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The Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio: Health Implications

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The Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio: Health Implications NUTRITION – SANTÉ The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio: health implications Artemis P. SIMOPOULOS Abstract: Today, Western diets are characterized by a higher omega-6 and a lower omega-3 fatty acid intake, whereas during the Paleolithic period when human’s genetic profile was established, there was a The Center for Genetics, balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Their balance is an important determinant for Nutrition and Health, brain development and in decreasing the risk for coronary heart disease (CHD), hypertension, cancer, 2001 S Street, NW, Suite 530, diabetes, arthritis, and other autoimmune and possibly neurodegenerative diseases. Both omega-6 and Washington DC 20009 omega-3 fatty acids influence gene expression. Because of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in USA their metabolic pathways, blood levels of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are determined by both en- <[email protected]> dogenous metabolism and dietary intake making the need of balanced dietary intake essential for health and disease prevention. Whether an omega-6/omega-3 ratio of 3:1 to 4:1 could prevent the pathogenesis of many diseases induced by today’s Western diets (AFSSA, 2010), a target of 1:1 to 2:1 appears to be consistent with studies on evolutionary aspects of diet, neurodevelopment, and genetics. A target of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 appears to be consistent with studies on evolutionary aspects of diet, neurodevelopment and genetics. A balanced ratio of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids is important for health and in the prevention of CHD and possibly other chronic diseases. Key words: omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio, coronary heart disease, cancer, single nucleotide polymorphisms, cytokines, nutrigenetics/nutrigenomics Studies on the evolutionary aspects of diet decrease in energy expenditure; 2) an increase genetic constitution was selected. Yet as shown indicate that major changes have taken place in saturated fat, omega-6 fatty acids and trans in figure 3, it is the interaction of genes with in our diet, particularly in the type and amount fatty acids, and a decrease in omega-3 fatty various environmental factors that determines of essential fatty acids (EFA) and in the anti- acid intake; 3) a decrease in complex carbohy- the phenotype throughout development. oxidant content of foods (Eaton and Konner, drates and fiber; 4) an increase in cereal grains Nutrition is an environmental factor of major 1985; Simopoulos, 1991) (figure 1). An abso- and a decrease in fruits and vegetables; and importance. lute and relative change of omega-6/omega-3 5) a decrease in protein, antioxidants, vitamins The beneficial health effects of omega-3 fatty fatty acids in the food supply of Western socie- especially C, E and D, trace elements and acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and doco- ties has occurred over the last 150 years. calcium intake. The increase in trans fatty acids sahexaenoic acid (DHA) were described first in A balance existed between omega-6 and is detrimental to health as shown in table 3.In the Greenland Eskimos who consumed a high omega-3 fatty acids for millions of years during addition, trans fatty acids interfere with the seafood diet and had low rates of coronary the long evolutionary history of the genus desaturation and elongation of both omega-6 heart disease, asthma, type 1 diabetes mellitus, Homo, and genetic changes occurred partly and omega-3 fatty acids, thus further decreas- and multiple sclerosis. Since that observation, in response to these dietary influences. During ing the amount of arachidonic acid, eico- the beneficial health effects of omega-3 fatty eons of evolution, omega-3 fatty acids were sapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acids have been extended to include benefits present in all foods consumed: meat, wild acid availability for human metabolism plants, eggs, fish, nuts, and berries (Crawford, (Simopoulos, 1995) (figure 2). related to brain development, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer, inflammatory bowel 1968; Simopoulos, 2002). However, rapid die- Whereas major changes have taken place in our disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, mental tary changes over short periods of time as they diet over the past 10,000 years since the begin- health, and neurodegenerative diseases have occurred over the past 100–150 years is a ning of the agricultural revolution, our genes (Simopoulos, 2002). totally new phenomenon in human evolution have not changed. The spontaneous mutation (figure 1, tables 1 and 2). These dietary changes rate for nuclear DNA is estimated at 0.5% per In this review, I discuss: are the result