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Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School
1947
William Morris' theories of art as the basis of his socialism
Joseph Lambert Keller The University of Montana
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Recommended Citation Keller, Joseph Lambert, "William Morris' theories of art as the basis of his socialism" (1947). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 4097. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/4097
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WILLIAM Moaaiü* TKBüaiBü
i3^iA>Xo wiF Î4i>iÿ
b y
A., üt, JoM*ir wiverm Oollegeviilé, alhaewota, IWüY )
p a r t i a l fmflllm#%t oi tà e r*. qwlramemt for tne degree of -Master o f a r t s .
%0&tanm vtate itaxTêraiti 1947
A p p r o v e d ;
OWlfmam of ExamlBlng demmltte#
ü , - ? cl^rSÏÏâ' ofuraduate €'o^^ UMI Number: EP34857
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ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 GOKT^Ta i'age» Intro duetiôa—Art and Socialiara-î Purpoee of Paper.... .1 -rii i. Early Intareat# and influences: lare ef fatare; aroheolo^ and history ;Tmed" ieYali#»; Jdhn Ruskin and Ldaard aurne-Jones; "T&M# G reat T?%hlbition o f 1659;** a r e h itb s ts r e j the sp irit of fsllossh&p; The Oxford %*?*- meat; "Th# brotherhood;'^ loelandlo llter#- twre; Dante Gabriel Rosaetti...... *^4.*^...1-14 a ' ' II. Developing Theorlee**Art as thi %c:edy for dooiety** Ills: ^ ■ ■ f Theory of art; soureee of his theory uf art; ardhiteoture as the most important art; tra dition ahd freedom in the art of the past; the free fe the feudal eooiety; the spirit of aseooia%ion; the medlpVal gilds; ehort- oomi#ge,df the medieval aystem...... 14-36 III. The 3!uhetlon of''art:
' A . J%aWL,AWi' A*. ideal êooietiesü ffee*. peouliar slavery,of the fflôdérn ®apite lÎs t i G sorxd*.;* »...... 36—64 IV. Gapitali#m.i - It# groeth in Kedieyal bmgiand; develpjprnent of olae#; class consciousness; palliatives for oapi‘iali© tie Ills'; fear of a tarnation, the rapt of oppression ...... 55-64 7. Art and Capitalist: Beehinee aeny labpr Individuality; ca^ltal- 1mm# a eye tern of perpetual ear; sham and lux- ury replace art; the visible expressions of oapltallem; eeolel retolutioi^iaast begin eltn art; the *Glklm" forZbocialism; psoplt must be educated for eWwsge ; stirring up of dle- co n te n t eapltellBm...... 64-93 Vï. Moîrrl«é t.h# îjfo^hetî’
. Hié' gift for prophwÿi pr^phggie# that omme truaf hi* proph#^ for *%>- p Ü * â t0 ‘" Mw**i*# •#* •» •• * # # # V* « • * • k #'* * *?3-“*7*7 ITÎI* th» % lfflAwity * f SdU*#%img for #ki%h #Bd jJatiitje* n*#«*«ai^i' herl$&g# from mimglTlng* ahiat swo* ■- ##** o f ÊOO'iaiiàjS'*".* • » *,* *. k* k k k k # -k * *.*,,» *■•,■.• » ■• • *7? y ill. fh# Id#*l 8odi#ty ig *##... frmm fhh'\r#hirth of j r##glt# ,,of ;0K:r*hiftWi À*#thétid iKooi*ll*m; ebolmïiwm fhe' utn* : .#$»' .ë w w # l# $ t:h# f r#^e*Whâ*f*#d; go gQV*rg#*nt mémr th » ne#, *% fition of, 'th* ####**'gf' ertme ; gge#'fèt'-la#i th# ggit of méhr gg##g$f,,.d#ei#i#g*% of- î^ o rity &g# th# th# ro#ài^&.,of lm%#; /#Wng» thgt-'gmdf mit" tha othef -' ohfik-ïigë,*- p o fieih fe» • •••»**.«♦• **-*,*• » *■■■*• * «**«»7S?«»S7 -- iZe'Tho' ' fh liiftf 0f g##* from -t. ",
, ##%-# * ,r M de#*;^ihA.4/tIg'/ledt^ goy*. m*mpégg* %o :»ori-d..-|m ^ ...... ■re.prtéè» ia t i # eamfle # eat l##$*çe#) hi* fi*ioa -#f ^ vie#-, of the h h t 're a l to fie rrf* '* #,#,# » e#* »-** - * * *..«-%%(&':'* * ## * , JSlShlG^HéifHÎ *>••--» _f. « •■'•-,♦*• *;# * ,*■•-* # * •-"» »--;•-* -*,-*; •-:# k-'k »'♦-,• f'♦'* * k'9& IB?a0003T%08
Am 1#mém In %hXs p$p#p to mrrlyo at am umd®f^ mtamâlm# ©f Moppl#'*' ® o a ia ll« through m atuAy o f hi® a r t amd It®, rolatioaohl# to m n amd #o©iot%* Morris was primarily am :* A l# t - # 0 mM |m o fo ry aapoot o f Ilf® -oithor art o r a look :«f i#| # # ®lm# h# fomad ©apltaltss dootruotlv® of laâlvidüai* l#m , to "th# vary oraath am* Ufa a#-art," ha tumod to' ' aàaêtti#® ' This ao©iaI|aa# l»aaavar* aa®##®*Atl®ily a ©ystaa/ aaiaalatad''t©,f#àtar lmd|?l<6#àll*a^ laaving the l©dividual
fro® from a l l é w ^ ffm l roatralmt®# both p h y slo a l and poyoho# la g lo a l* amd umhaaparad by thorn a© that h® might bo am "artist." Im Morris* l&oal so$ioty ovary Imdlvldual o f normal Im to lil» gonoa oaO an #rt|#t oh© mapressod Ih his oark In terms o f hi® imtolllgoaao tho. fâroos # a t affeotod hi® dally life; and, tharofaro, ovory omprooslon o f Ihdlvlduality In work, I f the ©©m&itloos o f life wore favorable to the orOatlom of beauty, was a work of art# Soolety* ho thought^ oxlstod for the borne*
1. "Tho Loosor Arts ©f Life," KmW g%crl*, XXII, p. 276; horoaftor o lt^ as ^ ilo o t^ ti% &f th# iMivldualj pflm&ry function Ming to p m m m p the aigmltf of '®9#ry M* of It#' member#* A le It aoulâ beet é#ee#pit#b by leaving the Im&lvMmal ooapletelf free and by pfoVldl^ him with the mean# of fledlnj beauty or art In hi# daily life; fer it ea# art that mad# life worth living and 2 th#4 ebabied m*n "*te liv e %# men^? / seeii^em * *# it,be4..\.#*A?*Qtionelly eo## to be wnderetoed by the- 18S0*-e>, -" -e'lbe® Sarl'Marat had # v i# io m d a "dietatorehip the proletaMat,** genamlly - implied #aa# form #f atroK#.,@#mt#l.'#a#&e#ity # a t reflated and aontroilad tb# affair# of the lndlyi#aa%. ' memWre of the aboiety and that to $o#$, degme'# .regla###^ their llyeà, Tbl# waa, .not ■ # a t .aarrla d»#,ir#d* . sia ao#i#ty was to be fouWWd on a **ao«* plete equality of; #mditlom" with no authority above that of "
a# Aft ia *a poattiM. meoeaaity of life , if we are to liv e as nature meant; 0m, "toi., that 'la#, mnloaa w# are montent to be lea# than me#*'"- ‘‘the, beauty of fife,*
' 3 * "à# the eve .of the hevolutioa of 1848" mr% and Angela pmbllebed the Marx'a "zaweroua writina# mulminatod in %e obOAeOaa Wofk. Ma..- 4 &.0 ita-|* whose four huge volume# were net yet -oomplete at the time of hla death (1883)." Joeeph sard ,W, 4 Hlatory aC jam % JCE0W6Z& 9 * : 141 4r- the iBdlTlâml memher. A defihltloa of 0ohl#41#m* ft» the hftft come to he uaderatood today, eeu ld he a p p lie d to a ooaeeption of a aoeiety poaaeeaiag a "complete eqaallty of oonditlohî* oonaeqwently, Morrie ha» oftea hftea accused o f h elag an aaarchlat rather than a •ooialletp however, the BMtaettre of claim that Eorria* eooiety might have t# the coa- 'Vj#tio.aal deflaltlea Ilea la hie Idea of the eoiemaa,: oeaerehlp of property#- Moffie neverthele»» eooperated with all type» of woolaliete* feel lag that hie Ideal': type'of eooiety would have to evolve from the Imperfect oonveetloaal type» of »o- .olaltam».., :..Ceaventlonal'«oolail»»# he fe lt, wae mef%ly ' -the prim ary sta g e d u rin g which ed d o atlo a ;,fo r' hi#-'WWeer^- 'type o f eoilety would he instituted; It was./^ough tdudatloh that
4. % ## article gerrl» puhliehed^la %^c^»mmmweal. 168## he 1» reported to have atatedi'"-#'' ladlVldual» are not M.dwwwe# other», there must #omeehefè"' am' A gm erlty ehiew I»'"prepared to coerce them not to e#ree**'' .liwyd Wendell é £ i . p p ? . ) 4 '#&» "authority* Morrla conceived of ,,ae- reeldeat withlm the ihdivldual himself, after he had developed a ,.#oper "pub- lle, eohecienee.#" He Illustrate» and, eaplalme th is -in it ms. Compter» Arif, pp. 63v## .r ^ le eommttalsatloh of the meaae ef;|ad|tatry would ly.he followed by the communImMOh om.it». product : W'- :# at there would 'be eoagplete-'\e%uall'%r\..of cfadltlon a# men." "vommualem," P> 275 #* for eeample, frlteache. mpjMfÊL . ,hoa.lal~ Iv ■'ommmlmà-i, a» he ealleâ the fall development of #o#lall#m* Has \#v#:%aaiiy to be bxought' about* Hie vie* of the eomlng . bhamg# o:f 'eoelety into «ooi&lie» and it® eventwi develop ment into *ae based on hie ©onceptlon of histo- e #hi#h envieioned inevitable ohamge until the perfeat ayatem, a #y#t#mfor the benefit of all th e member# of eo ci- evolved. Hie fa ith in edueation fo r oommwiem, a * 0 # % #te :'e h a a lity o f eonditioa," eprang fr 6* ££. in f r a .» pp. 44 f f . ?. Cf. Ihirn.. pp. di ff. &. St* in fra » * PP» f f . y «n4®3r the fore## of hi# eonquest. But ^blindly am# fo o lis h * ly" h# oontimued to struggle» Immgimlhg his. fellow mmn to he the foe» Whihh In reslity no longer existed* He thus made of modem olyillmetion a primitive barbarism rather than a world o f beauty o r o f a r t, which was ly in g ooattiered at hie f e e t . To substitute cooperation and the recognition of the reality f /^ j^ ilia a tio n for "struggle," and the n ega#on o f i n t e l l i gence man had to reewy# the source of him b lin d feaf- in order ^ ^ ï.to';fr#e’|ii# mind to aooept the beauty of life. S ocialism w##ld':.fsmo# ' the eoWoe bf fear and Gemmmia# eouid fres the , m^d -af'^'ieaa^,.Morris t h o u # t , thus bringing'- : aM'e^' W # le te - ''"V’ ""' ' ; t h i s stu d y an attempt 'is made to trace the deyelep* o f Morris-.^- th eo ry o f a r t in h is early life: and to show how socialism was the natural ccns#(iuen@# of this theory. a $#h' though"hcrris claimed h# had always been, a Socialist and th a t .««'thld view of Scoialiism which I held t#day*..is what 1 began wi%# i had m transitional peri#*;..^' he dsreieped no positive creed of Socialism ûntlï his later .'I. years* His early socialisa, if it may be c a lle d th a t, was . ;g. -How 1 Became a Sooialiet,- ^ W , r i h a tre d o f oiTlllaatloa" rather #aa a positive B ocialism . A& he himself etatee. he had alaaya had an ideal ehieh he #a# . . e le a r enough, but had not hope of any realisation of it. That eame to an end some monthe before I jo in e d the . ..Demooratio Federation# and the meaning o f my jo in in g th a t hodb' wae th a t I jmÈ eonoelved a hope of the realiaatien of my ideal In the eame article, erltten for Jnati,ee. in eamming up, he etatee : • «.th e etudy of history and the love and pra.otioe of art forced W" into a hatred o f Civilization eh ie h , i f things mere to s to p as they are, mould turn histety-into inconsequent nonsense, and make a r t a Oelleetion o f the curiosities o f th e p a s t ehich'-#0nld have, no serious relation to th e l i f e of ^the prese-nt#3f . fo rth e f&@#%*of Morris*^ life, facts ehioh clearly, .re veal the development in h is early life of a -theory e f a r t , v a rio u s b io g ra p h ie s have been used . The tLecaqF o f a r t a s IP. I Became; a Bocialis.t," Collected Works. ZXIII » op. cit ., p. 277. 1 1 .% # . . p# geo, IB. for the biographical facts in # is ncrk 1 am in debted to the follsuingi \Margaret K, faul Bloemfield, RWWL&Wâ: ^^ther Cary, v i l pr#eent#d In thie paper i# the theory in it# full develop- mn% and the source» for these were h ie meeerone lecture» on art, delivered la hie later life# from 18?? to 1804, and 14 a few articles written d u rin g th is same p eriod . These le c tures and articles likewise reveal h is socialism, but in ad d itio n the le c tu r e s be delivered after be joined the Demo- 15 era tic Federation have a lso been uaed# " To Illustrate Mor ris* application of his theory... o-fx art to society some o f him 1 8 ' la te r works have been employed-# 13.'for hie 'th#.orles of art the- fcllewlng two eclleetiens were used chiefly; WWUWm-ABk and Indue try. JÜLII. 14.The articles are in the collection of lectures on Art, M il, and lectures on booialisa, M ill. 13.,f»r him theories of socialism the fcllawlng 'collec tions were wed chiefly: Um p. c^_Qhang*., i d . Morris* later works used as sources for;,this paper: 1 1 M orris* #ooi%li#m is undsrstsndsMls only upon #xaml* nation of his theories of a r t ; fo r his sooialism sa s in ef* feet nothing more o r le s s than the means f o r making a r t fu n o tio n in society, Art# to him, «as but th e apprehension of beauty in l i f e and the utilisation o f I t In making l i f e 1 ? beautiful, Morris* life# as a child, «as beautiful; in it «as Ipping forest through «hloh he loved to roam, often If. "'theso art#...are part of a great system invented for the expression of man's delight in beauty: all peoples and times have used #iem; they have been th e jo y of fre e xmtiene*' and;:the solace of oppressed m tiens# religion has used and" elevated them, has abused and degraded them;- they a re connected «1th all history, and are clear teachers o f i t I emd# ' %#et o f a l l , they are the seeeteners of human la * bour^ b o th ^ to the hsmdicraftesmn, «hose l i f e la spent in «orking in them, and to the people in g e n e ra l Who are i n f lu* ended by the sight of them at every turn of ths^/day'd «ork: they make our toll happy, our rest fruitful.* *fo i^ t side then shall those turn fo r h e lp , «ho r e a lly wderstand the gain of a great art in the «orId, anp' the lo s s of peace @md good life that must follow from the laWk of it ," •îhe lesser Art#%* W l, p. # & p. 12. "That the ,beauty of life is a thii^ of no moment, l sup pose fee people .«ould venture, to assert, and yet most civil* lied people ait as if it were of none, aad in se doing are wronging both themselves and those th a t a re to cos# after them; for that beauty, idiieh is what i s meant by 'ayt ( i t a l io s in the origixuil), using the word la i t s w id est se n se , i s , I contend, p o sitiv e necessity of life..." "The le s s e r Aet*#" Aiii, p. 53. IS on hlB pony. Him recep tiv e mind aeon le&med to kno# every tree and bu#h and bird by'name, Later, a t Karlbor* o n # SebeoL, b# van noted for 'bis Ion#' vdWks^ ,l#to ..the eoan- try and in to the voedai a t t h is tisie Mis love of the English oountry-side be earn# a deep and sen sitiv e obsesS$on""that re mained e ith him throughout his l i f e and shone through h is so rk . But Horris early must have notieed th at ar&hd'''hià,' om tsid# o f h is small sorl#, there wee mush # l M e s h . A # w # sitiv # .an d p reo o sio a s y o w g ste r# sh e read,-Soott'*# maver#^ % novel# at the age of fear# W'^sewld se ll .-#*e Sbtwpved that there oould little beauty, i#' the litsa^|t,^||any 4f' bis son temporaries. #bils he vas reading '#est%*e 'noWis''and roeming thrst^h 'Épping forest, eh ild ren seareely elder tham he sere sorking long hours in faetorie# and in mines# m til in 1848# the first las sas passed j^hibiting semen and ehildren from sbrklmg tmderground. in 1044, shsn Ibrris sas eight years old, Elisabeth hartet Brosnlng puslisbed ïtm. Cry and even though se do net W es shea he read her sork# he admitted, just a month before bis death# that 10#'. tor' the biogtmphieaX faets of this sdrk' 1 an in- debted ts j# n w. %adkaii*e taai ^ Meiarfield^s'^.iiiil^' . '&tE@'%mton^I&eti 111l.in«.-.Horris? ...... 3 hi# «arliestpoem# he had written in imitation of Mrs. Brown in g , Something in hi# early l i f e planted in him the eeede that developed into "a hatred of modern olvlliaation" because o f it# rnthles# destruction of beauty in the live# of m n , and sometime in hi# early manhood a theory of art began to grow in him which, developing more and mere f u lly as he ad vanced in years, beeame in e f f e c t his basic philosophy of l i f e • . y'v. then % rri# entered Oxford as a divinity student a t the;,, age of nineteen, he had a lre a d y begun to steep himself in -art, îhree years earlier, at *arlboreugh%^èl)^e,)his biog rapher»- report, -he had n o t been interested in games, but only .- in Varoheology, old church music, amd medieval' arehiteoture." Bis Interest in Gothic architecture can be traced back to hie childhood, when, a t th e age o f mine, he had acquired a book on Gothic architecture which became one c f h is m ost prised possessions, fhen M orris was only e ig h t years o f age, his father took him on a v i s i t to a Gothic church; exactly fifty years later, never having seen this church in the mean time, he described it in every d e t a il. The significant thing about these e a rly interests is that archeology, the history o f a r t, and architecture even tu a lly came to form a b a sis fo r h is whole philosophy of a r t . 4 fhê #tu4y of archeology revealed to % rrl*#^,w h###till a y o u th , that "the beauty o f the world.. .aoald bo dairrod by an , % * a rtist with mwrny *flowers and histories** -mmda oontiaulng h is study of araheology, he found im la te r year»' that from th e e a r lie s t times to the Middle Ages the growth'and d evelop- ment of art had been dependent upon am unbroken ohaim of tra dition with eaoh' me* generatiem, inheriting, .:4#am,and .improving upon the a rt of d’ta-fatheiU:j'and that' .the h ig h est developient of art,, therefore, had been 'reaohed duat" p rior to the time this tradition was broken» # e lat% r,,^r$ #fthe JKiddle Agee, -Arohi'teetur##. whieh Morris deaided to make his l i f e work in li& b , he eoem oam# to eonoeiv# of'a# tbÿ basis end most important art with the other arts s^plementimg it end subordinated to i t . MaeWil' writes of Morris* love of the .Middle' Ages as 2 0 being "bom im him#* in ri«* of the fast that Morris * early years were surrounded by an atmosphere of mediemsliem this sw^ be almost, if not quite# true. However, while,Morris* love of the Middle Ages may be an important elue to am 19. Msbleman, o i t », p. 29# 20. Ikiekail, a i t . , 1# p . 