting and supporting students who widening of access, improving students’ in the Centre for Innovation and have experienced disadvantage in their university experiences and enabling Entrepreneurship (CIE) supports the education and social life and who need them to acquire skills that will make university to implement its corporate a holistic approach to teaching and them fit for work on graduation, while strategy, which emphasises innovation learning. also enabling them to engage with the and entrepreneurship in combination complexities of the South African These selected cases suggest that with a wider access policy. Similarly, the economy and society. The evidence there is a conscious effort from Faculty of Commerce at UCT, through shows that, while some departments universities to introduce more its Educational Development Unit (EDU), are more inclusive and responsive to innovative approaches to supporting has made enormous efforts to provide broader societal needs, this is not the wide access to higher education and access to students from disadvantaged case for all. enhance students’ employability. With communities, with the aim of enhancing respect to these initiatives, success their skills development and achieving needs to be defined broadly to include equality. The EDU is committed to

1. Graduate employability as time management, work ethics, involvement of the students as and citizenship through assertiveness, self-confidence and ‘owners’ of the activities. The third social entrepreneurship, presentation skills.’ aspect is the fact that students Nelson Mandela Metropolitan participate in the product life span University (NMMU) Programme aim from design or supplier right through The programme aims to prepare marketing and then selling to create The Department of Management students not only academically, a profit, which is saved in a bank Practice at NMMU is committed but also for work, so that graduates account and used for the purpose to inclusive access and enabling a have not only academic qualifications, of supporting disadvantaged wide range of students to obtain but also leadership and assertiveness students and communities.’ university qualifications, as well skills, a professional work attitude and as engaging students in practical sound work ethics. Programme outcome: skills development and encouraging The programme has received them to be socially responsible. Method or approach favourable responses from employers, students and fellow Identified gap/need The programme co-ordinator described how: ‘From the first year, academic staff: ‘The feedback that we The programme was developed I have moved totally away from receive from these companies is that to fill a skills development gap. theoretical projects and more the students are more mature … that The lecturer in charge of the towards the application of the theory they have a more mature sense of programme explained: ‘I’ve listened taught in the classroom. Programme work ethic. When they come into the to my advisory board, consisting is in three phases. First is the programmes of Checkers or Lewis, of people from industry, and their integration of a theoretical focus with on … internship programmes, they input is that students graduating from an applied dimension. Second is the [are said to] conduct themselves the university have the theoretical hands-on experience students have, very differently, and our students knowledge, but are actually quite which is not just an observational visit are always the first port of call for useless once they get into business. to a business site, but the practical their [employers’] learnership They don’t have the softer skills, such (internship) programmes.’

30 Universities, employability and inclusive development 2. Entrepreneurship and Programme aim The objective of the course is community engagement, Vaal The overall aim of the unit to implement an enterprise University of Technology (VUT) is to ‘create second chance development programme for the youth, especially those from deprived The Entrepreneurship Development opportunities for self-reliance backgrounds, who are provided with Programme (EDP) at the VUT is and self-determination for the the necessary skills to start, manage one of the core programmes within most marginalised in our and market their own businesses the Centre for Innovation and communities, while cushioning (SASOL Partner). Entrepreneurship (CIE). The Centre those who have lost the support aims to support the university to of families. We understand that Programme outcome implement its corporate strategy, entrepreneurship can be taught, which emphasises innovation and and then…. we open it to everybody.’ The programme has, since its the fostering of entrepreneurship (Programme Co-ordinators) inception in 2012, benefited practices through its teaching and some 220 entrepreneurs, selected learning curriculum, as well as Method or approach from a pool of 4,000 applicants. through research. As a university The programme has adopted a four- The goods and services the EDP of technology within a knowledge pronged approach to developing the provides include running kiosks, society, VUT has committed itself relevant abilities, skills and values. landscaping, branding, marketing to providing wider access and more These are: and manufacturing. It claims to have been successful in providing diverse learning opportunities, • Developing an entrepreneurial entrepreneurship skills and by interweaving learning, working, culture through emphasising opportunities to a growing number and living through both content a mindset change from of South African students, youths and delivery. dependence to creativity. and adults who would have • Skills development. Identified gap/need otherwise struggled to obtain • Enhancing job creation. decent and sustainable livelihoods. ‘There is a significant lack of an entrepreneurship culture among • Networking opportunities between university graduates and youths established entrepreneurs and within the community. There is a businesses and young graduates general tendency for black youths and youths who have the potential and graduates to look up to to excel. government or private employers for employment and livelihood.’ (Programme Co-ordinator)

Universities, employability and inclusive development 31 3. Access, participation Programme aim the degree … not just academic and success, University To attract and retain students support but focusing on developing of Cape Town (UCT) who have experienced ‘gaps and a range of graduate attributes. A particular focus has been given to At UCT, the academic development disparities’ in both their education development of human values of programme in the Faculty of and their life experiences is the social conscience, citizenship and Commerce claims to have had primary purpose of the EDU. It also giving back [to their communities, significant success in enabling provides students with a variety of with] a very strong focus on participation and employment types of support in order to increase leadership and mentorships in success for students from the range of education and life skills different kind of ways.’ disadvantaged backgrounds. they develop. Led by the Educational Development Programme outcome Unit (EDU), it aims ‘to be part of the Method or approach development of well-rounded The programme adopts a holistic The EDU approach has generated students who will acquire the approach, viewing students in their results that out-perform most appropriate skills to excel totality rather than focusing on mainstream first year courses, with academically and contribute academic skills. It seeks to enhance the graduation throughput rate meaningfully to the growth and the learning experience, improve increasing rapidly from 40 per cent in development of South Africa’. academic success, cultivate a broad 2001 to approximately 78 per cent at set of graduate and social attributes the end of 2014. There has also been Identified gap/need and qualities, and provide students a large increase in the numbers and pass rates of EDU students writing ‘If you were black, you were put with a range of value-added professional examinations, such as into the programme… Students components, such as leadership those of the Chartered Accountant were not allowed to decide if opportunities, a yearly awards Board Exams. To date, approximately they wanted to join the programme, evening which has become a space 280 EDU students have qualified nor was there input from students for students’ voice and creativity, as chartered accountants, with as to how the programme was internships with various business the pass rates for these very delivered. [Previously, e]mphasis firms, alumni mentoring, and demanding professional examinations was on academic development, community projects. According to the ranging from 78 per cent to 96 per ignoring other aspects of student EDU director, a number of support cent. In addition, corporate bursary development. Invariably the activities are integrated into the programmes make it a condition that students just crashed out in the curriculum to ensure that, ‘It’s not just bursary recipients must be part of second year … the throughput about a career-driven initiative but the EDU, recognising its value to and the graduation rates were poor. developing a range of graduate the students they sponsor and will There were some serious problems competencies while studying: There’s later employ. with the [that] model.’ a scaffolding variation in terms of the (Director, EDU) kind of support throughout the rest of

32 Universities, employability and inclusive development 3.8 Inclusive development between white and black students] … The teaching methods adopted may We now turn to the other key aspect And then it exposes you to a facilitate or hinder interaction between of the research – the link between person’s life. You [tend to realise], students from different backgrounds employability and inclusive this person is not that bad. Maybe I and their ability to complete their development. In this project we have thought white people are like this, programmes successfully. For example, understood inclusive development to but this guy is different. So we’ve a political science student from the include the formation of citizenship learned to appreciate other people.’ UFS felt that the separation of students values and an awareness and desire (UFS politics student) according to language reinforces to contribute to society and its human feelings of separation and difference: development beyond the narrow ‘I think my big [issue], looking at this self-interest of individual students. Another student remarked that: institution specifically, is the separation The other way in which we have tried ‘You meet different people of the medium of instruction, the to understand inclusive development that you would never have met language, I think for me it is a barrier is in relation to how inclusive the before. And also with that comes because it forces us to separate universities themselves are with regard adaptability. Like sometimes you’re ourselves.’ Moreover, with its black to access and student experiences. going to realise that, oh well, this and almost entirely ethnically TsiVenda With regard to this latter point, our person doesn’t really think the same student body, opportunities for mixing data suggests considerable variation, way I do, so you must learn to try with students from other backgrounds as illustrated in our attention to social and figure out how you and that are far more limited at Univen, capital, work aspirations and so forth person can be in the same space, notwithstanding its cohort of in the preceding sections. Here we but not overpowering each other.’ Zimbabwean students. turn to the matter of diversity as a (Construction economics 3.8.2 Citizenship: dimension of university inclusion and student, NMMU) then consider citizenship and social Although universities’ ability and contributions. willingness to foster interaction Students need to be encouraged to between social groups varies, they 3.8.1 Diversity capital: make more of such experiences when do mostly seem to place considerable While it is clear that some universities seeking employment; some are less emphasis on encouraging students are better placed than others to adept at identifying their range of to see their university experience enhance the social capital and employment-attractive experiences as equipping them to contribute as economic opportunities available to and communicating them to employers graduates to society. Of the students their students, some universities seem than others. interviewed, 49 per cent at NMMU, to be doing especially well in developing 63 per cent at UFS, 74 per cent at However, the picture is not Univen and 53 per cent at Wits said ‘diversity capital’, that is an asset which straightforward. For example, one can be accumulated at university, drawn that they expected to contribute to academic at Wits explained that, inclusive development in various on, increased, and so on somewhat like in his view: social capital. Diversity capability which ways. Nevertheless, the interviews also ‘Wits still is way behind the mass emerges as highly rated by employers revealed that many students thought education institutions … at surface (see Chapter 4). Students value that their universities could do more in value, I think, it looks fairly diverse exposure to collaborative learning this respect. For example, some Wits but these [black students] are from through teaching methods where students stated: very wealthy black parents sending black and white students are brought ‘I think the University looks at people their kids here, and that can make it together. They also learn leadership who are going to have more impact look healthier than it is in terms of skills by working with diverse students. on the economic side but on the transformation… I’ve regularly heard This seems to be a deliberate focus at social front, I think that is where we the phrase here, oh, the weaker UFS and NMMU, as set out in their lack. You don’t see the community students will just fail out, as if it’s not university mission statements and projects they advocate. You don’t a concern. Whereas at [my previous revealed in reports of daily interactions: see where they are saying that they university] we were very concerned ‘In the classroom, especially when take x number of students to Soweto. with getting those struggling In our course we are supposed to do we have to do things like group work, students through.’ there you don’t have [the divide a community-based project, and we

Universities, employability and inclusive development 33 did do it but we didn’t go to the local because, clearly, you don’t have time Association (SAGEA), generated four communities… We are lacking in to have a module on its own, even key findings relating to the employment making graduates socially aware of though in honours we do. When you of graduates from South African what is happening, especially in the mention ethics, students tend to universities. Firstly, the employers we local community.’ glaze over and go, oh, well, this is just interviewed expressed a preference (Construction studies some touchy-feely garbage that’s to recruit from a small number of student, Wits) been added on to the end. It’s universities. UCT was easily the most treated almost like that. I think that preferred (69 per cent), followed by [ethics] is a very difficult question.’ the University of Johannesburg (UJ) The survey data revealed that a total (62 per cent), Wits and the University of 74 per cent of students strongly There is a related tension with regard of Pretoria (both 50 per cent). The agreed or agreed that their university to the individualist discourse we found main universities from which these encourages them to seek to contribute to predominate at Wits. Asked to what employers recruit are not only the to society after graduation, while extent students are made aware of the historically advantaged institutions but 62 per cent strongly agreed or broader responsibility they have to also, importantly, are located in the agreed that graduates from their society and to their community, an most economically vibrant provinces of university want to contribute to social academic in Social Science at Wits Gauteng and the Western Cape. While development that benefits everyone in responded to the question of what 69 per cent of employers preferred to society. Finally, 87 per cent strongly the university is doing to enhance recruit from UCT, only two out of the agreed or agreed that they would be graduate employability as follows: 17 employers, including a public sector able to contribute to such development ‘Be motivated. It’s a capitalist world. employer, made reference to employing through their careers. Overall then, Get on your toes, right? Life owes you graduates from HDIs. Even at the students do seem to have a sense of nothing, except your hard work to regional or provincial levels, employers fairness and social justice and to be support your family and yourself, and expressed a preference for recruiting willing to make contributions to our students know this. They know from the top-ranked universities. These improving society. they’ve got to get out there and find are better resourced due to their the work and then find the answers historical advantages and thus continue Nonetheless, employers, for the most and do that, be motivated.’ to deliver better student performance, part, do not appear to value a desire but may take in fewer disadvantaged to contribute to development at the While this provides a description of students. Employers based in provinces national or local levels and do not the challenges within the working other than Gauteng and Western Cape specify this as something that they take world, it does not foster more inclusive Province did, however, indicate a account of in the recruitment process and collective values in students. preference to recruit graduates from (see section 4). Also there is some However, such a view does reflect universities closer to them. These tension between contributing to society the individualistic basis of the human preferences largely exclude rural and personal gain. Thus one of the capital approach which has come to universities from employer consideration. heads of departments from Wits dominate higher education policy not reflected on the attitude of students only in South Africa but globally. What do employers look for? Although who are keener on the economic and the sample of 17 is small, our data financial gains of obtaining a degree: 4. Employer perspectives shows that employers are not dissatisfied with the graduates whom ‘In BComm in general, a lot of these Finally, analysis of our data from they recruit (albeit from a small kids are here because they come 17 major employers from banking, number of universities): 94 per cent from wealthy families and they want construction, investment, retail, said they were satisfied, including more. And quite often ethics, for manufacturing, mining, legal services, with graduates’ subject knowledge example, which is an obvious area auditing and government, as well as an and their motivation and willingness to to address these kinds of things, is interview with the executive director of learn. They emphasised the ability of almost taught as a stapled-on bit of the South African Graduate Employers content. It’s not the core content graduates to understand and integrate

34 Universities, employability and inclusive development into the work or business culture. They According to Cathy Sims, and based on active in other aspects of student life are, however, concerned with the lack SAGEA’s large annual survey of private and society, such as student leadership, of application of theory to practice and sector employers, they are looking for involvement in student societies, or have concerns about gaps in critical future leaders, who have the ability to community engagement. thinking, creativity and entrepreneurial make things happen/get things done The data shows, therefore, that a fairly development. They also identified and take people with them. They seek typical group of employers emphasise graduates who are ‘not motivated’ people who can problem solve [think the need for core skills such as or ‘ambitious’, in their view because through alternatives, come up with communication, critical thinking and such students enroll on the degree solutions], analyse [‘sift the data’], think numeracy, but also consider a potential programme they can afford, or had critically, plan, organise, mobilise, recruit’s appreciation of diversity and been advised to choose a degree communicate, influence and lead. ability to undertake teamwork as very programme because it would enable However, she suggested, large private important i.e. a well-rounded graduate them to ‘easily get a job and earn employers may not see it as their who not only has a good degree but money’. They also noted a problem responsibility to open up opportunities also much more. of some graduates failing to take (until there is a severe and prolonged responsibility for their own development, shortage, for example as happened Employers also identified a number of instead trying to shift this responsibility with accountants). Based on their skills and attributes which they feel are on to others. rankings of values, the employers we less well developed in the graduates interviewed had a different prioritisation they recruit, including a lack of business According to Cathy Sims, CEO of the of what is most important, namely, awareness and entrepreneurial culture, South African Graduate Employers ‘working effectively in a racially and which may be of particular concern. Association (SAGEA, formerly SAGRA), cultural diverse team’. This was Figure 1 shows the proportion of the employers look for ‘quality’, understood perceived by 42 per cent of the 17 employers who identify specific by large private sector employers as 17 employers as the most important capabilities which graduates lack (rather the class of degree (2:1 minimum), attribute they hope to see in the than the percentage of graduates seen together with the university at which graduates they recruit. Employers to lack these attributes). degree was completed. The employers emphasised the importance of working we interviewed think the quality of in diverse racial and cultural milieus, graduates comes down to resourcing through teamwork and respect for of the universities, while others relate diversity. These employers emphasised this to the quality of secondary schools that they value graduates with integrity and family support, arguing that and ethics, who are hardworking, graduates from disadvantaged motivated, ambitious and comfortable universities have ‘realistic expectations’ with diversity. Another key attribute of the workplace but have also had less which was mentioned by a number of prior support to develop their work employers is the ‘all-rounder graduate’, readiness. Some employers, however, used to describe graduates who are recognise the challenge HDIs face in not only excellent in their academic training students, most of whom come work, but who are also able to engage from a low-quality schooling system, with aspects of life beyond academia. and acknowledge how difficult it is for Some employers said that they would universities to bring these students to a rather take a student with an average par with their peers from better schools. academic performance who has been

Universities, employability and inclusive development 35 Figure 1: Missing graduate skills in graduates according to percentage 2. Students are very concerned about of employers interviewed their limited exposure to applied practice/experiential learning Entrepreneurial culture 11.1 because they are aware that it affects their employability. 3. Exposure to working with diverse 11.1 Oral/written communication others in classes at university appears to be regarded especially Practical business awareness 44.4 positively by both students and employers. 4. Most general degree holders Computer/IT skills 27.8 (BA, BSc, BComm) perceive an honours degree as necessary for employment. Interpersonal skills 11.1 5. Student aspirations are significant in 0 10 20 30 40 50 shaping employment opportunities and their agency in working towards Employers think that more can be universities, have not increased the job or career they want, but we done by collaborating with universities commensurately, and throughput is do not know enough about how to improve the skills of graduates, weak, hence the current emphasis on these are shaped by their university beyond their current activities quality. Quality, in turn, is directly linked experiences. which include – at some but not all to graduate employability, because 6. Students want to contribute to universities – attendance at career better quality, more well-rounded society after graduating in some fairs, the provision of bursaries and graduates are more employable. way, but also need to be employed. offering their own in-house training. Citizenship is valued. They recommend a closer partnership 5.1 Key findings 7. Careers services are undervalued between universities and employers, A number of findings can be distilled: and underutilised and ECA through which students can be involvement is uneven. exposed to work placements as part 1. Graduate employability in South of their curriculum and which they Africa is a function of complex 8. Tracking even a small number believe will enhance the development factors, some of which are based of students postgraduation has of soft skills. on historic legacies which continue been illuminating, in terms of to favour graduates from some documenting the university universities compared to others. attended, race and subsequent 5. Conclusions and Historically advantaged universities employment experience, who recommendations benefit from their better resourcing chooses further study and why, The dominant discourse of HE in South and from employer preferences, and positive as well as negative Africa is still one of quality rather than while students from affluent families shifts in career aspirations. employability. This emphasis on quality can afford better secondary 9. While there are some gaps aims to build on the achievements in schools, enabling them to study between the skills and attributes terms of improving access which have where they want and to choose employers want and those that been seen over the last decade. their field of study. Thus university graduates bring, the gap may not Student numbers have increased type, geography, field of study, be as large as is often claimed. significantly. However, the quality and student background – most The development of a well-rounded and quantity of academics, as well as especially social class and race – graduate is an important concept infrastructure and other resources, all shape opportunities. which needs to be developed further. especially in historically black

36 Universities, employability and inclusive development 5.2 Recommendations for • Careers services provide valuable • There is a need for more data policy and practice support. They need to be better and more research; such research known and better resourced and needs to be both quantitative and With increased pressures on should especially target students qualitative, so that student voices are universities, as observed in student from disadvantaged backgrounds. heard. In particular, we do not know protests in 2015 demanding wider Careers advice needs to include enough about where graduates go access, lower fees and better university building on diversity capital and after university and why. We need experiences, higher education in South explaining and encouraging the more tracer studies such as the ones Africa is faced with many challenges employability benefits of ECA conducted by CHEC for Western as well as an opportunity to rethink (also see the first bullet point). Cape universities, and the LMIP for policies. Based on our findings these Rhodes and Fort Hare. We do not recommendations can be made. • There is a need for more engagement and collaboration know much about how universities • Overall, while a university cannot between universities and employers foster aspirations or diminish them. do everything to get jobs for its beyond career fairs and talks. There We do not know enough about what students, it can do a great deal in is a need for employers to provide employers want and how this might terms of teaching and learning, more opportunities for practical and need to shift rather than being taken developing an ethos and values, work experience activities and as the final word on what universities actively encouraging and promoting internships, especially for students should be doing. Nor do we know extra-curricular participation, and in universities in rural areas, and for enough about the outcomes of filling in social capital ‘gaps’ to employers to widen their university initiatives to develop entrepreneurial enhance the employability of recruitment pool. cultures (both social and profit- individual students. But because driven) and foster the capability for • There is a need for an expanded higher education sits at a nexus with self-employment to assess the value range of graduate outcomes to employment, the labour market and of current approaches and the scope include social citizenship and public policies, what each university for replicating them more widely. diversity experiences as an integral can do is also constrained. The key part of curriculum and pedagogy, as is to understand and act on those well as skills and entrepreneurship. elements which universities can change; it would help, moreover, if • There are systemic issues at stake in universities were responsive to the the historical resourcing, stratification needs, aspirations and goals of their and reputational effects for diverse students for their future lives. universities and individual student opportunities and outcomes. Public • While graduate unemployment is not policy needs to support change in currently an issue, it may become so the direction of more equality. Poor in the future as quality improves and students attend less well-known more students graduate; universities universities, are less well prepared need to develop employability for higher education, and struggle initiatives of diverse kinds now, more to get jobs. Employers recruit including addressing the challenges from a narrow range of universities, of more work-integrated learning and even though they claim to value valuing diversity. diversity in the workplace. Universities can also rally robustly in defence of the value of arts and social science degrees, do more to improve the quality of these degrees, and make the case to employers for what these have to offer.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 37 University attachments are defined in terms of white and blue collar elite occupations. No students are undertaking internships in the jua kali sector (informal enterprises). Yet they provide more practical and locally relevant improvised solutions to some of the development problems. Policymaker, higher education regulatory body, Kenya

38 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 3 – Divergent narratives on graduate employability in Kenya: dysfunctional institutions or dysfunctional labour markets?

Ibrahim Oanda and Daniel Sifuna

organised into five parts. The first part knowledge-production, and ensuring provides background discussion to the the availability of a critical mass of Introduction economic, political and social context well-qualified human resource. 83 of graduate employability in Kenya. These aspirations can only be realised Like most African countries, Kenya The second part is a discussion of the through high quality education and faces a growing problem of what has higher education system focusing on training. As part of this strategy, Kenya been referred to as the ‘youth bulge’, enrolments and the turnout of students has, since 2008, pursued various with 80 per cent of its population to the labour market. Third is a broad reforms in the education sector, notably under 35 years old. 79 The youth, discussion of the structure of the expansion of education facilities at all aged 15–34 years, which form 35 per labour market in Kenya and government levels, reforms in the university sector cent of the population, have the highest interventions to address the issue of that have entailed rapid expansion unemployment rate of 67 per cent. 80 graduate employability. Part four of the number of institutions and Not all of this age group are in the presents perspectives from employers, enrolments, establishment of new labour force, but the unemployment rate university students and policymakers, technical training institutions, and closer amongst those that are is extremely including university management and collaboration between employers and high. There are no official statistics to finally a conclusion pulling together training institutions. According to the indicate what proportion of unemployed the discussion. second medium-term plan, 2013–17, 84 young people are university graduates, the heart of Kenya’s economic but recent expansion of the university Background transformation is visualised to be a sector has fed into perceptions that university education system that is many of the increased number of The economic, political focused, efficient and able to create graduates joining the labour market and social context knowledge, and deliver accessible, are failing to obtain jobs. Like most African countries, Kenya equitable, relevant and good quality The key players give different reasons faces increasing problems of poverty training to sustain a knowledge for this predicament. Policymakers and youth unemployment. The country economy that is internationally are reluctant to admit the extent of has designed various political and competitive. Despite this commitment, graduate unemployment, while economic policies that seek to address public resources allocated to the higher employers apportion more blame to this challenge through the generation education sector have declined while the universities, and the universities of inclusive economic growth to reduce the number of institutions and students tend to blame employers for ‘closing poverty by strengthening the private enrolled has risen. For example, while out’ students from apprenticeship sector, 81 and to generate employment student enrolment in the universities and internship opportunities which opportunities, especially for the youth. went up by 28 per cent from the might enable them to gain work-related These development ambitions are the 2014–15 to the 2015–16 academic skills. None of these claims are based core of Kenya’s development blueprint, years, requiring an estimated increase on specific data. The objective of ‘Vision 2030’, which seeks to transform of ten per cent in funding from the this chapter is to contribute to an Kenya into a newly industrialising, government, funding actually fell by understanding of the trends and middle-income country that provides six per cent to US$588 million compared causes of graduate unemployment in a high quality life for all its citizens by to the US$627.2 million allotted in 85 Kenya, based on the perspectives of the year 2030. 82 The blueprint assigns 2014–15. It is such reductions in the universities, students, policymakers education and training an important funding against increased enrolments and employers, collected as part of the role in spearheading this transformation, that have led to an increasingly common ‘Universities, Employability and Inclusive through technological innovation, a perception that the institutions offer Development’ study. This chapter is shift from knowledge-reproduction to only low quality training.

79. UNDP (2013) Kenya’s Youth Employment Challenge. Available online at: www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Poverty%20Reduction/Inclusive%20 development/Kenya_YEC_web(jan13).pdf 80. Republic of Kenya (2014) Economic Survey. Nairobi: Government printer. 81. African Development Bank (2014) Kenya Country Strategy Paper 2014-2018. 82. Republic of Kenya (2007) Kenya Vision 2030 – A Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya. Nairobi: Office of the Prime Minister, Ministry of State for Planning, National Development and Vision 2030. 83. Republic of Kenya (2007) op. cit. 84. Republic of Kenya (2013a) Second term medium plan 2013-2017; Transforming Kenya: Pathway To Devolution, Socio-Economic Development, Equity and National Unity. Nairobi. Ministry of Devolution and National Planning. 85. Nganga, G (2015) State cuts university funding by 6% as enrolment soars. University World News. Issue No 366.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 39 In terms of political and economic While the young working force has Africa have enjoyed annual GDP growth reforms, the country adopted a the greatest potential with regard to rates ranging from three per cent to new constitution in 2010, which capabilities and productivity, their large seven per cent. In addition, already set in motion legal and institutional size also poses challenges if they are high levels of inequality have increased, reforms targeted at providing a better not engaged in productive activities. 87 while issues of education access and environment for economic growth quality are placing its current position The government, in its First Medium and improved management of public as a regional leader in human capital Term Plan, 2008–12 projected resources. Some of these frameworks development in jeopardy. 92 annual average employment growth include: the Public Finance of six per cent and creation of a total Management Act (2012); the County of 3.7 million new jobs. 88 This target The higher education system Governments Act (2012); the National was not met: only an annual average in Kenya Government Coordination Act (2013), of 511,000 jobs against a target of The higher education system consists and the Transition to Devolved 740,000 jobs were created during the of public and private universities, a Governments Act (2012); a new plan period. 89 Moreover, about 80 per number of middle level technical and education framework (Education Act cent of the new jobs created were in vocational institutions that are often 2013); a new higher education legal the informal sector, where most jobs linked to universities, and research framework (Universities Act 2013) are characterised by underemployment centres such as the Kenya Agricultural and a series of other reforms aimed at and low productivity. 90 This initial failure Research Institute (KARI), the Kenya enhancing the level of practical skills of the Vision 2030 blueprint strategy Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), training among the youth. However, signalled the serious challenges the International Centre for Insect despite these reforms, unemployment, government faced as it set out to fix Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and especially among the youth, has the mismatch between education/ the International Livestock Research persisted and it is estimated that about training and labour market needs, Institute (ILRI). Together, these 92 per cent of the unemployed youth particularly the challenge of turning the institutions constitute the higher lack the vocational or professional ‘youth bulge’ into an economic asset by education and training pipeline in the skills demanded by the job market. 86 addressing growing informality in the country. The research centres continue The high unemployment levels have labour market. As the government to support capacity for research and led to increased dependency ratios, promises in its second medium-term doctoral education in Kenya, provide when at the same time, the country is plan, efforts need to be made to create some of the workforce required to experiencing slow economic growth, quality jobs in the formal sector, drive university education, and increasing poverty incidence and a improve skills training and achieve a generate new knowledge and solutions rising national security challenge that major and permanent shift toward to problems in critical areas of national negatively impact on achievement formal employment, with the aim of and international development. This of the overall objectives of Vision increasing the proportion of modern research project concentrated primarily 2030 and the Sustainable Development sector employment from 12 per cent on the university sector of the higher Goals (SDGs). Studies have for example in 2012 to 40 per cent by 2017. 91 Such education system, which provides most documented that Kenya has an annual government ambitions are, however, of the undergraduate education, and population growth rate of three per threatened by the fragility of Kenya’s where recent expansion has created a cent, a high dependency ratio of 0.8 economy. The country’s real economic concern regarding the extent to which and a fast growing youth population growth rate has been oscillating around the institutions are producing with young people (between the age of one per cent per year for the past five employable graduates. 18 and 34 years old) making up more years, while its neighbours in East than a third of the entire population.