of agribusiness and modern agri- million years. Therefore, over the past 10,000 – the importance of the balance of omega-6 culture that led to animal feeds consisting pri- years, there has been time for very little change and omega-3 essential fatty acids in terms marily of grains, instead of the animals grazing, in our genes, perhaps 0.005%. In fact, our of their biological effects and the omega- and to the production of vegetable oils from genes today are very similar to the genes of 6/omega-3 ratio; seeds such as corn, sunflower, safflower, cot- our ancestors during the Paleolithic period – tonseed, and soybean that are high in omega- 40,000 years ago, at which time our genetic the balance of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids 6 fatty acids and poor in omega-3s. profile was established (Eaton and Konner, is important for health: the evidence from gene Today, industrialized societies are character- 1985). Humans today live in a nutritional envi- transfer studies; – doi: 10.1684/ocl.2010.0325 ized by 1) an increase in energy intake and ronment that differs from that for which our omega-3 fatty acids and gene expression; OCL VOL. 17 N° 5 SEPTEMBRE-OCTOBRE 2010 267 Article disponible sur le site http://www.ocl-journal.org ou http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/ocl.2010.0325 Table 2. Estimated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid 40 600 intake in the late paleolithic period (g/d)a,b. Vitamin C Plants 30 100 LA 4 28 ALA 11.40 Total fat Animals 20 Vitamin E 30 mg/day LA 4.56 ALA 1.21 % calories from fat 10 Saturated Trans 10 TotaI -6 LA 8.84 -3 0 0 -4 x 106 -10,000 1,800 1,900 2,000 ALA 12.60 Years Animal ω Figure 1. Hypothetical scheme of fat, fatty acid (ω6, ω3, trans, and total) intake (as percent of calories from fat), and AA ( 6) 1.81 intake of vitamins E and C (mg/d). Data were extrapolated from cross-sectional analyses of contemporary hunter- EPA (ω3) 0.39 gatherer populations and from longitudinal observations and their putative changes during the preceding 100 years. DTA ((ω6) 0.12 DPA (ω3) 0.42 Table 1. Omega-6:omega-3 ratios in various populations. DHA (ω3) 0.27 Population ω6/ω3 ω ω Paleolithic 0.79 Ratios of 6/ 3 Greece prior to 1960 1.00-2.00 LA/ALA 0.70 Current Japan 4.00 A A + DTA/EPA +DPA + DHA 1.79 ω ω b Current India, rural 5-6.1 Total 6/ 3 0.79 LA, linoleic acid; ALA, linolenic acid; AA, arachidonic Current United Kingdom and northern Europe 15.00 acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DTA, docosatetra- Current United States 16.74 noic acid; DPA, docosapenlaenoic acid; DHA, docosa- hexaenoic acid. Current India, urban 38-50 aData from Eaton et al. bAssuming an energy intake of 35:65 of animal:plant sources. – genetic variants, FADS1 and FADS2, in esti- Biological effects and mating nutritional requirements of omega-6 the omega-6/omega-3 ratio α ω and omega-3 fatty acids; acids by -linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3 3). LA is plentiful in nature and is found in the seeds of There are two classes of EFAs: omega-6 and – genetic variants in FADS1 and FADS2 and most plants except for coconut, cocoa, and omega-3. The distinction between omega-6 coronary heart disease risk; palm. ALA, on the other hand, is found in the and omega-3 fatty acids is based on the loca- chloroplasts of green leafy vegetables, and in – linoleic acid and arachidonic acid increase tion of the first double bond, counting from the atherogenesis: evidence from diet-gene inter- methyl end of the fatty acid molecule. In the the seeds of flax, rape, chia, perilla, and in actions: genetic variants in the 5-lipoxygenase omega-6 fatty acids, the first double bond is walnuts. Both EFA are metabolized to longer- (5-LO) and omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid between the 6th and 7th carbon atoms, and chain fatty acids of 20 and 22 carbon atoms. intake in the risk for cardiovascular disease; LA is metabolized to arachidonic acid (AA; for the omega-3 fatty acids, the first double ω ω bond is between the 3rd and 4th carbon atoms. 20:4 6), and LNA to EPA (20:5 3) and – genetic variants in the 5-lipoxygenase ω Monounsaturates are represented by oleic DHA (22:6 3), increasing the chain length activating protein (ALOX5AP) gene, omega-6 acid, an omega-9 fatty acid, which can be and degree of unsaturation by adding extra fatty acids, and breast cancer; synthesized by all mammals including double bonds to the carboxyl end of the fatty – genetic variants of cyclooxygenase-2 humans. Its double bond is between the acid molecule (figure 2). (COX-2) and the protective effect of long-chain 9th and 10th carbon atoms. Humans and other mammals, except for omega-3 fatty acids in cancer of the prostate; Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are essential carnivores such as lions, can convert LA to AA because humans, like all mammals, cannot and ALA to EPA and DHA, but it is a slow – the omega-6/omega-3 ratio for neuro- make them and must obtain them from their process.
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