10# & atmlyitis of him thought, it is important to note ehat as- peot# of faeâltfmlisæ appealed to him and «hat aspects did n o t, Morris «as not an unqualified lover of medievalism; he loved only those aspects cf m edieval l i f e «hioh, in one «ay or ancthej^ «ere consistent «1th his view cf a r t. I t i s true that already in his boyhood M orris «as a t tracted by the romantic aspects of the Middle ag es, 't h e i r pageemtry and glamour, and that he, 'perhaps early Ueoame 'à Miniver Cheevy «ho longed for "the medieval grace of iron clothing’*.! : hut «hat originally attracted him to medieval- ism, is mot so important as the fact th a t a s h e , 'became more mature he,.selected various aspeets of medievalism as «orthy o f h is admiration w hile he subjected various other aspects to his mtqualified condemnation. Perhaps Morris «as I n f lu - emoed in his "selection" by the movements o f h is tim e, which gemerally extolled medieval virtures and condemned V ictorian viees; .ee.rtainly, in the 1880*# the re tu rn to medievalism 11* Reference to Bdmin A rlington Robinson’s poem ver,,ffreevy* Miniver «as an intellectual id e a li s t , an imprao- ticaldrSTmer, «ho could not adjust h im self to reality. He found refu g e in escape into th e p a st. ê 22 «&s in the air and mnryl#, aly#ady ##o%ionaily oondltioneé for "loïluen##" and being an avldrreader af euryent litera ture» eould bàrdljr help breathing in eame of it* %ae» both the Oxford Movement and the Pre-âaphaelite Movement left their mark on hie thought. . moet influential force behind hie eeleetion of medi eval aepeote fo r eommendatiom» hove ver, eae John Ruekin, vhoee eritinge Borrie adopted #eleh$##Wd%r ohertljr - after coming to Oxford & and oontlMned to read eilh.'eya^ath» E: » : etde enthueixem thromghedt hie Oxford daye jai|dffei'fW ie fear# after leaving- # e Unimireitj* Ruekin gonceraed eith a rt : with .Gothic,..«rehlteatare»,, for »hloh/a«*^vNl''i3ave eeen# Morrle had already ..developed a deep lovfi and by the time 'Merrie le ft Oxford» Riwkln had givèn him the theory of uee in art with its et^hael# on the dignity of #e individ ual and of hand labor, and the theory ef "the aft of the. peepla#'" fao tom - oh, be ea# fundaaental in Morrie*' philoappby 22. The Oxford Bovmntnt had been initiated in #md even though the Igftfti, g,%.,%#,,10# W ^ a f t e r the nublleatieh o f Memaan^e O m m gX^dg d l) . th e influence of the movement i»s e till étrcng and thok on nm# aigmifioance a s a r e s u l t o f the a tta c k s on Kevman by k in g s- .ley and o th e r e . The Pre-Raphaelite'--Brotherhood, founded in 1848, was at its h eigh t when Morris eame to Oxford in 1883. Rankin and C arlyle were constantly "retèuming" to the M iddle Ag#a, 7 83 of art* It is also significant th at a t Oxford Morris met Idst&rd Btirne-Voiles I s&o like him self had entered the Unlver* a ity as a divinity Bradent and whose interests were likewise 1 tending in the direction of art. The oommon in te r e s ts o f ta@ two yotmg men issnedi&tely heoame the b a sis fo r a lif e - lo n g friendi^ip which proved mutually beneficial and undoubtedly oontributed to the crystallisation in each of hi# krocation in to h is real vooatiom. ■ *- Already the smener before Morris w#nt to Oxford, during his last term at Marlboroand before he cam# under th e ' ia fln e n e e o f Buskin# something happened which rewea^s his possession of d e fin ite ideas about modern' pro grebs thro ugh m aehines. to May 1st* 18*1# a "Great Exhibition" had opened atv-%de lark* 'Exhibited there was what «iueen V ic to ria c a lle d ••trimnph* of Prince A lbert," who looked for "social sal vation" in in d u stry # "industry in three senses: hard work, 2 4 organised work, and mechanised work." The &»rrises came to the Mwhibition: 2&, M tokln had published th e following works which Mor r i s had read before he l e f t O xford: Modern l a in t s r s . Th& 24* Paul Bloomfield, «ÜAUgmJbZflM, P* 29. .. .Williiua Marrie «as tîarowgh the tiarastile. It appear# that one glane# «ae eaoagh for him. The ixmeeemt eye penetrate# in a flash thre#h those ra pe are of eaggeetlon that ha# aete# ao meemerieally on the phhlio. ' All thia Aimpe# emahlmery, a ll theme erith ing metals an# tortured textiles» nmd disgusting, oleter eax-eorMs of;Indian- Thug», «and statues of plump, so#* lige kitohen-maida pretending to he dreek goddesses— «oaderful Wee#% *Wsnd#rfslly ugly*' William Morris sailed i t , and refused to go^.smsthSr yard* ."There «as'va.scat. a« eat doen on'it,...There he sta y e d I th e e th e rs s e n t on.®® This ess A display of prsjudiee on » illia» * ® part, hut it earn something else 'too. it «as W illiam Morris the" idealist :tr#S to hip ideal"*., Msohanlsation he, sae, already at the .age Of .eeTsnte.en-.., a# a fo re s d e s t r u e t i r e o f the beauty' in l i f e and he .«ould -have- nothiag to do s it h i t . The dream o f P rinoe Albert .«as- a nightmare ehieh 'hwinted Morris throughout his l i f e . The idealist in the re a l « o rld , i f he insists on re m aining true to his ideal, may a ften make himself ridicu lous as "Morris did on th is ooeasiom; hut for Morris i t «as more important to 'remain true to himself, .as so s h a ll see later dh in this eeeay, than to refrain from m%ing h im self ridieuM dsy terhaps, after he eame to W ord and fomd John s l y ##»#'upon the full green p la n t o f th e seed s iauX Üeom fieldÿ -e.it-*. pp. dd-dl-* 9 th a t had been germinating in h ie own m ind. In the mummer of 1854* h ie eedonâ year a t Oxford, Mor ris visited varloue ehurehee throughout England; and in 1855 he took a trip, this time in oompany with Burme-Jonee and f u lf o r d , two o f h ie Oxford "eroniea," to Belgium and Northern franee* these trips were motivated chiefly by Morris* in terest in Gothic architecture* According to Cannon Dixon, Morris locked upon the churches of Amiens, Beauvais and Chartres as "the noblest works of human inven^icbfhe e f f e c t o f these jeumeys on Morris was to confirm h is grow* ing conyictien th at his chief interest was in a^hiteeiure rather than in ^■-'.religion. How serioms Kerris had been in his deeisich 'tc jo in the Church remains'a question* Certainly, the i#fl#hc#o f h is mother in his original choice o f a vocation is evident from the reluctance with which he informed her o f hW CWmge o f -.... " ' mind, lerhaps he had from the first been a ttr a cte d more by ehureh arohiteoture and church music than by the religion i t s e l f , and perhaps in his young mind a r e lig io u s vocation seemed to him to be th e most d ir e c t way to th e i r enjoyment. However, th e r e was in religion another meaningful sid e which 26. A rthur Gompton-Riokett, Wiljiam Horrid** p- 275. 10 hm# ooffle to ibrotigh him the eseeatial yï.eplrtt of that bad shameterlaed the Oh%#eh in the mi44i# Ag#a* I* ,%(, #i#hifieeh4ly li* luatratèa this apirlt, defined in the word# of John Ball, the re h e l jprieet* him»#If * 1» heaven* :-end' la e k o f felleaehip i e :h#llt le life, and'leak of felloeehip le deaW add that ye do apen ewth* It la for felleae##*#" ###- that ye de them.&* , ^ ' ■■■ îhi» # lrlt ef felieadhl# herrie «net haye tar:^;fo«e to feel me the natarai prodnet of,any eeelety o'f free- men in #hl#ha l l the «emher» ehared in art, in the heaaty.of l i f e . i t r«T»ai»: iteelf in hie inter##t inth e le ela n d i# 'Ssi8E” .kr;ii^la natieh he began tranelating with 'mgnueeon In Igw ; ant"already tea year» earlier he had evinced àn interest in leelandle, am fa# reyealed by hi» pnhlloation# in the Oxford hhd :jiM »iine* %### ehn eha*#4 in art livedin a heaven'; on e»r#i, while the rieh'^aa», who refumed to ahare. r% ; In "lidSd Morrle tranelated from the îreneh and f a h - llitoed is the #####!#,two wnrty e f Zee W i n o r ig in , th e ieaee o f th e # e i flag#or the Bargdalere of,.##: Jteot#. o f A# ytwret Qreiman, ** m lù n * . It wee Inevitable tlmt Morrle with hi® ideal of fellow# # # . . #hOMl& -eemeunder $h# infiuene®o f the.v'ë#hré' Kovweat, a movement which eonght to reoaptùr# the s p ir i t o f unity th&t h#a aharaeterised the Church of the Middle Agee; eventually* however, Xorrie dlemool&ted the eooiety ef feilowehip from 50 religion end treoed I t e origin® to freedom end $ r t . & eooiety poseeeeing freedom would develop a rt* whioh^ waa beau# ty eupremeed la "all the detail® of daily life#" and one o f the empreaaioae of thie heauty in the lives of the individual 31 memher® was fellowship* By 1865# a group of students at Oxford# including Mdwafd 89* "«*.1 tell you that the proud# desplteeus rich Bum#, though he knows th it not# is in hell already# he cause he hath no. fellow. & m®egi pf egg: Ml"# »" Ml. 30# "The gilds, whose first heginning in 3Ü@gland date# frm® he for# the Borman Oenqueet^ although they fully resog- h ise d the iiierarehieal' conditions of society# ahd were in*» èeed often in early times mainly rsllgious' in th e ir alm s, d id mot spring fre# ecsleslamtieism# may# in all probability# bad their root# In that part o f, the #urepean '####which had not knem of: Rome and her Institutions in #e'''#çye /of her temper* al -domination." •irshiteetw e and llis-toiy» * W I# p. 303* Gf. fSStf pp. 36 ff. 31. "..«the tr##eeret ef ha#ine## aim s :4g^gfWA,,##À#g; W ii# p#-#4.. Gf*:#oe^ Pp. 3s ff. 12 Buyq#*Jone# and Morris, th# recognised leader# ,}#âd steeped th#m#elT*a lnm#dl#vall#m. Garlyl#'# waa read hy every member eith 8n|hu8ia»tie..app3see%:|l@»# and the group had prerloeely read Ruekln^a Modem ^alhlfere. W m # ,9,f AtfAAd# A&phaellte Brotherhood, whloh had dome dm to ematehoe eevea y ea rs earlier# ea# making a deep JUapreselon on the&e Oxford medieéaîietaî and they eere non aetlrely dl#em#lng plane for founding a monaetOry' to "oonduot a erueade, a "*’to ly 'S’ar a# 3 8 ' gainat thle Age. She outoome of tbjLa enthual&mm ea# the ■Okfo.M ^rothfrhood: and ; t^ p^mbiloati# of the ##f@r#. .&nd , that appeared In thi# period^ d eal-rdveal, the Inter#ate of the gra%y -a# #eil:i%e Morrle * ,thethe tim e# # o :o f h ie a r t le ie e , %e:B.torpL..%f th e n r # eno# o f the deep lmpree.#len.''h#,e tra v el# o f the, preceding aun*- made upon him a# *#11 a# of hi# gr®ii4i|g, pre^o^up^tfom. I S ' ^ ' efth @ethle Arohiteoture# f e e ether article#, S e x t h a *.#. . Sd. ' f' /' ' teSSE. &dd tndicate mot only hi# 38. Margaret a. Grenman#"Op. c it., p. 30 33# Ibid., p. 32 ' 34. Ibid., p . 31 13 iiîtereat in lôalaudic material but a l# o, and mora s ig n lf i» satntly, ais in f r e t e o o ie tia a and their art. M o r r i » ta# looking into the aooittl## of th# past for the aa»«tr to a tbtory of art or of lift thlob must havt been shaping it* s e l f in hi# mind m o r e and m o r e fu lly a t this tim e. The l o o * Isndle material off brad a fertile field for investigation, for he found there both sooiotiea of complet# individual free* 2W do» and s o e latte»' of elavery. In 1836 Morris met %mte da&rtel Hoeeetti and, ore rooms by,;''i|»t man*» eharm, muooumbed oOmpletely to Me influeno*. R#a##tti, who Insisted that.painting #»a theonly r e a l a r t , ' gernaaded M orris to nbandom arehiteotur# and to take up "jointing. But Morris, e h ile he f e l t th at painting was a' .great/art, eould not forget arghiteetur# and e s u l d a o t aban* don it, tkile he agreed, therafdra# to take up painting, h# determined, nerertheleaa, te de eat* h i » a |s i r e tim e, a t ' learnt ei% hoars a day, to arohiteeture. #»#e#tti'%#roleed .a strong imflueno# upon Morrta., who aehieved a fair dtgree of sueeee* a# a painter, for the next- ten year#. Behlemah'ie#ÿ'#" th e re i» erldenee tlmt he me e till engaged la yigoro## eoulmeareMag 3 6 . C f, post, p. 26. i* m,8 to bio futur# career*.^ mod "for a .#th# #mthu*laea ^@ 4 ' of a####tti Warn to carry him a!^ong^" This aëarqhlug #e#m# %p; b#, *fi*$nood al#o la % rri#*' »%p#rlm#nta ia à aide variety of erafta, clay modelliag, lllumlaatlMg» #o#d #a4 atone carving, embroidery, furniture designing, an4 "others,, "from 185# ons&rd'. ''#tt4t#t$i'*s lL%^wAce - gradually waned s# .^^ftszmnmhip inoreasingly awsorbed horm ris» attention and fthally b s s a m s sattlhct wW #^#rris start» #d stu#y#g Icsiandis undsr Magnus##*^i% Th* wide ran*# of; artistic pursuits In which ##rri» #v#%$uai^' as- %%ired *;working fam iliarity providid hi* n ith ik ads^ua.t#; fe* * d atio n upon w&loh W' c o n s tru c t a ..s.f '# # # ■;r ' . .s'5'v -...^ # a tg c r r i # ' ea rly interest# in r#liglon% nd':# medi» svallsm: indlw # is, his dissati8fa0tidn-nt% t^|^f|dtoria» S€. Eshles#*, # . -B tti. p. 5# 39# "The Mglnning, of Ifoririat. Js'slandic studies#..coin» sid#S #ith i#at #ight be sailed ##' fimal #xtlhctio* of Ac#» a#tti»a- # f 1 uenc# oy#r hi# *#., **''%$i$ t% aeW il» : -ay# ' # * t., 4 , . y 16 world hie aearoh for eonethlng that would produce a eat* lafaotory world, Ee did not find it in religion; he found sign# of it in medievalism; and he found it wholly in a phi- loawphy of art. in this reepeet Norri# waa not unlike other refermera of the p eriod . Art heeaae Merrio’ remedy for the 111* o f the world ju s t me i t had become Ruekin'e; ju e t a* r e lig io n had become hewman*# remedy; education, Arnold**; end a "leader," Oerlyle*e. But none of the fo u r V ictorian "Prophet** had greater faith in hi* remedy than had villiam Morris; for the remedy, in each c a s e , was chiefly for the comeMm man and while each reformer aimed at making th e com- "good," none dared to hope that the remedy he pre- ecrihed would make him a© good th at he could he entirely re * lie d upon under all eireumetancee. M o rris, however, f e l t c o n fid e n t th at a s o c ie ty of art would "perfect" the Individ- :ua.i member# to a degree where a "complete equality of c o n d i- tic#" would he e n tir e ly practicable. Art in the life of ■every In d ivid im l, M orris felt, would develop a cense o f ao- cia l; reaponslbility in him that would make the common welfare primary is hi» every action, thue making law and regulation 38 unneeeseary. 38. Bee, for erample. Bee* from x$ *8 korria oam# to conceive of it, probably aaort* ly efter entering vxford, e^nentlaily «hat 2^akin ha6 aaid It ***: the creation of beauty in an object ##&e for U8C, But, the creation of beauty caa dependent upon flees* ure in labor, and swob pleasure derived fro^ the condition* cf life and work under cblch the artict or the %orkaan la b o red . ^very %orkman "*bo 1* determ ined th a t'* « h la eo rk shell be excellent* ese an artiet; end art, "the decoration of sorkmaoehlp," %ae in ultimate analyela "t^c expreacion of 39 a man** pleasure in successful labour." when the aorkman ess free to cork as he pleased and at shatever he pleased, pleasure cas invariably his primary incentive and he then applied hi* skill, hie Imagination, and his intelligence and sought to produce something satisfying to his intelligenoe* heawty. The eorkman with fear, sorry, and anxiety on his mind un* hampered; for these gnaslng obsessions dlstr&uted hie faculties, making it impossible for to fully enjoy himself and to fully apply his Intelligence to his *ork. This far Kerris sent hand in hand vith üuskin; but Morris 39, *The lesser Arts," Oÿ. c it., p. 23 17 ##nt mwah farther in the direction of freedo# than Auakin wau w illin g to go. To Aorrie' mind it waa perfectly logical tnat if freedom in work wao neoeeaary for t%e création of be&uty in work and if every ea&reoBion of life an ca^rec- *ion of beauty, then freedom in every yh&so ;i life was neoeu- aary. In other words, the freer tne workman, the greater were nie opportunities for enjoyment and ^elf-expreoeion and t&4 more beautiful end wholesome became a ie l i f e ae a r e s u lt . Thue, in Marrie* ideal ecoiety the workman must oo free from all political, moral, Social, and economic qualification* 40 am w e ll a# from car# and anxiety. According to Aufikin*u theory of use which ttcrris adopted. 