86. Republic of Kenya (2013a) op. cit. 87. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) January (2013b) ‘Kenya’s Youth Employment Challenge’. Discussion Paper. Available online at: www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Poverty%20Reduction/Inclusive%20development/Kenya_YEC_web(jan13).pdf 88. Republic of Kenya (2008a) First medium term plan, 2008-2012: Kenya vision 2030: a globally competitive and prosperous Kenya. 89. Ibid. 90. Republic of Kenya (2013a) op. cit. 91. Ibid. 92. USAID/Kenya (2014) Workforce Connections; Kenya Youth Assessment. USAID/fHI 360.

40 Universities, employability and inclusive development Recent education policy interventions expansion has been through programmes because they are capital have accelerated the pace of university converting middle level colleges that intensive and expensive to establish. 94 expansion in Kenya (see Table 1). were critical in providing training in In addition, the expansion has led to Central to this has been the desire by middle level skills to full university duplication of academic programmes the country to respond to increasing status. Once converted to universities, and delivery channels: universities are demand for university education to the tendency has been for the expanding in the same way, offering consolidate gains in participation rates institutions to drop their pre-existing similar programmes and using the at the primary and secondary school science and technology focus and same traditional delivery channels, levels. In 2012, Kenya had eight public to increase enrolment in humanities, with the result that the capacity of the universities and a number of education, and business degree institutions to be transformational is constituent colleges, but the number programmes rather than science and not built into the expansion process. 95 increased dramatically the following engineering. 93 The capacity of science, year to 22, as a result of 14 new engineering, and medical sciences has universities being created from former not grown in the past ten years despite university colleges. There are still an a more than doubling of enrolment in additional nine constituent colleges of the public universities, while private public universities and 17 chartered universities face constraints in offering private universities. Much of this science and technology degree

Table 1: Growth and number of public and private universities in Kenya

Category of universities 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Public universities 7 7 8 22 22 Public university constituent colleges 15 23 23 9 9 Public university campuses established 30 30 33 33 33 Chartered private universities 13 14 15 17 17 Universities with letter of interim authority 9 11 12 11 13 Newly registered universities (private) 3 2 2 2 1 Private university constituent colleges - 4 4 5 5

Source: Republic of Kenya (2015).

93. Republic of Kenya (2008b) The National Strategy for University Education, 2007–2015. Nairobi. Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. 94. Ibid. 95. Oanda, IO and Jowi, J (2012) University Expansion and Challenge to Social Development in Kenya; Dilemmas and Pitfalls. Journal of Higher Education in Africa 10/1: 49–71.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 41 The pressure to expand university Board for public universities increased education in Kenya has emanated by 23.4 per cent from 17,100 in mainly from the large number of 2008–09 to 21,000 in 2009–10 and qualified students who seek access 34,000 in the 2010–11 academic to this level of education each year. years. 97 However, most of the growth Regardless of the evidence that middle has not been of government-sponsored level technical skills boost graduates’ students, but of fee-paying ‘module chances of employment, the demand two’ students in public universities, for a degree of any type continues to which has been profitable for the be high. Enrolment increased from universities, but raises quality control 82,095 students in 2003 to 443,783 issues. These trends in enrolment are in 2015, an increase of 400 per cent. 96 summarised in Table 2 below. Enrolment by the Joint Admission

Table 2: Growth in enrolment in public and private accredited universities in Kenya

2005–06 2007–08 2009–10 2011–12 2013–14 2014–15 M F M F M F M F M F M F Public 53,737 27,940 60,504 36,603 89,611 52,945 94,358 63,558 173,987 115,746 217,164 146,170 universities Private 5,068 5,571 10,271 10,861 20,717 14,462 33 ,114 27,598 39,980 31,666 42,454 37,994 universities Total undergraduate enrollment* 92,316 118 , 239 177,735 218,628 361,379 443,783 Percentage enrolled in private universities 11. 5% 17.8% 19.7% 27.7% 19.8% 18.1%

*Total includes those in private unaccredited universities. **Source: Republic of Kenya (2015).

96. Republic of Kenya. (2015a) op. cit. 97. Republic of Kenya (2010) Economic Survey. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.

42 Universities, employability and inclusive development With regard to private universities, the new Kenya Universities and The third issue is that the expanded Table 2 shows that, except in the Colleges Central Placement Service access to university institutions and 2011–12 academic year, when the (KUCCPS) placed only 56,937 (46 per professional degree programmes percentage of students enrolled in cent) of students for the regular has been marked by gender and private universities stood at 27.7 per (module one) admission in public regional disparities, in a manner cent, it has remained below 20 per universities. Some of the students that undermines the development of cent over the years despite the who are not placed in public social capital among Kenya’s marginal expansion of this sector. In order to universities through the regular populations. 102 For example, although expand access, the Kenya National admission system seek admission in the number of female students in Strategy for University Education to the private universities and the module the universities has risen steadily in 2015 suggested that the Gross two programmes in public universities. the recent past, especially through Enrolment Ratio (GER) in universities The pressure for expansion persists. the private programmes of public needed to increase from three per cent From 2010, when Kenya adopted a new universities, women still remain in 2008 to 15 per cent by 2015. 98 This constitution creating counties as lower a minority, constituting about 40 per implied an increase in the number of tiers of governance, each county has cent of all undergraduate students students enrolled to about 450,000 by been clamouring to establish a public in public universities. 103 This under- 2015, and by a further ten per cent to university. The Universities Bill 2014, representation is greater in professional 600,000 by 2022. 99 To achieve these being debated by the Senate at the degree programmes. For example, targets, the government prioritised the time of this research, aims to establish in the University of Nairobi’s 49th establishment of open universities and a public university in each of the graduation ceremony, 36 per cent, the expansion of distance education in counties, as a centre of research for 22 per cent, 30 per cent and existing universities, by making use of the region. These institutions, once 48 per cent of students graduating ICT. 100 The policy also advocated the established, would be expected to in the Colleges of Agriculture and expansion of facilities in the newly focus on research that addresses the Veterinary Medicine, Architecture created university colleges, and for needs of the national and county and Engineering, Biological and government to provide incentives and governments. If this bill is approved, Physical Sciences and Health Sciences create an enabling environment for it will mean that Kenya will set up at respectively were women. 104 This an increase in the number of private least 20 new public universities. under-representation has implications universities. Most of these aims remain for the proportion of qualified women Because many recently enrolled strategies on paper. entering the labour market. students have to fund themselves, a Despite the fast expansion of second key issue is the financial burden The expansion of the higher education enrolment, three issues still afflict that university education implies. The sector has also had implications for the the system. The first is that the gross government has tried to alleviate this employability of university graduates. enrolment ratio is still comparatively by making these students eligible for An analysis of the programmes on low at four per cent (although the latest the government loan scheme. However, offer in the universities, including UNESCO figures are from 2009), and is not all the private students receive the newly established ones, shows a well short of the global figure of 32.8 loans and even for those who do, the trend towards increased numbers of per cent. 101 The majority of Kenyans do amounts extended are too small to social science and humanities courses, not access university education and ensure a quality higher education leading to some wasteful duplication less than half of qualifying students learning environment. of low quality degree courses. In obtain places in the public universities. private universities, the number For example, in 2013–14 admissions by of approved degree programmes

98. Republic of Kenya (2008b) op.cit. 99. Ibid. 100. Ibid. 101. UIS (2016) Gross enrolment ratio by level of education. Available online at: http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=142&lang=en; Nicholai, S and Prizzon, A (2014). Beyond Basics; the growth of post-primary education in Kenya. London: Overseas Development Institute. 102. Oanda, IO and Jowi, J (2012) op. cit. 103. Republic of Kenya (2013b) National Manpower Survey Basic Report. Nairobi; Ministry of Labour. 104. University of Nairobi (2013) Graduation Statistics Booklet, 49th and 50th Graduation Ceremonies.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 43 declined by eight per cent between of formal sector employment vis-à-vis a by level of education, the stock of 2013 and 2014, from 362 to 333. 105 burgeoning informal sector that offers skills they hold and the range of skill This partly reflects increasing a large and increasing number of required. This particularly applies to specialisation amongst the private unsustainable jobs; a 12.7 per cent universities, whose recent expansion universities, as some have decided open unemployment rate; increasing and introduction of new degree to concentrate on core programmes numbers of working poor; rapidly courses does not seem to have been in areas in which they have strengths. changing forms of employment with informed by any labour market surveys. For example, Daystar University has limited job security; and high youth A recent government survey 109 focused on its communications unemployment. However, at the outset indicates that of the youth with programme; USIU has moved to of the second term plan period, in primary education, four per cent are establish a school of pharmacy; Mt 2013, unemployment, estimated at in formal employment, 54 per cent in Kenya University is slowly focusing 12.7 per cent, with youth unemployment informal employment and 14 per cent on medical courses and Strathmore at 25 per cent, remained a critical are unemployed. Of those with University on information technology development challenge. Overall, secondary education, 12 per cent and telecommunications courses, all studies show that Kenya’s employment are in formal employment, 40 per cent of which promise better employment crisis, especially that affecting post- in informal employment, and 15 per prospects than many traditional secondary graduates is such that there cent unemployed. Of those with tertiary degrees. This trend does not appear are a large number of unemployed education, 31 per cent are in formal to be emerging in public universities, graduates side by side with unfilled employment, nine per cent in informal where all the universities offer the positions in the public and private employment, while eight per cent are same range of degree programmes, sector, both formal and informal, due to unemployed. These figures give the and, even within the same university, a mismatch between the skills needed impression that graduate employment in all its campuses. and those available. 107 Moreover, the and underemployment is less of an Kenya Workforce (2011/2012) Survey issue than that of young people with The nature of the labour market shows that there is increased capacity, only primary or secondary education, and government policies on intake and outturn from most education despite the general perception that graduate employability and training institutions, increasing the Kenya is experiencing high levels of number of fresh graduates entering graduate unemployment. However, it Government reports and statistics the labour market, but at the same is difficult to define unemployment, indicate that the demand for labour time, capacity underutilisation in some as data on graduate destinations has grown less rapidly than the institutions. 108 This survey recommends does not exist and government number of people in search of gainful that, to address the problem of policy focuses on the youth more employment. In addition, the economy capacity underutilisation, Kenya needs generally, so this figure for graduate has not created adequate opportunities to improve the quality of training unemployment may not be reliable. for those who want to engage in self- offered in existing programmes in Given these definitional difficulties, employment. Various government universities and middle level colleges, and in the absence of reliable data, it policy documents, for example the instead of prioritising expansion and has also not been possible to establish country’s long-term development addition of new institutions and whether the perceived high levels of blueprint: Vision 2030, the first programmes as at present. graduate unemployment in practice Medium Term Plan (2008–2012), refer to the failure of many graduates to and the Labour, Youth and Human Two other problems are encountered obtain the kind of formal jobs to which Resource Development Sector Plan when examining the composition of the they aspire, or that it implies that they (2008–2012) 106 tried to deal with labour markets in Kenya. There have lack the skills needed to engage in any this problem. According to these been many policy initiatives and income generating activity. documents, the country’s employment statistical data focusing on the youth problem was manifest in slow growth generally, without disaggregating them

105. Republic of Kenya (2015) op. cit. 106. Republic of Kenya (2007) op. cit.; Republic of Kenya (2008a) op. cit. Republic of Kenya (2008c). Sector Plan for Labour, Youth and Human Resource Development, 2008-2012. Ministry of Labour, Nairobi. 107. Republic of Kenya (2013b) op. cit. 108. Ibid. 109. Republic of Kenya (2014a) Kenya Country Report for the 2014 Ministerial Conference on Youth Employment; How to improve, through skills development and job creation, access of Africa’s youth to the world of work. Abidjan, Côte D’Ivoire.

44 Universities, employability and inclusive development Another study by Workforce Africa (IUCEA) asserts that as many the youth in general, although the Connections, 110 a USAID-supported as 49 per cent of new graduates from youth employment policies have not programme, shows that Kenya’s Kenyan universities are not adequately been robust, and inadequate physical workforce is overwhelmingly in informal prepared for the labour market. 111 infrastructure, poor macroeconomic employment, with only 1.3 million Explanations for this vary. Universities management, weak governance, and people working in the modern formal and higher education policymakers corruption have hindered their sector, against over 12 million in the think the universities are doing a good implementation. 114 Recent reforms informal economy, defined as including job, and blame graduates’ difficulty in have focused on strengthening labour smallholder farming (6.5 million), self- obtaining employment on either the protection and establishing youth- employment (2.7 million), and informal failure of job opportunities to expand targeted employment programmes wage work (3.1 million) (Workforce in line with labour force growth, or and funds, but youth employment Connections, 2014: ix). According failure on the part of employers to outcomes have been limited due to to this study, youth with less than provide students with opportunities factors related to programme design secondary education constitute about for apprenticeships or to engage as well as implementation. Meanwhile, two-thirds of the youth workforce with universities more regularly on the problem of university education is (all youth 15–35), with the stock of curriculum review. 112 The continued articulated as the need to expand youth with less than primary education standoff between universities and access and improve quality, with the growing at four per cent a year, those professional bodies over the refusal intention of producing graduates who with less than secondary education of the latter to accredit professional are ‘job creators’ rather than ‘job shrinking slightly, while the educated programmes in a number of institutions seekers’, a stance that has informed workforce stock, comprising 3.5 million has added a new dimension to the much public debate about university secondary school graduates and problem of graduate employment. education. 1.2 million tertiary graduates, is In the opinion of these professional In addition, a new technical, industrial, expanding relatively quickly. This points bodies, the universities are offering vocational education and training to a scenario in which the number of programmes that lack the requisite (TIVET) policy has been adopted, which post-secondary education graduates infrastructure and suitably qualified offers promise for improving education is increasing rapidly, but many are staff to ensure that students learn the relevance and quality. However, its joining a fast-expanding informal sector desired level of skills. Other challenges implementation has not been complete. in which these levels of education are that hinder a seamless transition Over the last five years, plans have not required. by university graduates into work been drawn up for the expansion and include lack of timely labour market This is one manifestation of the ‘skill modernisation of TIVET institutions information; limited linkages between mismatch’ issue referred to above. and universities, including a new policy employers and training institutions; While it is difficult to attribute skills and legal framework that will create a poor management of industrial problems primarily to supply or demand TIVET Authority to oversee curriculum attachments and low registration levels factors, a consensus seems to be reforms and strengthen the role of of graduates with the National Industrial emerging that the education system industry in TIVET institutions. In the Training Authority (NITA) which is in at every level has weaknesses that university sector, the government is, charge of regulating and co-ordinating account for the problem of skill gaps. in the long term, investing in science, training and attachments in Kenya. 113 With regard to university education, technology and innovation (STI) the survey identifies challenges relating Besides the above challenges, the and intends to refocus the universities to graduates’ lack of both soft and extent to which national government to undertake targeted research, technical skills (including ICT), and even policies have articulated the issue of development and innovation (RDI) in if they have the latter, they may be out graduate employability as a problem strategic sectors. 115 The STI policy and of date or irrelevant. Another study by affecting the university sector is also STI 2013 Act is intended to leverage the Inter-University Council of East limited. Most national policies focus on STI to transform the economy through

110. USAID/Kenya (2014) op. cit. 111. Inter-University Council for East Africa, IUCEA (2014) Regional higher education qualifications gaps. Vol II. 112. McCowan (2014) op. cit. 113. Republic of Kenya (2013b) op.cit. 114. USAID/Kenya (2014) op. cit. 115. Republic of Kenya (2013a) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 45 implementation of selected national opportunities in industry to improve support for 500 master’s and 200 priority areas, creation of an effective the relevance and quality of teaching. doctoral students in the Science, and efficient Kenya National Innovation Technology, Engineering and Besides the government policies, the System and commercialisation of Mathematics (STEM). disciplines African Development Bank (AfDB) is research outputs through the at the Nairobi and Masinde Muliro implementing programmes aimed at Innovation Agency (KENIA), and Universities and six other constituent improving the quality of graduates mobilisation of at least the equivalent colleges which have since been from universities, especially in technical of two per cent of GDP annually from elevated to universities. and engineering areas, in order to the government, private sector and improve physical infrastructure, unleash other sources to fund the entire value inclusive growth and develop skills Perspectives from employers, chain. 116 The government hopes that for the emerging labour market of university students and university these reforms will address the problem a transforming economy. The bank’s education policymakers of graduate unemployment in the Country Strategy Paper (CSP) 2014–18 medium to long term by expanding Employers for Kenya 118 supports the country’s the economy and therefore formal ambitions and addresses its main The perspectives of employers on the job opportunities, while improving developmental challenges by work readiness of graduates from the the quality of graduate skills. promoting job creation as the Kenyan universities was sought through At an institutional level, the government overarching objective. Through the a survey of 58 organisations, in Nairobi has, over the two decades prior to this Higher Education, Science and and other regions of the country, that study, and in parallel with its stated Technology project (HEST), the bank employed ten (plus) graduates at any intention to provide resources for is engaged in supporting selected given time. The survey was undertaken expansion, encouraged universities universities with resources for providing through a face-to-face interview to devise ways of increasing students’ relevant equipment and training staff with identified respondents in the engagement with the world of work. at master’s and PhD levels. The project, organisation who were best placed The problem, as discussed above, is which targets six university constituent to evaluate the performance of the that the government has failed to colleges and two universities, focuses graduates and/or participate in the provide sufficient resources for the on STI, in line with the Kenya interview processes when recruiting desired expansion, which has forced Engineering Registration Board (KERB) new graduates into the organisation. universities to engage in commercial recommendations. The project will The first set of questions for the survey behaviour, especially the admission of also contribute to increasing the required the respondents to indicate if fee-paying students, and has number of qualified personnel, they had hired graduates from Kenyan undermined quality. including women, in engineering and universities in the 24 months preceding applied sciences through training at the survey, and to give an indication of The Kenya University Education the master’s and PhD levels. In addition, the number of graduates they had Strategy to 2015 117 proposed that, it will provide support for master’s and hired and the disciplines the graduates beyond the internships and industrial doctoral programmes for selected had studied at university. attachments that are a requirement environmental studies at a learning in professional degree programmes, The core civil service in Kenya centre being constructed as part of the universities should initiate linkages with continues to be a key employer of College of Agriculture and Veterinary multiple stakeholders. Such linkages graduates in Kenya. However, the Sciences at the University of Nairobi. were intended to lead to progressive privatisation of public enterprises This teaching and learning centre is innovative institutions with mandates that used to employ most graduates intended to facilitate the transfer of informed and enriched by the and the reduced size of the central knowledge and skills on the sustainable experiences, expertise and resources civil service has led to a decline in use of natural resources from the of these partners. The strategy also numbers of graduates able to obtain faculty to grassroots communities. proposed an increase in faculty employment in these organisations. Finally, the AfDB support will provide internships and short-term consulting

116 . Ibid. 117. Republic of Kenya (2008b) op. cit. 118. AfDB (2014) op. cit.

46 Universities, employability and inclusive development Table 3 below provides a summary science. Across the whole sample, of responses from the organisations but particularly core civil service surveyed regarding their recent organisations and NGOs, there were graduate recruitment, subdivided considerably more graduates hired according to the discipline of the with a social science and business graduates recruited. Of the total education background. This may be number of organisations surveyed, indicative of the smaller number of the table shows the number of these graduates in natural sciences coming organisations who have recruited out of the universities as much as the graduates from social science and small demand for these graduates in humanities, business and natural the organisations surveyed.

Table 3: Recruitment by institutions that have had employed graduates in the 24 months prior to the survey

Social science and Natural science Type of organisation Total humanities recruits Business recruits recruits Education 3 3 3 1 Financial services 7 2 2 1 Health and social work 8 2 2 0 Core public service 17 9 9 1 Manufacturing and 5 1 0 1 processing Legal services 3 2 2 1 Transport, information 2 1 1 0 and communication Real estate and informal 1 1 1 0 business sector NGOs – national and 4 4 4 0 international Agriculture and related 1 1 1 0 services Hotels and restaurants 3 0 0 1 Others 4 4 4 1 Total respondents 58 30 29 7

Source: Compiled from field data.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 47 Respondents were asked to list in Table 4: Preferred institutions for graduate recruitment order of preference, three institutions University Frequency Percentage from where they recruited graduates. Responses, as summarised in Table 4 University of Nairobi 15 25.6 below do not seem to confirm the Kenyatta University 11 19.0 common perception that private universities are overtaking public ones Moi University 6 10.3 as the preferred source of graduates. Strathmore 5 8.6 Respondents indicated that most employers (a quarter) prefer to recruit KCA 5 8.6 from the University of Nairobi, followed Maseno 3 5.3 by Kenyatta University (19 per cent) and Moi University (10.3 per cent). Catholic 2 3.5 However, some prefer to recruit JKUAT 2 3.5 graduates from a private university: 8.6 per cent of the organisations Egerton 2 3.4 surveyed said that they would be MMUST 1 1.7 most likely to recruit from Strathmore University and the Kenya College of Other recognised universities 6 10.3 Accountancy University. The responses Total 58 100 here reflect the results of other surveys that show the University of Nairobi Source: Compiled from field data. as having both the best institutional reputation and being preferred by Beyond perceptions of the difference followed by quality of employable employers seeking graduate recruits. between public and private universities skills the graduates possessed, The responses may also indicate a in terms of the quality of their graduates, successful past experience of preference by employers for public respondents indicated that employers recruiting from the institution and university graduates compared to those consider not one but a combination strong organisational links with the from other institutions. For example, of institutional characteristics when institution. In the health and social a respondent from one of the firms recruiting graduates. The majority of work sector, institutional reputation noted that: employers did not specify which and quality of employable skills ‘…Viewed without bias, public institutional characteristics they were emphasised. The core public university graduates are highly considered and the majority were services from where a majority of the employable ... the claim that non-committal. However, over half organisations for the survey were universities are not producing the employers in the education sector drawn indicated that they considered employable graduates has had the ranked most highly the quality of foremost institutional reputation, the effect of putting universities and employability provided by an institution perception that an institution produced colleges under pressure to prove (52 per cent); followed by institutional graduates of high quality, student that they provide market-ready reputation, relevant disciplinary participation in work attachments, graduates … which can lead to some knowledge, quality of discipline quality of discipline knowledge and distortions… Judging from the quality knowledge and successful past strong organisational links with the of students that make applications experience of recruiting from the institutions as the most considered to undertake internships or occupy institution, all ranked at the same institutional qualities. The NGOs open positions at my place of work, I level. On the other hand, the financial considered foremost quality of am certain that the claim of superior institutions ranked institutional disciplinary knowledge; the transport education from private universities is reputation, relevant disciplinary and communication sector, institutional without foundation…’ knowledge and perception that an reputation and the hospitality industry (Chief executive; Public Policy institution produces high quality ranked strong institutional links as the Think Tank) graduates as the foremost institutional foremost characteristics. Generally it characteristics they considered; appears from that apart from the NGOs,

48 Universities, employability and inclusive development which ranked relevant disciplinary Those with volunteering experience, failure by the graduates to manifest knowledge as their foremost they reported, already have a a wide range of skills besides consideration, all the employers in basic understanding of employer demonstrating a masterly knowledge other sectors paid most attention to expectations and office etiquette. of subject content. characteristics such as institutional In contrast, only 53 per cent of When asked to state if the graduates reputation, perception of an institution employers considered educational they had hired in the 24 months producing quality graduates, and attainment, 49 per cent considered preceding the survey had the skills past experiences and links with the the student’s involvement in extra- they desired, 56.8 per cent indicated institution. It seems that the quality curricular activities and only six per they were satisfied that the graduates of disciplinary knowledge is not as cent considered employing a fresh had the right attitude, 55.1 per cent important to most employers as these graduate on the basis of a foreign were satisfied that they had the right factors, which might indicate that, if language competence. workplace skills; 53.4 per cent were institutions wish to improve the Besides the institutional characteristics satisfied they had the critical thinking employment prospects of their that they take into account when skills; while 50 per cent were satisfied graduates, they should devote attention recruiting graduates, respondents in they had the right knowledge. Looked to forging links with prospective our survey were asked to rank the most at from another perspective, more than employers as well as engaging in image important individual criteria, from a list half of the respondents were satisfied building with respect to their reputation. provided, which the organisations took with the level of employability skills These perceptions are consistent into account when recruiting graduates. that the graduates had, implying the with other surveys that have been Institution attended and volunteering perceptions of employers were not conducted in Kenya. For example, one was ranked as the very important, entirely negative. It is noteworthy that survey of employers and employment followed by performance at recruitment 19 per cent of the employers were agencies revealed that Kenyan interview. Discipline of choice, relevant dissatisfied with the level of confidence employers prefer to recruit graduates work experience, research area of and voice and ethical awareness skills from institutions where they have interest and reference/recommendation of the graduates respectively; 12 per successfully recruited in the past, with letters were ranked as relatively cent were dissatisfied with language the University of Nairobi graduates important criteria. At the other extreme, command and communication, while being the most preferred in many fields qualification results, internship as part 10.3 per cent were dissatisfied with due to the university’s ranking in Africa, of course, relevant work experience the level of critical thinking skills, its reputation as the oldest university post-qualification, and performance at collaboration and attitude of the in Kenya and the fact that a large recruitment interview were considered graduates respectively. number of senior managers in blue least important in that order. These The low level of satisfaction among chip companies are alumni of the results show that employers perceived employers with the graduates’ level institution. 119 Another survey by the quality of education and training of ethical awareness points to another an employment agency, Corporate received by graduates not just in terms aspect of graduate employability in Staffing Services (2015), 120 shows that of the mastery of content exhibited, but Kenya which may have become more the majority of employers in Kenya also in terms of other attributes not of an issue as university education (64 per cent), pay considerable directly related to the subject content. expands. In another survey by the attention to leadership experience, Many of these can be developed by Aga Khan University in Nairobi, 121 on and another 61 per cent to engaging in a variety of activities and the attitudes of youth in Kenya on a volunteering experience when contexts outside the classroom. In this number of issues, the respondents recruiting fresh graduates, because regard, the constant complaint from seem to condone corruption and graduates with this experience are employers regarding the quality of unethical behaviour with regard to the found to be outspoken, team players, graduates in Kenya would be a pointer acquisition of wealth. The survey shows flexible and able to take initiative. that they are more dissatisfied with

119. The East African. (2009) Why employers are interested in where you got your degree. Available online at: www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/- /2558/526142/-/view/printVersion/-/d680b2z/-/index.html 120. Corporate Staffing Services (2015) Hiring: Trends, Challenges and Future Outlook. Quarter One Talent Report. Nairobi. Corporate Staffing Services. 121. Awiti A, Scott B, and Bhanjee, S (2015) East Africa Youth Survey. East Africa Institute, Aga Khan University, Nairobi, Kenya.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 49 that the belief that hard work results 55 per cent of the respondents were communication and 33.4 per cent in success declines with level of satisfied with the quality of social from legal services were of the view education, with 50 per cent of science graduates. that institutions might not be able to respondents with postgraduate produce graduates with such skills. The trend was the same with business education indicating that they were These happen to be sectors where studies. Responses of those who were unconvinced that hard work brings there is ongoing public concerns about very satisfied or just satisfied were success, as well as indicating a the deterioration of services in Kenya. above 50 per cent for all the attributes high expectation that corruption Poor quality outcomes from basic except the speed of course review. is increasing, and a high personal education and post-secondary test In the natural sciences, 48.3 per cent tolerance for it, with nearly half scores have often been blamed on of the respondents indicated their (47 per cent) of the youth in the sample low standards of teacher training and organisations were very satisfied with indicating that they admire those who management of the sector. The legal the calibre of graduates while 15.5 per make their money by whatever means profession has also been hit by lack cent were quite satisfied. This then and 50 per cent agreeing with the of acceptable lawyer skills, a situation means that graduate unemployment is statement: ‘It doesn’t matter how you that has been blamed on the many not entirely a question of poor quality make your money, as long as you don’t universities now offering legal studies training in the institutions, from the go to jail’, while 73 per cent admitted without the requisite workforce and perspective of employers. that they were ‘afraid to stand up for facilities. The attempt by the regulatory what is right’. The issue here is that authorities to ensure that institutions Employer perceptions of the graduate employability in Kenya may strictly follow provided quality guidelines capacity of institutions to produce point to a broad and complex problem in their operations has been resisted by graduates with the desired skills with an ethical dimension and for which the universities. A high percentage of in 5–10 years’ time university level education cannot be respondents did not proffer an opinion solely responsible. The survey sought from respondents on this issue. It could be that the their perceptions regarding the respondents who were assigned Employer satisfaction with capacity of universities to produce to respond to the interview in some graduates’ attributes by graduates with the desired skills in the organisations did not have a holistic disciplines of study medium term – five to ten years from grasp of the organisations’ workforce the date of the survey. The perceptions Respondents were asked whether they planning and projections. It could also here are based on respondents’ had been satisfied with the attributes be that the forecast of skill demands perceptions of the capacity of of graduates of different disciplinary for the future did not concern most institutions to produce graduates with backgrounds that they had recently institutions largely because the transferable skills, relevant disciplinary hired. The disciplines were grouped Kenyan labour market still operates knowledge and appropriate attitudes. into three categories: social sciences, on a supply-driven kind of environment Even with the small samples that were business disciplines and natural science where universities just produce covered in this survey, 50 per cent of the disciplines. Responses to these items graduates then they fit themselves respondents from the communication were generally low. But analysis from into any openings in the market. The and information services; 40 per cent the few respondents shows that of the situation therefore is that whereas from manufacturing and processing employers who had hired graduates some organisations consistently blame and 35 per cent from the core public in the social sciences and humanities, institutions for producing graduates service were very confident that most were satisfied that students had who do not have the skills required institutions would be able to produce the right skills and associated qualities in the market, neither are the large desired workplace transferable skills in such as the calibre of the graduates organisations that employ most the next five to ten years. On the other but were not satisfied with the speed graduates helping by undertaking hand, 66 per cent of the respondents with which course content was being surveys that provide indications of from the education sector, 50 per cent reviewed to meet changing market their skill requirements in the medium from transport, information and needs. Overall, an average of over to long term.

50 Universities, employability and inclusive development Regarding the capacity of the positive attitudes and ethical discussion above, there was a general institutions to produce graduates considerations seem to be largely perception among employers that with relevant disciplinary knowledge, lacking among graduates coming out courses at universities are not being most respondents were either very of Kenyan universities. The perception reviewed fast enough to match confident or confident. The results by employers that institutions will not changes in skill requirements. In the show that organisations from the be able to produce people with such survey, most employers asserted that agricultural sector ranked this at attitudes means that institutions need they did have contact with universities, 100 per cent. Most of the other to do more to change the world view although only in one case was this sectors were either very confident of their graduates as regards the ‘very frequent’. It would seem that or confident, largely indicating an world of work. employers who seek specific skills above average level of confidence and professional qualifications had a in the institutions to continue producing University-employer engagements more practical incentive to engage in graduates with a high quality grasp to enhance graduate employability curriculum review with the universities of disciplinary content. Researchers and policymakers, drawing compared to other institutions. Lastly, the survey asked the on international good practices, have respondents if they thought the urged universities and employers to University students’ perceptions institutions will have the capacity to constantly engage with each other on the contribution of their produce graduates with positive to bring the world of work into the institutions to graduate attitudes. On average, over 50 per cent university classroom, and to take the employability university classroom into the world of the respondents from education, As part of the study, the perceptions of work and the communities where core public service and agriculture of students on the contribution of graduates will work and live. In Kenya, were confident that this would be the their institutions to ensuring their the Commission for University case. On the other hand, 100 per cent employability following graduation Education regulations require that, for of respondents from the transport, were gauged through a survey universities to introduce new courses information and communication sector; questionnaire administered to 1,037 and in the course of reviewing existing 66.7 per cent of the legal services and final year students from two large ones, labour market conditions should hospitality sectors; 57.1 per cent of the public and one private university. be taken into account through needs financial services sector; 37.5 per cent The survey was complemented with assessment, a market survey or a of the health and social work sector focus group discussions and life situation analysis and that stakeholders and 33.4 per cent from the education histories of a sample of students. An should provide inputs to the process. 123 sector were not very confident that the analysis of student responses regarding No indication is given on who should institutions would continue to produce their future career interests shows that, initiate such linkages, but there is a tacit graduates with the right attitude. regardless of the type of secondary understanding that, given the role that A positive attitude and flexibility to work school attended, most students aspired universities play in the development have been shown in the literature as key to self-employment rather than formal of societies, they should initiate the attributes that employers look for in sector wage employment. graduates. As corroborated by the later engagements and be more welcoming survey by the Aga Khan University, 122 to employers. As can be seen from the

122. Ibid. 123. Commission for University Education (2014) Universities Standards and Guidelines. Nairobi. CUE.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 51 Table 5: University student career interests

Type of secondary Further Private Self- school attended Academic study Public sector sector employment Charity/NGO Government 5.7% 6.3% 7.2% 7.8% 66.3% 6.7% Private 3.5% 10.3% 9.8% 13% 56.7% 6.7% Religious 0 0 0 18.2% 68.2% 13.6%

Source: Compiled from field data.

Regardless of the type of secondary order. This means that according to When asked if the institutions in which school and university attended, on the students, non-academic factors, they were studying had made them average 65 per cent of the students regardless of qualifications will affect aware of different labour market indicated that their ambition was to their entry into the labour market. The options over half (55 per cent) strongly be self-employed. As attested from realism of student aspirations means agreed that their institutions had done students’ responses during focus group that universities should prepare so. However, it appears that less than discussions (FGDs) and personal life students for self-employment rather half of all students have access to history interviews, these perceptions than focusing solely on training for career guidance and indeed, during are informed by the reality of a formal sector employment. However, the interview sessions, students were shrinking formal job market. Most when asked what other skills they of the opinion that the career services students also thought self-employment had learned at university, fewer than provided by their institutions are was a better alternative compared to 40 per cent of the respondents in all weak. Student responses also indicated formal employment where entry three types of institution mentioned a lack of opportunities in their required more than formal qualifications. skills such as leadership, business institutions to develop various generic For example, when asked what they awareness, organisational planning skills; a response that ties in with that of thought most influenced their chances and time management, teamwork, employers when commenting on the of employability, a majority of the communication and presentation quality of graduates. students in the sample indicated skills; appreciation of cultural diversity; institutional status and reputation, honesty and integrity. In short, skills gender, availability of jobs for certain that would prepare students for self- specialisations, family networks and low employment were largely lacking, yet economic growth in the country in that this is their ambition.

52 Universities, employability and inclusive development Table 6: Students’ responses on the opportunities available in the institutions to prepare them for employability

Students’ involvement in other Urban-based private Rural public Urban public activities at the university university university university Worked on student newspaper 3.8% 4.9% 1.7% Member of student representative council 8.3% 11. 2% 7.5% Other student body or university club 18.4% 24.5% 22.3% Class or degree representative 7.2% 9.8% 7.1% University sports 10.3% 12.9% 20.1% Residence committee 4.5% 6.0% 5.9%

Source: Compiled from field data.

As seen in Table 6, across all the themselves for the workplace. evaluate the presuppositions of the institutions, a majority of students These extra courses are mainly courses that are being taught.’ reported that they are involved in strategic, to add advantage for [the] activities outside their degree competition in job search and are Emphasising the issue of employability, programmes, which can be a way useful in providing practical work a respondent from the private of enhancing their employability experiences to students. Faculties university reflected on: through widening their experience have gone commercial, leaving ‘Why do students still come to this and developing soft skills. Clubs and lecturers with little time for research university when they pay more associations were important in all and renewal of what they teach. A when they can pay less and the universities, with participation in majority of the lecturers, therefore, university (X) has many places now? sports being more common in urban both in terms of content and When this university was starting as public universities, perhaps reflecting pedagogical approaches do not a private university, there was the availability of opportunities and benefit their students much in probably not any other – we only facilities. Students also sought to terms of [their] employability.’ used to have University (Y) up here, supplement their degree studies and there was nothing. So why are with other courses. For those with Staff from the private urban university we still having students coming to us resources, their first choice is to studied repeatedly indicated during when we are … probably the second register for a professional course interviews that their programmes [most] expensive university in this alongside their degree studies. focus on the job market and therefore area. I think the whole thing is you Increasingly, they reported, those claimed that their graduates are more still have people who believe that placed in courses that had not been of readily employable, though no data on they want to spend their money in their choice were taking this alternative. graduate transitions was available to this kind of programme. And I think Interviews with a number of academic confirm these claims: one thing that is important staff across the institutions, especially ‘…there’s a category of private information here is that … the market those from public universities, universities that are chartered, and also appears to prefer it. We have confirmed these responses from this [university] is part of that, just programmes here where our students. They attributed it to the like public universities. As a matter of students just go, they just, you know, declining quality of the undergraduate fact, a university like this, that was get into jobs, I mean into the job education and programmes provided, chartered in 1994 …we would expect market, just that easy. I think the which in their view is affecting the that every lecturer who comes to our society, the Kenyan society – employability of graduates. For classes has a better, I mean, has a and not just Kenya, we also have a example, one academic from a public good grasp of how to bring on board very, very high international student university noted: discussions that will sit at the very population, and we have about ‘Some of our students take some foundations of the programmes and 34 nationalities at the university.’ course[s] when at university and the courses and which, when posed, after graduation to prepare will force the students to begin to

Universities, employability and inclusive development 53 Unlike such sentiments expressed by to enhance the employability of students who are budding staff from a private university, public their graduates. Transformations in entrepreneurs with the opportunity university staff were more critical, universities that indicate these attempts to launch their careers and develop especially regarding the rapid include new institutional mission innovations that might be picked up expansion of public universities and statements and visions that focus on by industry. The assumption on which the effect it is having on the quality producing graduates equipped with these interventions are based is that of learning processes, including the relevant knowledge and skills related to students need to develop creative limited contact time they have with the job market, rebranding institutions ideas that can be turned into profitable students given their increasing and degree programmes, expanding business ventures instead of looking numbers. This, in their view, is student enrolment and modes of study, for formal employment. To achieve having an adverse effect on the offering market-driven programmes, this, a supportive environment for employability of their graduates. internationalising campuses and entrepreneurship within the institutions curricula, enhancing information and is said to be required. According to University management and communications technology, information proffered by university policymakers’ perspectives diversifying sources of revenue, administrators during interviews across increasing focus on the customer/ all the three universities in the study, University management staff, especially client, adopting international standards provisions have included the creation from the public universities, however, of excellence, such as the International of business accelerators, labs and consistently rejected the perception Organization for Standardization’s (ISO) co-working spaces to provide a variety that universities are turning out quality management systems, and of support services, all with the goal of poor quality graduates. From their prioritising curricula geared to assisting start-ups to be successful and perspective, the blame for the inability developing skills in graduates that will grow. Students have found such hubs of graduates to find work lies with the help them compete favourably in the a good environment in which to launch economy, which is not expanding knowledge-based global economy. their applications, software and ventures, sufficiently fast to absorb the growing and to access business mentorship number of graduates. They indicated Universities have also introduced and community engagement. that the universities had made efforts innovations in an attempt to provide

Examples of innovations to enhance graduate employability

The Chandaria Business solutions to the challenges facing rather than job seekers. Innovators Innovation and Incubation Centre various industries. Supported by are provided with support such as (BIIC) at Kenyatta University a Kenyan industrialist, whose name business development services, seed This centre (Chandaria-BIIC) was the centre has taken, BIIC focuses capital, space, telephone services, launched in July 2011 to support new on supporting up to 120 start-ups high speed internet, stationery, and innovative ideas developed by per year (70 per cent Kenyatta administrative support, professional Kenyans. The centre accommodates University students and staff and guidance and mentorship for a both Kenyatta University students 30 per cent others). It aims to blend period of 12 months (with a possible and other Kenyans in need of applied research with innovation extension) and every business support. It aims to promote a culture and the establishment of start-ups, at the Chandaria-BIIC is required to of innovation among Kenyan youth as well as to predispose Kenyatta meet various milestones to continue through various programmes and University students and Kenyans in receiving support. a platform from which to provide general towards being job creators

54 Universities, employability and inclusive development Strathmore University Incubation and entrepreneurship in ICT, has committed about KES13 million Hub and @iLabAfrica Research while the incubation hub was ($160, 000) to support four viable and Innovation Centre started in April 2013 to complement projects in four rounds in 2015. The Strathmore Innovation Hub is not the iLab and boost the university’s The hub will admit 18 to 25 students a single intervention, but a broad- status as a centre for nurturing for entrepreneurship training for based umbrella programme that student entrepreneurs. The centre between six months and a year. seeks to utilise the university’s will accommodate up to 50 The facility is meant to encourage expertise in entrepreneurship entrepreneurs. The hub has offices students to be less reliant on education in the Strathmore Business for business process outsourcing, obtaining formal employment through School, Strathmore Enterprise business mentorship and consultation providing seed capital and contacts. Development Centre and the School to support student innovators and To finance the training and other of Management and Commerce to entrepreneurs and boost self- operations of the hub, the university offer inter-disciplinary courses on employment. The hub will also partners with technology companies entrepreneurship. The aim is to equip expand Strathmore’s existing such as Google and Safaricom, which students with skills and a sense of iLabAfrica research centre, which have established training academies professionalism that will complement was set up in 2011 to spearhead on campus and fund various their classroom knowledge. The research, innovation and research projects taking place under Strathmore iLabAfrica research and entrepreneurship in ICT. The hub the umbrella of the incubation hub. innovation centre was set up in 2011 is supported by the The Idea to spearhead research, innovation Foundation from Norway, which

An emerging trend among universities units are likely to benefit students in themselves into. Traditionally, they in Kenya is to claim that they have the long term, as engagement in noted, the mandate of universities taken action to promote the research and development is likely was not to train for the job market employability of their graduates. to provide them with opportunities to but to focus on teaching, research Most of the interventions, like those link into international networks and and community service. Their ability presented in the boxes above, revolve widen the field in which they can seek to tackle the problem of graduate around business education and ICT- employment. The innovations, however, employability is, in the view of based technologies. The idea is that, face two limitations. First, they are policymakers, limited due to the with business and ICT skills, innovation often limited to a few students in a few lack of funds to improve the quality is possible, and if the context is academic programmes, rather than of programmes and engage a more favourable, it is possible for graduates being university-wide. The second qualified workforce. The other issue to engage in their own businesses, limitation is that the innovations are raised by policymakers is the lack of thereby helping to solve the being implemented in a context of availability of ‘blue collar’ internships unemployment crisis. There is also a a quality crisis in undergraduate and a perception that employers are sense in which the rush by companies education as a result of underfunding not providing enough opportunities to to fund or establish business hubs in and reliance on inadequately qualified students before they graduate. In their universities is part of a strategy to and inexperienced academic staff. view, the university expansion and benefit from the skills that students curriculum orientation are still white- Higher education policymakers, in and faculty have. In other words, it may collar oriented, rather than being contrast to university managers, be cheaper for a company to establish focused on the informal skill market and seemed to lay the blame on the a research unit in a university (an technical areas where most jobs are universities and the government. apparently benevolent gesture), available. Universities, they note, rarely According to policymaker perspectives, while cutting down on their in-house send students on attachments in small employability is a new concept that research budget. Nevertheless, such and informal firms. According to these universities have not yet tuned

Universities, employability and inclusive development 55 informants, the problem of graduate useful for their planning through long time to review their curriculum, unemployment has been accentuated conducting labour market surveys and if at all, to meet the expectations of by the clamour to open more developing close working relationships employers. On its part, the government universities, at the expense of middle with employers, regulatory bodies and has constituted a taskforce to draft a level vocational colleges. The latter, professional bodies that accredit policy on internships, but this has yet to once transformed into universities, programmes. be finalised and its focus seems to be gradually shade off their vocational more on the youth generally than on orientation in favour of arts and Conclusions and university students and graduates. humanities degree programmes whose recommendations Universities, on their part, continue graduates find it difficult to find jobs. The perception that graduate to claim that they are producing good Universities, they suggested, also need employability is an increasingly serious quality graduates, but data rarely to focus the training they offer on areas problem in Kenya is strong, especially exists to confirm most of these claims. where skills are needed. For example, among employers. The latter lay the Investing in systematic data collection the tendency for institutions to take in blame on the quality of training by both employers and the universities more students for teacher education provided by the universities, which is one of the challenges that needs to programmes, graduates from which has, in their view, created a pool of be addressed immediately. Universities are likely to be unemployed for over unemployed graduates in a labour need to invest more in obtaining ten years, should be reconsidered in market that is experiencing skill systematic data on labour market skill favour of restricting intakes to fit the shortages. Beyond such complaints, demands and on demand for graduates demand in the market. Indeed, the however, there do not appear to be any from various courses, and to be better fact that graduate teachers stay out systematic interventions by employers informed of the skill requirements and of employment long after graduation to engage with institutions to improve curriculum adjustments needed to while schools experience shortages the quality of skills training. Employers meet these labour market demands. of teachers is an indication that should, for example, provide technical Nevertheless, while the institutions dysfunctions in sections of the labour assistance to universities in order to need to improve on issues like frequent market rather than low quality graduate enhance career guidance and career curriculum reviews, expanding the training also contribute to the crisis in services. In addition, interaction range of student experiences while graduate employability. between university students and at the institutions and gauging Despite the challenges, institutional potential employers in their fields of labour market trends, the economy leaders have become innovative and study should be strengthened, through would need to expand as fast to are increasingly establishing linkages events, field visits, and practicums/ accommodate the number of with employers, although on a small internships. Programmes should also graduates leaving the universities. scale compared to enrolments. The seek to mainstream mentoring into Despite these challenges, it is Chandaria Foundation, for example, has student–faculty interaction and interesting that student perceptions partnered with a number of public and internships. Awareness should be on their employability are changing. private universities to encourage the broadened among employers of the Most students in the sample were establishment of business incubation importance of engaging with the prepared to consider self-employment units in universities to enable students institutions more frequently especially as part of their career aspirations. to be socialised in entrepreneurial skills regarding issues of curriculum review Students increasingly perceive a before graduation. Other corporate and labour market projections to university as ‘not only important for entities, such as Equity Bank, are improve information availability, getting a job but it can also empower providing students and graduates especially regarding potential you to be self-employed and create job with work attachments and training career pathways. opportunities.’ (Student, regional public in business skills. In addition, some Few employers participate regularly in university, Kenya). The problem is that universities are establishing new institutional curriculum reviews nor are neither the institutions nor employers academic programmes. Such initiatives they providing adequate opportunities are providing students who wish to are, however, hindered by the lack of for students to undertake volunteering become self-employed with adequate data on labour market trends. In the and internships before they graduate. skills and the context is often not authors’ view, universities should invest On the other hand, institutions take a conducive to realising these aspirations. more in generating data that will be

56 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 4 – In pursuit of graduate employability and inclusive development in Nigeria: realities and expectations

Segun Adedeji and Stephen Oyebade

a. Economic/political/social context different economic reforms intended to Nigeria is, by far, the most populous make it a global economic player. These 1. Background country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), reforms notwithstanding, the standard with a population of close to 170 of living of the average Nigerian and This chapter presents a summary of million. It is a middle income, mixed human development indicators still rank research activities in Nigeria as part economy and emerging market, below average in comparison with other of the Universities, Employability and with expanding financial, service, developing economies. Table 1 provides Inclusive Development project. The communications, and entertainment relative socio-economic indicators chapter is divided into six parts as sectors. Though currently among Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and follows: 1) Background information underperforming, the manufacturing South Africa. The indicators reveal the on the economic, political and social sector is the largest on the continent, development status of the four countries contexts in Nigeria; the higher producing a large proportion of goods that participated in this study. Nigeria education system; the labour market; and services for the West African ranks lowest among these countries and key challenges relating to higher region. Nigeria’s economy is the with respect to several indices, despite education (HE) and employability. 26th largest in the world, as well as its GDP per capita being well above 2) National government policies on the leading 124 economy in the African that of Kenya and Ghana. For example, higher education and employability. continent and is on track to becoming Nigeria has a Human Development 3) University provisions for tackling the one of the 20 largest economies in the Index (a composite of income, life challenges of graduate employability. world by 2020. However, like most expectancy, and adult literacy) ranking 4) Employers’ perspectives on the calibre African countries, Nigeria continues to of 153 out of 187 countries that were of graduates, relevance of the skills struggle to achieve what seems to be ranked by the UNDP, with Ghana, Kenya acquired and speed with which course an elusive ambition of economic and and South Africa slightly better at 135, content is being adapted to meet political emancipation, even after more 145 and 121 respectively. changing business needs in different than five decades of independence. disciplines. 5) Innovative case studies. The country has witnessed various 6) Conclusion and recommendations political changes and has undergone for policy and practice.

Table 1: Some socio-economic indicators – Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa

Ghana Kenya Nigeria South Africa Human Development Index (HDI) ranking 135 145 153 121 (out of 187 countries as at 2013) and score (0.558) (0.519) (0.471) (0.629) Life expectancy at birth (2013) 61.1 61.7 52.5 56.9 Adult literacy (aged 15+, 2015) 76.6 78.0 59.6 94.3 Combined gross enrolment (GER) in education (2007) 56.5 - 53.0 - GDP per capita (US$, PPP, 2011) 3,532 2,158 5,353 11,78 8 Poverty Population living below $1.25/day (%) 30.0 43.4 64.4 13.8 Population living below $2 per day (%) 57.7 - 83.9 13.0 Population below national poverty line (%) 40.2 - 34.1 - Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index 0.438 0.440 0. 296 0.422

Source: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013. SSA averages: HDI – 0.514; Life expectancy – 51, 5; Adult literacy – 86.3; Combined GER in education – 53.5; GDP per capita - $2,031.

124. Nigeria rebased its gross domestic product (GDP) data in 2013, which pushed it above South Africa as the continent’s biggest economy. Nigerian rebased GDP totalled $509.9 billion, compares with South Africa’s GDP of $370.3 billion at the end of 2013.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 57 Besides, poverty levels are higher in Furthermore, previous political They also play intermediary and Nigeria than in the other countries, instability has led to inconsistent advisory roles between the Federal despite its relative wealth compared to educational policies, owing to a rapid Government and institutional Ghana and Kenya. It is estimated that turnover of education ministers with authorities. For instance, the NUC about 84 per cent of the population different interests, from supporting is responsible for accreditation of is living below the $2 a day level and, basic education to developing the all programmes in the universities, more than one-third below the national National Open University (NOUN), including state universities, although poverty line. However, all four countries at the expense of the existing it has no role with regard to the demonstrated a high level of inequality, federal and state tertiary institutions. establishment of the latter, which as reflected in their respective Gini The next section discusses the higher is a matter for state governments. indices. In spite of an average education system and the labour In Nigeria, the number of higher economic growth rate of about seven market in Nigeria. education institutions (HEIs) has per cent per annum over the last seven increased tremendously over the years, which is a good performance by b. Higher education system past few years in response to rising global standards, unemployment still The HE system in Nigeria is comprised demand for enrolment. For instance, remains one of the major challenges of universities, polytechnics, colleges of between 2001 and 2005, the total facing Nigeria. Economic growth has education and professional/specialised number of universities in the country not translated into jobs and real life institutions. 125 It includes much of increased from 51 to 80, 126 and to opportunities for many of its young the country’s research capacity 142 by 2015. In addition, the number people, leaving Nigeria with a paradox and produces most of its skilled of non-university HEIs increased to often described as ‘jobless growth’. professionals. Regulatory agencies 350. Thus, Nigeria has the largest Being highly educated does not appear under the Federal Ministry of Education number of HEIs in Africa, though to increase individuals’ chances of (FME) supervise the HE system in South Africa’s tertiary enrolments are getting a job. This has implications Nigeria. Such agencies include the higher than those of Nigeria. Table 2 for the social sectors and indicates National Universities Commission (NUC), shows the number of, and enrolment 127 deficiencies in the provision of facilities the National Board for Technical in, HEIs in Nigeria in 2015. in educational institutions. For example, Education (NBTE) and the National the infrastructural facilities in many Commission for Colleges of Education schools are in a deplorable state and (NCCE). These vital parastatals plan, cannot support quality teaching and organise, co-ordinate and control HE learning. The issue of pervasive system activities. They also manage national corruption has also affected funds, supervise and monitor provision development of the educational as well as development of the HE system: funds meant for development system. Each parastatal helps to ensure purposes are often misused and minimum standards and quality in the diverted. Currently, Nigeria rates poorly institutions for which it is responsible. on the Corruption Perception Index (CPI).

125. International Association of Universities (IAU) (2000) Nigeria-education system. Data for academic year: 2000–01. 126. Okojie, Julius A (2009) Financing the University System in Nigeria, National Universities Commission, Abuja, Nigeria. NUC. 127. This is the estimated enrolment figure of HEIs in Nigeria as at 2013.