40, * ...lt ia impossible to dieeociate a r t from m ora lity , politic», and religion. Truth in th e se g reat matters of prin ciple' idi-of one..." "The Art of the f é o p le ,” Collected acrke. kill, p. 49. "6oai#ty w ill thue be recaet, and lab o u r w ill be. fr%* from a ll compulelon except the compulsion of ila tu r t, which g iv e s ms n o th in g for nothing. It would be futile, to, attem pt to- g iv e you d e t a il s o f the way in which th is would be carried ou%% since the very essence of it is freedom and t&e a b o li- tion of all arb itra ry or artificial authority." "The JPawn of a hew Bpooh," Gollefted Aorke. kklll, p. 134. A detailed account of "the way in which th is would be carried out" is given in 9#*# XVI, Chapters X-IY inclusive. "Thus would be minimised the danger of the community falling into bureaucracy, the multiplication o f boards and offices, and a l l the paraphernalia of official authority, which i s , a fte r a l l , a burden even when it is exercised by the delegation of the whole people and in accordance with t h e i r w ish es." "True and False Society," Coll.j.o..ted ...\Orka. XXIII, p. 235. 18 the hael# for all ereativemeea «as Ose» If rasa attempted to make am ything he f e l t no real need far# he tms easting a r t ; and the prodhot o f sueh laher eeald neeeesarlly he ehar» aeterlatleally artifioial or f a ls e . "N othing eah he a work 41 of art which Is not useful.* ■ îîature had meant every indi* rld n a i to work for his livelihood and therefore^ not only made h is work attraetive to him hut had a ls o Intended I t to he a " solas#," a compensation for the hurdene that l i f e Im## 4% ' posed. The so la c e wà# p le a sh re in ia h o r and this plea#*. . ure was conducive to the ; ore# tfen of beauty in the f i n a l oh**' j e o t . Bea'uty., profoundly ihflueneed mem an d i t m -t a fund»** mental need in man’s nature, its preasnee made his life meaningful, his work a pleasure and his rest fruitful; and it entered / n to - th e very fiber of his soul* re"expressing itself in everything he did, his thoughts and actions, his relations with his fell®» men. Thus, beauty was an absolute 41. "The L esser A rts ," s i t , .: n* 42. "Nature does mot give us our livelihood gratis; we must win i t by t o i l o f some sort or degree., Let us s e e , them, if/.'she, does not g iv e us some sompeneation for th is eo ap u l" sion to labour... ' "You. pay be sure that she .does so, that It is of the. nature cf man, when he is not diseased, to take pleasure ih hie work under certain conditions»:'* "Wefui fork versns Vsefdl loll, " Qoil,ec.ted. _iork#. p. M* 1* if iiiyf■ ?,$# llv # met me - ' ' eemmthimg:,*l#me %Wm .me#,* . ■- .:; #em .priWtM# : e#*i.ed' a *m #- ****** etoae, he e'rémtM 'e weak of art, ' KeTlng#et "to 3or% ei.th-a ■:;fwpese, he foumâ hie leber a pleaemr#, Uee a»# the ' geai em# the treatiom e f beauty-.4# the flniehed ebjeet #*##&# :We#mv t iw am# bathr.ctheee -attri.butee were the me tarai outeom# o f pleabare bark ; 'The flâiibi-Ç obj^ot g»v# hi# bOt.h. eatis# faa%to# m à' p^iée -:'&*#'"'It ,ea#rtheae fmeto# imroiTe# lm_ hie Ifer#aileai#om tl#% :.#&##' life #ort%iehi%#,/E# ha# foam# parpem-,# ..i.lfe Im,,aaeO%.il#%#ent to.a 4ehltt««e»tr' Cam# ..y # reely , *!, , # h e ''grèa.,%##t o f $11 « ? im , the ;beaTW#t o f a ll. .WMI ■ ■ '■ ;V '- that #%il àf tM # ea W f p# # b thepepalatle# belhg <#####$' W I# at. thë\b*at.iiw##e% (^itàireat t^èa,. or 6#v#l# i...v'^:-..> beet ,fae«X,tffà| .,a#4 a.t the w ra t...,, le méf# eiaTlah.ia.#^;.aÀiltbl#,.tall degradte ta## ,*6rÿle^ .A%^-#e^W#.Art#. a^4e*al4#ratlea:9f -..the prima-ry ..,. ^ -/ . : -aWWKA'bf mm amd # « baaie ###».- im hamaa maturev 43. 0f, amt#. im tredéeti#, feetmat# 3* 20 primary needs were food, olothing, and ehelter; and Mature Bupplied him the raw material* for thee* In ahundanoe* ainee man waa an in t e llig e n t b ein g , it wa# natural and neoeeaary that he uae hie Intelligence in carving iilc need* from %at- ure# human intelligence naturally sought to express i t s e l f in everything the individual did and it Bought to do th le in term# satisfying td itself, in term* of bsauty* Ihf need for eapreseloA and for beauty was fundamental in man's nat* u re, and It wa* this which raised man above the lo ^ e l o f the beast* You oanaot edueate, you gannot oivill&e mtn^ unless you give them a sh a re in art.4# Mature itself wa* beautiful and therefore afforded man n o t only a- b e a u tifu l environment for the ere* tio n o f beauty « in hie own teris» but also “taught** man the prinolplew of beauty, Thus, a n y th in g which was in accord with Mature was beautiful and therefore "true;*' w hile an y th in g not in acco rd with Mature was ugly and "false." This did hot m^ean that 46 a rt was an im itation of Mature, for aain was tr u e to r a t u r é . 45. "The Beauty of L if e ," C ollected Âork*, \X H , p. 63* 46. " ...it is impossible to imitate Mature literally ; the utmoot realism of the most realistic painter fulls a long way sh ort o f that * " "Bwrni Hints on lattern iveeignimg#" Co fleeted WOiAO. IŒII, p. 178. > 21 doing th a t shloh Hatdxe intended him to do* nhen he earn true to h lm eelf and expreesed hie intelligenee in h ie eork. Im i ta tio n o f Mature might be beautiful b u t it earn only "leeeer beauty" compared to interpretation or "meaning beyond i t a e l f " 47 eh io h criaraoterieed the b e e t a rt* Ermot im itation o f Mat ure* which in effect aimed at duplication, ea« actually not poeeible, Morria felt; and i f a l l a r t aimed at imitation mere- 48 ly i t would tend to become "weariaeme.". It wae individ uality, oeleotioD and interpretation, which horrie"obnetaat- ly emphaeiaed; a.id imitation f e l l a b o rt o f th e se important dharacterietioa. in olvillaation, cf the primary needs, food* oiothing, and shelter the last offered to man the g re a te st opportuai- tiea for aelf*ixpreosion. The art of house-building or 4 7 . "You may be su re tn&t any decoration ie f u t i l e , and be# fallen into at leaat tue lirst stage of degradation, when i t does not remind you of something beyond itself." "home hint#' on Pattern Paaigiu ing," oit*, p. 17U, 48. "Is I t not better to be reminded, however simply, o f the close vine-trellis t ' a t keeps out the sun "by the M ile aide; or of the wild wood* and their streams, wlt^ tne doge panting beside them; or of the swallows sweeping above th e garden bough# toward the ^ouoe-eaves where their nettlings a r e , while the sun breaks the clouds on th em .. .I s not a l l this better th an having to count day a f t t r daj, a few ar.am -real boughs ind flowers, casting sham-real shadows on your &alls with little d in t of anything beyond Joveot Garden in tdem7" % d.A p. 17». 23 auftliilecture ea* central a»d primary In the life o f e l T i lie e â a*b; %aiie a ll the ether arte *#r# merely different pheeee ef this art, included in a more general ocneeptlen of heme*^ 49 making, ^rt eae the *gUerdlan of the beauty of Katcre" and man In building hie habitations eaa obligated to tak# care to utilise this aatufal heauty, building into it and enhancing it rather than destroying it and eubetitutiog for it, for example, the uglln*8* and orowding that cnaraeter^ i**d the modern c ity # Thl* n#ôeB#ity for guarding the beau ty of Bature alee illustrated the unlyeraal character of art. if the environment eaé to be beautiful, and this eae a condi tion necessary to the cfeatien of beauty, all the peuple had to sh are in a r t ; fo r , i f one individual destroyed t.5«? beauty o f Sature o r disfigured th e envircxment w ith an ugly b u ild - ing, he %aa contributing to the dereldpm&nt of u&llneae in the lives of those around him. a healthy art, therefore, *0 oculd not exist unleao *all the people snared in art." 4y. ‘’...beauty of the earth; and of that beauty art is the only possible guardian." "Ihe Prospects of .architect- ure,C ollected xcrke. ZXII, p. 1E5. 6&. "^rt will not grow agd flourish, nay, it w ill not long e x i s t, unies# it be sn a re d by a l l the people," "Art and the beauty o f the % rth," Odl].eété*^ /^6r)(rS. p. 166< 23 From the earliest tlia# to the Renaiseaace, "Art, ehleh Mature meant to solaee all, fulfilled it# purge##; a l l th e 51 peuple etm red la it;" aad« la those time#, *#.,every body th a t made an y th in g made a work of art beside# a useful piece 52 ef good#," Art, then, "grew and grew , sae empire# sicken 53 #md sickened with them; grev hale again, and haler,.*"; hut# all that time, an unbroken chain o f tr a d itio n had been kept alive and a r t had come to he "the outcome of instinct merkimg en* th at unbroken chain of tradition: it vas fed not hy knovledge hut hy hepe, and though many a strange and vild illusion mingled p ith that hope, yet va# it human and fruitful erer; many a ; man it'eolaeed, many a slave in body it-dfredd in ##uli houndles# pleasure it gave to those «ho wrought and those vho used It.ed Beaide# th is unhroken chain of tradition there va# an- other significant force in the art of the p a s t: the essential 55 freedom which the workman enjoyed in hi# work. The 5 1 .' "The Beauty of llfe,"'pg, cit.. p. 55. 52 . «Art and the Beauty of the Barth," pcll^cted Wofka. kXlI, p. 1*3. 53. "The Beauty of life," cit.. p . 56. 54. "The Prospect# of A rchitecture," gfilleo ted... lorkg.. X%11, p^ 153. 55. " ,..some w ill say# hut their mind# vs##en sla v ed . #e*e they? T h eir thomght# moved in a narrow circle maybe ; eW. y e t I c a n H say th a t a man i s o f slavish mind who is free to express his thomght#, such as tliey eiretA." "Art and industry in the Fourteenth Century," GcAleMeA'Work#., à jliî, p. 38*. 24 «hiif w«rt m»% e&ap&ei- e sim â W la-mriott® fûTsm$ h&4 »$ ## a r il» t lô $Tm0û0m* ■ %&#? tk# of labor of pre- *7 inâttairialisoâ ae«i#%i#» thtm rkm n va# the wait of lab or, le aafi a-: oiNiftaton* left free In hie #@#1, " an4' abat» «Ter-.^f #w#$- Pieaamrein 'ae#'.:i#e. a natnr-^ al eon4|t|W:;?-|«Nirint in hie' freeâoa to follow that pro fee» aion, or?'tya0#::.,t'Owar4 wbieh hi# intereete moot iholined ae we 11.a#'" in':##' ïelf»ffealieatioa be e##rieno#l:'im.'$&a0tieing' hi#:$##%iar ekiili l h ie eraft:#" If he prolne#* ware# for eèaiè^:rfj^«-^':i^e bae# attribnt# ofae# w&e e till. primary .. him en@ th#:.:i0h&Wr a lir e # eentait whieh eetmAIiehei a bom& ## ;#)##%)#.and mi# A L:':: ...... ■ W# #w#ki#l Of $# j*aatt',.llbiprie a a i da lî l th a t ti#*' lt:.:*ae.,:'me\art'Of; f###,...##»,.. #wt#ve# a la # # « till ea» ..ieted the wOrlA , W f# .:###'eaongh# aa. alwig^i| art had #e ..'### in itkt,- #Art;:#w the.;,iia»ty of the... Bar## * #a#. # It®** - . . #*' “Iteier the old medieval.oomditione wait of W##' 4'. .maater, oraftemm who Imew hi# b#t##h#\from .# m .:### .#^/:.he:## he had wa# fr##\##;appr#a» , _ b#...w#r#leaw&g 'them baw iw ea# and w#m met .doomed # *^Mh:iteot#r#.:':.'amd hietory^* iS ti& iS * - : 2* aa • i r i ^ t b y va# m incentive to dealre for exeelleno# in work. wam&hip or to the production of something b ea u tifu l as w e ll a® u s e fu l. What Morri® chiefly loved in the Middle Age# earn t h e i r condition of life which had made their g re a t art poeeible, fheir art wa». cbaraoterimed by a high degree ef a k i l l in craftemanehip , a skill expressed in term s o f individuality and rare beauty, îhi» high degree of perfection warn due not o nly to the essential freedom the m edieval workman had en joyed in his work# but a ls o , ae ha# been pointed out before, to the traditions of art in which he la b o re d . the designation of the medieval workman as “free* In h is -.work may seem lik e an Inversion of w ell known h is t o r ic a l faets, %der the fe u d a l system the serf was bought and so ld 58. "...The- carpenter makes a ch est fo r the go ldsm ith one day*: the goldsmith a cup for the carpenter on another, and there: is myopathy in their work**that is, the carpenter makes for Ms goldsmith frien d j u s t sueh a c h e st aa he him- self would have if he needed a c^estl the gcldssüth's cup is exactly -what he would make for himself if W needed o n e. kadh i s conscious during his work o f,-making a thing to be used by a man o f like needs to himself,*- "Art and i t s rro - duoerst* ëoIle.e,te,d..w^r^i.. AXU, p. 344. *.k*#it followed from th is direct intérieurs# between tM#,,.ma#dW':isnd -the,consumer o f goods, that-- the- .public in gén érai were good, judges of manufaetured war##, and, in conae- ddence# that the aft, or r e lig io n ra-fâaer, of adulteration was scaroely known.* "Architecture and H ia to g y , * ü o ile o te * mor^. mil, p, goB. ^ ^ : m with the land and «Ten the free workman »a# awhjeet te th e whiltB and fane led o f the nobility who eon trolled the go Tern* ment and oened meet of the property* SomeTer, ae l o r r i e eon* oeiTed o f i t , the Middle Agee eetually had two aoeietlee: a free eooiety, the sooiety of the people# eithin a a«per a t r a c to r e o f an ariatoeratle eooiety whieh iwpoaed. upon and a t* tem pted to hind the eooiety beneath It iato rigid and eye tea* atia eiaTery. MowoTer, the.,..feudal arietoer&oy, w hile i t preaeed hearily upon the eooiety o f # e people# which it at tempted to exploit, wae ao.tailly too baey w ith ward and other matters to earry'out a policy of exploitation w ith any de gree of effeotiTeneee# The eooiety of the people had d e v e l oped from the Germanie and Celtic tribal eocletie# in which th e re had been ainoet complete indiTidmal freedom and it was s t i l l characterised hy a spirit of association which had never died out of the peoples of ii,urope, and which in dcrthern Burepe at least had been kept aliTC hy the glide which in tarn i t deTeloped*®® The feu d al' s o c ie ty in England w as. superiMsposcd upon th is fre e society by the horman French, but the “spirit of association" 59* “Art and Industry in the fourteenth Century," Co,l- ledted aork#. xxil, p, SSE...... > ; ,, .*9 ' with It# p$#t#9tlv# » *#W#g orgàAl&atloa that ' - 40 ; liuâikliiim oopld n o t ofmmh#" Awtu&lly, th# - imttmt. imû pwp### h#hlw|L, the d*w#ltjp##mt o f th# #y#t«m had been the @##plete aublvg-atloa and «a^leltatlen of tW' m##»#e; and In theory, at leeet* the w e r d '^ ' who-. b#d: no more #Wht# than ohattei ethye# had, , nxeept #at. # ttiy * ## ^^'^W -t&t' etëek -d#' th# emher, they e##id not: %#:#id #; % fe e t, howeren,^ meAleml eooiety b*.###» In ef feet* "an eWy fed &'.'%leyee« eke eeuld not be , # « # ? ## d aleee3^, ex* .#le||#.d** ,.%## #ye*'-^flyeta-w#e^, of Aw tore that made effeetltft enf|oit«.ti©n dlftlbnlt if - net e|te$etkey \:lj#oeelb%e#^:'' ,The f l r e t #*#. tb#- ey etm t o f e#B#o#y^ %e#d on ee# # tk#r 'Ébh'-profit* : ' ' ' ' '' ,*»*peopl# prednee# for-ieeir own ew ###tA n,''end only eneWmged the ' eyerplme- ef'th et they did ip t e&ne#m. #»#%# medleyai »o#mmm bem m .'tl# # # d # tien # - i ^ r e the~ modem, workman ''b e g ln e /'e lth mxWÿ»!, A|#o» A v e # dO,#drt end led*### In the foerteentb'^teflnrjip041» A Ü * ' y«: w # : ; . , dl. "fendml %glemd," -W M ldi,,W EKriAllli: # 5*' d # . iM â*» P* Bd*i ' #&.* *Ayt and Indnetry in the fourteenth % m t#y, " op. UÜLt.. p. 3dO. : -r ' 2$ free man had at least the we# o f #om# portion of the soil on 64 whieh he wae bom." Another barrier to ef feet ire exploit ation lay in the faet th at the medieval ay#tern of ecionooy wae baaed s o le ly on the la n d ; and the s e rf# who worked the la n d , ootiXd n o t be olosely watehed and bad to be left la rg e ly to bimeelf; Sow alnoe a ll the elas#-robb*ry' th at there wae wae oarrled on by mean# of the land, and that not oy any mean# olosely or darefwily# in s p ite o f the d ie - timet arbitrary lava direeted against the worker#, whieh again were never fully earried out, it follow# th at i t wa# eaay f o r the produetlve ela e# to l i v e . 68 Beside# these faetdr# inherent in the eopmomy o f the system , th e re were a number o f fore#a a t work that gradually weak ened the hold of the arietoeraey on th e p eo p le , The n eeee- e it le a ef the feudal arletooraoy# whose c h ie f b u sin e ss came to be making and fighting wars, oompelled them to r e la x th e ir g rip and to grant oono@#eion after oonoession u n til the s e r f wae in a very different oondition from tb# e h a tte l slave; for, oertain definite duties being d^rform#d for his lord, he was (in t&eory a t l e a s t ; a t lib e r ty to earn hie living as he best oould within the lias* it# of his manor.60 64. "Art and industry in the Fourteenth Oeatury, S H ., p . 381. 65. ib id , 66. "Arehiteoture and history," Oel^dted .orks, lAIl, P . 303. 89 Thw», the $ e r f , imlike the oh&ttel elmv* h# émà-ln tAeoyy, ' **# by the oo aô itio B o f hie l#bew# :.fer@e&yte strive, to b e t te r hlmeelf ae an l#lvld u#l, bhd'' o o ile e tlÿ e ly ' eooB began to - beqolre right# ami set the/;#lW#hi&g " right# of %i*g, lord, a#ë byrgher.67 The •burgher," a© im# been hinted, eon#111ut# 4iehb ther fore# •that had, from quite early' is ,,the MlM'ie age## mtood In the eey:; of eubjugmtlen end exploitation* ?îlth h% like*!##, the •meeeeeitiee of the feudal. %ord ear# th* eygortunitie# of ' ■ the toene ; ••; - . ; » ■ #.# *tbe former not bel##;able, to aqeeeae h i# , aerf- . .tenante-,beyond a oertain point.# .and barWK,ma.'