58 Universities, employability and inclusive development Table 2: Nigeria’s higher education system in 2015

Type of institution Federal State Private Total Enrolment Percentage Universities* 40 44 58 142 1,131,312 58.4 Polytechnics ** 21 38 25 84 360,535 18.6 Monotechnics 23 2 2 27 Colleges of Agriculture 17 19 0 36 Colleges of Health Technology 9 40 1 50 91,259 4.7 Vocational Institutes 0 0 69 69 Colleges of Education*** 21 46 17 84 354,387 18.3 Total 131 189 172 492 1,937,493 100

Source: *National Universities Commission (2015) List of Nigerian universities and years founded. www.nuc.edu.ng/pages/universities.asp **National Board for Technical Education (2015) Directory of accredited programmes in polytechnics, technical and vocational institutions in Nigeria. Abuja: NBTE.

In spite of the seemingly rapid growth and 1999, the numbers of academic session for international students in in HE, the gap between demand and staff declined by 12 per cent even as the UK and $21,000 in US universities. supply with respect to enrolment has enrolment expanded by 13 per cent. Thus, Nigerian students in these two not reduced. Rather, the demand for There were about 28,000 academic countries, in aggregate, must have access has continued to rise in the face staff in the system, fewer than the spent close to NGN70 billion on tuition of limited supply, resulting in a large estimated staff requirement of about and living expenses per session. 129 enrolment deficit (only one-fifth of 36,000, with consequent negative In this context, it is pertinent to note applicants receive a place in public effects on the quality of programme that the Federal Government budgeted universities). There has been growth in delivery. 128 The problem facing HEIs NGN249 billion for the entire Nigerian the number of private universities since in terms of access and quality has education sector in 2009. The the 1990s, but this has not widened made Nigeria a ready market for the implication of this apparent under- access to education for the poorest, recruitment of potential students by investment in HE for Nigeria’s fragile due to the high fees charged in these foreign universities. For instance, in the economy cannot be overemphasised. privately owned institutions. Efforts to 2008–09 session alone, about 6,256 Table 3 shows the gap between expand enrolment in public institutions and 10,090 Nigerian students were enrolment in Nigerian HE institutions and improve quality are severely registered in universities in the USA and and their carrying capacities. 130 Most constrained by growing shortages of UK respectively, with tuition and living have enrolled many more students qualified academic staff. Between 1997 expenses averaging £19,000 per than their carrying capacities.

128. Bamiro, AO and Adedeji, SO (2010) Sustainable financing of higher education in Nigeria (SUFIHEN). Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. 129. Ibid. 130. Calculated on the basis of teaching and learning facilities available in the system.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 59 Table 3: Enrolment and carrying capacity in Nigerian universities

Institution/system Enrolment Carrying capacity Over enrolment Universities 1,096,312 715,000 381,312 NOUN 35,000 100,000 -65,000 Polytechnics/Monotechnics 360,535 198,370 162,165 Colleges of Education 354,387 118 ,129 236,258 National Teachers Institute 91,259 100,000 -8,741

Source: Okojie (2010) 131.

The economic relevance of expanding the labour market. The International important determinant of household access to higher education relates Labour Organization (ILO), towards income and welfare. Analysis of the to its role in solving societal problems. the tail end of 2015, predicted that Nigerian labour market reveals that it is In almost every country in the more than three million people would dominated by self-employed persons. world, access to higher education is become unemployed worldwide in the As at 2006, four per cent of those recognised as an important societal next two years, making existing jobs working were employers, while the self- goal and higher education institutions vulnerable and fuelling potential social employed (farmers, traders and others) provide the training needed for most unrest. 133 Developing markets like accounted for 54.9 per cent, and skilled occupations and professions. Nigeria, it suggested, will bear the waged and salaried workers (private However, Nigeria’s status in terms of brunt of increased joblessness, and public) made up 38.7 per cent. 134 human resource development is owing to the plummeting price of oil Traders were the most prominent group unsatisfactory. For instance, out of the combined with weak local currencies. of self-employed workers, accounting 140 countries surveyed, the UNDP Thus, as a matter of urgency, oil for 29.1 per cent of total employment. 2011–12 Global Competiveness Index producing countries like Nigeria Other groups of the self-employed (GCI) ranked Nigeria 114th in higher need to aggressively diversify their accounted for a sizeable percentage education and 106th in technological economies and restructure their labour of approximately 19 per cent, while readiness, with five years as the mean markets to nip in the bud the social farmers accounted for as low as number of years of schooling. 132 Not disorder that may arise from youth 6.5 per cent of total employment. only do poor scores in various socio- unemployment. Employers need to If wage and salary earners are economic indicators reveal inadequate actively participate in efforts to bridge disaggregated by sector, the figures access to universities and other higher the skills gap and close the difference showed that the public and private educational institutions, the growing between the knowledge, skills and sectors accounted for 20.1 per cent number of university graduates who values of university graduates and and 18.6 per cent of total employment are unemployed has aggravated public the requirements of the labour respectively. Paid apprentices only disappointment in university education. market. In other words, government, accounted for 2.1 per cent of total employers and others need to work employment. People in paid employment c. Labour market characteristics with educational institutions to prepare and those without adequate skills are students who are equipped with the most at risk in the event of labour market The labour market in Nigeria presently skills needed. shocks. It is, therefore, important to suffers from serious economic identify some of the factors that affect doldrums. The sharp reduction in The structure of the labour market earnings and entry into the labour oil revenue and the global economic influences the employment status of market, and which may put people at slowdown are having severe effects graduates and also serves as an risk of poverty and inequality across on the operations and activities of

131. Okojie, JA (2010) The Nigeria University System: Challenges and prospects. Paper presented at the Annual Seminar of the Pro-Chancellors of State Universities held at the Kaduna State University, Kaduna, 18–19 May. 132. Garba, PK (2012) The impossibility of sound economic outcomes without sound management and leadership. An Inaugural Lecture, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 133. Cited by The Guardian. Available online at: www.theguardian.com/business/unemployment-and-employment-statistics 134. Ogwumike, FO et al. (2006) Labour force participation, earnings and inequality in Nigeria. Available online at: www.sarpn.org/documents/d0002270/ Labour-force_Nigeria_Oct2006.pdf

60 Universities, employability and inclusive development various sectors of employment. Such afford to go to the private universities; unemployment facing graduates from an analysis is essential to facilitate the inadequate funding – expansion Nigerian higher education. Many formulation of policies targeted at without a corresponding injection graduates of higher institutions have reducing unemployment, poverty of resources; declining quality and been unable to find jobs more than and inequality. Unfortunately, detailed an increased number of poorly- ten years after leaving school; 137 studies of the relationship between equipped graduates sent into the those who manage to get jobs are not the structure of the labour market and already congested job market; and usually gainfully employed. Instead, unemployment, as well as wage income rising unemployment, among other they are forced to accept menial jobs and inequality, are rare in Nigeria things. In 2009, the Executive that do not require their qualifications, despite the relevance of such links Secretary of the NUC136 identified particularly in sales, agriculture and to many contemporary growth and some of the challenges facing the manual labour. The lucky few who development policy debates. university system as follows: managed to find gainful jobs are often 1. Inadequate access: as indicated perceived as lacking job-related skills d. Key challenges relating to by the wide gap between the and so need to undergo months of HE and employability demand for and supply of higher training to make them able to satisfy their job requirements. 138 Empirical Higher education has been adjudged education places. evidence indicates that employers want one of the decisive factors in life 2. A massive explosion in student their graduate recruits to be competent chances, equal opportunities and enrolment in the face of and technical in their chosen fields. 139 human capital development all over the inadequate/obsolete infrastructure They also want them to come from world, and is a powerful instrument for and equipment. HEIs well-equipped with complementary developing and empowering citizens. 3. Poor governance structure, life skills, such as problem-solving HE contributes to both human and accountability, and transparency ability, reflective and critical thinking, social development in terms of: 4. An unstable academic calendar interpersonal and team-spirit skills, 1. Higher earnings. resulting from the incessant strike effective communication skills, good 2. Greater labour productivity. actions embarked upon by various character, integrity and a high level 3. Better health and nutrition. campus-based staff unions. of personal ethics, self-esteem, self- discipline, organising skills and ability 4. Faster economic growth. 5. A shortage of academic staff in the critical areas of science and to translate ideas into actions. However, 5. Poverty reduction. technology – poor salaries have the problem typical of higher education 6. Political, economic and scientific created a class of under-motivated in many countries is that these life development academics in the public universities. skills are rarely taught as part of the 135 curriculum and even many students 7. External benefits. 6. Inadequate funding for teaching, with first class results may not have research and community HE increases individuals’ chances of them. Yet they are no less important in development. employment and gives opportunities leading to success in the world of work for job mobility. Nevertheless, the 7. Lack of functional and well-equipped than the specific technical skills in a university sector in Nigeria faces laboratories and e-library facilities. graduate’s chosen field. The HE sector nothing short of a crisis, in terms of 8. Highly deficient, outdated and needs to identify measures that can inadequate access – only a fifth of irrelevant curricula. enhance the ability of graduates to qualified candidates currently gain contribute to Nigeria’s labour market None of these problems is as agonising admission to public universities, and requirements and drive the economy. only some of those remaining can and persistent as the challenge of

135. Babalola, JB (1993) Educational Costs and Financial Analysis (ESP) Centre for External Studies, University of Ibadan. 136. Okojie, JA (2009) Financing the University System in Nigeria. National Universities Commission, Abuja, Nigeria. 137. Olu Akanmu (2011) Graduate Employment and Employability Challenges in Nigeria. Abridged text of presentation given at the Association of Commonwealth Universities/British Council Regional Policy Dialogue on Graduate Employability in Africa in Accra, Ghana, 18 January. 138. Pitan and Adedeji (2012) op. cit. 139. Edinyang, SD Odey, CO Gimba, J (2015) Academic Factors and Graduate Employability in Nigeria. Global Journal of Human Resource Management 3/5: 9 –17.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 61 2. National government policy, to ensure that its economy policy requires students in public policies related to higher creates jobs and life opportunities for universities to pass at least two units education and employability Nigerian youths and higher education of entrepreneurial courses in the graduates. 142 The factors that have course of their degree programme. The Nigerian government has constrained the growth of these The policy is aimed at bridging the consistently acknowledged that access industries beyond infancy, such as poor identified skills gap and addressing the to higher education and production physical infrastructure (particularly problem of graduate unemployment. of quality graduates can be enhanced power and transport), access to Entrepreneurship studies have thus by raising expenditure, but argues that finance, a bureaucratic investment been adopted as compulsory general the current economic reality prevents environment and a dearth of technical studies for students in Nigerian public them from increasing the allocation of skills as well as manpower should universities, though they have not fully public funds. be removed. taken off in some private universities. Foreign private investors, which In its current condition, the education The Graduate Internship Scheme might provide an alternative source system is far from being ready to (GIS) of the Subsidy Re-investment of financial support to the education, address the massive unemployment Programme, (SURE-P) is another key social and other sectors, have problems facing the country, due to policy on HE and employment in also reduced their involvement in its inadequate teaching and learning Nigeria. The scheme, which aims Nigeria because of rampant financial facilities. Meaningful government to address youth unemployment indiscipline, political instability, the intervention is required to address challenges in Nigeria, is one of the poor state of the nation’s infrastructure, the inadequate infrastructure that programmes of the administration insecurity and the unfavourable reduces the effectiveness of the of President Goodluck Jonathan. economic climate. A survey by university system. Nigeria also needs The SURE-P arose out of the partial international businesses working in to develop its formal technical and withdrawal of the petroleum subsidy SSA found that Nigeria is one of the vocational education system, giving in 2012 and the decision of Goodluck most difficult countries in the world it prestige and making it attractive Jonathan’s administration to invest 140 for private investment. Nigeria is to young people, in order to produce the Federal Government’s share in typically known for its oil, but the graduates with the skills needed to infrastructural development, social country’s oil fortune is dwindling. operate labour intensive industries safety-net projects and other schemes While in the past, it contributed more and their value chains. The education that would be beneficial to the masses than 50 per cent of Nigeria’s GDP, it provided by tertiary institutions should of the Nigerian people. The GIS is a provides less than five per cent of be re-sharpened to equip students policy intervention intended to address 141 employment. Recent developments with skills, such as analytical, critical the skills gap faced by many Nigerian in the oil market call for a shift in thinking, entrepreneurial skills, problem- youths who were not able to secure industrial policy. The Nigerian solving and communication skills. employment immediately after government needs to adopt a new graduation. Over 180,000 unemployed Some recent government policies economic and industrial policy that graduates across the country benefited have aimed to address these will promote employment intensive from the GIS of the SURE-P scheme challenges. In 2014, the NUC, which industries with strong potential national in 2014. competitiveness. Industries and regulates the activities of Nigeria’s services such as light manufacturing, university system, approved the Another policy is the Nigerian construction, ICT, wholesale and retail, inclusion of entrepreneurship as Government’s National Economic meat and poultry processing, oil palm a course in Nigerian universities’ Empowerment and Development and cocoa processing, along with their curricula, to train students how to Strategy (NEEDS), which outlined value chains, have the capacity to set up profitable business ventures in strategies designed to promote generate employment. These should their professional fields, or implement economic growth. NEEDS is be the focus of Nigeria’s industrial novel ideas after graduation. This complemented by equivalent

140. Centre for International Development, cited in Saint, W, Hartnet, T and Strassner, E (2003) Higher Education Policy 16/3: 259–281. 141. Olu Akanmu (2011) op.cit. 142. Olu Akanmu (2011) op. cit.

62 Universities, employability and inclusive development approaches at the state level – their graduates and prepare them Seven faculties were covered in the State Economic Empowerment and better for their post-education life survey (arts, education, science, Development Strategy (SEED) and journey. The next section discusses agriculture, social sciences, business at local level – Local Government university provisions designed to tackle management and law). The majority of Economic Empowerment and the challenges of unemployment the students (99 per cent) interviewed Development Strategy (LEEDS). among university graduates. were full time, and 57.7 per cent were The overall policy aim is to strengthen female. The data showed that 50 per food security, increase employment 3. University provision for cent of the students had attended opportunities and boost agriculture as tackling the challenges of public secondary schools, and the an engine for broad-based economic majority (86.4 per cent) were sponsored growth in the country. NEEDS focused graduate employability by their parents. Additionally, semi- on the reduction of poverty and Our research on employability in structured interviews and focus group unemployment. Rising unemployment Nigeria draws on quantitative and discussions (FGDs) were conducted among young people, worsening rural qualitative data collected from three with students and staff from the three poverty and the marginalisation of universities, assesses the overall universities. A total of 90 students women informed the NEEDS policy, situation and identifies recent initiatives from UI, 53 from IMSU and ten from which also aimed at strengthening that seek to address the challenges BU participated in the interviews, drawn financial services by providing of employability facing graduates of from five faculties (arts, education, improved access to credit to assist tertiary institutions. The University social sciences, science and agriculture) young entrepreneurs and small and of Ibadan (UI), a public federal at UI and IMSU and three faculties medium enterprises (SMEs), as a key to government-owned university in the (humanities, sciences and arts) at BU. reducing poverty and unemployment. South West region, Imo State University The students were divided into (IMSU), a public state-owned university different FGDs based on their course Other policies designed to address the in the South East region, and Bingham of study; they were then encouraged challenges of employability include the University (BU), a private faith-based to brainstorm on some predetermined Student Industrial Work Experience university in the North Central region questions. Interviews were also Scheme (SIWES). SIWES is one of the were selected for the study on the conducted with teaching staff and interventions of the Industrial Training basis of their ownership and university policymakers, during field Fund (ITF) and is intended to provide geographical location. visits. Ten staff each from UI and IMSU undergraduate students in the science and 11 from BU, comprising both disciplines with practical/industrial Generally speaking, there is a lack of academic and management staff, experience. It is a work-based study research on employability in Nigeria; participated in the interviews. This programme that seeks to enable what is available focuses on the quantitative and qualitative data was students to acquire and utilise practical perspectives of governments, collected in the three case study skills. However, it is reported that even employers and labour organisations. institutions between 2014 and 2015, participants in the scheme cannot Interestingly, the views of the students with the aim of examining cross-cutting secure employment after graduation, – the recipients of this employability issues, as well as briefly assessing the which casts doubt on the relevance of development – and the lecturers – the services provided by Nigerian SIWES in addressing the challenges of providers of the education, are not well universities with respect to graduate graduate unemployment in Nigeria. known. Hence, this study aimed to employability. Analysts’ Data Services address this gap by examining the In general, the government needs to and Resources Limited (ADSR) was perspectives of students and their create a conducive environment for responsible for data entering, cleaning lecturers on HE and employability in existing policies to work and to allocate and analysis of quantitative data, while Nigeria. A total of 1,036 students aged more resources, as well as ensure its the qualitative data was transcribed between 19 and 26 years participated institutions develop curricula that in a questionnaire survey (517 from and content analysed by the authors. address the life skill requirements of UI, 249 from IMSU and 270 from BU).

Universities, employability and inclusive development 63 a. Summary of key findings study, as well as subsequent career during college, and how these factors This section presents the summary paths to follow, are significant differ between male and female of key findings of the survey of final challenges for prospective students in South Africa, it was found 144 year students and qualitative interviews undergraduate students. Very often, that male career aspirations appeared conducted with the students, lecturers choosing the right subject combination, to be driven by financial rewards, while and some management staff in the leading to the right professional women were more concerned with the 147 three case study institutions. qualification, can make the difference social goods of their career choices. The first section presents the views between enjoying and disliking one’s A similar study in the USA asserted of the students in relation to their career in the future. Individuals making that adolescent career aspirations are career aspirations and scoring of skills career choices are influenced by such influenced by life context, personal 148 developed at the university, followed factors as the context in which they attitudes and educational attainment. live, their personal aptitudes, and their by what the lecturers consider should Figure 1 shows the distribution of educational attainment. 145 In Nigeria, a be the contributions of the universities students interviewed in this study study on career aspirations 146 found that towards enhancing the employability according to their preferred career many youths felt that, in the absence of of their graduates. choices. A significant finding is that adequate vocational guidance and 24 per cent wanted to be self- career counselling, they had made the Students’ career aspirations employed, a greater proportion than wrong career choices due to ignorance, Studies on career aspirations show that those wanting to work in the public inexperience, peer pressure, advice university students all over the world sector (20 per cent) or the private from friends, parents and teachers, or face dilemmas in making career choice sector (12 per cent). Furthermore, as a result of the prestige attached to decisions. 143 In most cases, the choice 18 per cent would prefer to stay in certain jobs. Similarly, looking at the of careers, subjects, and courses of academia, and 28 per cent intended factors influencing career choices made to further their education.

Figure 1: Distribution of students according to their preferred career choices 2% 12%

28%

14%

20% 24%

Further study Academic Self employment Private sector Public sector Charity/NGO

143. Bandura A, Barbaranelli C, Caprara GV, Pastorelli C (2001) Self–efficacy beliefs as shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development 72: 187–206. 144. Issa AO and Nwalo, KIN (2008) Factors Affecting the Career Choice of Undergraduates in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science 18/1: 23–32. 145. Watson, M, McMahon, M, Foxcroft, C, Els, C (2010) Occupational aspirations of low socio-economic Black South African children. Journal of Career Development 37/4: 717–734. 146. Salami, SO (1999) Relationship between work values and vocational interests among high school students in Ibadan. Nigerian African Journal of Educational Research 5/2: 65–74. 147. Sax, LJ (1994) Retaining tomorrow’s scientists: Exploring factors that keep male and female college students interested in science careers. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering ERIC 1/1: 45–61. 148. Perry, NM (2006) Factors influencing career choices of adolescents and young adults in rural Pennsylvania. Journal of Extension: 44/3: 1–6.

64 Universities, employability and inclusive development Students’ ranking of their Barriers to obtaining employment Contribution of extra-curricular degree studies with respect However, students acknowledged activities to employability to employability that possession of suitable skills is A university graduate who equips To determine students’ responses on not always sufficient for gaining himself/herself with skills additional the contribution of their degree studies employment, especially when ethnicity, to the knowledge acquired in the to their future employability, levels of discrimination and partisanship are classroom is expected to be more agreement with four statements were the deciding factors in recruitment. attractive to an employer due to the elicited, using a five-point scale: ‘I know The students interviewed alluded to practical experience already gained. which skills and experiences are valued the fact that what counts ultimately is A student affirmed this when she said: by employers of graduates in my field’ not always what one knows but who. ‘…extra-curricular activities have had the highest mean score (3.79), Quoting one of them: increased my understanding and followed by ‘I feel that my degree has ‘…employers, most of the times, idea of the necessary things I could developed my self-confidence and self- do not actually give adequate do, or of the necessary places assurance’ (3.69), while ‘I feel confident consideration to the skills possessed where I could be employed, or the that with my degree I will be able to by applicants during job screening. necessary qualifications I should find appropriate work when I leave Some employers consider beauty have for me to be employable. university’ was next (3.68). However, ‘I and would go ahead to employ a I learnt that an entrepreneur is expect to work in the public sector’ was lady because she is looking very creative and proffers solutions the least rated (3.05). The respondents attractive without knowing her ability to … problems in the society.’ expressed quite strong views on their to deliver on the job. Another reason (Female student in Economics) choice of careers, which is usually could be because you are a friend influenced by knowledge of potential or daughter or a friend’s daughter career experiences that are valued by to the employers, or other personal One of the respondents in a faith-based employers and personal attributes like considerations, which may influence university said the university is known self-confidence and self-assurance. somebody’s chances to be employed for a holistic type of education, which Perhaps surprisingly, the responses apart from what you know, learn, or aims to develop students in their show that most were confident that skills acquired from the college. totality. In this university, a flexible their degree will enable them to find Meanwhile, you [employers] are curriculum gives more room for work- appropriate work when they leave rejecting people with actual qualified study programmes and other extra- university. ability, and who could deliver on the curricular activities, which expose the job, for unqualified ones. In that students to what is expected in the Students’ views on attributes process, even when you employ the world of work. A student respondent developed at the university person, that person will be of little expressed his view as follows: Students also scored the skills they productive value both to the employer ‘Following the structure of my school, had developed while at university. The and to the society at large. And these a faith-based university, first of all, students claimed that attributes such things do not augur well for our they try to capture spirituality; that as the ‘Need for honesty and integrity’, economy and the society in general.’ is, one basic thing that a student ‘Ability to work without supervision’ and needs in life. Secondly, when it Some of the academic staff interviewed ‘Ability to reflect on your development comes to leadership and acquisition agreed with this view, arguing that often, and identify strengths and weaknesses’ of certain qualities, they do permit more attention is given to ethnic group were the top three they had been able us to participate in some extra- and state of origin than the knowledge to develop, while business awareness curricular activities, to a certain and skills a candidate has. One stated: was the least developed. Students extent, to be mature and to develop believed that the three topmost abilities ‘[I]f you don’t belong to this ethnic good character in us. Some of us that graduates need to have are group or you are not from this state don’t really know what we have in us. ‘confidence and voice’ (4.1), ‘ethical of origin, you may not be given It helps us bring out those qualities awareness and social citizenship’ (4.1) employment. This sentiment has in us. That is what the school has and ‘language and communication’ (4.0), eaten deep into the fabric of the been doing.’ while critical thinking and autonomy are Nigerian society. So, if that bias is a little less important (3.6). removed, I think, it will help many (Male student in Economics) of our graduates to be employed anywhere in [the] country.’

Universities, employability and inclusive development 65 Figure 2: Contribution of extra-curricular activities to employability 35% 31.3 28.9 30%

25%

20% 15 12.9 15% 12

10%

5%

0% Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree

Figure 2 shows the perceived These are the things that we are strong affiliation with the accounting contributions of extra-curricular trying to promote in our graduates professional associations, like activities to employability. About so that they won’t graduate and be ICAN and ANAN, we have good 60 per cent of the students agreed seeking for white-collar jobs.’ relationships with them. We develop that extra-curriculum activities our students to understand this undertaken while attending university Another lecturer added: profession and then we encourage are likely to help equip them for their ‘I think this university is doing quite them to prepare for external working lives. a lot, but we can do more, even at examinations co-ordinated by these the departmental level. I can tell you, associations. Also, we are partnering Contributions of the university one of the recent things we have with ACCA certified chartered This section discusses the views of introduced is to increase the interest accountants of the UK.’ students and staff on the contribution of students in more practical things The students were also asked for their of their university towards enhancing like going into writing. You can be perspectives on the contributions that the employability of their graduates. writing and you can go into media universities make to development in As noted above, the NUC has directed practice. We encourage them to Nigerian society, showing broadly public universities to include courses become public speakers, to write positive views on a range of issues, in entrepreneurship in the curriculum articles. We know that some of including values, civic development in order to prepare students for the my colleagues here have been and poverty reduction, as shown in world of work and participation in responsible for organising public Figure 3. society. A senior member of staff in debates to make sure that we are the Department of Accounting in one of producing people that can stand the selected universities affirmed that: out and when they go out, they will be adjudged as being properly ‘We are running, in our department, educated and as such they can get and in fact, not just our department, jobs easily.’ but in the whole university, to ensure that our students undertake Moreover, one of the lecturers in entrepreneurial courses. Not only Social Sciences said: do they go through the theory ‘Our students are well prepared but also engage in practical for the job market; one of the things entrepreneurship. They undertake that we do is that, as much as practicals; they develop skills and possible, we ensure that they are undergo some practical sessions to linked with accounting professional acquire skills for self-employment. bodies. We ensure that we build a

66 Universities, employability and inclusive development Figure 3: Contributions of university to development in society (mean rank)

My university fosters positive 3.8 values in students

It is important for graduates to help in reducing poverty and 3.75 inequalities in society I plan to contribute to such development through my 3.72 work/career

My university encourages its graduates to contribute to society 3.72 after they leave the university Graduates from my university are willing to contribute to social development 3.58 which benefits everyone in society

Overall, university graduates 3.49 make better citizens

0 1 2 3 4 5

Developing students through capacity prospects after graduation, given other attachment and practical experience. building programmes is another way in stakeholders’ concerns about quality They said that they considered which universities can prepare students of provision. 149 They also have positive themselves ready for entry into the for the labour market. One of the views about the potential of university labour market and were seeking out lecturers stated that: education for transforming society. job opportunities. They also claimed ‘We provide capacity-building However, they are concerned about that in pursuit of their corporate social programmes for our students, and the barriers to obtaining employment responsibility aims, organisations had develop in them the confidence to in practice, even when having the often made visits to the universities advertise themselves and the required graduate attributes. in which they had studied to train department as much as possible students in the skills and competences when they graduate. We train our b. Follow-up student interviews required in the labour market. The majority believed that their degree students to believe that employers A subsample of the students who had courses had equipped them very will always be looking for them. So, participated in the survey were traced well for the labour market. They also when our students are leaving here, and followed up. Most were, at the time believed that the extra-curricular they will be leaving shoulder-high of the interview, still serving in the activities undertaken at the university knowing that when they get outside compulsory National Youth Service had helped to equip them for life after there, people will be looking for them Corps (NYSC). 150 These graduates graduation. Moreover, they said that the to employ because of the strong agreed that the programmes offered work they were doing at the time of the foundation the university has given by their universities were helping them interview was related to what they were to them to face the challenges of the to contribute to society in many ways. trained for in university. However, many labour market.’ The programmes they mentioned noted that, even if they would prefer included organised workshops and Overall, students show surprisingly public sector employment, very few capacity building activities by various positive views towards their such jobs are available, and expressed student associations, industrial training/ experiences at university and their willingness to be self-employed.

149. The possible reasons for these attitudes have been explored in the Students in the Driving Seat report. 150. The NYSC is a one-year compulsory national service for graduates from public and approved private universities in Nigeria who are under 30 years of age.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 67 Next, this chapter reports on the graduates, although about nine per of the graduates they had interviewed/ perspectives of employers on how cent had not, and 18 per cent did not recruited, the relevance of the skills well Nigerian graduates are prepared respond to the question. Vacancies for these graduates had acquired, the for the labour market. graduate-calibre jobs are in short volume/number of graduates recruited supply in Nigeria because of the and the speed at which course content 4. Employer perspectives economic slowdown and the embargo is being adapted to meet changing placed on new recruitment, so that business needs by discipline was As part of the final phase of the project, potential employers have to cope with ranked. The findings (see Figure 4) a survey of employers was carried out increased numbers of job applicants. reveal that graduates from the natural to elicit their perceptions of the quality science disciplines ranked highest in all of training received by students while In Nigeria, every graduate vacancy except in the speed at which course enrolled in university and the job- attracted an average of 83 applicants content is being adapted to meet readiness of fresh graduates. Some 101 in 2014, compared to 69 in 2010, with changing business needs. Graduates respondents were interviewed in Lagos competition for each available position from these disciplines were perceived (40), Ibadan (31) and Abuja (30). The intensifying as more students leave as being of high calibre and having the organisations included education and higher education each year. skills required by employers. training institutions, manufacturing and Of those graduates the employers industry, and hotels and services in The criteria used by the respondents interviewed had recruited, 43 per cent both the private and public sectors. to set minimum entry standards for were from social sciences, humanities graduate recruitment were also ranked, and arts disciplines, followed by as shown in Figure 5. a. Summary of key findings graduates from business studies Our findings reveal that in the two years (26 per cent) and natural sciences prior to the survey, more than 75 per (22 per cent). The satisfaction of cent of the employers had recruited respondents concerning the calibre

Figure 4: Mean ranks of the satisfaction of employers

2.94 Speed at which course content is 2.91 being adapted to meet changing 2.89 business needs 2.78

2.94 Volume/number of graduates 3.09 from available disciplines 3.08 3.02

3.03 3.21 Relevance of skills acquired 3.01 3.15

3.11 3.24 Calibre of these graduates 3.07 3.10

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3

Others Natural sciences Social sciences Social sciences, humanities and art

68 Universities, employability and inclusive development Figure 5: Criteria used for minimum entry standards (percentage) 80% 72.3 70% 61.4 57.4 60% 56.4

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% Leaving Completion of Relevant work Use of certificate specific courses experience assessment selection process

Figure 6 shows the scoring of the (whether home or abroad) as such criteria used in filling graduate an important criterion in selection. vacancies. On a five-point scale, Contrary to expectations in relation to employability skills (e.g. attitude, the value of extra-curricular activities, communication skills) ranked highest they valued ‘traditional’ qualifications (4.15), followed by discipline or subject and knowledge (3.94) more than choice (4.14). The employers did not enrichment activities, such as work consider the location of the university placements and volunteering (2.48). at which an applicant had studied

Figure 6: Mean rank of criteria used by organisations when recruiting graduates

Employability skills (e.g. attitude) 4.15 Discipline or subject choice 4.14 Qualification result 3.94 Performance at recruitment interview 3.93 Relevant work experiences post-qualification 3.13 Recommendations 3.04 Research areas of interest 3.03 Relevant work experiences pre-qualification 2.99 Internship as part of course 2.98 Institute attended 2.85 Extra-curricular activities (e.g. students) 2.85 Others 2.8 Internships in our organisation specifically 2.69 Volunteering 2.48

Studied abroad 2.15

0 1 2 3 4 5

Universities, employability and inclusive development 69 The respondents also identified some Employers were asked how frequently deliberate with employing organisations major challenges they face when filling different types of collaboration and jointly appraise each other’s graduate vacancies. Below are some between university and industry activities and the teaching of of them: occurred. The responses showed that entrepreneurship. recruitment of graduates and provision 1. Too many applications for On how to improve collaboration of workplace training and development few openings. between industry and university, were most common (jointly ranked 2. Unqualified applicants. the following measures were proposed highest), implying that university – by the respondents: 3. Getting someone who is fit and has industry engagement is most the required skills or competence. frequent, followed by work placement 1. Contribute to infrastructural 4. Inability of job seekers to compose opportunities for students, while development, setting of standards themselves during the interview. co-operation on curriculum design and course accreditation. 5. Coping with the pressure of and study programmes was next. 2. Involvement and participation in ‘godfathers’ – pressure from highly Collaboration on research and teaching and academic seminars placed personalities, that often innovation was next while joint organised by universities. affects a recruitment decision. business ventures with academic 3. Strengthening the student work researchers was the least common 151 6. Inadequate work experience. experience scheme (SIWES) area of collaboration. However, the to enhance practical training 7. Inadequate ICT knowledge. results showed that none of these and technological transfer. 8. Lack of necessary practical skills forms of collaboration were frequent. 4. Involvement in curriculum design, and communication ability. The respondents were also asked to planning and modification. 9. Gap between what is learnt in rank the importance of different types 5. Inclusion of organisation members education and what is needed of university – industry collaboration. on university management boards. in the work place. Co-operation on curriculum design and study programmes was considered 6. Provide a conducive environment 10. Applying acquired knowledge to be the most important, while joint that will support and encourage in the workplace to achieve business ventures with academic collaboration between employers organisational goals. researchers ranked least. It appears and universities. Figure 7 shows the mean rank of the that collaboration between universities 7. Award of scholarships and financial degree to which the respondents were and employers is just starting to assistance to indigent students. satisfied with the skills possessed by develop, and respondents admitted 8. Organise regular stakeholders’ the graduates they had recruited in that there is room for improvement, and university-employer for a. the 24 months prior to the survey, with especially by organising ‘stakeholders’ indication that there was some lack of forums’, when universities can 9. Participate in collaborative satisfaction. research. 10. Provide constant and regular Figure 7: Mean rank of satisfaction of skills possessed by the feedback on the performance of graduates recruited in the 24 months prior to the survey graduates in the labour market.

Relevant workplace/ 2.89 transferable skills

Relevant subject/ 2.85 discipline knowledge

The right attitude 2.71

151. The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a work-based study programme with reference to skill acquisition and utilisation in tertiary education in Nigeria – see above.

70 Universities, employability and inclusive development We also tried to find out what, in the an appropriate training programme to The views of graduates and employers employers’ view, the universities could build the extra capacities needed by in terms of the qualities, characteristics, do to contribute to the development their recruits. Collaboration with skills and knowledge which constitute of their organisations. Respondents universities was relatively low, however, employability both in general and suggested the following: and they affirmed that universities and specific terms were juxtaposed. The 1. Produce on a regular basis employers could work more closely students expect graduates to have graduates who meet the together in the areas of ICT training, technical and discipline competences requirements of different and the exchange of new ideas and from their degrees, but the employers economic sectors. innovations. To prepare students with want graduates to demonstrate a appropriate skills, they agreed that broader range of skills, including 2. Partner with organisations to industries and universities should also language and communication skills, know what types of qualities are collaborate on curriculum design, knowledge of the subject matter, desired from university graduates. implementation and evaluation. critical thinking, a positive attitude, 3. Improve university –industry ability to collaborate, workplace research collaboration. Students’ and employers’ skills, confidence and voice, ethical 4. Prepare graduates who are views contrasted awareness and social citizenship. worthy ambassadors for their Whereas many of the students The employers require work-ready institutions when they eventually surveyed in this research bemoaned graduates who can take decisions, enter employment. that there is no job for them after act according to instructions, find 5. Create a conducive forum for graduation, the employers surveyed opportunities, take initiative and interaction and sharing of ideas. were of the view that graduates are produce results. However, these skills are not taught in the universities; and 6. Implement curricula that are not always well prepared for work. even many students with first class market-responsive and can The employers believed that academic results may not have these soft skills. meet present needs. standards have fallen considerably over recent decades and that a Both students and employers value 7. Develop innovative teaching university degree is no longer a industrial attachments and relevant methodologies to improve the guarantee of communication skills or work experience in enhancing quality of teaching and learning. technical competence. As a result, employability. While employers expect 8. Establish entrepreneurial and skills university graduates are commonly applicants to have relevant work acquisition programmes that can viewed as ‘half-baked’. University experience that has contributed bridge the skills gap between graduates, on the other hand, to the acquisition of collaborative, university education and the complained of the high level of interpersonal, language and needs of employers. unemployment as well as pervasive communication, and critical thinking 9. Disseminate research reports corruption in the Nigerian state, which skills, the students complained that promptly, for the benefit of they allege has deprived them of job limited job spaces, where they could employers. opportunities. The situation is of great do practical work, lack of flexibility in the length and timing of training as well 10. Produce all-round graduates concern as shown during the course as inadequate funds remain barriers to who can use their hearts, heads of a recruitment exercise for the their aspirations. and hands. Nigerian Immigration Services (NIS) in February 2014, which turned into The messages conveyed by these Summary of employers’ views an indescribable tragedy for many comparisons are clear: Nigerians, when about 6.5 million job The perspectives of employers in the • Large numbers of university seekers in all 36 states, including the survey on the calibre of graduates were graduates are unable to meet the Federal Capital Territory, besieged not very negative, but they did show employment requirements of the recruitment centres across the country lack of satisfaction in certain areas. labour market. They believe that even when a for 4,000 vacant positions in the NIS. • The curricula in operation in many deficiency is discovered in a certain A stampede during the exercise left at universities are inadequate to deliver discipline, they would be able to initiate least 16 job seekers dead. employable graduates.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 71 • Perceptions of students and rural development, animal science and young undergraduate farmers to employers on what constitutes livestock production, engineering, food take up agriculture as a business employability are at variance, leading science and ecology, environmental in a rural community. to an apparent misalignment of skills, resources’ management, management between what the students acquire sciences, natural sciences, plant and Academic aspects of and what employers require. crop production and veterinary entrepreneurship training • The shortcomings are particularly medicine. FUNAAB also has a at FUNAAB severe in oral and written Directorate of University Farms, which The CES promotes skills acquisition in communication, as well as in manages the research and training textile design and production, fashion technical skills. facilities for students and staff. The design and clothing, arts and crafts, Directorate has three departments • The policy regulating university – food processing, floriculture, masonry, specialising in (a): commercial and industry relationships is not building maintenance, furniture making, innovative development, (b): teaching very visible. interior and exterior decoration, poultry and research development and (c): production, fish farming, cosmetics, • In many cases, employers livestock unit. graphic design, photography, shoe compensate for insufficient academic making, hair dressing, arts and bead preparation by organising training Entrepreneurship drives making and crèche management. Other and retraining programmes for at FUNAAB activities include auto mechanical and new recruits. This increases firms’ FUNAAB established the Agricultural electrical work, forex trading, events operating costs, and reduces their Media Resource and Extension Centre planning, catering and hotel profitability and competitiveness. (AMREC) in 1991, which operates management. through model extension villages for: 5. Innovations a. Testing latent agricultural Academic programme structure In addition to the general findings technologies. The Centre runs two programmes, reported above, the study sought b. Being used as study villages on namely: to identify specific initiatives designed extension models. a. The Alpha (Basic Programme). to enhance employability. Three innovative approaches are reported on c. Training of students in practical b. The Omega (Advanced Programme). extension activities. in this section. The first is the Centre for The Alpha Programme runs for nine Entrepreneurial Studies at the Federal AMREC has undertaken a number of weeks, during which students are University of Agriculture, Abeokuta training programmes for farmers and taught various skills and interact with (FUNAAB), Ogun State. The second other stakeholders in the agricultural field experts in these trades. They get is the Centre for Entrepreneurship, sector, which have also directly certified in the process. Kwara State University KWASU, impacted positively on food production. The Omega Programme takes this Malete, Kwara State, while the third is AMREC also covers ICT knowledge training further, to the level of the Entrepreneurship and Innovative in various skills, broadcasting and mandating every student participant Development Centre of privately-owned community-based farming schemes, to register a business name with the Pan Atlantic University, Lekki, Lagos. which requires university students Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC). This section presents highlights of spending a year in what is called the They are connected with loan granting/ fuller reports on the activities of Farm Practical Year (FPY) training mentoring institutions and personalities these centres. programme. During this period, in business circles to acquire more student-farmers live and work on experience and obtain soft loans to a. Centre for Entrepreneurial farms in rural communities under kick-start their businesses, using their Studies (CES), FUNAAB the supervision of community-based certificates as collateral. Once farmers and with occasional visits from Founded in 1989, FUNAAB builds repayment is completed, their university-appointed Farm Managers. capacity in various areas of agriculture, certificates are released to them. such as agricultural management and The purpose is to encourage these

72 Universities, employability and inclusive development Component divisions of the Centre Success stories Expectations The CES operates in two distinct The Centre has created opportunities All undergraduates studying in divisions: for its immediate locality to be engaged KWASU are exposed to practical a. The School of Business and in entrepreneurial activities initiated by demonstrations of business in their Entrepreneurship. the centre. It has also produced food and third year of studies. All are mandated many other dairy products for immediate to register a business name before b. The Strategic Businesses and consumption and also packaged some graduation, like in FUNAAB. All students Ventures Division. for export. The Centre has established are also required to take GNS 401 The School of Business and linkages and attracted support from (Social Entrepreneurship). Students Entrepreneurship operates academic external institutions like the Ford are grouped and required to go programmes to which all undergraduate Foundation, A. G. Leventis, MacArthur into different local communities students of the university must Foundation and the British Council. to implement their chosen subscribe as compulsory university- entrepreneurship projects on agro wide general studies (GNS). The b. Centre for Entrepreneurship, information, women’s empowerment, programme is tagged the Enterprise KWASU, Malete family planning, community health, Creation and Skill Acquisition prison outreach, etc. Kwara State University (KWASU)’s Programme, comprising five courses, Centre for Entrepreneurship, The Centre is well known in its in stages, namely: established in 2010, provides training immediate neighbourhood and more Stage One: Business Opportunities opportunities for all students of the broadly across the country for its Identification (BOI): GNS 203 university to be job creators, innovative entrepreneurial programmes. Seminars (Innovation and Product Development). graduates of different trades, and organised by the Centre attract national Stage Two: Business Values successful entrepreneurs. The Centre and international personalities, who Reorientation (BVR): GNS 204 runs Certificate Courses in venture come to present salient issues of (Enterprise Creation and Development). capitalism, innovation management, entrepreneurship and business project management, supply chain development. Stage Three: Practical Skills Acquisition management, business strategy, (PSA): GNS 303 (Entrepreneurship organisation design and planning, c. Enterprise Development Centre Mentorship). strategies of managing small (EDC), Pan Atlantic University, Stage Four: Resource Mobilisation and businesses, etc. Lekki, Lagos Business Plan Writing (RBP): GNS 304 Just like FUNAAB, KWASU’s CES has This centre was established in 2003 to: (Enterprise Resource Planning). a division devoted to practical business a. Help owners/managers of Small and Stage Five: Practical Business Operations: ventures covering water, bakery and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) to GNS 403 (Entrepreneurship Practice). confectionery, bookshop, beauty/hair develop their competences. salon, block making, finance and b. Establish and sustain long term There is also a postgraduate investment, stores and transport, as entrepreneurial ventures. entrepreneurship programme, which well as fashion design, etc. Some of commenced in 2011. The target these ventures are still emerging but, c. Build the capacity of entrepreneurs population for this programme is if more credit opportunities are made and their teams to deliver valuable comprised of senior civil servants in available by the authorities, there are products and services. the state who are close to retirement strong indications that they will soon d. Help entrepreneurs to be better and are sponsored by the state come of age. prepared in accessing finance to government. enable their business to grow.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 73 It operates in two ways: implementing action plans when 6. Conclusion and • Interacting with the business world needed. The media of interaction recommendations represented by SMEs in Nigeria. can be online, via radio, face-to-face in class or a combination of two or • Dealing with academic issues – Conclusion three, as the case may require. In these teaching and examining General Universities in Nigeria used to occupy encounters, assessors and examiners Academic Courses, which are a prime place in the delivery of higher reward active participation. EDC staff compulsory for all registered education but more recently a number also pay on-the-spot visits to business students, and sending the results to of deficiencies have been found in the centres to offer useful advice to relevant university offices for further system, making it unable to deliver on subscribers. Among the certificate processing prior to graduation. its terms of reference. This research courses offered are: has confirmed that poor provisions Programmes for SMEs • Entrepreneurial Management. for skill development have imposed SMEs receive support services from • Social Sector Management. major constraints on the production the centre to help them to implement • Essential Management Skills. of employable graduates as a their growth plans. The centre consequence of the deplorable state constantly builds its network of Academic programme in of teaching and learning facilities, partners and collaborators who share entrepreneurship courses inadequate funding, interruptions to power supply, curriculum design and its passion for the development and In October 2014, Pan Atlantic review issues, reliance on poor-quality growth of SMEs and also partners with University recently introduced staff, and corruption leading to the business community to build the Enterprise Education as an academic mismanagement of scarce resources capacity of SMEs in Nigeria. Examples undergraduate course for all students. and abandonment of time-bound of such partnerships include Diamond Results of the examinations taken by projects, among others. University Bank, Eco Bank, Heritage Bank, and students are processed as part of authorities and policymakers clearly ETISALAT. International institutions such graduation requirements. as the World Bank, Goldman Sachs, need to develop curricula that can Coca-Cola and Africa Foundation also As can be seen from these cases address the observed deficiencies, in provide support. above, there is concerted action particular to ensure individual freedom, being taken to address the challenges self-reliance and national development. In addition, the centre interacts with of employability in Nigeria at an and provides support for small and institutional level. Now that employability Recommendations for policy growing business groups which and inclusiveness in skill development and practice manage between NGN1 and five million are being widely discussed, recent Based on the research carried out, per year and micro/macro business initiatives by universities suggest that and discussions with stakeholders, groups managing large funds (between they see the solution in increasing the following recommendations NGN10 and 100 million per annum). emphasis on entrepreneurship are made: The Business Group delivers its development, so that whatever degree 1. Periodic curriculum review should programme in modules, which enable students obtain, they learn how to be carried out to ensure that subscribing entrepreneurs to spread apply their knowledge in practice and curricula reflect labour market their skill development over five acquire skills that will enhance their characteristics and trends. months. During this period, staff employability after graduation. These members of the EDC and its consulting initiatives are promising, although they partners provide assistance with are often relatively new and do not appear to have been evaluated.

74 Universities, employability and inclusive development 2. Strong university-employer 8. Greater synergy is needed between linkages should be encouraged supply of graduates and the needs to promote the development of the labour market. of employability skills in the 9. The Students’ Industrial Work universities. Employers should be Experience Scheme (SIWES) should encouraged to participate in the be strengthened to support skill process of curriculum design and acquisition and development in modification to ensure that the tertiary institutions. skill gaps identified are bridged. 10. Functional career services centres 3. Public spending on education should be established in universities should be increased and judicious to provide counselling assistance utilisation of resources should be for students, to help them make stressed to guide against diversion career decisions and access timely and misuse of public funds. information on job prospects. 4. Conducive working conditions should be provided for staff to motivate them to higher productivity. 5. Meaningful government intervention should be offered to address the challenges of inadequate teaching and learning facilities and inadequate infrastructure, which impede the effectiveness of the higher education system. 6. Teachers’ modes of delivery should be upgraded, through the provision of ICT facilities; staff training and capacity building should be encouraged to support the all- round development of learners. 7. Transparency and fairness should be emphasised during recruitment of students by universities and of staff by employers to eliminate nepotism, favouritism and sectionalism.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 75 To prepare students with appropriate skills … industries and universities should collaborate on curriculum design, implementation and evaluation. Employer, Nigeria

76 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 5 – Higher education and employability in Ghana

Eric Daniel Ananga, Vincent Adzahlie-Mensah and Emmanuel Tamanja

expenditure led to an economic crisis, to meet these challenges. In particular, compelling the government to the development of so-called 21st Introduction and background negotiate a US$920 million extended century skills – e.g. innovation, creativity, credit facility from the International problem solving, communication, and This chapter presents findings from Monetary Fund (IMF) in April 2015. collaboration – has become very a three-year study on university Despite this, there are frequent power important. education and graduate employability outages, which have exacerbated The state of education is a key in Ghana. The chapter is organised already poor economic growth and determinant of a country’s level of in nine main sections. The first section forced some businesses to cease economic development and its potential describes the higher education system trading. The economy has been further for growth. In Ghana, governments since (HE), while the second comprises a slowed by a fall in gold prices, which independence have recognised the brief discussion on the labour market. has led to mine closures, and negative indispensable role played by education The third section highlights findings growth in the hospitality and catering in socio-economic development. from the study on the challenges faced sector. GDP annual growth rate in Accordingly, efforts have been and by HE with respect to employability, Ghana averaged 7.2 per cent from continue to be made towards the and discusses trends in the sector’s 2000 to 2015, reaching an all-time high expansion of education at all levels. approaches to employability. The of 25 per cent in the first quarter of It is believed that improvement of the fourth section reviews national 2012 and a record low of -3.80 per country’s economy is dependent on government policies relevant to HE cent in the first quarter of 2014. 152 and employability, and findings on its human capital, and, in turn, the employers’ perspectives on graduate A well-prepared citizenry and workforce education system is the major employability are presented in the is the bedrock of any country’s vibrancy, generator of such capital. Since fifth. Provisions made by universities economic viability, quality of life, and independence, this system has 153 to facilitate graduate employability business competitiveness. The undergone a massive transformation, and student feedback on what they education system is the foundation of ranging from reduction in the number think is needed and what universities sustainable human capital, and is the of years of pre-tertiary schooling to offer are reviewed in the sixth section. platform on which economic and social attempts at redesigning the curriculum Findings from follow-up interviews with well-being is constructed. Education is to prepare young people for the needs graduates are presented in the seventh an investment in human capital which of the labour market. For example, one section. The eighth section presents is expected to contribute to economic of the main goals of the education on three innovative approaches to growth by improving the productivity system – as outlined in the education enhancing graduate employability, and of the labour force, and reducing strategic plan (ESP 2010–20) – is 154 the final section concludes by briefly income inequality and poverty. making education relevant to industry. summarising the findings and identifying Education – including knowledge Currently, there are about nine million some policy implications of the study. acquisition and skills development – Ghanaians in the education system, is a crucial determinant of individual of whom 7.7 million are in basic Ghana has been a stable democracy and national prosperity; it also improves school, about one million in secondary since 1992. It is one of Africa’s biggest quality of life and brings broad social education, and about 312,000 in tertiary gold and cocoa producers, and is rich benefits. The world is undergoing education. Over 71,000 graduates in other minerals such as diamonds, rapid economic transformation due from both private and public tertiary manganese ore, bauxite, and oil. Its to technological innovation, increasing education institutions enter the labour huge international debt was cancelled globalisation, and changes in workplace market each year but it is estimated in 2005 but more recently the plunge practices. Many countries are that there are currently over 200,000 in oil prices and high government transforming their education systems unemployed graduates. 155

152. Okudzeto, E, Mariki, WA, Lal, R, Senu, SS (2015) Ghana 2015: African Economic Outlook. AfDB OECD, UNDP 2015 Available online at: www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/2015/CN_data/CN_Long_EN/Ghana_GB_2015.pdf 153. In the 2014–15 Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) report, Ghana ranks 111th of a total of 144 countries (with a score of 3.71), although this is a slight improvement on its 2013–14 rank of 114th (Schwab, 2014). The country is regarded as being in a ‘fact-driven’ stage of development, dominated by unskilled labour and natural resources, with low productivity. The GCI report concludes that, ‘Education levels continue to trail international standards at all levels, labour markets are characterised by inefficiencies, and the country is not sufficiently harnessing new technologies for productivity enhancements (ICT [information and computer technologies] adoption rates continue to be very low)’. (Schwab, 2014). 154. Amin, AA, and Awung, W (2005) Economic Analysis of Private Returns to Investment in Education in Cameroon. Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Education in West Africa: Constraints and Opportunities, November 25–26, Dakar, Senegal. 155. Allotey, GA (2015) Worsening graduate unemployment a ‘time bomb’ – ISSER. Citifmonline, 9 July. Available online at: http://citifmonline.com/2015/07/09/ worsening-graduate-unemployment-a-time-bomb-isser/

Universities, employability and inclusive development 77 The higher education In terms of governance, the Ministry as fully funded and wholly residential, system in Ghana of Education is responsible for HE. both in terms of their operational However, the sector was re-organised budgets, and the costs of student The university is the principal HE by the University Rationalisation tuition and maintenance. However, institution in Ghana. However, ‘tertiary Committee (URC), which was increasing demand for HE has led education’ is employed as a generic established as part of the restructuring to a reorganisation of this institutional term for programmes offered in various of education in 1987. In accordance model and mode of delivery, with locations, including universities, with the recommendations of the URC, diversification of the HE system polytechnics, and other specialised the NCTE regulates the HE sector; regarded as a necessary strategy professional institutions, all of which identifies norms for universities, for meeting the growing demand for have both public and private forms. which serve as policy benchmarks higher education and achieving Government policy on tertiary for monitoring the performance of national development goals. Also, education is designed to promote institutions; establishes instruments private provision of tertiary education access and foster the development for determining institutional resource has increased significantly over the of a critical pool of human resources, requirements; and aids in institutional last decade although without any with the aim of accelerating national planning and ensuring operational financial support from government. development. Until the early 1990s, efficiency. 159 Public HE institutions Currently, private HE institutions tertiary education was mainly state are financed principally by the Ghana constitute 61 per cent of the sector’s sponsored, but since then, the sector Education Trust Fund (GETFund), providers, three having received has been liberalised to allow the supplemented by internally-generated charters to operate as fully-fledged entry of private providers. This has funds. Universities are managed and universities. led to rapid growth in the number of administered by vice-chancellors, institutions and students: there are Enrolment has risen steadily (Table 1): who serve as chief executive officers. currently 203 tertiary institutions – in the public HE sector, full-time 96 public and 107 private. 156 The The HE system has become highly student numbers grew from 168,182 National Council for Tertiary Education diversified in its provision of an in 2008–09 to 248,507 in 2014–15 (NCTE) and the National Accreditation expanded tertiary education. Over – an increase of 76 per cent; and Board (NAB) regulate the tertiary the years, student numbers have enrolment over the same period in the education sector. also grown and employers demand private HE system nearly quadrupled, an increasing variety of institutional increasing from 17,220 to 64,112 – According to the Education Strategic programmes. There are seven public an escalation of 272 per cent. 160 Plan (ESP: 2010–20), 157 the overall universities in the country, which are Private institutions currently enrol strategic goal for tertiary education is augmented by six public specialised 20.5 per cent of students, compared to ‘increase equitable access to high or professional institutions that offer to 10.7 per cent in 2008–09, however quality tertiary education that provides a variety of professional programmes growth has tailed off since 2013 since relevant courses to young adults within in ICT, business, public administration, the national accreditation board has Colleges of Education, Polytechnics maritime studies, and languages. prevented some institutions from and Universities, and for research and Until recently, public universities were admitting new students until they intellectual stimulus.’ 158 operated by the Government of Ghana have met the requisite standards.