##ane of' making:: hi# money grow, had to p#m$ng far .. hie main paei#om by yielding up # a t hajjinoaght he „ eoald a pare of..;:dt,,%b the producing e la#d e e * # . . •M':.,eonj'wotion#ith •##' rlee of the te#n# % ae# and mighty ' fe ro e began te germinate for th# M l# of lab#%*' ' the first a i# a of eeeala* .',eombinâ#an nnhng free nea# prodnoere# ■ and di#t#ibdt@re*d9 '■ th i# ae# fo fo e #a® th e m edieval glide# whieh 'W^p aaao o ia* tion# formed t#.,the town* to pro toot their ri^t** , fn th# ’Xïolflttottat» «a* «htory.» tui. # 1 , dd# * Art. and industry in "#h* yehrteentih 'Wm&àky# " n# ' J ll# ., f é 333. ■ ' ' ,ÿ“. 89. *Arohit«otttr« and uistory.** #£. AÀ. 30 early Middle Agee, in the struggle hetneen the Croan and the B&rons, the town# had found their flret opportunity; and they had utilized I t ec advantageouely th a t they had- acquired s t a tue and considerable concessions in the Magna Charta« The continuation of this struggle, the advent o f the oars of the lo s e s , and the One hundred fears War brought further oppor tu n itie s for the towns to take advantage of the "necessities of the lords" or of the King, who ev en tu a lly became m a ste r, henry l had. been the first monarch to eater openly to the masses .for their support and succeeding kings often found i t profitable to do lik e w is e , By the time the feu dal system had developed to i t s full---the tism o f Edward 111 In the fo u r- tesB th eentury—-the s e r f had acquired a system-of rights that over-balanoed his,duties and left him in effect a te n a n t paying re n t* The means of livelihood were cheap and h o l idays were numerous ; and* actually, "the uppers class did not liv e so much more comfortably than the lower." To those who would o a ll the l i f e o f the am dieval oommon man a l i f e o f slavery, Morris answered: ...it was certainly a condition o f slavery in which the.- slaves were well fed* and clothed* aqd -housed* and had abundanoe of holidays 70. "A rt and Industry in the fourteenth û en tu ry ," op * P» 381* 51 &nd #üoh * oogdltloa "ba* not oft#n been r#*lla#d in th* 71 torid*# hlmtory,* ?h* important fa*t to b# noted In Morrle* anh^ele of the erhfteman** Ilf# of the Middle Agee ie the development ef the gild* and their total effect upon the ei^fteman ae an *ar$l|Pt** 3he town# had arieen, merrle eaid^ elmply a# a ;i^u3.t of th# yegulatiea #a#n together ty oonTenienoe... âaeédiatfng themeelr## togatWr for the ordinary buelneee .of ' (ÿi- %aAmg,.it ;#aa.T#i#nt in thee# disturbed times to 1##. the '''h#ue## aad eloee# uhith they #habited ;iW » d b y ^ ? g \- i:/, lo t #v#a bafore t h i s v#hiie' the m it o f .habitation aa® met ereh, ,a village, .'hut a hwseâtàad' for tu n ) , our Teutomi# a#& $#andi- v:mavian for#fa#*r®, ohile y e t heathen#'» "mere need to b#%d themmelv#® together for f e a s t# and aaarffioee .iw::##'fo r mutual ...defence and re lie f a g a in st 'aecid.ent and vioienoi into nbat mould 'non be eallod b e n e fit «oft'letie#', but ah ich they s a ile d g iId s *75 %h# gilds 'mere thus a natural developWnt' that,;,:#re# out of fÿee .:#e#oeia tiens formed for pro test ism., îhelr,. ehief 71. "Art and. Industry in tbs Fourteenth Wmlury," Jiup .p. 5at«- p* 3#». '-" 't 32 fu n *tion , in .Oa.ter tim # # beaamè th# pre$#g$i6h'#f the wojfk- m#n\ Again#t the ene-rsashment» pf th# 14 m» ## $114# that p*#T#a*#4 the diT«l#p«ht' tf my»tern of la- boT for "profit* hy keeping the arletoeraoy.at hay and by strietly etasdardlming product# and rag.nlatim# production. fh# th#ary TWhiad their etandardiaatieh an$ ir#$uiatleo #ae need, t # n##d ofthe #cn#u##r* mhieh,###- by the la# of aapply, |yad-th»v:'#^"^5E^eT«ry laborer^’^ for dM yelihood; '■ * ?4 ,,,, #hi#h ### dependent #oh'/th#^' la# e f demand. ' m il# thi» ,; ' 5- ^ ^ etwiardlmaticn and fagulatlom #aa$ in the run* far th# benefit of 'the aepW#** a liaitm atiah -#a. i$ uhieh he -o.om#id#r#d .nmfertmlat#. . ; %h# modi* -evai ##-rk3wan,, #a# Wnmd by the fiA it# of hi# ;,tÀtt?'»sd by M"#. "Ih# theory of ioduetyy among- the»# ocmmnne# wa# ###;#m #:iik# thia*:.,Th##/'#..# #e##in,.damand'-'for th e good# - #W#h:''^-e#":«#n. make-#' and a %#r#im- a# t$l#d papulatiaa to #ah# ;-;|hiHttî. if # # good# ar# net thefooghly: aatlafàttory'## ahall :':$###: e#;-.n#%het '-mm fo r and b# ruinedi '##:■ ###%( th erefo re '# » mwt he.aure of norh ainaya #a ion#- -a#' they are • behartd and.v###mtrie#iii :«md -aiee m at W # ,# fair live* '"art # # W W t#'ih'''#e fourteenth. Century*" 75. hefria #n%#rate# eon#- of th#.:nhert#endnge of the nedieval -eyeten.#.!#prey#» ted it# d*rel###ntinto eoeiai# #W':# %he "hpirit of aeaoclatiinf'wa# too e##le#lva and the -dutt##. were "homded*' too much to aHe# enpaneion % ta a freer e odi#ty # &i&* # # * ^ ' ' 33 *th# boundaries of the liberties of hie oity or tonn»" thus the system was not geared sufficiently for the development of greater freedom in the life of the workman. However, in spite of the lim itations medieval s o o ie ty contained, the m edieval workman had enjoyed a greater measure o f freedom th#n had any workman in any civilised society he* f ê tore, or since. In fact, Morris had seen the possibility o f Oofflmtttiiem developing o u t o f m edieval s o c ie ty i I f th e leading element of association in the l i f e o f th e 'medieval workman could have cleared itself of certain drawbacks, and have developed lo g ic a lly along th e road th a t seemed to be leading it onward, it seems to me i t could s c a rc e ly have stopped short of forming a true society fcmWed on the ed%mlity of la b o u r; The M iddle Ages, so to say, saw the promised land o f S o cialism from afar, like the Israelites, and like them had to tu rn back in to the d e s e r t .77 .. 76. "In one way o r another th ese serfs got gradually., mamnoipated, and d u rin g the transitional p eriod , las tin#:, through the la s t two Centuries of the M iddle Ages, the l a bour class were in a'far better position than they -had been b e fo re , and in some ways than they have been since." "True and F alse S o ciety ," "And this hopeful art was possible amids|vdl|t the' op pression of those days, because the instrumen$e*of that op p re s s io n sere g ro s s ly obvious, and were extea^i to the work o f the craftsman# They were laws and customs obviously in tended to rob him*..The medieval craftsman was fr té in h is work, th erefore he made it as amusing to himself as h e' could..." "The Aims of Art," Collected Work*. XXIII, p. 90. 6 f . an te, p . d tt fo o tn o te 77# "Art and Industry in the Fourteenth Century," op. cit., p# 368. "** 34 lha.t had pr#T*nt«d thiM apparently logical next step was the development of nationalism, which eventually emmbled #e war-making aristocracy to establish a bureauoraoy* fur thermore, the "spirit of association" which charaoteriüed the gilds was often merely lo c a l, a fact leading to rival ries, and there was generally lacking a "means o f i n t e r course" among th#se small bodies of associations , .But th e ... graateat waa&neem l%##re#t In the whole .system ms: the fa c t t h v " ...the birth o f tradition, strong in instinct, was ... weak i n ,knowledge# and depended for its',existence on Its checking;the d esire o f mankind f o r knowledge and the conque###f material .... * i.tb own suc cess fo r developing the rescmrceS-of labbur rniBed .,..4..;.;: i t ; it opened, .ohanôe» 'to men fo r grow in# rieh Hid péwerfml». » T8 This te # tat ion wae *too strong .for the o rawing ignorance o f the tim e# 80 the need for knowledge and the power over mater ial nature swept away ''th# eommualstic aspiration# of the foarteemth century.Ÿ9 '■ 78. "Art and Industry in the Fcurteentti Century," op. *lt., p. 399. -- 79. ib id . 35 WorrlG nowhere drew a clearer p ictu re o f the stubborn- neo* ^ith whioh the medieval eooiety of thé people reeleted the enoroaohmente of the feudal arlatooraoy and the spirit o f aeoOolation or fellowship which oharaoteriaed th a t eo o i- ety than In ^ Dream o f Jot%n The atruggl# for free- dow of these fourteenth century aboiallets becoae-e essential- ly the etruggl# of Morris and his nineteenth eentury s o c ia l- t a t e j and perhaps lo rrie saw himself preaohing.';tO'..the working" m n o f London, in John Ball preaohlhg'to hi«;'^'fl»llow8hip.* But' there wae a significant dlffarenoe be tween",;. John B all*» fo llo w ers and the London workingmen. There were no ugly erowded » 1mm#, and th e re wae no #001 and urno.kb'contaminating t,be. pure o o u h try a i r . The beauty o f Mature ahines through .thé Whole and the hauses and the v illa g e e blend into 'th e ■ V ! eeenery and beoome a part of it. The very-ÿé#%le' are a part .e#. i t and they are men with seule, revealing that men' with beauty in th e ir l i r e s and their eurroundlhg# r e f l e c t th at b e a u ty in their character. The house# are made o f oak, with mom# '.#tnne here and there, but •atrois^ and sturdy* lik e SO, That houses, furniture etc. should be built "strong and. sturdy* was a ru le w ith M o rris. I t eeeurs .constantly throu#aut hi# lectures on art and Industry. # li e # t #Works, d axil, pp. 150.481 EG the men «ko built them; the beautiful Gotklo ckurck in the Tillage la sometLlnu irom «hlok Eortle oannot take kie eye*. The fourteenth oentury eociallett are prOB^eroua and, they enjoy life b^c&u&e they are the artiete «ho help to create the beauty that ic In It. I l l A Araam of aaii. firét puhliehed in 188» illua* tratea «hat art dot* In the liv e # o f men and their beauty o r a r t , which ha# he coma a# much a part of them am th e i r "feilowahlp,* la, reflected everywhere in their simplicity of taate* There 1# "notning in their houae# which they do not 81 need** and that which they have therein they en jgy. Gut. a id e , the building# are meetly white-wamhedj inside, there 81. **.. * if you want a golden rule that will fit every* body, thie i# It : in the urlginalT. " Beauty of Life#* op. sit-., y. 76. 5 ? 1» nome d«@ oratlon on th# f o r the mood o f a 83 WM#e, iltrft» »«ld «laethtr»» mhould b# •rootfui**' lorrl# found his ideal types of s o c ie ty , in shlefe men sere free so that they might have art In their ' ' lives, not only in the middle Agee but aleo in oertain prim* @3 - itivs tribal eooieties as well, the Reaiis. of: Vslflmgs. » pistWe of a primitive eooiety in which a "complete e q u a l ity of eonditien'* ejcists, perhaps appreashes WLs idéal com- . ' .. 84 muftistio seoi#% as eiasely as any he wrote »#dt. The 82» JeSoratibh wl%in the ho gee Should be* "i-roperly sub* #rdihs ted .tp.' arehi tsotare on the one imnd#, -mn . to - his torio art',.on the other» it ought yet, 1- think, to p.laf A great part tnmedrinf our houses at once beautiful and rhttfiClj, and end *hi«&: - is one of the ehisf reasons for the éristénà#'of a ll %t "ho# ..^linta on i^attem Designing, " üolimted gorks. 3pm# p, 1## . 83, morris f e l t th at prisdltive soeietiS8,:'ht least the G erm #!#, were ehiefly eomsunal; and while the#had. developed a "T #ut#is"... feudalism, the tribal ahiefs w#d,leaders rath er than r# e r.8 #dd the in d iv id u a l was la rg e ly freSi-* In the #8W, of W id. of 00,^ , writing a ro* ymanoei but he lik e d to f e e l , i f he d id n o t a c tu a lly b elie ve, ' # a t the dothis societies contained a "oomplete eq u a lity o f Sdhditi#,* ,# 8 t he perhaps a c tu a lly believed this appears from certain .references to t r i b a l eommunltles in his le c tures. df. poet, p. 45, footnote.100. '84» " »,.the .Icelaridio- .Republic represented, more nearly than' any other state of things reS crded in history, the p o l itical and social framework of -lifé' whieh s a t i s f i e d h is mind and imaginât is#** ma.eka.il, , i, p. 34?. # s c k a il^ s spinida may b# Essentially 'correct; however, tW society in tW 888ms...mmbedled essentially the freedoms the ^leeiandic sobisti##::- cantaiacd. For my knowledge of the Icelandic kepubli# ' l.am. indebted te Margaret R» Grennan, ^ J m€ MfMUUMmxx,» .PP- 39-40. 38 theme in thie 'Aerk i# ta# »ehée af wooi^l bility, the etxbordination of eelf-lntereat W th# K%&far# #f the oamwmlty, vhioh % eoma^l*j%+'4oq w ^ i t y of toh|3i‘tihh* ' hreede# The society of free? ■ men is throwh''into ©harp ton* treet with a eooiety o f "elevem," the t fye* man* li'rtug ,in his traditions of freedom! fro»''whic'li spring*' innmtdly a y#*peot for in d lv id m l d i# ity # *#%*9% uhd#r*tam# # e eplflt ,of the Aom&n sooietyi "*#/,th#y #r# g#im; ' and kn«* it %''tW#. ##thim#" #f' teh#. #«&'ef':h#dr## hot to #mit# * i # *%»##;* 4W#h, h#f#r#!l#% a ii #»#th mot #* th%f wohld; W:y#%# $N>iWh they , h# end mighty. th#y .#### it mmlte m t in .-They »r# *. *##%'evil fom,$& Th# ie#ere of the Wo »oei#tie# $##. the..;#mW#immt th# spirit #orid, ^ W#pr#w#W#.',ti# trmet i W i#d#'f # th# l##d«n #f tm W# » W thle, jtrlh e s * oho##* ## to ###rifioe- h i# l i f e fo r' tW e# lf# re of" %i# people; hut the &w#n oapWW ooneexm##. &ho# hie pewonel th#:ll###. of hi#:'##!) heimg only of 'setW dary value M him% ,.j.#mqu##t :#md#er* om&l ; 'glory ' #r##. # i th the loiaan onp# t*W# more lmpor%mt ttnw th# %##*# of . the Wd'ividuaiàm p • 6 Y • 2W md#r iilm. ïUis Is the contïust. The oomslhSMa- : - # V.. ' #Wloas : the .ancieat society had e%l»t#4 for the,benefit of the ihdl- vldml, and the individual in t# n had- heeome à human being with a genuine sense of value# that never failed to plaeé the eel fare of the oomnwity ahead #f self interest.#. -On"%## other hand, the modem society# ehieh aubjeeted and sabord» Inated the individual to the &%#t##: fafled utterly td': èevel», op in him a, sense o f e o e la l respenaihility and le ft .'hi# a grasping# eelfiah- animal. morris'^' w rit ing# on e a rlie r day# olearly-''#hd# th a t hi#" ..■'love of the fmat mas- not a,...,love of "the "past' f ^ 'r een #ah$, # the eomaon' roman tie faahien,- h u t'rather, a leva of indiw id ea l freedo# a # a l l W t i t meant to hl«# M i v i d t e free* dem, o f course, #a#inherent #a free eo o ie^ r -.W im# portant product of all this freedom ea# .f # hi#'A r t * '.In a' eoeiety #which there ,.ea# art.# the lives of the individia 1# mere interesting and beautiful and they reBleeted th is beau- ty In everything # # ydid* The burgdaier# iteflh-. kouts of the «oamtaia# live in their beautiful dale and" supplement t he beh-uty o f Bature.:e:ith their dwelling# and with their shill*» fUl craftemanehip# They are bound by no b.Omde but one, the bond of fellowship e&ioh is stronger and infinitely;, more s a t isfy in g to th e individual than any phy#leal..'bondi'’--'imposed 4 0 upon the m&n could be. Mcrrte» return to the past, there- fore# might, for pvrpoucb of a oleerer perception of hie thought, he considered merely an accidentai frame; It Ic the picture vlthlB the frame that wa* important, not the frame Itself# and he Bought thle picture n^Lgyever he could find It# not merely In medlevaliam eo Booe of hia critics have 8* attempted to shoe. The picture ea* in Morris' wind, Me fçuBd more or leas imperfect replica* of it in patt sooiet- i«s>,*nd he conveniently meed some "cf their aiiarp outlines to illaetrat* his pen ideal and to demonstrate the effect* that certain desirable feature* had prddaoed. Thus, üorrls fmnd types of his Ideal in the Middle Age* tut also in primitive 8? times; dherea#, hi# Icelandic tale* may be said to belong to the period in beteeen# the period of transition from the primitive to the medieval, Actually, the primitive societies portrayed in The .Ho-i^ae of. the, ‘->'0,If,ini?.* as %ell as the soei- 88 etie# Morris found in the *ef# wore represen tative of his ideal eorld than the medieval society; but the 88, bee, for e**mple, Margaret H. Orennan, op. c it. ^#7, %f. ants, p, 3?» footnote 83. bee also Jf. poat, p. 45, f0 oThote lO0. 83, C^.-' ante# p. 3?, footnote 84. 41 Middle Ages had th e one advantage of inheriting the tradi tio n of a r t from the past and ao had produced a greater art than had any previoue period, "'hille Morris appeared to have no trouble finding free doms in the past, in modern society he could find n o th in g but "slavery,* In medieval eoeiety* for example, the sye* te®..of eooBomy was su# that the individual i*ad to be l e f t .fret in his eork at iea#t, regmrdleea of the restriction# / : ' 8* that may have beea impoeed u#n him in other matters; con sequently,. he oo#d yroduce art, »et*rth«le.a.a,. Mcryis con sidered feudalism W :#oWihati#B with the religiohs hierar- ohy of thf mid#%e.;^ee a system of slavery and oppression; yet this alàv#tÿ% jhedq^he of :## nature of the'^sanemie eye- ■f- tern# had to be oonfined'to the political, aeeial, and moral aides of life ,... jfhe existence #'f artistic freedom gave men . .. ' "hopes" for greater'freedom in other matters, also; eons*- quantiy* as ha# been shown, the struggle going on between the master© and their "slaves* gradually weakened'the polit ical* eoelal, and moral restrietlOBS and netted the people 89. * The re was., a tism when men had pleasure in their daily work* but yet, as to other matters, hoped for light and freedom.»#:." "Art and Socialism," Gol,looted forks. AXliX, p . 2Ç2 . 4 % 90 m tm and more freedom in all phaeee of life. In feet» ae Nerri# pointed out, Sooieliem w»e not fa r a*ay* ...th e ir dim ho.pe,, gree b righ ter and brighter, and they eatehe# it# eeeming fulfilm ent dreeing n e a re r and n e a r- @r, and gamed so eagerly on it that they d id not note hoe the ever eatehfml foe, oppression, had changed h is shape and earn s te a lin g from them eh&t they had already gained in the days ehen the light o f th e ir nee hope «à»hat a feehi# glimmer.91 In th e modem world, Morris found the moat complete syetmm o f économie slaw ery th e w orld had ev er known and this eeomomio slavery entailed céÉplete artistic slavery. Tet, the modern mcrld was charaeteriaed hy a greater meas» .are of political and moral freedom than the Middle ages had 98 Macs#'* Political..freedcii, in effect had heccme the mere guise under which, ecelal - and -accncmlc slavery were hidden. % a t had given th e men o f the #Lddle age# "hapes" for great* #r freedom was the 'art' in their lives. The modern man, how* e v e r, was here ft of art! the gains he hag, made 'in political and:; moral yreed®m--'had:-'hees "he% #it.. .a t toe high a price in th e lo s s of the pleasure in dally work which 90. O f. a n t e , p .2 h /f f , 91. "Art and Socialism*:* c p> cit., p. 808, 9 2 . *.. .Murcpe has 'gained ,freedom, of thou^t, in crease of knowledge, and huge talent for dealing with the material fo rc e s o f naturel compamtive political freedom"wit^'ml and re s p e c t fo r tee lives of'civilised men, and other gains that go with th e s e .* *Art and oocialiam," ep,. c it.. p . 803. 43 ono* did oaitalnly ^ulaue the of mtk for t&elr feare and opjpraaaioaa î the death of art. :#aa too high a prioa tv ÿay for tna eattrlal i,roaperlty of the middle 0lam#e#.98 History, acoordiag to Morris did n o t t e l l the r e a l story of the p a s t, the story of the "people;* It to ld only the story of the "kings and scoundrels*" But this ess not the whole^ s%d##yo f the p a s t : ...the story has mot been fully toId...only a ohanoe hint given here and there. Ihe palaet and the oami, were hut a small part of their eerld surejy-i and out side th#m you may he sure that AULth heroism and . ,/love :#eÿ# 'at work, or--«j^t hlrth oould ther* hare been in those days ; yor' 'the visible token# of th a t birth you must seek in the 'Art that grew up and flourished#., .the musaiehs p e o p le 'wroMgh%:':lt.)4 Î0 M o rris, therefore,/the real study of history constituted ;^e of the remelau Of ' the art of the past, 'Ihrough art, which Morris imsisted, must always be . . .e ith e r In its abundance or i t s barrenness, In I t s s in c e r ity or i t s hollowness, the expression o f the society am un^st which it exists,95 he attempted to arrive at an understanding of the p a s t. 93. '■’Art and aooiallem,** op. cit., p. 803. for a full er discussion of the "lose of art" see'pp. 94. "Art and the Beauty of the Earthy" Vflleeted works. A lll, p. 166, 9&. "The Aims of Art." :Oolleoif.d forks'. XAIII, p. 34. 44 ,.iio oan eaj ahoulci jaap% of many lode, but for their art? Eletory («0 oalledl baa raoowbered the king* and a a rr io fa , because they destroyed; Art ham remembered the people beoaase they oreated*96 and tbougf. h istory (mo called ) ham forgotten them y et their mark n&a net been forgottea, but has made another history—the h is to r y o f A rt, 9f The art of the Middle Ages had •etlmbed g ra d u a lly to . *8 , , .the top Of the hill,* ehiefly, &#: has- b#$h'#int#dout be# f o r e , beeause lt,#a# « till in line with a eentlnwoum tradi tio n o f striving toeard greater perfection and because It iHisi'Jfrae.,; ■Æat, unfortunately, it carried With It "the seeds o f the disease that aas to end I t,' threatenlags o f great c h a n g e According to Morris* interpretation o f h is to r y , the "seeds of ■disease* were in e f f e c t a residue o f the Roaan O ivilisaticn, tn England, Morris felt, there had ex is te d the possibility of the development of co^wunism in t he 96, "The Art o f the ieople," GoJLleo %ed j>ojc.m., .Jvll, p. 32. 97. Ib id . 9Q. "Art and the beauty of the Marth," aü» c i t . , p . 160. 99. I b id , 40 100 fumlon o f the purely Teuton 'o and thp clviii^bviunu. Their eommnn Bonini heritage nrd tro^itloaa hud bf&u cum- mqnal and out of th e ir early otpf ul.n and h&ihaiio^ th o u id have developed a civilization th a t re ta in e d it o baolc koelai character. However, the Bormana "Bozanlaed* ,.n^land, triL g* Inp with them culture they had inherited from the uoman c iv il* izatidnt*#* w e ll ae Ite vices. Thee# vlcea üorrle called lae .:i(^,^s1!^la.-ÿeaei1#illty %o:i:'yio i#plica; He rtcugnl^iee the éziatenüe o f # *Te*tcniq 'feudality^ but the. ce n tra l govern# a*nt of 3mgla«d 'w*# weak; eW ig*neieily dteorg&nized. ddiiktedlyi then, the M r m n # n % # e t :m&dé a commie te break i$ , tW continuity of the history of fnglend. .* e e e e # c # » e e e.e # *eee#**ee»e/ee^*e*#e#*######*###*####**eee ■The development of the conntry an à Teutohle people %a» eheojKd end turned m»id$ 'by t h l e e v e n t. Duke ..lllim* h re n g h t, in fact, hie Xferaiandy into ikigland, ehioh \(aa thereby ohanged from a Teutonic peepin (Old #orae teeh), w ith the tribal cue- ternary law e till in use among them, into a provinoe of Homan* i%ed ïcudal kurhpe, a piece of Franoe, in short.'"feudal England,* op, Slt.^ pp. 40*41'. " ..fHereward, th a t valiemt man, was oonqu red and d ie d , mhd what was left of the old tribal freedom of last England mank lower and lower'into .the admanlaed feudality that crossed Ohanael with the Frenchmen.* "Art and industry of the fourteenth vèntury#.V; op. e it. , p. 3?@. The "•^.epirlt'© f Boîsasiaed feudalism* eàe "diametrical ly apposed to that of the earlier tribal ecmmunj(tiew, In the tales of whib'h ## great chiefs are eho%n sM tn y in g araa.ur* building kcttaee and ships, and sowing their fields, just.as the heroes of the Iliad and the Odyssey do." "A rt and Industry of the fourteenth Century," op. pit*# P* 384. *ReBlauum," and )t that olojgcd t-.e cffcrto f cl- vilizstion develO; In the direction of universality or 101 to the benefit nf all the people» hile the c u l ture, like *11 culture* of past olviliaationa, embodied uni* versai aspects that tended to develop inthe dly&ctlon . the common gnod and to uplift the whole people, resid^^ urn, developing with the culture, con%ta .tly tended tc divert the development toeard exclusiveness, ex&loliatlon of the benefit# fo r the "few" at the expense of the maoeas. How* ever* In past civilization#, whenever thle ex*lù#ivene%é had loi. "...the residuum; that word since the tic# l- first saw i t used, ha* had a tarrlbl# significance to me, and I have f e l t from my heart that if this residuum w&re a neces* sary part of modem civilisation, as some people openly, -and many #ore tacitly, assume that It i s , then thi# civilization carries with it the poisons that shall one day destroy i t , even ss ito elder sister did: if civilisation lo ts? go no further than th is, it :iad better not Mve gone so far : i f i t dee# not aim at g e ttin g rid cf this Rioery and tving some share Ir the happiness and d ig n ity o f lif e to pl^ (italics In o rig in a l ) the people that It has created, and which it spends such unwearying energy in creating, i t is slmi ly an organised Injustice, a mere instrument f o r oppression, oo much the worse than that whidh has gone before it... "surely there is a distinct feeling abroad of th is In ju stice : BO th at i f the residuiea still slogs all the effort* of modem civilization to rise above mere population-breeding and money-making, the difficulty of d ealin g wit i i t is the legacy, first of the ages of violence and almost conscious brutal injustice, and next of the ages of thoughtlessness, of hurry and blindness." "the Beauty of Life," ojj. e l t . , p. 65. 47 d#T#l»p#& to th# fulX( tb# whole elviliaatlon xapihlj he-? o*y#d m à then fe llv The fu ll 4#T#l»pmen$ of %h# éatoluelve of » #lvill#*tlo*, hmvlR# hepyi?##' $h# i##ee» of mil the benefit# of thmt olvlliamtiao, meo##### uoieersal dl#*o*t#nt whioh moeorélngly «emhmntd th# eivlltmatioR mm6 se t In motion a jrapih deterioration*' "fhl# proeeeo o f devel- Oÿment and ehan#e ma#t iiietitahiy ,# on in ^evegy. o ir ii ia a - t.*r#rri8 felt* w t i l a oiviliaatien ahouid^amerg# which ,'.allofd'd"Of development of ite benefit# for thf Hhole p eo p le. The#», ^ Aaeient olvilie#tion *a# #%eined to elav^y-and ex- olneiven##», hni:'itfe lls the haehafiem t# t #ok i t e plaeo hae delivered m i m m eW ve rf ' - @ m e n - ; in to modem, eivilieationi ',ahd\#at in turn ha# Wfdre it the o#ioe. of wver*o#&eing growth, or dee true tiom hf that e&ioh hee 1# if the eeede of higher growth.102 4 good illttetration of thin prooeee of change wae that of *the eemplete feudaliem of the fourteenth eentmof"* whieh f e l l , a# eyetern# alwayo f a l l , by i t e own eerruption, and by development of the ln#ate eeede of dhagge*lC3 Theee •ete.de of ehange" epraog from the •neeeeeitit# of th e lord##* Whieh tended in the dirtotioa of g ra n t^ more and 102* "The Beauty o f M fe ,* S£* d i t » , p* d t . 103. "Feudal England," pi* o i l * , p. 53. 48 m@r« righ t# t@ the olaeee# h#lo# them until them# oraft»men and traders began to grow in to Im p o rt- #mo# and push them selves,..into the feudal hierarchy and as they acquired status* so the sickness o f th e feudal system increased on it, and the ehadee of the coming commercialism fell upon it,104 „ The Middle 4ges had also contained the "seeds o f h ig h e r growth* and the course of t h e i r civilisation had been rapid-" ly moving in that direction : the ,ecm#n m m .,|ho " ||»d. always enjoyed complete artistic freedom, was continuaily breaking down more and more économ ie, political, moral^and even sc* c W l b a r r ie r s * Thus, he saw "Communism from afar;" b u t, lack ing in knowledge, he made th e wrong choice and on the very doorstep of the "promised land" was compelled to "turn back 106 into the desert»" The Renaissance which was th e flow ering o f the new hffec and aspirations sp rin gin g from the accumu lation of fMCdoms again brought along the "lesiduum" and w hile "on the whole" it was "steadily destroying privilege and emclusivenese in other matters" it "delivered up a r t to 104. " fe u d a l England,* op» c i t . , p. 54. 106. Of. ante, p. 35. 49 th« exclusive privilege of the few* and took from the people lOd " th e ir birthright." Sroluelveneee found expreeeiom chief ly in the form of the new ooomeroiallem# whieh turned men'e a tten tio n to "the production of p r o fit instead of the pro* lOY due tien of livelihood," and in effect gave the maeea of the people political freedom in exchange f o r eeomBmlc Slav* e r y . This a t te n t io n to "profit" was further" facilitated by the Reformation, which placed a sharp dietinctiwn not only be* tween eccleeiaetic&l and civil autheyi# but also between earth and heaven, thus disrupting the esaential unity that characterised the medieval system* ïbr According to the medieval theory of life and religion. The Ghureh and the State were one in essence, and but separate mmni fee ta t ions # f the Kingdom of God upon earth, which was part of the Kingdom of God ân heavw# * .the Cihureh was n ot withdrawn from the everyday life of men.l# Shat th is accomplished in th e long r m was th e break*up o f the " s p i r i t o f association* or "fellowship* whieh had char* acierised :petieval society* This break -u p was only the ex te r n a l expression o f the diointegmtien. of the values which 106. "The Beauty of Mfe," op. cit., p. 59. lOl*"Architecture and History," og. c it., p. 209. 100. "Feudal England," op. cit., pp. 41-42* ao h%4 h eld in p»»$ A# Mm b##* eâ out, the "ufirit &JT .eemeoiatlon** Md, im the Middle Agee, 0#$%"&t#d upon the e o e le tyo f the people to etubbormty and oomrageouely withstand, the encroaohaente of the upper oiaee upon their llhertie#* The dieeolution of this eglrit left the individual mproteeted and. eo#aefei*liem found little d lffie u lty - 1#„ e3Q»l#itimg and em»'M#f#g' him In a ela v ery more #m#iete^ than feudal!a# had ever heea'ahle to effeet* This mee eyet#» of oppreaeion pm* »o muoh the wore» ' than that # l o h ha* gome hefef# # # a#it# pr»t#»iom#are higher, it# elaveror »uh#erp it# aaate'# harder to ever# th ro e,. heeauae d'upported h f euah a #en#e ..maee, ef . oommomplaee eell#heing' and oomfert*!#» The mletake, the Eenalewaaee bad made Imf in it# return to th#- die tant M dt ehile it, * looked a t the thouaaad y e a rs behind* it as a "deedleee blank,* thus severing the tradition o f art in whieh ite progressive graeth had oontinually ao- -quired strength. % to th# time of the ibmaisaanoe, sinee art first began, '0ih#d, always iooMd forward, now It was leaking : baWmiii&d; th at whereas, onoe mem were, taught to look Wuremgh the art at that whieh the- a r t represented, .# 4^ vera mow taught to deem- the art an end in i t s e l f . I t l , «The meauty e f Life,* # . @i&'# P* ## 51 and that it mmtiered nothing whether t&e Wtory i t ’ told wae b e lie v e d o r n o t#110 The retunai to the far pmet for- art, left the jie#ple' help- Ifsely withottt art; for they lacked not only the meane neoee- eary to trail thes»elvee of elaaaloal art but eial education" neoeeeary to understand it# hitherto, the learner orrdecoratlre a r te , whieh oonetitated the chief mean» for the eommon man, the man without epeoial eduoation, to avail hlawelf of art, were euberdlnated to the higher or in- telleetaal.arte. „ The'"'.hi#eet intelleetual art wae ««.entu to pleaee the ; ey#', 'aw the phraw# go#*, a# well aW -tb /emWlte the . emotiona and train-the intellewt# It gppeaied to all men, and to a ll the'faeultlew-of. a man* On the other hand, the himbleet of the o-mamehtal art nhared in the ..meaning^-ihid emotion of ^ e In telleetm i; one melted Inte the other by eearee pejfedptibl* grmdatione ; in ehort, the beat artlat wae a workman e till, the h%m- ' bleat werkwmn wae an art le t #111 The retwra^ to the dietant peat for "art" oevered the intel leetual arte from the decorative and the latter fell inte ,éeeay and almoat completely disappeared. Décoration or erna- wmntation. Which had been supplemental to arehlteetare, would no longer be utillwed with eldeeioal arehiteeture without 110. "Art and the Beauty of the Earth, " c i t . , p . 161. 111. "Art -Under llutocraey, " Collected %rkm. iX lil, P# 1*7. ba "apeoi&l eduuütioD.'* TaLu emparatXoii af t«# daovrativ# from the Intellectual arts not only deprived tu# p#opl* of art but also zurkmd a hardship upon tne producer or a rtist of the in# telleotual art*. First, h# saa cut off fro,i tradition and mae consequently ^heavily weighted.,#by having to learn every* thing from the beginning, eaoh man for himself;" and, *nat was worse, he wae deprived of a ■'*sympathetic and appreciative 113 Audience.* The tendency toward exclusiveness expressed through oommereialism laad likewise played it s part in th# severance of art from the people, There was too much profit to be made from art to allow the peuple to have it in abun* dance greti* and ooomeroiallem thus made it a luxury, some thing which at the same time made it a oom.x,eroial product; but lu x u ry , Morris said, is the very antithesis of art "fated 113 to stifle all art, and in the long run ail intelligence." 118. " A j^ rt from the artists themselves and a few peo ple who would be also artiute b u t f o r want of opportunity and f o r insuffiolent gifts of hand and eye, there is in the pub lic of today no real knowledge of art, and little love of i t . Nothing, save at the best certain vague prepossessions, which are but the phantom of that t r a d i t i o n which once bound a r t i s t and public together. Therefore, the artists a re obliged to ex p ress thesmelves, a s i t w ere, in a language not understood o f the people." "Art Qnder Plutocracy," C illéete. 11#» "the iroapeat# of Arahiteetara»* O dl^tad fork#, aabi,- pt 123, ' ill* Of, am to, P» ââ. footnote 50. ' v ild » "The Art of the laopla»" elt., p. 8». 64 AurrowdlBge of the lomer $ ha# it # exaot counterpart in the dulmem# and vulgarity of thoae of the middle @la#»4#, and the double*4iatilied, dulneea, and eoareeiy le ce vulgarity of thoee of the upper olaeae#*llT An a r t o f the few, whieh existed In the modem world, he felt, eould not long e x ia t; i t e ith e r had to diaappear en» t ir * ]y a# a reeult'of the general dégrada tio h # r to be r e vived and elevate all into a wiveraal eharing of art. Thtw, - The/'pree#t a tat# of thing# in whieh it; doee - eziat, 'wh##, .popular art is, let ue ee^:*,:aeleep or eioh*:' i# a„.tran»itional state, whieh meet end at .ia#t'^4%ther ' ' ip. utter defeat or ftter vletery for the arta.llg Thus, while aeemiee^ee: had taJtoen fW& the .people th e ir *:hirthright* and severed the traditiW ^'of a r t, Gompet# ' itive Oojsmeroe, one of the ramif 1 oatlone %f the lenaiasanoe mévêwit, "enslaved men! making i t im poenibie A r them again 'té' predade/:'art* ; - ' lit. *The. Beauty of life,* Jj-. .oit., pp. «2-d6. iw. am ', p. w.. ■ i f SB C a p ita ll»m# oT competitive aommere## a# Marrie meet often- called I t, te^an # riae ehen feudalism Md developed. to "ferfectloa*' is tlie fourteenth céntujgrî and It germinated chiefly through the middle olaae, whieh began "forming under* 11* ■ seath. the outward ehow of feudallam s t i l l Intact.’' that epoch begem with, the portentotW change o f agrieul* ture which meant cultivating for prefit inetead of f o r llvelihoed, and whieh carried with i t the..expropria** tim of the -mcaie from th e land# the. \eWi#ction of the yeoman# -and- the rime of the eapitaiie.tpfarmer), and the ..growth e f ./the town papula tie»*, which# awe lie d by the drift of the iahdleea vagabond#, and .macter* le#$ men#grew into a definite prole tar,la ta r claea of free wo-rh»eà| and. # W ir e*iateaee.a»de' th a t o f ', the embryo capitaliftt-manufae.t.ttrer alee-, ,pcé»ible-î and th e reign o f eommeraial .oontraet- and\/-oa# pay#' ment 'began to take the- place of the- old fO#al ' hierarchy# with ita ..wny*li#ed:-chain of perwomal reeponw ib il 11 ice.. : -the- change wae' gradW,' and. :in, ite early etagee at ieaat it waa. * -, 'imdtoativ#V, , ., of great : •hope»#*’ am hae been po.ihted cut, in the preape eta o f a deveiepment - th at apeared/to- lead toward , communiam. from th#': fQ,urte-.#nth to neatly the #$d of the me,venteWtW„ -century# in fact.# the individual s till largely r 181 remained the "bait af labour", amd all that time therefore to eld -'d itb la i t e trw w fo rm a tio # "ho-pe-e** But ''commerce "grew Ilf# "fhe mepes of Civilimatiea#" aaiii, p. #g# ISO# JM4*i PP» dg»d3. (Italics in original) 181. 231., p. 56 tmâ gr##, moulded all society to its need»* end by the end of the seventeenth oentnry the Individual earkmn had become only a psft of a group ehlch 5y that time wds in 'the handicraft# the real unit of prcdnoticm; divielon of labour even at that p erio d had Q uite destroyed.'his Individuality, and the ecrker aas but p a r t c f a aa«hin»*122 But capitalism did not atop there, i , . , " 'yi ' having^:turned,, th#' a@r##n. into a,*eehinev'/th#, next : .stage :fcr ,ccja®*rai''^td. aia,at^ va#' ts\ son talas machines ehich:«c«lt'etdf|^'i^i^n«ewit# b # #labour. liS m#:. incrm se iu„,,tk« number s f .machines .:#i%:nct' :reduse the a* momt..cf labor '# r the ind#idual wcrba#».,- #' : fact # ich ' the :te..rs(: " * la W # '. sav in g * o fte n appears to imply, but the aim be# bind... the, 'd n v e n tiW s , " îs k ln t f o r granted that evaty worimsn would have to swrk a s Igm# as. he could stand up"tc'it#" was #s "predue# the utm st'possible amowt of goods which* could 124 be sold .for p rofit, • •industrial productlWeiieso was in.#rMt#ed ,prOdlgicnsly, but so far from the workers reaping t#e bmhefit '.cf th is, .they were thrown cut of work in enormous wmbem»* Ihis '#s:.,:ths:'ahiSf ©vsr«all effect o f the indus- trial revolution eyed'the deplorable conditions that resulted .;W,: "^&e' Ropes' of C ivilisation," 1, # p. 63. 1#4, 35%., p. 69« 57 made the life of the working olaea eo ha4 that "at no peri- dd of Saglleh history *aa the condition vf the worker* wore# than An the early ye&r* of the nineteenth eentury." a* a consequence cf real "hunger* the Ohartlet movement cam# Ante belag j hut Ate aim eas chiefly political rather than accAal #he"'Ohartict# "did not understand that true political freedom Am lApécaible to pecflo ehc are economically mm 12# ' mlayed'* The Injustice* of the ehele eyetea began to be $erc*A#ed #y men eho did not belong to the oppreoeed working è%e#W'.^ #/-#àgland ea# % bert Oeen; dnd abroad'«ere men like *#t,*:''6AAoh# ■ï’roudhoni foarler and him fcllcn er# eho "kept" the tradition» of hope An the midst of a hdwz^Keqie ecrld," 'Of .these men# Kerris maintained, Fo.#Aer eas: t^ , on# "that eaile for most attention: einot, his doctrine .of the neeee- eity and peselbllAty of aakiag labour at tract Ive As one 127 T#A# $ccia%i»m can by no mean* do elthoat»* In England# lebfi^ Oeca^s dceialiem failed because "At did not understand th a t* 12b. "The Hepee of C ivilisation," Cc,lle.c%^. work#.,, AXlii, *#y'".eit., p, 69. 12#$ Jfeiâ*:# PP# 71-72. 127. Ibid.. p. 73. se . .,ae Xoüg as: %» a prlvilégat ol»## lu the peeeeemlOB o f th« ex e lae lv # ' p@#er#$hey #111 t*k# good « are that their eooaomioal position# ehioh enablem them to lié# on th# #pald labomr of the people, le not tempered #lth*128 Perhapa th# moet elgnlfleamt remult that had oom# of th# op- pr#m#ion o f the working «lame by th# oapttalletm , Morris f il# ," warn the growth of mlaem oonmoloumm### and with It the *ahnB«ioum##e# of th#antagonimm b#tw###M th#worker# had" . 199 . th e ir employer#. This *#onm#loumn##$* had grown up ohlef# '' ^ ^ f /. : iy nantie aih«t«#»th oestury, th# period„ durimg whieh the work,lag elamm warn In Its w orst-'pllghti Wd It', had -Ww#e. migml# *fl#aht mtrid##- empeoially In Q#r*a#' -mine# *$####! 1# start##'—- ISO" his Osrmaw workman's party in ISdS»” • But, ♦spee.laily sighl- fid#»#, was th# advent of % rl Mara#/who s-tarwd, *»ith ah his» torloa,! view of what had h«#n* ..and- saw that *^a,„ ISw o f ev o lu tion swayed all events In it." In whatever particulars Korrl# 1#6, *%h# mope# of Civilisation,» op. sit*, p. ?1. 199* jkid.. p. 75. - 120 / XMd. @9 131 disagreed h#,@#re*d with him .wh8l#*Mmrtedly that waathe* «oolalisia w de#i#ahl# ar not# It i#a t l«a*t- ' 133 Ihwvitahl®. i‘h« growing warn vie t Ion aa®ng th# workarm o f # a ^ lta il# t Injmgtl### had Wgun to oonwino# thorn th a t th# only way to d e a l with the em ployer wae aa a oiaa#* and the dhartiat moYemea# had heea m m l y the flrat etrdngly orgaalaed at tempt to do thia. Ahile that mowamnt : lahorere were nevertheleee placing more and more faith'In organisat ion» Unification of the l&oorere wae’ motwaily faollitated hy the very eyat^ne of organisation which the'capitalist or modem alave-owner hae been forced r by hie very' succeee..»to organi*e hid alavea, the wag»-eaxner«t into a wo-oparatidm for prediction. 131* One difference between Mofri* and he ob vie ue to anyone fam iliar with the two- me&t.* .-herri# \ineleted on an *artleti@" eociety, one eall.Jhg for '# # . # vt d # a l " abo lition of the use of maehinee $ exeept in rare casts where "rough" or "unpleasant*' labor wae eoneemed». ^ ilb 'h ara was not opposed to the use of machine# a# long aei.tiiey^ wire-used by the proletariat for their own benefit. i#hl'#man mntlone that in 1389 Morris published m article in the uomanweal. "showing therein how his Booialism differed frc§')%rhi#h ' ’ ■- Oomewmism eh th e ene hand and from Anarshism" oh%,the#t%er# as well as from that strange bided @f tiie two wâic&"waë, in these days, sometimes called Anarehistie-Gommimism."* ;:ohle- man, ait., p* 282* 132. "The Hope# o f Q iv ilisa # i@ n ," &&* # j j t .. p. 95. 6 0 The *CD-operatlon, for production" had to to* "mo «ell ranged that* it required only the elialaatiea of the cap!- 133 talist "to .make it a foundation for *oewu%l life»" Th# récognition toy the capitalist of the threat ti W#'toy attorn ' which the derelcping elasm coneeioufinesm with Ita growing dim# on tent i-nrelTe# ham often struck fear Into him; there* fore, he ocoaatonally attempted to allerlate, ttoreât toy palliatlrea. PalliatîTes» ho*#ver, Hcrrle iMtoi«(ted,' were e mere "mop" thrown to the workman and did not rededy any* thing. The .ecuree of the ,ewit.^lay in .'the monopoly of the mean#, of production which the capiteiiB t held', a_ eirourn#tana# which enatoled him to comp#] , ether# to work, for him while he lived in idleneee on the proceed# of 'their littor» This put the workman "in a degraded condition, and" #*#*' V if th«ir condition could to# much raised ftom what it is nwe, #v#h if their wage# war# doutoied .@hd their w:ork*tlme haired, they would e till to# i#,%: dégrâded condition, 00 long, .as they were in a pdaitlon of in* ferifiity to another cla#a**ac long a# they were de* ,,, ;p#hde%# ; on them» » »13d ^therm cr#, palllatir##effatoted no permanamt r e l i e f to t*i# iahorerel for th# capitalist# met "every attempt at bettering %33. "The gopee of Oiviliaation," ISd'.-' "monopoly* o r Bow iatoour la Rototoed," p r^ d a . . 61 oonditiùn of the Jpeople eith an attack op a frecli side; Dé%. imohiptB, üê% ..markets, *hoieeale::#hi.^àtlon, the re flT ai of grorelÙng eeperetitieo,. pre#'#k##eteof th rift té l»ek#all#, qf temperapé# to the ér#teh#ii*1^35 in viewing the olaee eyetem of I'aet hlstëyy, ehiok had aleaye praetieed enalaYement or tyranny in epm# form, and the nee capi talfet tyrant, the question arféeeï if lorria helieTed that wan eae niturally good and required onqy.th# proper ff#edo% %o txeroise hi» altruism, hoe did he aeo-ount fo r thé tÿràntB dho have aleaya attempted to éâ^loit and to enslave their f e llo e men in an effort to a.doum#latm an ahum* d^ee fey themeèlvee ehii# nlloeing only the minim# portion 'to ^.their *eiaYe»?* Sorrls* &mmr to th is prohlem erne Jtias» %h had net y e t h e o # é e iv llie e d e n o n ^ to rid hlma' self of the .p,r#ltive fear of. atarvation* ' frl|aiti.ve man had # # na, Slave to %ture : , Rature' eaa m ighty and he earn feehleg: .|nd he had to mtge don#tant mar, eith her for hi# ,:##iy food and sdeh shelter a s he eould ..get'.13d ■ ' til man*# ■••..moral#, ...and religion,* ner# In f&et tthe onteome and the .refleotioa'"Of thl# e.eaaeie## t o i l o f hi# livelihood.* A# time paeeed he OeOame- s tro n g e r isr; wr'and Ooelali##kO p. goa, 1#6. *TM l^ieaer ort.e,^^'- e p , o i t »’, p. 14.'\ #8 mnâ mtrmsêr't a gyaater ma»* t##y ùver Satara watii *aft«r *11 the#a agaa hé ha# almamt 18? oomyl$t#ly @@Bqwa*#d Halayé.'* Aft$y *aaompli#hi*g this ooaqwsst, Morris maintainsM# m,n "sMoald nos have Isisur# to turn bis tbaàghts towards higher things than produolng tomorrow's dinner** Bat alas, Man "still has himsslf to oaa^àsy#/ h# s till has to think how he w ill beat as# thos# fsrass Whish W has aast#red," .History revfàled,'hnd the mo* ê ê m :#apit#li#t syatem was farther erideno»,. that -mn has hsén «slag' th sss'fores» "blindly, and foolishly^* as'^'on* drlv* m hy,##rs, fat»** ':%# has mot hss«, able to forget hie j ? i " '1;% / .. fsasf and ha».., thsrsfors' not asomstowd: .himself --fo present ^'"‘--.gs^^it ,>s#me phantom- of the ##,#el#ss ygrshi# of ■v#»«d: S hich # ss an o e th e m aster o f th e .s».rage....wa»..^ - still ##ting the eiviUsed manp who toil# In a .###$:, ..as vit'sers# bawnted by mere’"dim .anreai ■y Ï bsm /sf. riggue reoelleetlong of the day»- thefsfor#" fs#aim#d^ "more' elrilisatio-hf,$r edseatiom be* f#r# he eoold. aeebstbm himself to the reality of - siriiisa* tio n .- i . "fhe"'leaser Arts," elt*. -p. 15, m - s m . ' 63 Ion, our lu8in««8 oxganiKatioa of man. &or till this- le att«üa:pt«4 at leaat. ahall ## ever he ftee of thatrteryihl# PhaAtom of fear of starvation nhlO'ti, with ite Wether devil, deeire of 4emim»tion. V, drlree me into injeetiee., oraelty. and daetardli- : "ness of all kindoi to oemee t® fear,#W fellee# and learn to depend on them, to do anay e ith competition end tfhlld up oo-operatioa, ie our one neoeselty.liO It is clear that fiorrio f e lt men m e not yet ready fo r the #0 amplet# equality of condition.* or Comwmniem. He ' f e lt th a t the #ay"iO'%i# Meal," eooiety -lay in an evolution frofc «Soeiftliem.- *hioh he oonetired of ae merely the im itla lf .stage in ehieh eduoation for'the higher state would he insti tuted. Qnly afteap, man had leajraaed" t©,„aeeeft aiviiiaatloe ae -eay''ée#ç0Aiehed f&et. to thrust aside -his egevold feare of '\e'tarva.t|en, and to place, faith, in his .felloe men# only then e o # d :'#oompl,ete eq u ality of oondition* he effected. But nW t may he, asked,, must the in itial stage leading to m rd the higher life he aofiallsm ? Gould, not education leading ■ témrd ^ocaplatS: equality of .eondltio»* he insti- t#ed under oapitaliem.-ae e e l l t ;@r. meld' eapitaliem not .he esegfttially retained while a *eoe#lete equality of con dition* was gradually brought shout? It must be rememhered that Morris had arrived a t the 140, "The Lesser Arte." op. alt*, p. 15, 64 fOüitlTa ooavlotlüB that art aueolut# B*o*üBlty in 141 lif#." mnà that You cannot educate, you cannot olviline pan, unlece you give them a share In art.ldS Y The, #pehlem therefore resolve* itse lf Into th#'\@ses# tl# ;, is art possible under capitalisa? Morris’ anmlysie #f ths capitalistic system Issves no doubt -that he was firm#" ly convinced that the essence of espitsllsa see the sum to tal of all the forces antithetical to art. ■: It has been shewn how the henmissance W#- taken art away from the people and how capitalism had "enslaved" the workman to a machinal, hence# since "freedom in work" was a Condition necessary for art, capitalism ohvlocSly made the production of art impossible as long as the enslavement o f the workman was an essential feature of the system, Morris himself admitted that machines might be used to good 141. Of. ante, Introduction, footnote 2 , 148* "The Beauty of Life,* Loc» s it*. p. 65. «s 143 #dv&ntaig# a# long mm mmn rmmmlnmd th« of ma» ohlne, that i s , ms long mm man employs# ths mmshln# to lig h t en the harden ijjherent in "impleasant an# rdngh lahottr* and am. 'long ms he aocomplimhtd mith the machine the ead mhich individual labor dirsoted by individual intelligence intend ed* th#: dapitmiimt rniystem. d id not use wkChine»,,'in t a is manner; under th is system i t mas essen tia l that the morkman be enslaved to a machine and this enslavement mas necessary as long as the aimS o f ca p ita lism remained mhat they mere; production for profit rather than production |cr.usf or liv e lihood, iroductioa for p rofit made it necessary' th a t -a ll mares be alike ; consequently, in d iv id u a lity was. undealrahl#, coimercial iabo,rer had to make hi# mares'by means p f Instruments . .as far as possible by means o f instrumesfts w ith o u t d esir es o r p a ssio n s, by automatic machines.,.*ë 143. "I do n o t mean •• «that me should aim at abolishing a l l m achinery * I mould do some-things %y machintry mhich are nom done by hand, and other things by hand m&icn arc asm done by machinery: In s h o r t, me should be th e mastdrs o f o ur ma ch in es and not t h e ir s la v e s , a s me a re nom** *àrt and I t s freducers,* %%I%# P. 352. ,?fhe monderfui machinec mbdsh in the hands of ju a t and fmreseeing men mould have bean used to minimise repulsive l a bour and to g iv e pleasure, or in other mords added l i f e . . . * "Art and S o c ia lism ," c^. cit*. P* 1S3# 6 i mmd #her%. that «as **$ possible the capitalist «»«d "highly #rill«4 hunan being# instead of aaaehines." It eae essential te his euooese th a t they should imitate the passionless quality o f aaohine# as long as they are at eork; whatever .of human f e e lin g may he irrespressihle w ill he looked upon hy the eommeroial person as he look s upon g r it or friction in his non-human machines# as a n u isan ce to hf abated. Seed 1 -say th a t fyom th ese human ma c h in e s It ie futile to look for art?l44 2he, production of art eas Inherent in a, s o c ie ty o f "fellowship'' and art ,in tu rn promoted such a s o c ie t y , but the capitalistis "eyetern of Society," Morris pointed o u t, 14B • i s based on a state of perpetual w ar," n o t fellowship. There i s , first, national r lT a lj y , which i s nothing but a •desperate ’compétition* between the great nations of c i v i l is a tio n for the world marketthen there is the "com peti tio n " between "the organizers of labour, g re a t firms, joint- stock com panies...capitalists, in short ;" and finally there 14* is the competition between laborers fo r jobs : Thé manufacturer, in the eagerness o f his ea r, ha# had to collect into one neighbcurhocd a v a s t army o f w orkers*. «Chen the glut comes in th a t murket be 144, "The arts and Crafts of ?o-day," Ccllccimd ^erks. 1*11,p, 368. ÎÛ 145, "Hce Ve Live and How We Might Live," C ollected Wo^ks. a&iii, p. 6.' 146. Ibid.. pp. 5, ?, 9, , le supplying,..the dcor if whyt on thw;,i47 Coneequently, the Go&rolty sf joos reealting ffo^ chroafo overproduction compels the laborer» to uniereell e@#&30th#r ' # / in the attempt to obtain the limited number of jobt avail a b le . This * % r, ar competition,” Morrl# defined as ...p u r su in g year oes adVanta&e a t the boat of some on# eise'e less, and in the pro##*#of it yon muet not be sparing of deetruetlen even *f your own p##a##*iGn#, : or you m ill oertainly #### by the eor##; :%',the ettug- .. a l e . 148' ' In other morde, in order tc meet eompetition earee must be made "oheap"' and'thle 'eheapneke* in tuyn j^eate* a "false" demand which ii further stimulated by the ereetion of a deeire among the working olaebb# to imitate the rich in th e ir 147. "Ho# be live and Hoe We Might live," Golleeted %rke. XXllI, p. 9. 148. Ibiq.. p. G. 48 149 150 "iuawry." Luxuïy, aa va have aeaa# la In aaaeno# th# T«ry antltheai®. of art; an# thi#*artl#aan@&«* that cuara#** t#rl##d th#oapitallBti# ayetam «## refleoted in me live# of both r,ioh .anâ .poor. Ihe hou### of the former were olut- te re # w ith thlag# "for mho#" raiher than for use only; while the hohae# of th# latter were filled wtth "eham" ear##in im i#ti#n #.f-^rioh men*# houee# rather, thmeWttn ware# that ■ 149«i "It ##%#-- that,'the'..marAoet for gambling,' % p ro fit is t'po eeagting^, or the %##d for .the employment .pf'labour, is too prfoelàg' to all## them t# parohaee and oonsume only' what "they need.;'.' they muet» in addition, purohase and cone m# many things ehioh they 4# aét ###&( habit# of pomp and luaury muet bo-, forme.d amonget't'hem, #e that th# market which would be starred "by -thf'mleery of the ponr, may be kept bu#y : with ,min» iatering to the luxury of the rioh. And you must understand" ....that though..,àii, ware# made must b# ##n#umed » never the lee# that eon#umptienh^oe# net prove their u#er they may be used or they may b# emoted, and if they are not needed, they oan- ndt be u#ed and muet he wasted »" "Art and lie irodueer#»" op* .gljfe,..», p . 180, "The manufaeturer...Oariïiot tu rn out quite nothing and .offer it fo r sale# at l e a s t in the cate of'art idee of u t i l i ty ; # b at he doe# do is tu rn out a makeshift of the artieles demanded by th e puhlio, and by mean# of the ♦sisord of oheap- Kf sa# *p#'.he not only ean fore# tne e a id makeshif t un the pub l i c , b u t c a n . ..prevent them from getting the real t-img{ the real thing presently ceases to be made after the makeshift ha# been one# foieted on the market," Ibid, . p. 366. 160. ü f. a n te » p. 69 1*1 met T*#l ne«dfi* îktifria* ©«Terest eondemmation of eapltalism ajsraQg from bW disgust with its visible expreseism#. 3 m t me s sosietj s f art expressed it s e lf in term# of beauty or art th reagb its individual member# in tbeir eontaet# eitb Sature and tbeir felleve * so a soeiety eom^letily la e k in g in a r t ex* pressed its u g lin ess everyebere*. *.étbe prodàe# of a l l modern induitrlalliwa'is ugly, ■ andf* .«binever anytbimg «b.le%.,.l# old d l$ a p # a r # , its plaee- is taken by »e#e#ing. inferior to it in beauty; and that even outtbs very field s and open eomtry# drt -"Of ..emkirng beautifully all. kind# of ordinary tbinga.. Oar te # gat##, fenees, beat#*, bos Is, and so forth, le t a Ion# houses and ybbllo buildin#, un#onsoloesly and e lt h e u t ef* fort, has go»#.15* 1*1# '*'As greed o f u n f a ir g a in , «anting to be p a id f o r ehat e#/;..:bave not eaamed, oumbers our p ath with th is ta n g le df. of/.'Sham/work, so the hsaped»up money «hioh t h i s gr##t::ba#' brought ns*.* . ^ t h e r e d in to heaps little and b ig , rilh, a ll ths false distisotion whioh so u n h ap p ily i t y e t oO##amdS'-)a#ongst us,-.',ihas ra is e d up against the arts a bar* rlsr of the love, of luxury' and show, whioh i s o f a l l ob*. v isu s'^ h in d ra n iss ttoSvWorwt f s o v erp a ss t th# highest and most ottltivabid are hot .free from the vulgarlt^Dnf it, the lower ars^ not"free from i t s pretemo#.*' *fh# Lesser A r ts," syg,. o i t ,. p . 23. m . "The Revival of handloraft," PmUfmW, p . 33#. 70 Tb# mo#t f«atur« about modern uglintee» bo#» ever, vas that people were apparently unooneerned about i t and eer# not latere e.ted in reform# bee#use they do not feel the ev ils they live amongst, beeauee they .have, degraded themselves into something less than men; they are unmanly beeauee they have e ea se d to have their due ah&re. of art,IBS Capitalism, however, was not eon teat w ith enslaving the eorJk* man and oom#elling him to make sham ears# .rather than allowing him to erpreéh.himself in hie lawr# .with reguiring- h i # to use eham'artielem rather than enabling him to poéeeee h im s e lf of genuine wares, and with degrading his very.moul ae that h e w illingly eondoned ugliness rather than so-i^ht beauty in. life; but it proeeeded to destroy the only poeeible eempen* sation left to men for all the ugliness hi# life was sur- rowded with : the beauty of the faee of the earth, , That leem of the instimot for beauty whioh has i n - vw.lvwd US', in the less o f popular art 1# also busy im dWipiving w o f the o n ly ompensation peeeibl# for loswi by surely and met slowly debtrey* Ing'the beauty of the very ' faee of the earth.1B4 londm ..th#Lgr#.t, #.omm#r#iaie itim a have beaame "mere smaeee or eerdidmee#,. filth , and squalor, embroidered with lM,>*fh# Beiilf life," m* ftlb*» P* 1S4* "Art %der llutooraoy," gjg,. o it.» p . 170. patehe» of poapows and vylgar hld#oa#w»*# wii4|« «••nhole cotmtitt o f England * and the heavanm that hang oTtr %h#m, dlaappaarad b*a#a&h a oraat of ms- uttaraUla grim#, but th# dleea##* ahleh# to a iria- Itor coming from th# time# of art# r#*aon,and or der, adu ld meea to be a lore of dirt and u g lin e e # for its own sak## spreads a ll e v e r the country, and every l i t t l e market-toen seises the opportunity to .i#itate#e majesty of the hell of loaden and Man- «he»ter*i55 It is clear from this th a t Morris #a# is capitalism only growlhg ugliness not only in the individual l i v e s o f men but is their collective expressions, which disfigured the very face o f the earth it s e lf . The only reawdy# ' he insisted, lay in changiBg the system, because under the cap italistic sys tem there could be no art or beauty. But, he also insisted that »«.the beginnings of Social Bevolution must be the fondations o f the rebuilding of the art of the People, t h a t is to say of the Pleasure o f life .le d his claim for socialism, he said, was this : .. ; WMLWLjgWuXa&l ia#&- w#arisdw_:mf over-anmlo#.!#? 155. *Art %d#r Plutocracy," cH «. p. 170. ISd. "Art and Socialism, " cit.. p. #11. 157. ibid.. p. 94. (Italics in the o rig in a l,) 72 H&vlng r#a#am#dth e . e e n é i t l o m of Ilf* h# feX% #*r# neoem# B&Tj for the er#«tiott of art, Werrla po#tulat*d a *Claim* ahioh la in *ff*@t nothing mro or l#mm than a domand for suoh a oondition of Ilf*. A rt re n a lte d from Pleaeurt in mork and th * a r t i e t had to he free from oorry #md f e a r . aorrii did not feel th a t th e "Goelal aerolutlon* mould oome auddenly or even violently, although he did alio* th a t th* revolution.one* etarted might require violenoe in the Anal eta#'»* 81mo* men had been »o degraded under th e eap - Italie tie ayetma,. ae a reeult o f the laek of art in t h e ir live*, that th e y no longer felt the need for beauty, they mould have to be made ooneoloue of thle need# hm felt, before revolution eoUld be attempted. he had dedieated hie omn ef fort*# he eaid# te etirring up diaeontent with the p r e a en t 15# etate of thin# ; and until ^le diaeontent or desire for aomething b#tt#r became almo#t universal among the oppressed olae-aee at leaat# he did not feel that revolution' eeuld be effeeted. However, his efforts to stir up dl sow tent were not confined to the oppressed class alone| he constantly ad dressed hia&self to the mlMle class and tk# capitalists ae 15#./ * . . .my business ... is to spread discontent.. .as dis content spreads, the yearning for bettering the state of things spreads with it...and melts away resistance to c.iange "Art, Wealth, and Riches," Collected Works, .XXIlI, p. 159. miteh üB $0 the preletariati» the uglânese in modern life and the tyrBttny lnh#r#nt in the modem eyetern,he felt, oould be pemeived hy anyone mhn faeed the tm th . .. .?r. A humhey df ‘lejryi»* .■oritios have, pointed. od| hi# peou. liay' g ift ©f pmpheey, and toilirof: hie predletion# regarding the teentteth:eentn*ff., M r lB#,tanet, hay# indeed o.me tru e, -%ring ealled the nineteenth eentury # (Mntury o f dnmmeree* he predieted that the the tw entieth oehtury would he kneen Idd ae #ie Century of Iduoation} and th ie indeed appear# to he horn# out. But more important for u# today 1# hie pre d iet ion o f the Change , from the eapîtalietie te the eooial- ie t ie eyetern, and the manner in ehi# thie uaa to come about* See, for ex a # le, Ishleman, go. o lt *. pp. 321-29. 0r Mkrgaret &. dremwm, .>■ pp. ÏSê-ISv 100. * ,,.e o that it may he^ that a# the nineteenth een- tury i# to be ea lled the Oentury o f Cdmmeree, the teentieth may he ealled the Century of fdueatien,” "The Beauty of life*" dp* ojt«. p. @3.' 74 If #$ take Euesla aa an example, hi# prediotlon a#ln proved e##{pktlaily oorree*. Hi# #deplete p ic tu re of this, eooial revelation i# fally narrated in toe frem and i t appear# to he alm oat an eye**eitneee aoeount of the events vhiefa took p lace in R uaaia between 1917 and 1922 rather than a work written twentyaix year# he fore the B aaaian Revolu tion began* f ir s t there were attempt# at amelioration; many of them, in the early stages of the revolution, on th e part of the oppreaeed class in a tte m p ts to climb "out of the op* 101 press'ed into the eppreaaing claaa," finally# dtate Social* ism "was partly put in motion, though in a Very piecem eal 102 way* But it did hot work samothly." for.a tim e "matter* him# in the balance j the masters could not reduce their alavea to complete aubjeotion" and the worker* "foreed th eir me*ter# to g ra n t them lunelieration*# real or imaginary# of their oonditloaa, but could not force freedom from them." But a t laat came *a g re a t crash;" the workmen'had a t l a s t ♦learned how to eombin# after a long period of m istak es and dieaatersThle combination took the form o f a "federation 101 • Sews from lowhere# gg* c i t .. pp. 100 g t SâSL» 102. Ibid.. p. 107 75 Of a ll or alJBOot a ll the reeogniaed aage-jwkid èmplojmentm" and through this they sueoeeded in effecting re^Torm#; hon- $V#r, their nativities ner« "not seldom mixed :i#'n i# .. 103 rioting.* The general strike had hy this time heoome the laborers* most effe c tiv e weapon, tout "the biggish fund of money for sup-port of strikes" ehieb the labor' organisation had e o lle e te d ras often "auoh mis'dsed" -and' "indeed more than ones 'the ehole oombination eeemwd dropping to piwes heeause of It." Irentimily the mere " t r a i t e s »'and eelf-a eek er* ... mere thrust ont and mostly .Reined the deeiared"readtionarlem." -#%tterd";had.^ e-ome to a etate • "perileesly near te.'/the' la te lo a an poor*rat$s. #4and th e doling out of bread to the pro* le ta r ia t. ...the spread of eommemistie theories# and the par tial praetiee of State Socialism' had -at.'first dis turbed, and" at last alW et 'para#sed t he marvellous systaa of ecmmeroe under shich the old sorid had loved-so feverishly, and-'had prsdueed - for some fee a l i f e o f gsmbler’s pleasure, and for many, o r most, a life of mere misery * over and over came *t#d times*. . . the eorkmsn suffered dreadfullyi the p&rtial, inefficient government factories, shich ; sere ■terribly jobbed, a l l b u t broke dbsn, and a vast part, of the population had for the time being to be' fed "bn undisguised *charity.*l#d' 163. ikM.** PP* 108 e t passim , 164# m iA#. pp. 109-110. 76 Only them did the federated labor organisation pass a “Heao- IntioB* oompelllng •the "handing over the management of the iKmhole natural reeouree* of the eeumtry"' to the 'Combined Work* era. T&1# brought the declaration of ear, th e la et stand by the upper claee in their attempt to r e ta in th eir poeaee* eiene* After a bloody riet in Trafalgar Square;, la e b le h eerkmen mere killed by the p o lice, the reaetlenaylee placed the government under a yeumg general ; but "the, clever- gen eral took me vieible action" ehlle the Committee of lublic Safety, ehleh had been #et up by th e federated la b o re r# , .went ahead and .organiaed an. army. Thle "people *#' a r # " eae f i n ally eurmmmded at Trafalgar .Square by government tfodpe who mowed I t down with machine gums* The "maeeaore of T ra -' falgar .iquare began the ■ c iv il war, though like all eueh event#, it gathered head slowly, and people eea.reely knew what a oriel# they were actlag Im.ldb Iven though after the meaaore, the reaetiomary government appeared to have gained the upper hand, the effect# of thl# laeideat were eo far-reaehlng^ upon the masae# of the people that they finally gained the upper hand by mean# of a general a tr ik e th a t p a ra ly se d e v e ry th in g . Workmen*# com m ittee# w. m* all # p * IT bat eurely became the o rg a n is a tioae, W aWLch pab.iie C'CnfiidenQe began' to be piaced and moon tn# control naturally fell into the bands of tbe Oomnittee of Publie dafety. But eonfusion and unrest etilX marked the progrès» of tne peo- pl* ^e government# and tbe situation #a# again oenplicated ebon advocates of pure Communism non began making strong de* mend#* The o iy ik ear eon tinned until at lent tM nee govern* ment openly'joined bands with tbs communiste and founded a " l e t system o f life "on equality ef Communism.** ' VII. Kba% #erris oisarljr reeognised, as ffPA reveals, is the difficulty of educating the masses for deeigi, f i n a l l y f o r Communism, he um derstood th a t th e re would 4%### te b#many mistake» and that often it,, might appear that" : #&»'"&»# system utterly failed inev e ry th in g j h#':■therefore eenstantly emphasised the need for faith in the ultimate eiîtoos».* tiss. mistake» «ould mdoubtWly i#jauoh aad 4isilld»lo.p»«©,t bmt )#opl# hadto tmW coaxagt' .«#4 , gTerythl#$ ##$ ia th® #ad, i£ p#@pl*\@WLy gar® 3deiâii«âx a f a ir clxanae* % *. i #y#m,aftar. th# mqamiity Pt oondltioa" had im#ti$W#d in ##rria* 4##l#$y In ,Awa Rot^r#. h# •till/.fsahd #&t p#opl#, ##p##ially thorn# #ho had h#*n moat gppr#8#*d iind«r th# old .o.apdtalisti« •y#t#m* #%peri#n##d r#aiialhg th#m#elve# id- th#a##' aorld»' ..\ih#ir.. •#&## .#f " ##%dky had b##a ,ao dalled that they eould not quit# nod#rataa#ajft and it# aignifidano# in their live# at dirat: , .,.'"'''..:%h.#^ #p#at: d if# # # # # . aa# that,d###^poor %h# had *uoh a ###h|#//#om##pti Morri# ..her# again» #t#«; tho-agh b# h#li#v#d the Chang# na# ia«fitahl#». ##r#ea#d''hi# miaglwing# ahoat the, Isaif Aiat# auo* •### #'f th# nan #y#t##, th#,. p«opl# of th# Biddle .4###, #h# ' had' :#m:##aa#d a r t in # # i r .lit#».,» m i# t hat# re a d ily aeoept* #d or #t#n aat»ral||t. 'drifted into it !■ hut tha- f#o- pl#: r#ho 'had lit##, under a eapitaliott# .#ooiety, peopl# de graded and hardened into vulgarity and hmtality» eer# a auoh i»w#« n more difficult it would take muoh wûrk$ muoh edu* oatlng, and much time. VIII I'hat wa» Eori'ia* Ideal eociatj like? %t-'#âa, of oouraa, a aodiaty of art. Again Kdrrla drew kia oleareêt pidture of thle aoclety In .flm = , W m b e fo re the «trubgle for- eetabliahing the new eo# oiety had been aeoompllehed, A rt ,-..ref$#fdn m wonderful way during the latter part o f t w # tr u g g le %#-*fbe a r t o f work#piea«ure, e#' ©neought '. to d a ll it*..aprwag up almoet epontaneowely, i t eeeme* from a kind of instinct amonget people no lo n g e r d rl# wen deaperàtely to painful and te r r ib le overwork... and when t b a t had gone on fo r a little while, a orav- Ing for beauty eeemed to awaken in men*# mind#,and they began rudely and awkemrdly to ornament the ware a- whioh they wmde.l# Ae a reeult of thie revival of art, the new world warn ««♦a garden, where nothing le wanted and notWag i# ape lit, With the ne.eeeaary dwelling#, ahade, wbrk- ahep# eoattered up and down the eountry, a l l trim and neat and pretty.169 168, The quotation# following are frem &###.fre m Jip - whqre. an, o%t. . pp-* 134 ff * hxeeptien# w ill be n o te d . 1 6 ^ Ibid . , p. 72. a o has pointed gut that korrie nae an *a«m# 1*9 tW tio socialist*' rather than a huwanitdrian reformer* fte began nith art and built hie idea of soaialiem around hla conception of a society of art* hoeiaiis® is an all-embraoiag theory of life, and that a# it ha# an ethic and a religion of its oen, . ao alee it ha#' am aesthetici so that to every one eho e ie h e s to atudgy' S o cialism duly i t i s n ecessary to lool,:-on.it ,frc# $he aesthetic point of vice, and, sSeoWiy# 1, asiert'that'ine " IT l' .huménity''' ' " bat W ^dit that it scald be remedied by educa t i o n . 1*9. CoaptOB-Hiokett, cit.. pp. 213-14. 170. "The üoclallet ideal," Oolls^ted Porks. # 1 1 , p . 2*5. 191. tbld.. p. 25*. 81 AS has been pointed out b efo re, üoeim,%lÀ% to M o rris, earn only the primary sta g e in ehioo education ana a general bettering of the condition of the pee&le eould be instituted, lie f e l t th a t s o c ia lis t# in general sere cognisant of tnie id e a l, and their conception of socialism included the sn o le idea, Socialism plus its higher development, a development which he o fte n called Gommwniem $. .e h a t most non~8oeialiete at least consider at present to be Soclaliem Seems to m nothing more than a machinery of oceialiem, which ^ thing i t probable that 3ceiallam must use in its militant c o n d itio n I and which 1 think it use for some time after It i s p rant ism lly 'established | but i t does not seem to me to be of its essence. 17& The important matter for eoneideration in the initial stage o f the new system was the institution of svt in tn$'lives of the p e o p le . i t was this which would ennoble them mad re v iv e the himanity which bad been ae strayed in them under the com* fse ro ia l system. Thus, there would be attem pts to "relieve the eordidness of civilised town life by the public a c q u ire ment o f parks and other open spaces, plantin g of trees, es- 173 tabllshment of free libraries and the lik e .* ' Once 172. "Cosptmlsffi,” Collected %ork#_, àXIi I, pp. 264-66. iItalics in original) 1?3. •' PP* 264—66. 82 Sooialiam had baea instituted and had seoured oontirol o f a l l the resources of production, the welfare o f th e eerkaan mould be Improved by shorter faoure of labor and higher mages; mork* men*# house#mould be Improved and emre time and energy mould be allotted to the education of children; but the ultimate good- bould depend upon "ham aueh reform s mere done#»inwhat e p irit-; or mhat else mas being done, while this mas going on, mWeh mould make people long for t q m l i t y ef condition; , mhioh mould .give the», .faith^ .-in-the :po-|sibility-and morkabienee# of î^oeialiem; mhibh mould give them eourage to strive,for It and labour for it,194 de re a#tin his answer mas edueatie», but, an' %#,.%##» shown, hie preretnieite far edaeatlos mam art, f f ie morris* pieture of the ideal state, while the course of the development from Socialism is nar* r a te d by an o ld m n mho bad liv e d - a t the tim e the revolution first began, irenieally, the Parliament mouse of the Old system had become a dung^market; but dung *is bet the worst kind of corruptica; fertility may come of that, whereas mere dearth" had come from mhat had been ealled democracy under 1?6 the old capitalistic syatem. 174. "Coammis%" W*##» Xllll, gg,, P' ^65 .lltalice original.) 176 . 83 Under the ideal wyetea there #&# no government for "a man ao more need* en elaborate system of government, with its arisy, navy, and police, to foree him to give may to the s ill of the majority o f his equals, than he *aats a sim ila r maohlnery to make him understand that,hie head and a stems s a i l oanaet ooov^y the mam# space a t the same moment» 176 % d # r the Old System th e Parliament had merely been "a k in d af watoh-oommittee s i t t i n g to See that the Interests o f the Upper .. Classes took so h u rt ; and on. the other aide a s o rt ■ o f b lin d to delude the people into" suppo#- la g th a t they had some share in the- management of their osh affairs.177 The ' gevernment, then had been "b u t the mashinery o f tyranny," s# d hds Wiat "tyranny has some to an end, a# no longer need such maehlneagr; tie eould not possibly use It since as are free*" Under tala system there sere no criminals "since there is no rich e la sa to b reed enemies against the s ta te by 178 means of th e injustices of the state#" Jivtl law "abol ished itself" for the civil law courts had existed merely to prtWct private property ; but since private property no lo n g er 19*' m * i* 95 177. Ibid.. p. 76. 178. Ibid.. pp. 79 jLt sea. *4 existed thers sas^ no lo n g er any ntad f# r s i v i l law* I# like manner# "private property being abolistied# a ll tne laes and all the legal 'orimes* whteh it had m&nafaetured of oourse 17# oame to an end." i i t h the a b o litio n o i private property bad also vanished tne idea that soman ##e the property of mam, and the need for all ©riminal Ht# likeeise no longer e x is te d . fhe chief reasons for crime# under the eld .«yetern# had been private pro per v wd the ^artificial pervefsioh of the sexual paeeioms, ehieh caused overeeemim# j^ealc asy and the like miseries.»" Mem that eoman mas free these arimée me ... ) %'C T'.' loBger happened. Anether "00#%te cause e f erlwS_"^'h>#©am •the family tyranny* but all that i s emded "^IW e '^'ikmilÿ## are held together by no bonds of eoereloa, legal er sosial, but by mutual liking and affection." The standaa&S Of hen- eur and estimation" had likeeise changed: huooess|^,-#bsa,t- -ing ear .neighbours" mas no longer a road to renown , laeh Man is free to exercise his special faculty .to the utmost, and -.every one encourages hi*/in so doing» Yiclemee occasionally s t i l l happens for "hot blood « ill err ecmeti#es»• But pmlshment is not meted out to an Offender# The quotations following are from I.cwb from Moshers. OP. e itik" B. 172ff. 85 for ppnlshmcnt, under the old system, isas only "the expres sion of fear" and under that system "they had need of f e a r , sinoe they--the rulers of society— sere dwelling like ah '‘■afwid hand in a. h o stile country." Under the Ifew System we who lire amongst friends need neither fear nor punish. Surely, if we, in dread of an oooafioiial rare hoAi- âidéÿ an occasional rough blow, were solemnly and legally to commit homicide and violence, ## could only he a society of fero'oiosm'#csar:dS',:: . The\/'crimihal w ill ■puaish himself la th# remorse he suffers» after he has "cooled off" and weighed all the circumstances; he w ill then fepl obligated, to ■■«Ske al#:'a#hement ..possible. fortwre or punlshmnt would paly .■"tturn his grief: into anger, and the humiliation he would' etherwise -'feel.Z^r'-hls wrong doing i s swallowed up by a hope of revenge' fsr oar wrong-doing on him ." There are no laws hut there are regulations o f the m ark ets, varying aoeordlng to the pirew stances phd guided by general customs.' But these are mat Wrs. of-.general assent, which nobody dreams of objecting so also we have made no provisions for enforcing them. g'UCh'provisions, of course,'were unnscesSar/-.ia a society where every individual had developed a true eenae of s o c ia l responsibility. The u n it o f management in th e new s o c ie ty i s the com- asune and matters concerning the public are settled by an as sembly of all the people in the community. The will of the 84 majority prevail*, but if the minority so deelree, there *111 be eufficient delay before final d#el*io#& &r# reached In dor to alio* the minority to exert It* full influence and te make everyone eognlaant elth it* vie**. T5:ven after a major* i ty d é c isio n Ims been mad# &boat some m a tte r, thoee o f the Biinerity opinion are not obligated to obey If they inalat on being stubborn, for there i* no eyatem of coercion; hoaever, in nearly every eaa* the minority eillingly folio* all do* dielon* of the majority. When Morriâ, thf gueet, a*k* the old edge *ho had lived at the tlme^the "change first began* in the land of %omhere: , , .he# yott g e t people to. eork when there 1# no .reward of labour, and eapeeially how yea g e t them to work atrennouely? #e ahewer# indignantly : So reward of labour? The reward of labour 1# life la that mat enough? lu t no reward A r a ape eimlly goad labour? Plenty of reward. ..the .reward of or#at|on.- • The wage* whioh led fote# aw people might haw# abid tim e agon#, lf\you.:ar#vgoin# to aek to be paid A r the pleaeur# of creation, which la what excellence in work mean*, the neat thing w# ehaii, hear of will he a bill sent in for begetting children. the incentive* tc labour, briefly. ewmariaed, are these . . . a l l work i* now pleaaurable; either becauee o f idee, hope of gain in honeW and w ealth w ith which the work 1* done , which'eauee# pieaAurabl# e# ite* ment, even when the actual work i* not.pleasant; or else because it ha* grown in to a pleaeorabi'e *9 .. .attd lastly (and most o f oi%$ *ork is of this kifed) beoawse tbeg# i# a aonafl®aa ##n#dom# pl#a#* ure In tbe nork itself; It Is don#, Ua % is* by a r t i s t # . ISO : / \ - ' '' #h#n Morrisis odrioti# to kmo# ho# this shang#in 'attitude tosard labour «as effected, the reply 1#a Indeed, yom may eegr rather that i t is thl* ehange shich makes a ll thé other# possible...happines* Without happy daily'Work is impossible. This happiness g re# from .*.the absenoe of artificial-oosreioh» add the.free dom fo r every man to do #bat he can dd best# joined to the. knowledge of shat production of labour se really « a n t. IX Thie #ae Morris*, vision o f the f u tu re , a aorld in e h ic h every indlvldial .enjoyed complete freedom as th a t he ceald be a complete artist, Oould Morris really hav# been serious in fpoq Moehere? After a ll, had hS hot «ritten the book 180. (All Italics in o r ig in a l) 8 * 181 in reply te lôward Bellamy*a Looking Backward? Bellamy** vorld *a# too mechanical for Korri#* ideal of individualism. I# i t net q u ite lik e ly then that In his d%slr# to overcome Bellamy#* argument Morris otralned a point hers and there and 162 over-reached h im se lf in counter-proposal? .»■. study o f Mor- 183 rl0* leetars* delivered between 18?? and 1894 w ill reveal in embryo the world portrayed in Bew* frop Nowhere. As ear- ly -a * ■ l®??pMn a lecture delivered before the Trades# Guild 181.^*#be immediate occasion which led Morri* to put in to a connected form those- dreams o f an idyllic future in which .hie mind *** cdhetantly hovering was mo d oub t'the prodigious vogue which, had. been obtained the year b efo re, by an Amerl- *##.,.8tcyià*\:#r*., once celebrated ’Looking .Backward.#’" hack* 11# 0h*‘ iZ* P' 256* 182. "the refined rusticity o f *Bewe from Bbwherc* is in studied oontraot to the apotheosis of machinery and the glori fication of the life of. large towns Im the American book; and t* perhaps amsèwhat exaggerated. In it* reaction, from that p ic tu re of a world in Which the t^lam #tere of Fourier seem® to have swollen to deliricu* proportion®, and b tate o o ciallem has resulted In a monstrous and alm ost incredible central is a tio n # * lo o , e i t . ,..183, thes.e lectures were later collected and p u b lish ed und«f fo«r gen eral titles: f|opM ..W r *1Qm, Mwmuuaa 89 IS 4 Df learning, HbrrlB aaidU ' I that am have mven partly achieved 80 we ehall one day aehieve A%U&LlTY, whioh* and whioh only, meane in^TKEWlTYi, and eo have lois" lire from poverty and all it» griping, aordid ear#». them# no one w ill he ...hidden to by any man*» eerimnt, every orné aeogmimg V to be any man*» êamte'r % méh w ill then aaeWredly b# happy im their work, and that happineoa w ill a#*:@redly bring forth decorative,noble, popular az^.^ That '-art w ill make- any atreete ae beautlfwl mi' the voede, -a*. eleV atie^/'a» the Qiemntaim"4»ide» : i t be a pleaeare and a reet* .am&met |tv-wii^ht apen th#/-. sp irit» to 0erne from; the,, cÿen odmmtiwy ih to the toWh; every man*» heuae w ill be #air and' Idw ent* »oo#ing , to :hio mind,and helpful to.hid wbrkt ,',#dnd evd i^ .' w ill have h ie ahare o f ,the/.:bm#$;.., Of .the world horrie pletmwd in th ie leeture h« empeeted ' pop* mlar ekep tieiem , " it le a dream# .yew, may oayy%$hÿ #aid*. Of wbat .baa never been and never w ill be ; -true, i t ha# never been, and therefore, aimoe the wbrld i a - ' aliVw ,#md moving y # t, my hope is the gremte#-### , it one day w ill be: true, i t 1» a dream; but dreamgk have before now eome about of thing» »o good and ncoeaeary to ue, that we eoaroely think of them more than of the d aylight, though emaa people had to live w ithout th#a# witho# even Wt;'hopeo f them.id® The idyllie working eoene# in Hew». .^itpm-W^è%her^ have' th eir eeedaUâ mumeroua earlier fitatemê-st», of which the -following. 184, “The %e»»erArte,* d g . o i t *. pp# ad*27. 186. loo. ojJ|. 90 IB* frpm a lecture delivered In 186*, 18 a typical example: 1 be%lev% people eculd find, a# they $dv%nced In their éai>aeîty fer carry log on eceial order, that Ilf* eo llvdd #&* ieao expeneive than ae no* &a?e of, ' and’that, after a little , pedple real* r#t'A#r he anxloue to seek work than to avoid i t ; that our working hour* wo aid rather be merry parties of men and maid*, young men and old enjoying them- selvee over their aork.,»#? In •îrtî# .and Fa la# Society,* •& lecture de 11 verçd la 1869, Mor ris envisions That ■trae society of loved and ...loeer, parcht- and child, friend and frieh#^ thé Coelety of weil* ele lere, Cf reaeoaahle pacple sense leu* of^tht aspirations of humahl^ and of # e duties à* siee to it through one another-'^thieCS'Oclety, I eey»^ is held together and eiiatm by it# can inhérent right',,.and reason., in apt ta of shat is usually, thought to- be the cëWent, o f e s o ie ty , arb itrary authority: to,, alt*,.that is to" say* ' the etpreèelén of hWt# force # the influence of unreasoni , in#Wh**ttml6a - :/ , ' .. Morris anticipated popular skepticism re g a rd in g h is Id eal world# in th a t anticipation very probably l i e s the sig n i f 1- aanee of the, vord koéher# in 3ew# from i^o*here. 6Uah a uorld could, not yet exist anyUher# in the popular coiiception of the future ; but to Morris it not only oould but, çne^day, would '#%* i'S't# 186, *How We Live and low fe Might Live,* c it. 187; ibid.. p. 81. 168, éfrue an* f a ls e Mcoietv.* polieetsd , bAe. IXIII, p . .239. 91 lairly in life be had developed a “hatred ef olvillzs- tion," a dleguat eith all the nglineee he found In life around him. He eearohed Ions for a remedy, and loving beauty and hat* la# ugllneee he sought a mean* for substituting the one for the other. He ea* ugliness growing larger and over nore onl* nou$* threatening to blot out every last veotlge of oeauty left in the vorld. He eav it trample underf ot thp very seuls of meg, kneading them into a brutality that obliterated their hweenity and made even their Innate reeognltion of a need f o r beauty obsolete. Thus, out of hie hatred of oivillaatlon e* volved a positive ereed whioh he had undoubtedly long felt growing before he expressed it openly. He fir s t p u b lle ly pro fessed soolallstle view* in 187?, but the seeds of socialism were already obvious in his loelandio works and were a t l e a s t foreshadowed in h is publloations in the Oxf ord, and Caribrid.ge 189 Wagamine, as early as 1856. His statement that he had always been a socialist might well mean that he had always felt that art could not thrive under a capitalistic system * therefore, he turned to so c ia l ism. Socialism was only a primary stag e out of «hicii was to 169. In *The Lesser Arts," a leeture he delivered in 167?, Morris laments the growing ugliness and the need for pleasure in work. jH* a n te « pp. 12-13. 92 evolve Co.^anlet-, the "Complete equality ef Gouàitipn" whloh he felt vae the moet deelrahle eyatem fo* the errowth ard de* velapm&ht Benae, hie dr*am of the future, exietlqg Bggh&S&in the popular imagination hut real in Korrle* vlelon of the future nevertheless. jsm wt a#ifort, WlalmMRAjUL mBl ##!!#,gUtM# s i & *&& zorkl T, Ueltaer, 1^20. Bellway# Eteard H., lo o k lm t Baoteard: 2000-1887-. iiem York; Houghton. Klffiln%m4 C o 13*9. Bloomfield. Paul# W illiam Morrla. lo n d o n : A rthur B arker Ltd., 1954. Cary, Bliaabeth T.uther, )iÜÜljap, limClSahaL. t^olglimt # Me# torkî 0. i . Iwtnam^a Oons# 1902. Cheatertoh, G ilb e rt Keith, fwelre/fynea. I^adoh: a . l . Hum* phreye, 1903# CQ#pton*Riokett, Arthur^ : À lO. a llty . London* HerWrt. Jenklüs Ltd., 1913. Bhremm* T%e#dor#O eorge, Si iSilm iiS&Wâ& Ai^Wra. «ee York: H. ^Igon Co., 1930# 161- kahleman, Lloyd wemdell, A WZâl: WiS.Si 11mm M e rrla . JSee York î Chàrleo L-crlhner*i i.>on», 104C. Orennaa, Kargdret R,, Hoi^rle : hedievallet a;^ lationanr. k.ing*a vroëm l'i*ee», 1946. ' ' ' " Hloke, Oranyllle. %&«;:%& ^ York! The Maornlllar# Co., 19397 Hoare, Dorothy M., to 5arly vmaa Literature.33si& lsni' Cambridge Cambridge : : The The ihlverëity kreee, 1937T K a e k a ll, John &Y, The i ^ f e of William M orrla. London: Long- mans, Green and C o ., 1912. Mcrrla# jMlliam# D&& fS llS S W iSAA S i W&UW: MSKBUL* &n In tro d u o tio n by h ie laughter, lay lorrle, ?ol»., XIV, XV, XVI, XXII, XXII1. London : Longmano, Green and C o., 1912-1916. Semin, Joseph Vard, BfiijWSA j&Ê. .%#SRSW,k à M&â- t^zy o f |^uro.|^.. fy.o^^l,07Q te the ry.#§^n,t Uwvimed a d i-