156. These figures are calculated from NCTE data. 157. Official education delivery policy document. 158. MoE (2012) Education Strategic Plan 2010-2020. Policies, Strategies Delivery and Finance. Government of Ghana, Accra. Ministry of Education Publication 159. NCTE (2012) Sustainable Financing of Tertiary Education: Building Ghana’s Future. 160. These figures are calculated from NCTE data.

78 Universities, employability and inclusive development Table 1: Total higher education enrolment (2008–15)

2008–09 2009–10 2010 –11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 Public 168,182 179,998 185,268 202,063 221,803 238,574 248,507 Private 17,220 18,329 53,535 59,899 61,874 75,272 6 4,112 Total 185,402 198,327 238,803 259,002 283,677 313,846 312,619

Source: Calculated from NCTE data.

The labour market university graduates, are estimated is also high: the last two Ghana Living to enter the labour market every Standards Surveys showed that income Unemployment is one of the most year, but only two per cent of those inequality, as measured by the Gini serious political and socio-economic employed in the formal sector are Coefficient, increased from 0.38 to issues facing policymakers in Ghana graduates, with many forced to seek 0.39. The World Bank estimates that today. Overt unemployment may work in the informal economy. 164 growth in income inequality over the appear quite low according to official This makes it difficult to track labour last decade has reduced the poverty sources: different figures have been market trends since this category is reduction impact of growth in the quoted by different sources over the mostly unregistered. 165 The economy economy by almost three percentage years, but according to the Ghana is characterised by underemployment, points, and poverty among the working Statistical Service, the unemployment poor working conditions, ambiguous class is still quite high, a general rate averaged 8.82 per cent from 2001 work relationships, low wages, and decline in the nationwide incidence to 2013, reaching an all-time high of high levels of income insecurity. 166 of deprivation notwithstanding. 12.9 per cent in 2005. 161 However, It is reported that a significant number a very large proportion of the labour In respect of university education of informal sector workers do not force is locked into employment in and the labour market specifically, it receive wages but merely a daily the informal economy. 162 In the early is alleged that though the country’s living allowance. 167 1980s, when a structural adjustment population is becoming more educated, programme was first introduced, the In addition to job insecurity, the the current supply by the tertiary formal sector employed about 20 per Ghanaian labour market is characterised education institutions of skills required cent of the total workforce. Currently, by low wages. The national daily by the key growth and job creating however, it employs just some ten per minimum wage has been below US$2 sectors still remains inadequate. 168 cent of the total labour force, the a day for more than 20 years, about It has been argued that there is a remaining 90 per cent being engaged ten per cent of public sector mismatch between the skills employers in the informal economy. 163 For most employees receive a salary that keeps require and the types of courses graduates of universities, polytechnics them below the national poverty line, offered by education institutions. 169 and other HE institutions, the public and those employed in the informal This contributes to the difficulty of sector used to be the major employer, economy are much more likely than obtaining employment – a problem but this situation has changed those in the formal sector to be unable that may be exacerbated because dramatically. Over 250,000 young to earn an income above the national graduates tend to be quite selective people, including over 40,000 daily minimum wage. Income inequality about the job opportunities they are

161. Ghana Statistical Service (2013) 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Analytical Report. Accra: GSS. 162. Informal-sector workers are largely self-employed individuals such as farmers, traders, caterers, artisans, and crafts people (ISSER 2013). 163. Ghana’s informal sector consists of micro- and small-scale enterprises, including producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. Additionally, some intermediary service providers, such as suppliers of raw materials to manufacturers on a contractual basis, fall into this category. 164. Baah-Boateng, W (2008) ‘Employment Generation and Poverty Alleviation’, in Amoako Tuffour and Bartholomew Ahma (eds) Poverty reduction strategies in action: Perspectives and Lessons from Ghana. Lanham MD: Lexington Books; ISSER (2013), Ghana Social Development Outlook 2012. Accra: ISSER. 165. Twerefou, DK, Ebo-Turkson, F, and Kwadwo, AO (eds), (2007) Labour Market Flexibility, Employment and Income Security in Ghana. Employment Policy Papers. ILO: 1–86. 166. Osei-Boateng C, and Ampratwum, E (2011) The Informal Sector in Ghana. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. Ghana Office, Accra. 167. ISSER (2013) op. cit. 168. Country Operations Department (2012) Republic of Ghana Country Strategy Paper 2012-2016. Africa Development Bank. 169. Twerefou et al. (2007) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 79 prepared to pursue. However, given on job market readiness through rumours on the street that are not the competition for formal sector alliances with private and public the products of empirical knowledge. employment, graduates have increasingly sector agencies. 174 The government People talk about graduates who been forced to be prepared to work has pledged to track, monitor and cannot perform without providing for lower wages. A final notable feature evaluate student flows to enhance the[ir] justification for saying so. of the labour market is that public the development and design of Now, no one knows exactly what the sector workers tend to earn much programmes tailored to job market mismatch is between programmes lower salaries than those employed needs. However, this has not been being offered and the requirements in the private sector, although working extended to HE. of the world of work.’ for the government is more likely to In terms of the HE–employability (Interview with policymaker) guarantee job security. 170 nexus, it appears that stakeholders are uncertain as to the nature and Key challenges with respect extent of the problem. This is attributed The absence of data on graduate to higher education and to a lack of tracer studies and rigorous destinations and the nature and dimensions of any mismatch between employability data on graduate unemployment. Indeed, other than GSS data on programmes offered and the Given that education is generally graduate unemployment and a few requirements of the world of work is regarded as an investment, most studies on graduate destinations, 175 a concern. The lack of a competency parents sacrifice their scarce resources little research has been undertaken. framework or a standard by which to have their children educated in More recently, the government has the employability of graduates can the hope that it will open the gates put in place structures to collect data be assessed are also problems, making of attractive employment. 171 Securing a on the distribution of employment, it difficult to assess the quality of job and earning a good salary is indeed unemployment and industrial accidents, graduates and match them with market to some extent dependent on how high as part of its Labour Market Information requirements. Nevertheless, anecdotal an individual climbs the education System (LMIS) project. Through analysis evidence reveals that there are some ladder; however, it has also been of labour market trends 176 it is believed doubts as to whether university argued that university education fails to that the information collected will in students graduate with the necessary produce employable graduates, either future help education providers align competencies and skills to make them for wage jobs or self-employment. 172 course provision and training with employable, have the competencies In this regard, Ghanaian universities labour market needs. to operate as team players and have been described as overly innovators, or have an ability to theoretical in their approach to With regard to the relevance of work with little or no supervision. curriculum design and failing to university programmes to labour train graduates to be innovative and market demand, there is some There is also uneasiness with respect entrepreneurial, with the result that scepticism among policymakers to the ability of academic institutions they are still mostly job seekers rather and university faculty alike that there to implement curriculum innovations than job creators. 173 is any mismatch: designed to address questions of employability: there is said to be a lack One of the key aims of the 2007 ‘Tracer studies do not exist. We of organised thinking about how HE Ghanaian education reform was to receive no formal feedback from can respond to the needs of the market link education to the world of work industry to suggest that graduates and no set of agreed general skills that by developing programmes that focus are not performing. You hear many HE graduates are expected to have things, but they seem to [be due to]

170. Ibid. 171. Addae Mensah, I (2013) Differentiation and Diversification of Tertiary Education, Paper presented at the National Policy Dialogue on Tertiary Education, Mensvic Hotel 8–9 May 2013, Accra Ghana. 172. Dai Kosi, A, Tsadidey S, Ashiagbor, I and Baku, DM (2008) Graduate unemployment in Ghana: possible case of poor response of university programs to the demands of the job market. ERNWACA Research Report. 173. Ibid. 174. Akyeampong, AK (2009) Revisiting Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE). Comparative Education 45/2: 175–195. 175. Lassy, AT, Lassy, PD and Boamah, M (2013) Career Destination of University of Ghana Medical School Graduates of Various Year Groups. Ghana Medical Journal; Abagale, FK (2012) Performance Evaluation of University Graduates: Case of UDS Graduates from 1998 to 2010. Priscebs Publishers, Anwomaso, Kumasi Ghana; Ghana Statistical Service, 2013. 2010 Population and housing Census; National Analytical Report. Accra Ghana; Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2014. Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6; Labour Force Report Accra Ghana. 176. Ministry of Manpower, Youth and Employment (MoYE) (nd) Establishment of a Labour Market Information System; National Draft Report. Accra, Ghana.

80 Universities, employability and inclusive development acquired. These concerns indicate HE in Ghana faces tremendous Some efforts to strengthen the the need for an organised discussion challenges, as listed in no particular linkages between tertiary education on how HE can contribute to skills order above. Most important is and industry have included: development. Drawing on an analysis the problem of increasing enrolment • Establishment of curriculum review of tertiary education in Ghana, the key without commensurate expansion of bodies for new programmes challenges faced by HE are listed below. physical and academic infrastructure, introduced after NCTE/NAB which puts undue pressure on both assessment. Key challenges faced by the facilities and staff. For example, the • Adoption of a competency-based HE system public HE sector employs a total of training model by polytechnics. • Unbridled development of private 6,177 academic staff and the average • Provision of lecturers’ book and institutions with no clear policy student-to-teacher ratio (STR) in the 2014–15 academic year was 43 to 1, research allowances to facilitate on their growth. 180 whereas the desirable average ratio research. • Over-concentration of private specified by the NCTE is 19.3 to 1. 177 • Tertiary institution provision of institutions in two major cities Moreover, although the proportion research and staff development funds (Accra and Kumasi). of HE students enrolled in STEM from GETFund through the NCTE. • Rate of increase in enrolment programmes compared to those taking • The Student Industrial Attachment unmatched by infrastructure humanities, arts and social sciences Programme (SIAP). development. continues to vary, there is a persistent • Low enrolment in science and gap between the two, the average ratio The Student Industrial Attachment technology programmes. being about 40 to 60 and 21 to 79 in Programme (SIAP), introduced in Ghana, is designed to offer students • Rising cost of HE. favour of the latter in public and private institutions respectively. 178 opportunities for the practical • Slow progress on gender parity. application of theories and principles • Inadequate advanced qualifications learned at university or college; to National government policies and industrial experience among better understand principles learned HE staff. on HE and employability in the abstract; to interact and share • Inadequate technical capacity of The HE system has experienced experiences with industry workers; and supervisory bodies to perform several policy reforms over the years to learn of the contribution of industry effectively. and various innovations have been to national development. It has been implemented. However, the main policy suggested 181 that SIAP’s ‘objectives • No comprehensive national reforms have focused on structural include helping students to acquire qualifications framework. reviews and the issue of employability new manipulative skills and sharpening • No comprehensive policy framework has been neglected. For example, old ones, getting students acquainted on HE funding or budget allocation following the URC report and education with technologies new to them, mechanism. restructuring in 1987, the length of students being able to acquire • Increasing graduate unemployment study for a bachelor’s degree was interpersonal skills, and developing and underemployment. extended from three to four years. positive attitude towards work.’ SIAP • Role ambiguity among HE However, there has been some in its current form is described as a supervisory bodies. emphasis on subjects that would lead ‘unique pathfinder programme’ which to the development of skills relevant is designed to help students develop • Limited authority of NCTE and to the scientific and technological career pathways, through industrial NAB in enforcing compliance with development of the country. 179 attachment opportunities. 182 Student national policy. interns are assigned to industry or • Low quality of research output. workplace environments for a period • No clear national research focus. of one month.

177. These figures are calculated from NCTE data. 178. Addae Mensah (2013) op. cit. 179. NCTE (2012) op. cit. 180. The government does not provide block research grants to institutions. 181. Donkor F, Nsoh, SN, Mitchual SJ, (2009) Assessment of supervised industrial attachment of a technical and vocational teacher education program in Ghana. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education 10/1: 1–17. Available online at: www.apjce.org/files/APJCE_10_1_1_17.pdf access December 2015 182. Baah-Boateng (2013) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 81 In the present study, policymakers employers in Ghana. 183 Twenty-eight respectively. Having the ability to work interviewed confirmed that there is no public and private companies in a culturally diverse environment specific national policy on graduate participated in the present study, was critical to most multinational employability, with statements including covering the financial, insurance, and private companies and this was ‘We do not have a coherent policy on telecommunications, oil and gas, therefore rated highly too. Work higher education and employability’ hospitality and catering, haulage, experience was also considered and ‘We don’t have benchmarks or a and media sectors, among others. important, as internships and competency framework because of attachments were considered to be a policy role conflict between NCTE Qualities employers value very helpful in introducing graduates and NAB.’ in students to the workplace. These responses suggest that one of An evaluation of graduates’ skills While employers want prospective the reasons for the lack of a policy has by employers was conducted to employees to demonstrate skills to do with the locus of responsibility ascertain their satisfaction with the relevant to the job market, they also and apparent confusion between the skills of recent recruits. It emerged value qualities relating to lifelong roles of the different governing bodies. that employers place a high premium learning, the ability to develop specific Another reason is in all likelihood on graduates who are knowledgeable skills (e.g. teamwork, problem solving, because all public Ghanaian universities in their fields of study and possess critical thinking), and evidence of are chartered autonomous institutions. some other skills and attributes experiential and authentic learning. Nevertheless, as a way of linking considered to be necessary in the Accordingly, in addition to the ranking university education to the world of workplace. When employers were of the above 17 skills, employers work, a NAB directive on accreditation asked to rank the skills and attributes were also asked to select from a list requirements has made it mandatory they required of employees, attitude of ten qualities those that they value in for institutions to show evidence of to work was, on average, ranked the prospective graduate employees. The industry input in designing degree highest (94 per cent) and a second interviews revealed that the paramount programmes, which may encourage language (11.4 per cent) as the least qualities identified by employers were institutions to link programmes to important. For example, when probed knowledge, possession of practical changing workplace requirements. further, one employer responded: skills and adaptability. Most employers ‘The fact that an employee has a believe that, once a student has Employer perspectives good attitude to work will show in acquired sufficient knowledge and is ready to adapt to the workplace, Employer evaluation of graduates’ skills the willingness to take responsibility the next crucial factor was to provides feedback on the extent to and … to cope with work pressure. demonstrate an ability to work with which students learn the necessary From my experience in this company, others. Findings in terms of qualities knowledge, skills, attributes and this person will be more likely than valued by employers also show that competencies to equip them for the not to have the capacity to be community engagement, concern for world of work. It is important to note flexible and adaptable, will be open the common good, environmental that industry does not expect graduate to change due to adaptability.’ awareness, and ability to cope with recruits to arrive comprehensively (Manufacturing company) diversity are rated highly. trained to carry out specific jobs; rather, employers are more interested Generally, most employers engaged in the attitudes, competencies and The second most highly valued skill in this study prefer employees with basic skills of new graduate employees. was ethics and integrity (82 per cent), practical skills, job-related experience while problem solving (71.4 per cent) and work-related skills, being unwilling Including both the state and private and critical thinking (71.1 per cent) to train newly recruited employees sectors, there are over 437 registered were rated third and fourth in non-specialised practices. While – as well as many unregistered –

183. Ghana Employers’ Association Report (2010) Annual Report and Financial Statements 2010. Accra, Ghana.

82 Universities, employability and inclusive development one set of employers (those in the Indeed, not a single participating The employers’ position is that most hospitality sector) reported that they employer indicated overall satisfaction graduates are not employable – they always retrain newly recruited with graduate skills and attributes. do not possess the skills required employees because the nature of Employers acknowledged that they by employers. That view speaks the work requires it irrespective of any had a responsibility to provide training back to competencies with which previous experience, most others did to employees, but the study found a HE institutions equip graduates: it not. In addition, graduates need to stay growing concern about the extent questions not only the content and up-to-date with non-technical as well of graduate recruit training needs, nature of the training received, but as technical skills and to be open to for example: also students’ school-to-work change and self-development to be ‘Irrespective of who you employ, transition planning and preparation. employable. there has to be some training, but I can attest to my experience in Institutional provision Employer satisfaction with this institution that it is increasingly This section seeks to highlight graduate employees becoming more intense, the amount university provision in terms of It emerged from the interviews of training new employees require. developing graduates’ employability that employers had found it This is not to say that everyone skills. This section draws on findings problematic to recruit graduates needs intensive training, but the from the second phase of the research with the qualities they sought and the majority of employees do.’ project, which involved in-depth number of employees who readily met (Oil and Gas employer) research within four participant employers’ requirements seemed to be universities: Kwame Nkrumah University dwindling. One informant highlighted of Science and Technology (KNUST), the situation thus: It was common to hear graduates the University of Ghana (UG), the ‘The workplace situation becomes argue that unemployment amongst University for Development Studies grave when the skills required their demographic was due to (UDS) and Ashesi University. The data of employees are more scientific insufficient suitable jobs being is drawn from interviews with lecturers, and technical… It will surprise available, but employers took a interviews and focus groups with you to know that even at the contrary view: students, and a sample survey of polytechnics, where most of the ‘The problem of unemployment 2,310 final year students. A pragmatic, technical experts are trained for in Ghana is not caused by lack of flexible and ethical approach was the industries, the intakes are now employment opportunities…it is employed in the sampling of final seeing a greater percentage of the lack of employability...of the year students and subsequent data the student population drifting graduates.’ collection. In an attempt to involve as into offering [graduating from] (Employers’ Association) many individuals as possible, a number programmes in the humanities, of departments were approached that especially in purchasing and supply, offered programmes in the physical human resource management, ‘Many of the fresh graduates sciences, social sciences, arts, and accounting, and hospitality and don’t have adequate training in business studies. Sometimes, informal tourism… You don’t get the types the use of ICT… [and] they lack visits were made to establish contact of skills you are searching for… other skills in teamwork and with people who could facilitate where will the electrical, mechanical, leadership and time-management introductions to potential respondents; civil, oil and metal engineers come in order to become employable at other institutions, the research team from to fill the ever growing human after graduation.’ was invited to attend lectures and meetings, which provided opportunities resources needed for the industries (ICT company) in Ghana? to make direct contact with students who might be interested in participating (Employers’ Association) in the study.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 83 The survey was conducted exclusively tertiary education. Examination of the In terms of the prioritisation of subjects, on the campus of each participating SHS factor is relevant in understanding it emerged that, in spite of a national university, the survey instrument being graduate employability scores. HE policy that emphasises science and given to respondents to complete Eighty-six per cent had attended a technology (ESP: 2010–20), this is not in their own time and collected on a government SHS, with just 14 per cent adhered to. For example, a private later date. It took about two weeks to having been to a private or religious institution such as AU essentially offers distribute the questionnaire to all final- school. There is limited access to senior programmes in the field of business year students in any given department. secondary education in Ghana, and studies rather than science-related In some instances, departmental individuals and religious bodies (mainly subjects. Over 60 different university teaching assistants were asked to Christian and Muslim) with capital are courses are offered nationwide. facilitate meetings with students; in therefore permitted by the Ghana However, the study grouped them into other cases, teaching staff assisted Education Service (GES) to establish an four broad fields, namely, physical and in arranging for us to meet with SHS with approval from the government. natural sciences, social sciences, students after lectures. It took between language and arts, and business and three and six weeks to collect the University programmes and administration. The number of students completed questionnaires. Responses courses offered, students’ taking courses in the social sciences are analysed and presented in the choice of degree courses and humanities in the four case sections on student satisfaction with and their satisfaction with universities outnumbered those their degree courses and their studying natural and physical university education perception of the obstacles to sciences. 185 employability respectively. As indicated in the section on HE in Ghana, there is diversity among Many reasons were given by students Of the 2,310 students sampled, both public and private institutions for their choice of institution and 48 were interviewed, tracked after in terms of the fields of study and course. The four most common graduation, and 28 contacted and courses offered. For example, KNUST responses were: re-interviewed. Notably, some of their concentrates mainly on science and • Availability of the desired programme number had secured employment in technology, and has specialised of study. public or private institutions, others programmes including engineering; • Lack of options. were self-employed, and some were the University of Ghana operates as • Preferred programme. still unemployed. The follow-up an elite and research institution; while interviews sought to understand UDS has a development and rural • Convenient location of the HE how recent graduates are navigating focus, and runs a trimester programme institution. the employability challenges of the that requires students to spend three It emerged that the main reason labour market in Ghana. The interview to four months each year in a rural participants had decided to pursue excerpts from fresh graduates are 184 community. Unlike KNUST, UG and university education was interest in a presented in the section on student UDS, Ashesi University (AU), which is particular subject – they did not link follow-up interviews. a private institution, has an admission their choice to a desire to contribute Most of the sample of final year policy that places emphasis on factors to Ghana’s development. Thus 65 per students were aged 21 to 25 years such as leadership potential, cent of the respondents in the student (79.5 per cent), with a minority being involvement in extra-curricular survey did not think that their university younger (aged 15–20, 1.2 per cent) or activities, communication skills, and fostered positive values or inculcated older (26–30 years, 11 per cent; 31–35 writing proficiency. AU operates a effective citizenship education, and years, 1.8 per cent; 36–40 years, 0.6 citizenship project whereby faculty and 51 per cent did not believe that their per cent; 41 and above 0.4 per cent). other members of staff spend at least degree could be used to benefit The survey identified the types of two hours a fortnight in the community society as a whole. Some students senior high school (SHS) attended by providing services such as numeracy interviewed seemed to be quite participants before gaining access to and literacy tuition, and painting skills. content with their institutions and

184. The trimester programme of UDS was designed officially to run for a full semester but due to lack of funds and other logistical constraints they have been running for only two months. 185. Addae Mensah (2013) op. cit.

84 Universities, employability and inclusive development courses. However, most were not Understandings of employability In respect of the extent to which enjoying their undergraduate and importance attached by employability is embedded in the experience, and would have preferred the academic institution to curriculum, the NAB and NCTE require another institution – or, in some cases, employability skills that a new university course meet the another course at the same university – needs of society before it is approved The ways in which employability is if they had had the opportunity. Other for inclusion in the courses offered understood by faculty and students than those students taking overtly by an institution; periodical review of respectively is likely to shape attitudes practical courses, many complained the programme for every course is towards student career choices. of a lack of practicality in their also mandatory in order to enhance However, few faculty members were programmes of study and declared and tailor the content to emerging able to express views on the concept that HE had not lived up to their employment opportunities. However, of employability, and many students expectations. For example, one it emerged that these requirements 187 had not heard of the term before and student commented: were not being adhered to in the were unable to discuss it; those who universities under study. ‘The university has not fully met did talk about it tended to understand my expectations because the employability in terms of simply getting Although, as noted above, some practical element is missing. I think a job. students were aware of opportunities we should do more practical work for internships, it seems that careers Students’ views on preparation for than this book [on] mining we are services are limited. For instance some the world of work were diverse, but doing: they have to change the of the students said: style of teaching and challenge most mentioned teamwork, as well as ‘Yes, opportunities exist for the thinking of students.’ knowledge and skills they thought were applicable to specific professions. In internships and I have participated (Final Year Bachelor of in it.... Our lecturers talk to us about Arts in Geology Student) response to a question on the most important things to do to get a job, employment and the job market in order of priority, the majority of relating to our course. I don’t know if there is a careers service but I know Overall, not many students were students emphasised practical skills course seminars are organised.’ found to be wholly satisfied. (both technical subject specific and general transferable skills), experience (Final Year Bachelor of Science The interests and career choices related to their chosen careers, and Student in Civil Engineering) of students varied, including banker, innovativeness, which corroborates the lecturer, engineer, accountant, nurse, opinions of employers in this regard. doctor, lawyer 186 and policymaker; ‘No opportunity [has been] made some also expressed a desire to Of the four case universities that available by the university...I am not become entrepreneurs or to do participated in the study only Ashesi aware of any labour market options voluntary work. Surprisingly, only a University offers various types of or careers service by the university... few of those sampled had developed preparation for the world of work Graduates from this programme, an interest in a particular career before directly, including courses in even though they get employment, enrolling in HE. For many, the decision communication skills, team building it is not as a result of the university’s as to which career to pursue resulted and critical thinking. Students at AU and assistance.’ some of those taking practical courses from the subject or course to which (Final Year Bachelor of they had been admitted, which had at KNUST were aware of possible Arts in Psychology and been determined by the HE institution employment opportunities. AU and UDS Physiology Student) itself, based on the availability of space, students also indicated that they had subjects studied at secondary school, opportunities for industrial internships and grade point average. and attachments. However, few of those at KNUST or UG mentioned the availability of such opportunities.

186. Ghanaian students with any relevant first degree can pursue a second degree in law, but the study did not sample law faculties per se. 187. Carrying out a periodic review of the range of degree programmes on offer and reviewing the content of individual programmes or modules to respond to employment opportunities.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 85 ‘No, the university only teaches us programmes – e.g. science and IT – Our reading is that employers have to chew [cram for examinations], mentioned that they were given their own views of what the HE sector pour, pass and forget.’ opportunities for work experience in should do, including the desirable (Final Year Bachelor of Arts their respective fields. curriculum content and training methods and what skills graduates in Geology Student) ‘I have gained enough experience should possess to be employable. from this university because of the That universities for the most part field practical [practical fieldwork]... ‘There exist opportunities out there do not have links with employers There have been opportunities for for internships and work placement or appear to understand their career development ... there are but the university doesn’t help in requirements suggests that more opportunities for undertaking any way to assist graduates to get interaction is needed between internships.’ employment.’ employers and HE sector planners at (Final Year Bachelor of Science both national and institutional levels. (Final Year Bachelor of Science Student in Renewable Natural Student in Renewable Natural Resources Management) Resources Management) Student satisfaction with preparation for the world of However, in response to the question work, and obstacles to graduate Another issue is the consideration as to whether their HE education employability of industrial application in university experience had met their expectations, education courses. With the exception It emerged that many participating and, if not, what they wished had been of AU and to some extent UDS, students were highly dissatisfied with done differently, responses referred such relationships were found to the contribution of their respective to the practical content of courses. be limited to specific programmes degrees to their employability. In their The majority of respondents were and departments. Collaboration eyes, the three main factors affecting of the opinion that their university between industry and some university their employability are self-confidence, is not well regarded by employers. departments notwithstanding, it awareness of the labour market, and emerged that KNUST and UG did not Generally, students’ views indicate awareness of the skills and experiences have any direct policy on employability that they think it is important for valued by employers. These were skills (both technical and transferable universities to maintain linkages with followed by organisation and time skills) development, assuming that industry in order to help them develop management, leadership skills, and students would naturally develop the desired skills. They also believed knowledge of the world of work. such skills as part of the university that development of employment Interestingly, skills such as teamwork, experience. Indeed, few faculty environment awareness through the reflective thinking, ability to work members thought that any skills had provision of university careers advice without supervision, honesty and been omitted from their respective services would be helpful. integrity, and willingness to accept curricula. responsibility were rated as least ‘If I were the vice chancellor of my important by the majority of student Thus, although institutions did go some university, I would intensify careers respondents. In response to a way to preparing students for the world guidance courses to help young question on the availability of of work, students still faced challenges people make proper career choices. opportunities outside formal degree in, for example, practical technical and I would advise that university programmes to develop skills, the transferable skills training with regard education should be made more vast majority of respondents agreed to their chosen career. In general the practical and careers guidance that such activities were relevant degree programmes offered in three sessions should be organised for and available. of the universities under study (KNUST, young students.’ With regard to activities students UG and UDS) contained little practical (A BSc Earth Science engaged in to enhance their content. Nevertheless, even in these graduate who is self-employed employability, possible career and institutions, students undertaking some in cloth making) prospective employer investigation

86 Universities, employability and inclusive development (n=947), and opportunities to The study found that almost all the With graduate unemployment a undertake voluntary work (n=944) graduates who participated in the growing problem for the government, topped the list. These were followed study were of the opinion that there is parents and new graduates alike, some by skills development courses a great need for industrial attachments, participants were interested in creating (n=921) and careers advice (n=817). emphasising the importance of first- their own employment opportunities: Interestingly, support for CV writing hand experience and contact with ‘[The] formal sector as a source of was the employability activity students employers before graduation. employment is not practicable engaged in the least. Although the ‘I believe that in Ghana, getting a job anymore. University education has to universities under study provided some is very difficult these days, so, in reflect realities on the ground: it has opportunities for students to enhance pursuing a university education, the to educate students in a way that will their employability, notably many course of study must be as practical equip them to become employers students reported that they had not as possible in order to create one’s instead of employees. Job avenues taken advantage of the opportunities own job when it becomes difficult to in the formal sector keep dwindling available. get employment in the formal sector.’ and this is causing a high rate of unemployment.’ Students’ views on the factors that (BSc Renewable Natural would influence their prospects for Resources Graduate employed (A BSc Electrical Engineering obtaining employment are revealing. as a fish pond supervisor) Graduate who is unemployed) An overwhelming 88 per cent thought that family connections were the most important factor, and 67 per ‘I am of the opinion that university ‘If one wants to go through university cent believed that the possibility of education should be made more education and be able to get getting a good job depends on family practical. The introduction of [a employment at the completion of the contacts, while 69 per cent considered course in] critical thinking by the course, then one has to embrace the networking to be important. In university is commendable, but it total university experience by being addition, 55 per cent thought that a must be broadened to enable part of academic as well as social life postgraduate degree would make it students to study it throughout their of the university. Also, one should easier to secure employment. 61 per stay in the university.’ consider doing a course that can lead to self-employment in case cent stated that gender was not a (A Bachelor of Arts in Psychology factor likely to affect employability, and Philosophy Graduate who is finding a job in the formal sector fails.’ although this means that an alarming employed as a Social Intern) (A BSc Natural Resource two out of five students thought that Management Graduate who it would influence their employment is employed as Customer prospects. The views of graduates who ‘I would advise anyone starting Service Executive in a were followed-up and interviewed again university not to limit themselves to banking institution) is represented in the next section. just their field of study, but try and learn as much of other things as In sharing their experiences, graduates Follow-up graduate interviews possible. They should also take advantage of the career suggested the following ways in which While participants in the main student opportunities and internship applicants and undergraduates could survey had little to say about prospects that their school prepare for the world of work and make employability, they expressed their [university] may provide.’ the most of the university services views more firmly when the study on offer: tracked them after graduation. Of those (A BSc Business Administration Graduate who is employed • Seek information on the requirements who were interviewed a second time, as a Digital Marketer) of the labour market and the skills 11 were employed – with two in self- necessary to meet them before employment, four were teaching on a pursuing an HE course. voluntary basis, two had remained in • Develop passion and interest in education, and 11 were unemployed. their field of study.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 87 • Seek advice on the career paths of individuals in different fields of study. Blazing Trails: British Council In terms of enrolment, there is usually an open invitation for • Early choice of a career is necessary Blazing Trails is a leadership and applications on the British Council in order to develop the passion to professional development website and social media pages. pursue it. programme designed to equip The programme is operational in • Seek counselling from people who recent and unemployed graduates seven regions in Ghana: Volta, have pursued similar career paths. with employability and other Greater Accra, Northern, Ashanti, relevant skills, to enable them • Take advantage of opportunities Brong Ahafo, Upper West, and to identify alternative career made available at the university to Western. It delivers training sessions opportunities and meet the prepare for a career. to intakes of 35 graduates and 50 requirements of the labour market. • Participate in all aspects of HE offered entrepreneurs. The programme runs It also has a complementary module to develop employability skills. for three days for each group, after designed to support both budding which participants are provided with and established entrepreneurs in continuing support. It was initiated in Interventions, initiatives, building, growing and sustaining November 2012 and was expected and career services their own businesses. Blazing Trails to end by December 2015, with the aims to provide hands-on training In Ghana, major challenges include expectation that it would train 5,000 focused on key skills development in high graduate unemployment, low rates young people aged 18 to 35 years employability and entrepreneurship. of economic growth and transforming over its lifespan. university education to meet the demands of employers (or self- employment). The key role of education is the development of critical skills Kumasi Business Incubator: counselling and advisory services, relevant to the economy, including KNUST training in managerial and the ability to innovate. There is a need entrepreneurship skills, support In collaboration with the National to rethink how tertiary education and to participants to develop their Board of Small Scale Industries training prepares the next generation products and services, and assisting (NBSSI), KNUST established the of graduates for the world of work, participants to implement their Business Incubator to assist 25 and in particular how it can enhance business plans; and Post-incubation selected final year students with graduates’ employability and Stage – which includes the provision innovative business ideas to develop encourage them to be innovative of technical support for research them into profitable enterprises. The and entrepreneurial. Some innovative and development, and implementation goal of the Business Incubator is to strategies have evolved in the of market entry strategies. institutions under study and beyond contribute to the sustainable overall to address the alleged mismatch industrial and business development During the incubation period, between employer requirements and of the country by nurturing and participants enjoy a range of graduate employability and enhance sustaining innovative and competitive privileges including rented the attributes of graduates. start-ups that grow out of student workspace, and shared services research and other initiatives. and secretarial facilities. Other Three of these programmes are Through the provision of business privileges are the considerable highlighted here: firstly, Blazing Trails premises, and training, coaching wealth of consultancy, training, is an initiative of the British Council and mentoring for two years, tuition and coaching available within designed to equip unemployed participants are assisted to develop the university. In addition, KNUST graduates with employability skills micro, small and medium-scale is visited by a host of high calibre and the capacity to exploit career enterprises. visitors and reputable firms. opportunities; secondly, the Kumasi These linkages offer participants The programme is organised into Business Incubator at KNUST targets opportunities to network and three phases – Pre-incubation Stage 25 graduates with good business plans promote their businesses. So far 24 – entailing perfection of ideas, and coaches them in entrepreneurship; of the participants have established development of business ideas into and thirdly, the Career Support and are running their own IT-related plans, and registration of businesses; Programme at AU is a comprehensive enterprises. service for students of the university. Incubation Stage – involving providing

88 Universities, employability and inclusive development Career Support Programme: AU employment prospects after Finally, alumni are closely monitored graduation, the programme helps and encouraged to maintain links The AU Career Support Programme him or her to chart a career path with the university, working closely is organised in three stages. Firstly, and develop employability skills. with graduates, and providing lifelong it offers an intensive course during career coaching, essential skills, which students learn to write CVs, Secondly, the annual AU career fair and business connections around volunteer in their communities, and brings employers to the university to Africa. Together with the Alumni participate in internship programmes. interact with students. Organised as Relations Office, the Career Support Internships are encouraged all year a one-day event, the fair brings the Programme keeps an eye open for round, but most actively during the entire AU community of students, past students, who are provided with long vacation (June – August). With alumni, faculty, and administrative opportunities for career growth and the aid of career workshops, student staff together with representatives of leadership. Collaboration with older forums and interview preparation industries from across Africa. The fair alumni allows AU graduates to sessions, the Career Support provides opportunities for interaction receive coaching from colleagues Programme prepares students to at various career development levels, with substantial work experience, make the most of the internship helps participants understand the as well as knowledge of the AU opportunities. Participants are helped challenges and opportunities of the experience and how it connects to identify a career path and make workplace, and creates a platform with the labour market. their way along it; regardless of how for the recruitment of AU students certain an individual might be about and alumni.

The programmes illustrated above for the world of work. The main findings • The Ghanaian HE system is highlight three key employability point to a number of major challenges: undergoing a tremendous issues: firstly, how a culture of • The lack of a clear national policy transformation: in particular, demand entrepreneurialism that prepares linking HE and the world of work for HE has increased significantly graduates for a changing global remains a major concern; in addition, without a commensurate expansion economy can be developed; HE institution governing bodies are of infrastructure and facilities. Among secondly, practical ways that university unable to state unambiguously what the other results, the quality of programmes and initiatives can they believe to be necessary in terms employability training has been mould students into innovative and of graduate skills. adversely affected. entrepreneurial thinkers; and thirdly, • Although HE institutions believe they how universities can work closely with Good practices are doing all they can to prepare employers to ensure that the courses students for the labour market, • Despite the challenges outlined and programmes offered are relevant graduates and employers alike were above, and in the face of growing to labour market needs. found to be dissatisfied with the graduate unemployment and employability training offered at the employability issues, some innovative Conclusions and universities under study. practices to develop graduates’ employability skills have evolved: recommendations • There is a general disconnect –– The Ashesi and UDS community Identified challenges between most of the content of HE degree programmes and the service and trimester programme. The main focus of this study was the practicalities of the labour market, –– The Blazing Trails programme Ghanaian HE–graduate employability meaning that employers are of the British Council, which nexus. It examined what universities dissatisfied with the preparedness trains young graduates with are doing with regard to ensuring that of the graduates they are obliged employability skills. students are employable, and how to recruit for the world of work. recent graduates and employers view the preparation of university students

Universities, employability and inclusive development 89 –– The KNUST Incubator programme Higher education institutions • Explore ways of providing skills is another good practice that To facilitate effective preparation for development outside as well as supports young graduates to the world of work, institutions should: within degree programmes. become entrepreneurs, primarily • Improve the practical aspects of • Equip students not only to seek through providing mentoring. teaching and learning rather than employment, but also to be job –– The AU Career Support Programme focusing solely on theory. creators and start their own is an innovative package that businesses. • Inform undergraduates of available prepares all students of the employment opportunities. • The gender disparity in all HE university with employability skills institutions should be addressed in • Focus on the quality of outcomes and connects them with employers order to increase female enrolment. before they graduate. rather than merely numbers in the classroom. Recommendations for • Strengthen student careers advice policy and practice services to develop knowledge of the employment environment. HE and training needs to be linked to the world of work within the national education and employment policy framework. To achieve this, active commitment of stakeholders in HE, industry and other institutions to a common aim of preparing young people for the world of work is needed. To ensure effective governance and implementation of programmes to address employability issues, the Graduate unemployment following policy recommendations emerge from this study: in Ghana is not caused

National policy by lack of employment There is a need for the governing bodies of educational institutions to opportunities … it is the consider developing policies in the following areas: lack of employability • Design curricula to link all forms of skills ... of the graduates university education to real-world issues. • Link HE institutions to employers in Employers’ Association order to help identify and develop the desired skills in students. • Strengthen university education institutional outreach programmes. • Encourage the establishment of proactive links between tertiary, technical and vocational schools and industries.

90 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 6 – Enabling conditions

Tristan McCowan

There are three primary purposes to Current policy and practice this chapter: first, to provide a brief across the four countries Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa summary of the key findings from are located within the same continent, the four countries – particularly with National level policy but have distinct histories, political respect to national and institutional The policy landscape across the and economic conditions, and higher policy – assessing the nature and four African countries is for the most education systems. The previous extent of current provision in relation part characterised by a high level chapters have shown the distinctive to employability. Second, the chapter of awareness of the challenges of challenges facing universities in each addresses the question of what employability, but few concrete policies of the countries, and the ways in which graduates need in order to be to address them. In the context of institutions and governments have employable. It provides an analysis the knowledge economy, all of the addressed them. Yet to what extent of the prerequisites for employability countries emphasise higher education can we perceive commonalities in that draws on Amartya Sen’s and the development of high-level skills relation to graduate employability capabilities approach, but relates it and cutting-edge research as part across the different contexts? Is it to personal, institutional and broader of their national strategies. In Kenya, possible to identify a cross-cutting societal factors. Finally, there is an for instance, Vision 2030 calls for a set of conditions necessary for assessment of what universities can rapid expansion of access to higher employability and inclusive actually do in practice, focusing on education, on account of the need development, or responses and potential spheres of intervention for development of science and solutions valid for all? This chapter relating to formal taught programmes technology in the country. The National distils some of the key points from the (classroom) extra-curricular activities Development Plan in South Africa country-specific chapters and outlines (campus) and experiential learning (which also sets out objectives for a set of ideas for understanding the outside the university (community). 2030) also asserts the role of higher prerequisites of employability and As a whole, the chapter develops a education as a motor for economic conditions for its effective promotion. framework for enabling conditions growth through science, technology and innovation. Throughout this chapter – and that countries and universities can indeed the project as a whole – we put in place to give graduates the In addition, countries have a range adhere to the principle that contextual best possible chance of succeeding of policies relating to the labour differences are significant, and that a on leaving university. Importantly, these market and youth skills, often involving universalised notion of ‘best practice’, are not guarantees of employment or technical and vocational education disembodied from the actual political, of a particular type of life outcome – and training. For example, Kenya is economic and cultural conditions in human agency entails that for any introducing a tax rebate for companies which it is located, is neither viable particular set of conditions there are a that are active in helping graduates nor desirable. At the same time, range of possible outcomes in practice to develop relevant skills. 189 In some contexts can learn from one another, – but do provide the conditions needed cases, it is hoped that universities and innovations, ideas and successes for graduates to pursue their life can be used to generate more from one country – what we might call courses without obstructive barriers. favourable labour market conditions ‘generative practices’ 188 – can inform Throughout the chapter, attention will by contributing to a profound and inspire work in other countries. In be paid not only to conditions that transformation of the economy through addition to analysing the challenges allow for the effective development of research and development: this can associated with employability and employment, but also for broader civic be seen in Kenya’s current Science, inclusive development, therefore, this and personal development, under Technology and Innovation policy report has also presented a range of conditions of equity for all students. and the Kenya Innovation Agency. examples of innovation and impact.

188. Scott, D, Terano, M, Slee, R, Husbands, C and Wilkins, R (2016) Policy Transfer and Educational Change. London: Sage. 189. Kira, N (2015) From a tax view, budget seems to be tinkering. The East African, 12 June. Available online at: www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/From-a- tax-view-budget-seems-to-be-tinkering/-/2560/2749138/-/p21egj/-/index.html

Universities, employability and inclusive development 91 However, this chapter will look only Marketisation of higher education has countries, and the overarching aim at those policies that directly relate to had a significant impact on provision of higher education policy since higher education and which focus on across the countries, though to a lesser 1994 has been historical redress for equipping students more effectively extent in South Africa. Competition injustices of the apartheid period for the workplace and their future lives. between institutions for students through the process of ‘transformation’. has led to a largely demand-based Nevertheless, despite the lack of The challenge of expanding the higher determination of the courses offered. explicit promotion of employability education system so as to enable This is potentially positive in terms of at a national level, there are a range of access for the increasing numbers responsiveness to students’ interests, policies in South Africa that indirectly of secondary school leavers has been although their ability to make informed address the issue – as well as provision the primary concern of governments choices depends on adequate at institutional level that will be such as that of Kenya, in which information about course content discussed in the section that follows. university enrolments shot up from and future prospects, and as yet 218,628 in 2012 to 443,783 in 2015. 190 Policymaking in the four countries with this is not always available. In many However, expansion has entailed relevance to employability and inclusive cases, financial incentives to increase either increasing enrolments at existing development can be seen in the enrolments have led to a detrimental institutions without sufficient increases following areas: effect on conditions for learning – with in academic staff numbers or facilities, insufficient numbers of academic staff or the creation of new institutions Work placements and straining physical infrastructure – without adequate infrastructure. since there is buoyant demand for An area in which there are widespread Concerted policies to address quality courses even in the absence of policies across the four countries is of provision have been hard to high quality provision. Competition to work placements and internships. In establish and implement in this context mount courses that attract fee-paying Kenya, professional programmes have of rapid expansion, with an inevitable students exists within the private their own requirements for industrial impact on the employability attributes sector, but also increasingly in the attachments, but universities are also of graduates. public sector, particularly in Kenya, being encouraged by the Kenya In all of these discussions of graduate where public institutions run private University Education Strategy to employability, the considerable parallel streams that now account for develop broader opportunities across inequities of access to university the majority of their students. all courses. Ghana has a Student education must be borne in mind. Industrial Attachment Programme As in many aspects of society and In spite of significant increases in that aims to supplement students’ education, South Africa has a range enrolments of black South Africans theoretical knowledge with practical of distinctive features. With a relatively since the end of apartheid, there are experience in the workplace. In Nigeria, low level of graduate unemployment, still significant inequities of access in the Graduate Internship Scheme and less public concern about the the country, with particular difficulties focuses on young people who are ‘calibre’ of graduates, employability for students from rural areas; these are unlikely to secure employment has not been a primary focal point compounded by subsequent difficulties immediately after finishing university. for policymakers. Instead, the focus in obtaining employment. In Ghana, at a national level has been on the low It is important also to mention the long- Kenya and Nigeria, differences in levels of completion, more broadly on standing national service schemes in access by ethnicity are not widely the quality of teaching and learning, Ghana and Nigeria. Graduates of all documented, but there are significant and – particularly in light of recent universities must spend a year in an gender inequalities, as well as unequal protests – on student funding. In extended internship, usually in a public access by region of origin, while in addition, there is a racial lens to service function such as teaching in a all the countries socio-economic policymaking in South Africa that is remote rural area. The national service background plays a significant role. largely absent in the other three programme in Ghana is compulsory for

190. Republic of Kenya (2015) op. cit.

92 Universities, employability and inclusive development every citizen who is 18 years old and work, and in others, providing a broad ratio in favour of science courses. 192 above and has graduated from any professional and intercultural learning In fact, this ratio would bring the tertiary institution. It awards a process. countries well above the average certificate – one which is required by for those in the OECD, in which the every employer – and is mandatory Disciplinary spread and proportion of students in science even for those graduates wishing to curricular relevance and technology subjects is much pursue further studies. The aims of the less than half, and nearly a quarter There are a range of concerns across programme are as follows: of students are in business and the countries in relation to the administration alone 193 (with 1. Encourage the spirit of national disciplinary offering of universities. 11.3 per cent of students in science, service among ALL segments of Two distinct trends have been mathematics and computing, 10.1 per Ghanaian society in the effort of observed: on the one hand, there has cent in engineering and 9.4 per cent in nation-building through active been ‘course splintering’, for example health in 2013). 194 Furthermore, it is not participation. in Kenya, with universities offering clear whether specialist jobs would be 2. Undertake projects designed to increasingly specific courses – say available for such high numbers of combat hunger, illiteracy, disease on specialised areas of electrical science and technology students, or and unemployment in Ghana. engineering – as a means of maximising whether the availability of graduates income through capturing new markets. 3. Help provide essential services and with this training would in fact have a These new courses are seen to be too amenities, particularly in towns and positive impact on economic growth. narrow to be of much use to students villages of the rural areas of Ghana In any event, progress towards this aim in their working lives. On the other 4. Develop skilled manpower through has been slow. 195 hand, there has been a process of practical training. programmatic isomorphism, with There have been attempts in various 5. Promote national unity and institutions previously focusing on contexts to reform the content of strengthen the bonds of common technical, vocational or scientific courses, responding to widespread 191 citizenship among Ghanaians. areas moving towards more generic concerns about out-of-date curricula In Nigeria, the National Youth Service academic programmes. This is the and universities not keeping abreast Corps (NYSC) plays a similar role, case in the middle level public colleges of new developments in industry and and is obligatory for all university and in Kenya that were recently upgraded the workplace. In Ghana for example, polytechnic graduates (from public to university status. The increasing national bodies have developed new and approved private institutions) similarity of institutional foci is seen to provisions for curriculum review in under 30 years of age, with the scheme be problematic, because it reduces the order to ensure that courses are more particularly seeking to promote mutual diversity of the offer, and particularly relevant to employers – for example, understanding and respect between because it churns out very large there is now a mandatory requirement those of different regions, ethnicities numbers of students from generic for universities to show that there has and religions, and encourage mobility applied social science areas, with fewer been employer input in the design of of labour. This requirement serves students specialising in technical and new courses, particularly to strengthen the dual function of ensuring that vocational areas. the quality and relevance of science and technology education. Finally, the graduates – many of whom have Ghana has attempted to address this increasing marketisation of higher benefited from public funds during issue by requiring a 60:40 ratio of education in the four countries also their studies – give something back students in favour of science and has implications for disciplinary spread, to society, particularly to the poorest technology, as opposed to social since private institutions are less likely segments, but also are provided sciences, arts and humanities subjects. to run equipment-intensive science and with a formative experience, in some In Nigeria, the National Policy on medical courses due to their higher cases directly relating to their future Education also recommends a 60:40 costs and need for more extensive infrastructure.

191. Ghana National Service Scheme (2016) Who we are. Available online at: http://nss.gov.gh/home/who-we-are 192. Federal Ministry of Education (1977, revised 2004) National Policy on Education. Lagos: Education Research and Development Council. 193. OECD (2014) Education Indicators in Focus. Available online at: www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/EDIF%202014--No19.pdf 194. OECD (2016) Graduates by field of education. Available online at: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DatasetCode=RGRADSTY 195. Alabi, G, Alabi, J and Mohammed, I (2013) Congruence between national policy for science and humanities enrolment ratio and labour market demand in Ghana. Educational Research and Reviews 8/10: 708–719.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 93 Entrepreneurship courses present in Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria, roles of the two principal regulatory A notable area of policymaking in but there are new moves in a range of organisations relating to higher relation to employability has been institutions to establish structures for education (NCTE and NAB). supporting lecturers the effort to instil entrepreneurial A significant barrier for policymaking in improving their teaching. There aspirations and skills. In particular, in all of the countries (though to a have also been a range of reform all students in Nigerian universities – lesser extent in South Africa) is the initiatives in pedagogy, aiming to regardless of their area of specialisation lack of relevant data. Institutional tracer move away from transmission-based – are required to undertake an studies are rare, and in some cases the lectures to problem-based learning, entrepreneurship course, following few institutions that do run their own more participatory, collaborative a federal government directive in alumni studies have been unwilling to classrooms, and increasing use of 2006. 196 This is a rare example of share the results. There are no national technology and virtual learning concrete national level action to level graduate destinations surveys in environments to support classroom- respond to the perceived problems the four countries that could be used based work. In addition, there of graduate employability. The policy to inform policy: the closest is the have been a range of reforms to was aimed at generating far higher CHEC study 199 that covered all four assessment, to move gradually away numbers of successful self-employed institutions in the Western Cape, South from dependence on examinations graduates, and reducing the reliance Africa. In some cases, the situation is focusing on memorisation. on traditional white-collar work, which even graver, with even basic enrolment is no longer able to absorb the majority In addition to these national level numbers and details unreliable. The of graduates. The policy has had policies, it is important also to be aware Labour Market Intelligence Partnership only limited success, however, due of the work of international agencies. in South Africa is a significant initiative to difficulties in ensuring a high As explored in Chapter 3, the African in this regard, being aimed at quality of provision – and indeed, Development Bank is supporting work establishing reliable data sets on the general misgivings over whether in Kenya to develop the quality of labour market and demand for skills. entrepreneurship can be taught at all. graduates in technical and engineering There are also a range of institutional areas, and support programmes at University-level provision level initiatives in the area of undergraduate and graduate levels. The ways in which universities support entrepreneurship education in Ghana, In addition, the British Council ran students to enhance their employability South Africa and Kenya 197, as will be the Education Partnerships in Africa in practice vary considerably, in part outlined further below. Associated with scheme, funded by the UK Department due to the differing ways in which the above are business incubation and for Business, Innovation and Skills, the above national policies are innovation centres, which have been which facilitated a range of small-scale implemented, but also because of established in a number of universities initiatives aimed at promoting graduate differences in the nature of the and also provide mentoring in relation employability through partnerships institutions and the particular initiatives to entrepreneurship. between UK and African universities. in place. The universities included In addition to the above areas, there As may be expected, implementation in our sample are highly diverse, are a range of general measures of these policies and initiatives is ranging from long-standing large public being taken to enhance the quality uneven. In some cases this may be institutions such as Nairobi University, of teaching and learning in universities, due to lack of resources, in others to with some 80,000 students, to recently as outlined in greater detail in the insufficient capacity and technical created, small private universities such Enhancing Teaching 198 report expertise at the local level, or to as Ashesi, which has only 550 students. produced for this project. While tensions between institutional and Naturally, the mode of operating of teaching and learning units in national aims. In Ghana, the lack of institutions with these different universities are common in South effective policy on employability is characteristics cannot be the same and Africa, these have not historically been attributed to the ambiguity of the each will have its own particular set of

196. In some universities – particularly private ones – this requirement has not yet been fully implemented. 197. Robb, A, Valerio, A and Parton, B (eds) (2014) Entrepreneurship Education and Training: Insights from Ghana, Kenya, and Mozambique. (A World Bank Study). Available online at: www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/06/12/000470435_20140612105917/ Rendered/PDF/886570PUB0978100Box385230B00PUBLIC0.pdf ; Kaijage, E and Wheeler, D (2013) Supporting Entrepreneurship Education in East Africa. Available online at: http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/Misc_Education/Entrepreneurship-Education-East-Africa-2013%20.pdf 198. Brewis and McCowan (2016) op. cit. 199. CHEC (2013) op. cit.

94 Universities, employability and inclusive development characteristics. Nevertheless, there are has an effective careers office, a that working in a bank requires an some provisions that can be put in priority that needs urgent attention accountancy degree) and understand place at all forms of institution, and from governments and institutions more clearly the forms of work that both well-established and fledgling, across the region. they would prefer and/or are available. experimental institutions have much To a large degree, the extent of However, there are a range of to learn from each other. This section careers provision is associated with challenges involved in delivering will not attempt to capture every the level of resources and prestige careers services. One of the limitations aspect of the university experience, that an institution has. The University is that universities do not have and fuller accounts can be found in of Cape Town, for example, the sufficient information on graduate previous project publications: the focus African institution highest placed destinations, as mechanisms to track here is on three forms of provision – on international rankings, has an students are not generally in place, and careers services, work placements and exceptional level of provision, with few universities have up-to-date alumni skills development programmes – that a large team of dedicated staff and databases. Even in the case of those are particularly important with respect a diverse portfolio of activities and institutions that do have fully functioning to employability. support services. More recently offices, there is no guarantee that established institutions with meagre students will actually take up the Careers services resources struggle to provide this opportunities that are available. The Careers services are, for obvious kind of service to students. There are survey of final year students carried reasons, critical to enhancing significant equity issues as a result, out for this research project showed graduates’ employment prospects, particularly given that less advantaged that only a third of students had spoken since much of the work in students are disproportionately likely to a careers advisor at any point during understanding, identifying, selecting to attend the less well-resourced their studies, 200 and the figure across and preparing for employment needs institutions. all universities in the countries is likely to take place before a student has left to be lower. The graduate destinations Interviews and documentary research university. However, careers services survey carried out for this project with carried out with institutions identified are not universal in the four countries. alumni of three universities in Kenya – the following services as being offered Institutions can broadly be grouped all of which have better than average by careers offices: into one of three categories: careers services – showed that 35 per • Careers fairs. 1. Has a fully functioning cent of students had never received careers service. • Workshops. any careers guidance from their institutions. 2. Has a careers service, but with • Inviting alumni and entrepreneurs inadequate staffing or funding to speak to students. In some cases, students do not take to function fully. • Mentoring and one-to-one advice up the opportunities because of time 3. Has no careers service. (face-to-face or email). constraints – either direct clashes with • Establishing links with employers. taught courses, or simple lack of time Of the 14 institutions participating in because of study commitments. In • CV-writing advice. this study, only four fell into the first of others, students are unaware of the these categories, with nine in the • Support for presenting oneself in existence of the careers service or the second and one in the third, and the interviews/mock interviews. activities provided. These constraints situation may well be more critical in • Facilitating work experience and require further efforts from careers other institutions across the countries. volunteering. services to adjust the times of activities In a number of the institutions, a single • ‘Cleaning up’ online profiles. to fit in with student schedules, to person is expected to cover all the provide more information, and to • Forwarding job adverts. responsibilities of the careers office. raise awareness of the opportunities In some cases, institutions have a An example of a role provided by available. However, even with these broader student office in which careers services is to demystify measures in place, not all students will careers is one of a number of services certain forms of employment, allowing necessarily take up the opportunities, provided, including general academic students to see through myths about through apathy or a lack of a sense guidance and personal counselling. the requirements of certain jobs (e.g. of urgency about the need to prepare It is vital to ensure that every institution

200. McCowan (2015a) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 95 themselves for pursuing opportunities the destinations survey of graduates Skills development programmes after graduation. There are equity from three universities in Kenya Universities also provide targeted elements at play here too, since indicated that 85 per cent had already courses to develop particular kinds students from more privileged done a work placement while they were of skills. As seen above, some of these backgrounds are more likely to take at university. are laid on by careers services, to up careers service opportunities, thus However, simply providing students prepare graduates specifically for reinforcing initial inequalities. KNUST with work experience opportunities job applications and interviews. In in Ghana has taken the measure of is not enough on its own. There are addition, some provide broader making participation in careers concerns that employers do not courses to develop knowledge, skills activities obligatory for all final year provide appropriate tasks and and values for students’ working lives. students in order to address these conditions for interns, and, on the The most prominent of these are the disparities. other hand, that students may not take entrepreneurship courses now rolled Despite the absence or uneven their placements seriously. Careful out universally in Nigeria, and provided provision of careers support overall, management is needed to ensure that in a number of universities in Ghana, there are examples of excellent both students and employers get the South Africa and Kenya – usually as practice amongst the institutions most out of the experience. In KNUST, single modules, but occasionally as participating in this study. Ashesi, for students have to write a report on their entire degree programmes. However, example, has a structured three-year work experience, ensuring that they while these are a potentially significant programme which moves through CV engage strongly with the internship development – acknowledging the and cover letter writing and basic and enhance their learning through limited number of white-collar jobs, business etiquette skills, to interviewing subsequent reflection. Employers are and the need to generate new forms and networking, and finally to social also required to write a report on the of livelihood, as well as encouraging media presence and personal branding. students’ progress. students to develop their own This training programme is punctuated enterprises – there are limitations on Innovative schemes include the UDS with internship opportunities and direct implementation. Ironically, it has been placement scheme, through which all contact with employers. The University reported that some entrepreneurship students spend an extended period at of the Free State also has an innovative courses are delivered in a largely the end of the first and second years in programme, in which students volunteer non-participatory way, focusing on a community work placement, through for a period of six months in the careers knowledge transmission, rather than which, in addition to understanding the office: in addition to gaining valuable developing the students’ own ideas. reality of rural villages and interacting work experience, the students thereby A more effective model of an with diverse ethnic groups, they also develop a strong familiarity with the entrepreneurship programme is shown develop skills of local development training and opportunities available. in the above case study on the Vaal planning. In the third year they then University of Technology, in which move on to an industrial attachment in knowledge, skills and values around Work and volunteering their area of study. Some universities – placements entrepreneurship are developed in an such as the Federal University of integrated way, combined with practical As seen above, work experience is Agriculture, Abeokuta, in Nigeria – experiences. Strathmore University in an area on which there is substantial actually have their own businesses, Kenya is also a leading institution in national policy emphasis, and many providing opportunities for work entrepreneurship teaching, providing, students have access to placements experience and entrepreneurship on in addition to its taught courses in while they are in university (some the campus. Jomo Kenyatta University enterprise, opportunities for students facilitated by the institution, and of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) to develop their own start-ups in the others self-organised). The survey in Kenya has set up the Nairobi Incubation Hub and @iLabAfrica carried out with final year students Industrial and Technology Park, which Research and Innovation Centre. showed that significant proportions allows for intense linkages between the had already undertaken an internship university and industry and also Another form of skills development (62 per cent in Ghana, 46 per cent in provides opportunities for eight-week programme is seen in the work of the Kenya, 37 per cent in Nigeria and industrial attachments for students. Educational Development Unit at the 29 per cent in South Africa). In addition, University of Cape Town, outlined in

96 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 2. This programme targets Societal Institutional students from disadvantaged First, employability is deeply influenced Second, individuals’ employability backgrounds, and aims to enhance by broader currents in society of a social, is affected by the universities in not only their academic performance, economic and political nature. These which they have studied, not only but also to develop leadership skills, include the following key dynamics: through the learning gained, but also student voice and creativity. • Labour market – the overall demand through the location and prestige for graduates, and the demand in of the institution. Dimensions of Prerequisites specific areas, as well as institutional influence include: for employability unemployment rates. • Quality of the learning environment – Employability – that is to say, the • Employment policy landscape – the teaching staff, learning resources extent to which an individual is existence of policies to generate and infrastructure appropriate for equipped to gain, maintain and employment and facilitate graduate enhancing students’ learning. succeed in employment – is complex entry into jobs. • Geographical location – proximity and cannot be reduced to a single • Higher education policy landscape – to industrial/business centres, factor such as skills. Drawing on the the existence of policies to enhance particularly relevant in large countries capabilities approach outlined in university practice in relation to and those with extensive rural areas. Chapter 1, this section proposes that employability. • Reputation – the prestige that an employability can best be understood • Employer preferences – the relative institution holds in society, often as a confluence of three sets of factors: based on historical factors. societal, institutional and personal. 201 value attached to different graduate Field of study First, factors at the macro level, attributes. • – specific subject including the economic health of the • Employer training practices – the studied (for example, the limited society, the availability of graduate extent to which employers undertake ability of arts and humanities level jobs, social norms and the policy their own induction programme or students to find employment in environment, have a bearing on the see work-related training as the some contexts). requirements for and realisation of responsibility of universities. • Equitable access – measures in place employability. Second, universities play • Socio-economic inequality – (e.g. bursaries, preparatory courses) a role in developing the employability background inequalities in society to facilitate enrolment and attributes of students, building on their that affect people’s abilities to completion by students from previous development at school. Finally, access university level study and disadvantaged backgrounds. factors relating to the individual – skills, employment. • Link to employers – extent to which values and aspirations – affect their • Discrimination – overt or the institution engages employers aspirations and employability. institutionalised barriers to and facilitates students’ connections Maintaining this wider perspective employment on the basis of with them. guards against the one-sided gender, race/ethnicity, social class • Careers services – support for attribution of blame often observed: for or other factors. students to access information about example, that graduate unemployment • Enterprise environment – the extent careers, develop their skills and is all down to the lack of commitment to which entrepreneurship and social prepare for job applications. or application of students, or enterprise are encouraged and • Graduate tracking – existence of alternatively is due to universities being supported. alumni surveys, or other mechanisms out of touch with new developments in to keep track of graduate destinations. technology and the labour market, or • Values promoted – ethos of the indeed that it is solely a question of the institution and the way it shapes lack of job opportunities. In reality, all students’ attitudes, expectations of these factors are intertwined and and ethical stances. a holistic response to the challenge is needed.

201. This frame was originally developed by Melanie Walker and Sam Fongwa for the analysis of the South Africa case, as seen in Chapter 2.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 97 Personal time at university, and so need to be experience of the university. As has Finally, there are personal attributes actively facilitated by their institutions. been shown in research in diverse 202 needed in order for individuals to Work experience opportunities are key contexts, extra-curricular activities secure and prosper in employment: for developing such connections. have a significant positive impact on student development and are highly • Disciplinary learning – acquisition of valued by prospective employers. knowledge, skills and values relating Spheres of intervention Finally, ‘community’ refers to the to a specific professional or What can universities actually do, learning experiences taking place academic area. or do better? Some of the elements outside the university gates, not only in identified above are outside the direct • Transferable learning – development the local community, but also in work control of the higher education sector: of broader knowledge, skills and placements and internships, in some questions of macro-economic policy, values relevant to employability. cases in other regions and even the availability of graduate jobs, socio- • Socio-economic background – factors internationally. economic inequalities, and ingrained of income, resources and social cultural preferences and prejudices. Classroom markers that can influence graduate It is important to acknowledge that recruitment positively or negatively. universities are not the only cause Campus • Social capital and networks – of the problems that graduates contacts and acquaintances that can experience in finding and succeeding Community directly or indirectly aid in gaining in rewarding jobs. At the same time, employment. there are a range of measures that • Aspirations – aims and goals that universities can take, and areas in students have for their careers and which they can have a significant broader lives. impact on graduates’ life chances. • Empowerment and agency – In this report, we argue that a holistic confidence, voice and capacity to vision of the university experience is pursue and realise one’s goals and needed. Isolated attempts, as have commitments. been seen in the past, to enhance Universities must pay attention to all • Learner engagement – extent to employability solely through increasing of these three spheres simultaneously, which individuals are open to the number of industrial attachments, and ensure that they are providing continuing professional development or having employers on academic students with a rich array of learning and lifelong learning. boards, or setting up innovation experiences in each. incubators, are unlikely to have a Broadly speaking, we can identify two significant impact. For ease of dimensions of the prerequisites relating Classroom conceptualisation, we locate the to the personal dimension: learning and Employability, to a significant extent, areas in which universities must be connections. On the one hand, students rests on the quality of learning available active into three spheres: classroom, need to develop their capacities in to students in their basic degree campus and community. ‘Classroom’ different areas, involving disciplinary courses. The following are dimensions here refers not only to the literal room knowledge, job-specific skills and also of learning and teaching quality that in which classes are taught, but to all generic skills such as communication, need to be addressed: of the formal learning that takes place analysis and problem solving. On the in accredited courses. In addition to Transforming pedagogy. Many other, they need to have relevant providing the disciplinary and technical universities across the four countries connections to translate that learning knowledge that students need in their are still dominated by transmission- into real opportunities. Some students, diverse areas of work, high quality based teaching approaches based on due to their privileged birth, are already degree courses also develop a range lecturing, with few opportunities for inserted into a strong network that of transferable skills, including those of students to engage in discussion, to can facilitate the gaining of rewarding analysis and critical thinking. ‘Campus’ critique and apply the ideas conveyed. employment; for others, these networks refers to the broader learning New strategies are needed to enable need to be developed throughout their students to actively participate in

202. E.g. CHEC (2013) op. cit.

98 Universities, employability and inclusive development learning. For example, a number of Disciplinary spread. While it is positive key areas. Entrepreneurship has been universities – such as Moi and KNUST – for institutions to have disciplinary a prominent example, with courses have adopted problem-based learning specialisms, the full range of courses being made increasingly available, as in a range of degree courses. should be represented across the discussed above in relation to Nigeria higher education system, from natural and elsewhere, but care must be taken New forms of assessment. In practice, sciences to arts and humanities, to offer a range of skills development it is extremely hard to transform and from academic to more applied opportunities, especially until the value pedagogy without transforming professional subjects. All of these areas of entrepreneurship courses has assessment. Teaching and learning are important for the achievement been demonstrated. Attention must practices will naturally gravitate of development goals and for be paid to delivering such courses in a towards what is needed for assessment employability. Furthermore, individual participatory manner, allowing students and successful completion of a students should have the opportunity to experiment and gain hands-on degree. In most universities, to be exposed to a broad-based experience. examinations are still dominant, giving curriculum that includes both technical credit for memorisation, but based on and liberal arts elements. A prime inert forms of knowledge. New forms Campus example here is Ashesi University, of assessment are needed to support Changes in higher education in which all students, in addition to the development of analytical skills, participation and the increasing their main discipline, are exposed to a creativity and teamworking. Examples numbers of students working full-time range of courses including humanities, of alternative forms of assessment and studying at evenings and technology and African studies. are portfolios, presentations and weekends has challenged traditional group projects. Choice of courses. Findings from this conceptions of the campus university. study show that many students are Nevertheless, universities must Ensuring adequate learning resources. disengaged from their courses because work to maintain broader spaces for Research carried out for this study they were not their first choice. Policies learning outside of formal teaching, and in other contexts has identified should be adopted to ensure that given their significance for the a severe lack of essential equipment students are not channelled towards personal, intellectual and professional in certain contexts, particularly for particular degrees purely on account development of students. In particular, natural science and agriculture of their secondary school grades, the attention is needed to the equity programmes. Work readiness can be availability of funding or an uninformed dimension, given the disparities in severely compromised by inadequate perception that a particular subject the time and resources available to facilities. More broadly, a rich learning provides a sure route to a good job more and less advantaged students. environment for all students needs to and income. These learning opportunities can be provided through well-stocked be particularly important for those libraries, virtual learning platforms, Theory/practice balance. Universities students going on to develop social internet connectivity and space for are sites of higher learning and theory enterprises and other forms of independent and group study. has an essential place on academic entrepreneurship, but are also critical courses of all types. Nevertheless, a Curricular relevance. Steps need to for conventional forms of employment. rebalancing is needed in response to be taken to address the so-called students’ and employers’ concerns Careers service. As discussed above, ‘yellow notes’ phenomenon of about a lack of practical applicability. there are significant gaps in career ageing curricular content. Taught Students should be supported in support at universities across the programmes need to keep abreast developing the ability to critically four countries. In some cases this is a of new developments in research, engage with theory and to apply it question of the absence or limitation the latest technologies and professional effectively in their working lives. of a dedicated careers adviser and practices. Regular reviews of support activities, while in others programme and curriculum content Targeted skills development courses . provision is available, but students and close interaction with industry and While many transferable skills can do not take up the opportunities professional organisations are essential be gained through regular degree sufficiently. Ashesi University is an in this process. courses, in some cases ‘bolt-on’ or example of an institution that succeeds ‘capstone’ units may be needed in

Universities, employability and inclusive development 99 in providing extensive support for Innovation incubators. Universities experiences are generally essential making choices and developing skills can also provide opportunities for for students before looking for for careers, and linking in with development of start-up companies employment. However, this research employers, for the whole of the student and creation of innovative products study has identified a range of body. However, rolling out such on their own campuses. Students can concerns about meaningful provision in a large university is benefit from space and facilities, engagement of students in such a significant challenge. support of experienced entrepreneurs placements and the extent to which and in some cases financial support to valuable learning is gained. Universities Extra-curricular activities. Students develop their ideas. Pioneering work in need not only to facilitate links with can benefit from a range of activities this area is being undertaken at Kenyatta employers, but also to ensure that outside of their formal programmes, University’s Chandaria Business students are supported throughout, including artistic pursuits, sports, Innovation and Incubation Centre and and employers need to provide a drama and debating. These activities the business incubator at KNUST. conducive environment for students serve recreational purposes but to engage and develop. also are a source of learning and development of social relations. Community Volunteering and service learning. The University of Venda, for example, Finally, there is the learning that Students commonly engage in has a community radio programme, students gain in the course of their activities on a voluntary basis to in which students act as producers degree studies beyond the gates of support local communities, participate and presenters, serving an important the university. The systematic review in environmental projects, work with function in providing local language conducted as part of this research children or the elderly, and involve services as well as raising key issues study showed a substantial body of themselves in diverse forms of work in the public interest, such as health evidence internationally supporting the with NGOs, social movements, and campaigns. value of such activities in developing religious and other civil society employability attributes. Ideally, these organisations. In addition to having a Student voice and representation. extramural learning opportunities are positive impact for the communities Students should also have the facilitated by the institutions and concerned, such activities represent opportunity to engage in student incorporated into study schedules. an important source of learning for unions or representative councils. Such experiences can have a positive the students themselves. In particular, This form of participation is critical impact on the communities involved – they can be helpful in developing in developing civic capacities and whether a local neighbourhood or a generic, transferable skills, and can engagement 203 on the part of workplace – and also have significant be particularly relevant for those individuals, but, as discussed in the benefits for the students themselves. looking to develop social enterprises Students in the Driving Seat report, also As has been explored widely in the in the future. serves an essential function in feeding literature on service learning, 204 these in student views on the university and A holistic vision of learning across experiences are most effective for enhancing quality of provision. the 3 Cs – classroom, campus and students when there are opportunities community – is therefore needed Employer engagement. Beyond the for subsequent reflection back in the to develop the kind of ‘all-rounder’ involvement of employers in the university, with students required to graduate that employers seek, and development of curricula, other discuss their experiences collectively who will succeed in a rapidly changing events and activities can be run on and write reflective reports. labour market, carving out new campus. Most common are careers Work placements. Perhaps the most opportunities and generating positive fairs, in which employers can provide commonly discussed and longest benefits for society. The final chapter information to students on prospective practised intervention relating to will now draw out some broader employment opportunities, as well as employability is opportunities for real implications and recommendations for develop direct contact with them. experience in the workplace. Much higher education policy and practice professional learning, in fact, can only in the four countries. occur in the workplace, so these

203. Luescher-Mamashela, TM, Kiiru, S, Mattes, R, Mwollo-ntallima, A, Ng’ethe, N and Romo, M (2011) The university in Africa and democratic citizenship: hothouse or training ground? Wynberg: Centre for Higher Education Transformation. 204. See Clayton, P, Bringle, R and Hatcher, J (2013) Research on Service Learning: Conceptual Frameworks and Assessment. Sterling, Virginia Kohler stylus: Stylus.

100 Universities, employability and inclusive development Chapter 7 – Conclusion

Tristan McCowan

intensively with 14 universities in While the need to address the diverse locations, of varying sizes and challenges of graduate employability Higher education has for many with distinct institutional ethoses. The garners widespread consensus in years slipped from the agenda of data has been collected and analysed society, it is important to remember international development agencies by the research teams located in that there are dangers associated with and has suffered from underfunding the four African countries and the the agenda. The relationship between by national governments. In the context UK, complemented by cross-cutting higher education and work is not of inadequate coverage of primary studies carried out on partnerships, straightforward and graduate and secondary education, it seemed teaching quality, graduate destinations unemployment is not only due to a something of a luxury to invest in and international evidence of the ‘skills gap’. Simplistic notions of human universities, particularly when their impact of employability interventions. capital development and returns in the benefits were captured by a small Notably, what matters is not just the labour market have now been broadly elite. However, there has been a data gathered, but also the process questioned. 205 Furthermore, universities sea change in attitudes to higher of action set in motion through the will be impoverished if they adopt a education in recent years. Its centrality course of the project, with institutions narrowly economistic vision, focusing to development, even in the most coming together and discussing the only on commercial outputs and resource-constrained countries, has challenges, sharing examples of maximising the salaries of their now been broadly recognised, as innovation, developing action plans graduates. Above all, universities need governments refocus their attention on and implementing changes, not only to remain spaces for free and critical universities in the context of the quest within and between the institutions enquiry, developing graduates who to develop a knowledge economy. In involved, but more broadly with other can reflect on themselves and their many contexts, there is also a worrying HE institutions and stakeholders. societies and who have a commitment spectre of increasing numbers of To this end, in the final phase of the to social justice. Forms of ‘zero-sum unemployed and dissatisfied graduates, project, employability and inclusive employability’ – in which graduates gain a concern that is spurring stakeholders development ‘scorecards’ and action advantages over others, but without into action. Yet, while lip service is paid plans are being developed in each of increasing their net contribution – or to strengthening higher education the participant universities, to ensure even worse, ‘unethical employability’, systems, for the most part the trends that the insights developed through the involving maximising personal or are towards expansion of the system research will be incorporated in future corporate benefits to the detriment of through marketisation, with little initiatives and institutional development others in society, should be avoided. 206 as a whole. concrete attention to maintaining Enhancing the life chances of and enhancing the quality of learning. A comparative perspective on the graduates involves institutions Achieving the broader aims of findings from across the countries developing strong connections with development – and solving the problem was provided in the previous chapter external bodies. First, strong links are of graduate employability – depends on enabling conditions. This conclusion needed with schools, in order to not only on widening access, but also recaps the key arguments from the provide prospective students with on a rich, relevant and invigorating whole report, draws out further the information they need to access learning environment for students. implications and provides a set of university and to raise their aspirations The Universities, Employability and five key proposals. Recommendations for continuing on to higher education. Inclusive Development research project specific to each of the countries have In particular, secondary school leavers aimed to understand the challenges already been provided in Chapters 2–5, need information about the courses in higher education in Ghana, Kenya, so here only overarching proposals open to them, in order to address the Nigeria and South Africa, to assess relating to all of the contexts will be problems outlined above with respect initiatives already under way and to put put forward. It goes without saying to students entering professional areas forward proposals for transformation. that these need to be appropriately for which they have no strong affinity. In the course of three years, it has contextualised, and will manifest Second, as widely acknowledged by collected a large body of qualitative themselves in different ways in governments, strong links are needed and quantitative data, working different locations. with employers. Universities must be

205. Marginson, S (2015) Rethinking education, work and ‘employability’: Foundational problems of human capital theory. Keynote presentation at the Society for Research in Higher Education annual conference, 9 December. 206. McCowan (2015b) op. cit.

Universities, employability and inclusive development 101 porous to the involvement of diverse of the institution. Relying solely on 4. Ensure an equitable distribution employers in curriculum design and entrepreneurship courses or careers of opportunities campus life, but equally employers fairs will not be sufficient to transform Young people from disadvantaged must be attentive to their own individuals and societies. Attention is backgrounds are faced with a responsibilities in contributing to needed across the areas of ‘classroom’, combination of barriers: after beating universities’ work and providing ‘campus’ and ‘community’, enhancing the odds to get to university in the first support for the development of their the quality of formal degree courses place, they struggle while at university graduate employees. Last, strong links to develop critical analytical skills, to engage in the kinds of enrichment are needed with alumni. Universities providing extra-curricular opportunities activities that make them attractive should track the destinations of their for broader development of to employers, and then often face graduates, understand the links interpersonal skills, and enabling discrimination in the workplace once between those destinations and students to access placements outside they have left university. Institutions graduates’ experiences in university, the university to develop life and need not only to operate affirmative as well as involving alumni in the workplace experience. Career services action policies to ensure access for preparation of current students for need to be significantly strengthened, talented students from disadvantaged their future lives. and attention paid to the uptake backgrounds, but also to provide of those opportunities by students. Drawing on the findings across the targeted employability support. Work placements are widely available, three years of the project, five key but measures need to be taken to 5. Develop comprehensive data recommendations emerge: ensure students gain meaningful and research 1. Maintain a broad conception learning from them. Creating and implementing effective of employability policy at the national and institutional 3. Empower students Employability is not only about levels is difficult without an appropriate obtaining a job, it is about succeeding One of the key constraints on evidence base. Little is known about in the workplace, and importantly improving quality in African universities the destinations of graduates, with the about contributing meaningfully to is the lack of student voice. Ensuring exception of a few pioneering studies, society through one’s work. For effective channels for student views on and some institutions lack accurate inclusive development, society needs teaching and learning, the curriculum enrolment data. In addition to graduates who are ethical and will and other aspects of university life can maintaining key information sets about contribute to the public good through make a vital contribution to ensuring employment outcomes and other their professional activities and civic relevance and maintaining a high destinations of graduates, qualitative participation. The values promoted quality of provision. In addition, it can and quantitative studies are needed to by universities are therefore important, lead to greater engagement of students understand the trajectories of students in addition to the knowledge and with their studies through an enhanced and the impact of university initiatives. skills they develop. Furthermore, sense of ownership of the learning Making these recommendations employability relates not only to process. Participation in decision- reality of course requires appropriate salaried employment, but also to making bodies is also an important investment from national governments. entrepreneurship and social enterprise. learning experience for students, as part of the ‘campus’ sphere of learning. Even in the context of constraints 2. Transform the higher education More broadly, a transformation of on public funding, it is important for experience through an learning culture is needed to move states to prioritise the quality of higher integrated approach away from a focus on examinations education provision, given its key A holistic vision of student learning in and knowledge regurgitation, to role in economic growth, sustainable university is needed, acknowledging more critical and participatory forms development and social inclusion. the multiple dimensions and spaces of learning. Nevertheless, not all of these interventions require significant funds:

102 Universities, employability and inclusive development in many cases it is a question of graduates within employment. As Nevertheless, the role of the university change of mindset, appropriate stated above, one of the key needs for is critical and there is significant room regulation of quality, or a change of all four countries is to develop a full for enhancing its impact. As explored organisational structures and cultures. national graduate destinations survey. in this report, inspiration for change The pilot graduate destinations survey can be sought from international Raising awareness of the problems of in Kenya conducted as part of this experiences, but also from innovation higher education and employability is project has provided a blueprint for at a local level, and there are a range of not in fact the issue – as discussed how these surveys could be carried highly effective practices and initiatives above, there is widespread discussion out, and highlighted a number of the already under way across the four not only within universities, but also in methodological challenges that must African countries. In part, the current the public sphere, about the problems be overcome. While there is much task of the university is to adapt itself of ‘half-baked’ graduates. However, attention in the media to low levels effectively to the changing nature of much of the noise about the problem of graduate skills, the information on economy and society: for example, the is not constructive: what is needed is which these reports rely is largely shift away from traditional white-collar close and realistic attention to what anecdotal, and more systematic employment to flexible work and universities can actually change, and research is needed to gauge entrepreneurship, the increasingly fluid the impact those changes will have on adequately what the skill levels of nature of knowledge and advances in students and their future lives. This graduates actually are in different technology. Yet it is not only about project has aimed to contribute to areas. Another point is that the focus adaptation; universities themselves play addressing this challenge by proposing in this project has largely been on an active role in transforming society. models for understanding employability conventional face-to-face provision in Ensuring inclusive development across and inclusive development, document universities: as distance education the African continent, and globally, existing practice, highlight examples expands its reach, and an increasing depends on universities accepting this of generative practice and develop number of people access learning via challenge and responsibility, through insights through comparison. Beyond massive open online courses (MOOCs) promoting free and open enquiry to these national and cross national and other online platforms, it will be develop human understanding, in turn perspectives, each institution will important also to assess the helping to forge more prosperous, just also need to engage in its own process employability implications of online societies. of understanding and transforming learning and other uses of technology. its practice. Universities cannot solve the There are a number of aspects of the graduate employability challenge question of graduate employability in alone. Ensuring rewarding employment Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa for all involves not only providing the that the study has been unable to right kinds of skills, but also having in cover in full. The focus here has been place a range of macro-economic and on dynamics within universities – the employment market conditions, not kinds of learning experiences and other to mention social norms and personal support that institutions provide to freedoms, thereby requiring concerted prepare students for their future lives. action from governments and civil This research, therefore, needs to be society. Many of the skills and broader linked with broader work on conditions attributes required by graduates in the labour market, as well as the should be developed earlier in their preparation that students gain from lives through schools and their family their primary- and secondary-level and community environments. studies, and training provided to

Universities, employability and inclusive development 103

environment for students. invigorating learning relevanton arich, and access,widening also but not on only depends of graduate – employability solving the problemand of developmentaims – Achieving the broader

© Mat Wright All images © Mat Wright

© British Council 2016 / F268 The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities.