FROM THE MUSEUM OF ISLAMIC ART IN QATAR

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOACHIM GIERLICHS

AND CONTRIBUTIONS BY KONSTANTINOS CHATZIANTONIOU JOACHIM GIERLICHS FRANAK HILLOOWALA KATHRYN KALEMKERIAN SABA AL KUWARI LISA MALCOM JULES MCDEVITT SHEIKHA AL NASSER SUSAN REES MICHELLE WALTON

CONTENTS

Foreword 04 Introduction 08 Unseen Treasures 10 Bibliography 12 Glossary 14 Index 18 FOREWORD

THE MUSEUM OF Islamic Art in Qatar, designed by renowned architect I.M. Pei, opened to the public in December 2008. Its 18 galleries showcase a permanent exhibition of approximately 750 objects that refect the enormous vitality, complexity and diversity of the arts of the Islamic world. The second foor galleries of the Museum illustrate major themes such as calligraphy, which is considered the most important form of artistic expres- sion in the Islamic world, geometric and foral patterns, and fgures in art, as well as the achievements of Islamic science as refected in artistic scientifc instruments. On the third foor visitors are invited to make a journey from the early Islamic era in the 7th century to the beginning of the 20th century, and from Spain in the west to China in the east. The Museum’s mission is to promote an understanding of the high achievements of Islamic culture through works of art of the highest quality. Visual learning is supported through creative art programmes, lectures and publications which mainly target children, young adults and teachers. The Education Centre encourages different learning styles suited to different audi- ences to enrich and promote a culture of knowledge. The Museum’s library focuses on Islamic art and architecture. While the Museum’s ever-growing collection, which currently includes over 4,500 objects, does not constitute the largest collection of Islamic art in the world, it is of exceptionally high quality. Many superb objects have not been exhibited before in the galleries, and new acquisitions regularly add to this extraordinary collection of masterpieces. This book, published as a con- tribution to Doha’s celebrations as 2010 Arab Capital of Culture, turns the spotlight on just over 50 priceless objects, not before exhibited or published, and illustrates the commitment of the Museum of Islamic Art to make these treasures accessible to the world.

Sheikha Al Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani Chairperson of the Qatar Museums Authority

8

INTRODUCTION

THE ANCIENT ADAGE that one sees only what one knows is particularly ap- propriate in a museum that seeks to sensitise visitors to the beauty, vibrancy and complexity of its collection in order to elicit a sense of the deeper, his- torical picture. Time and again, we at the Museum of Islamic Art in Qatar are confronted with the question of whether we have included all the important objects of our collection in the permanent exhibition or whether “curiosities” that can al-Andalus, with a rich, fgurative décor that depicts, among other scenes, a Ud ent adionumsan ul- add to that sense of wonder remain behind the scenes. Indeed, given the person blowing a huge hunting horn or oliphant. lum quat praesse quisc- ing el dui blam, vullaore wealth of the material we have gathered, with a collection that has been Adding to the rich narrative of wood as a venerable material, this collec- miniam, consed growing since 2008, it has been impossible to feature all the interesting ob- tion also presents a lavishly carved and once coloured wooden arch in the jects that we have compiled in the permanent exhibition. form of a portal from North Africa. In many respects, this region pursued For that reason, Unseen Treasures aims to bring to light the remarkable al-Andalus’ excellence in art after the Reconquista and the displacement of if lesser known objects of our collection. Encompassing several themes, this the last Nasrid ruler from Granada in 1492. While this arch most likely origi- book – and the exhibition it accompanies – focuses on just over 50 artworks nated from Morocco in the 16th-17th century, it clearly shows parallels with that are categorised according to chronological and thematic contexts. woodwork of the earlier Marinid epoch (1196-1465). By reconstructing – at least partially – the histories of these works of art, Another item featured in this book is a small yet exquisite cloth frag- and by providing glimpses of how they were made as well as their uses and, ment from Umayyad Spain, dated 1007, which is contemporaneous with the where possible, by translating their inscriptions, we are able to bring these beams from Córdoba. It portrays a fght between a raptor and a hare – a motif objects to life for a modern audience. packed with imperial symbolism that was widely used during the caliphate At the same time, links between these featured objects and those in the period. This piece is part of a silk-embroidered garment, from which another Museum’s permanent exhibition have been highlighted to provide a broader and larger fragment has long since been exhibited at the Musée des Tissus et picture. For example, three pieces of Iznik ceramic, which are featured in des Arts Décoratifs in Lyon, France. this book, complement other such objects in the permanent exhibition. They Textiles are an important part of the collection of the Museum of Islamic illustrate the vast scale of this group of ceramics, of which, for reasons of Art. However, owing to their fragmented condition and conservational re- space, only a small selection can be displayed. The large portrait of the Qajar strictions, many of these fragile objects cannot leave the store rooms to go on ruler, Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797-1834), is another example of the links between public display, or else can do so only for limited periods of time. This is par- the objects featured here and those on permanent display, where two of his ticularly the case with regard to the Mongolian textiles featured here, which many sons can be seen in the Museum’s Safavid and Qajar Gallery. include a robe, a hat and a pair of shoes. Similarly, wood is often underrepresented in exhibitions. This book high- The role of conservation and restoration of artworks at the museum is an lights fve large timber beams of almost six metres in length that were once important aspect of the items featured here, particularly in relation to the part of the roof structure of the Great Mosque in Cordoba, La Mezquita, dat- textiles and wooden objects. For example, the Spanish timber beam demon- ing back to the 10th century. The remains of their colourful frames challenge strates how the fgurative décor and the colourful frame only became visible the notion that woodwork is predominantly monochrome. This is even more after elaborate cleaning. A “before and after” impression of these objects is valid for another, comparatively more recent beam from Islamic Spain, or illustrated – in the exhibition – through photographs.

12 13 INTRODUCTION

The exhibition addresses the interesting practice of the revival of former art styles in later periods by showcasing neo-Mamluk glass and metal works (the so-called Mamluk revival). Originating from the 19th-century Orient and Europe they replicate medieval mosque hanging lights made of enamelled glass or brass works. A larger group of Spanish ceramics from Manises impressively exempli- fes the relationship between Islamic and European art. If not necessarily in the form of a “revival”, these works, which were designed for Christian com- missioners after the end of Muslim rule, still bear strong stylistic and techni- cal traits in keeping with the traditions of Islamic art. The group of religious manuscripts displayed in this exhibition includes two very different Qur’ans: a large Ilkhanid Qur’an dating back to the ear- ly 14th century, and a Qur’an from India that is written in one book – a so-called single Qur’an. Also on display are an Ottoman pilgrimage book, Dala’il al-Khayrat, of 1801, and a prominent, almost seven-metre long, Hajj certifcate from Timurid times (15th century). Out of our comprehensive collection of Islamic weapons a sword and a dagger from India are also included here. Their blades feature an emblem that points to a connection with the great Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1657). Often, objects with artistic or historical signifcance are not perfectly pre- served. This is the case with the group of medieval metalworks dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries, from Syria, Iraq and Iran, of which the lavish silver inlays are largely unhinged. Here, drawings help to understand the ico- nography or, at least, to identify such scenes as, for example, a polo player. The objects represented in this book and exhibition are all very differ- ent: not only do they encompass various materials, including ceramic, glass, wood, ivory, paper and works with gemstones, they also refect broad re- gional variations and time spans. However, they all have one common de- nominator, and that is that they are exceptional examples of their kind.

Joachim Gierlichs, Curator, Museum of Islamic Art in Qatar

14 15 16 17 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

BOTTLE EARLY ISLAMIC GLASS portrays innovations less, similar techniques of carving to reveal of horses is a rarity. On the fask, the horses’ is caused by the refection of light through IRAN in the evolving glass industry, as demonstrat- the underlying glass colours were used to tails terminate into half-palmettes and the the many layers of weathering on the glass, ed by this bottle, whose basic shape can be enhance and defne the design’s silhouette. engraved hatching can be compared with often dropping off in fakes. Ironically, the 9TH-10TH CENTURY traced back to an ancient Roman form. It is Emerald green was a popular contrasting similar treatments of animals on bottles very breakdown of the glass creates beauti- ABBASID thought to be a toiletry bottle, possibly used colour during this period, along with cobalt now in the British Museum and the David ful hues, resulting in collectors paying high- BLOWN GLASS WITH to hold rosewater. Similarly, the technique blue and amber brown. Collection, in New York, both said to be of er prices for deteriorated glass. (Bass et al., CUT AND APPLIED of layering dissimilar coloured glasses to set The bottle is covered with incised linear Western Asian or Iranian origin. Uncom- 2009; Carboni and Whitehouse, 2001; von DECORATION off the contours of the cut decoration was designs and, as is the case with other colour- monly, within the spaces between the pads, Folsach, 2001; Whitehouse, 2001). M.W. H. 17.2 CM used to make cameo glass in the Roman less glassware, much comparison with cut two more horses are engraved directly on Empire from the 1st century B.C. rock crystal vessels has been made. Most of the bottle, but barely visible due to weath- GL.515.2009 Unlike traditional cameo glass, where the cut ornament consists of geometric and ering. the vessel would be completely encased abstracted motifs with transverse hatching, Although glass has the ability to sur- with a contrasting colour, the layered glass with a striking fsh scale pattern carved into vive intact and unchanged for centuries, of this bottle was achieved through the ap- the neck. The coloured pads are carved into certain factors, such as burial, can lead to plication of small pads of molten glass to the fgures of horses. a chemical decomposition of the material. the body of the vessel. This simplifed tech- Hyper-stylised animals are typical fg- Extended exposure to unfavourable condi- nique enabled the craftsman to produce a ures for applied glass, which mostly fea- tions has produced the iridescence now vessel in days rather than months. Neverthe- tures hares, lions and birds. The depiction coating the bottle. This rainbow-like effect

18 19 UNSEEN TREASURES CHAPTER TITLE: FIRST TIME

BOTTLE THE LACK OF datable burial goods, the The slant-cut ornament was made by

IRAN ( PROBABLY ) recyclable properties of glass and the com- grinding into the thick glass with rotating monality of form and decoration across the wheels of varying sizes and materials (metal 10TH CENTURY Islamic world can make the exact place- or stone) and with the aid of abrasive slurry. ABBASID ment of such vessels a frustrating exercise. Despite these techniques that have existed

BLOWN GLASS WITH The designation of Iran as the probable ori- since antiquity, the design of the bottle is CUT DECORATION gin comes from small stylistic details, such singularly Islamic. The shape is an estab- as the deep grooves by the base of the bottle lished form, seen from Egypt to Central H. 22 CM and the special treatment of the fattened Asia, and the stylistic treatment of the cam- GL.514.2009 rim. Vessels with these design elements els is loose, almost whimsical in its effect. were found among archaeological fnds in Camels, often called “God’s Gift” by the medieval Iranian cities of Nishapur, Sir- the Bedouin people, decorate the body of jan, Rayy, Siraf and Qasr-i Abu Nasr. the vessel. Providing a multitude of practi- The glass is colourless with deeply cut cal uses, the camel is most valued for trans- lines in imitation of rock crystal, popular in portation in hostile climates and often took the 9th and 10th centuries. Decolourised the place of the wheel as the standard mode glass refects long-standing ancient tradi- of transportation until the 20th century. The tions that used glass as a substitute for pre- imagery is especially signifcant, given the cious hard stones, such as the glass bowls impact of camel caravans on medieval Is- used by the Achaemenids. These were lamic trade. (Bass et al., 2009; Carboni and possibly observed frst-hand by Arab trib- Whitehouse, 2001; Curtis and Simpson, ute bearers and ambassadors, as depicted 2010; von Folsach, 2001; Kröger, 1995). on the eastern staircase of the Apadana M.W. at Persepolis and on royal tomb reliefs at Naqsh-i Rustam.

20 UNSEEN TREASURES

MOSAIC FLOOR TILE MOSAIC GLASS IS the method of heat- mosaics and larger displays of wall panels tile seems to have been only a section of one of their own, having an ass’s foot and FRAGMENT fusing slices of glass cane to create a sin- from the Byzantine period that were discov- a much larger design rather than a small thick goat hair covering her legs. Inside the IRAQ gle form, in this case, a fat sheet of glass. ered in Caesarea. decorative accent. Given that glass is re- palace, Solomon had a glass foor installed (PROBABLY SAMARRA) The fact that mosaic glass continued to be Resurrected in the 9th century, mosaic cyclable, large pieces of glass would have to create the illusion of water. Command- 9TH CENTURY manufactured in the Islamic Middle Ages glass was once again produced to decorate been dug up from abandoned palaces and ed to approach, seeing the glass foor and is curious: the process is labour-intensive palaces. When the Jawsaq al-Khaqani pal- re-melted, which therefore makes this foor mistaking it for a pond, the queen naturally ABBASID and impractical for any kind of mass pro- ace, built in Samarra in 836-842 by Caliph tile an exceptional example. raised her skirts to wade across. Although CAST AND MOSAIC duction. Before the advent of blown glass al-Mu’tasim, was excavated, mosaic glass A glass foor plays an integral part of Solomon’s trick confrmed Balkis did not GLASS in the 1st century B.C. mosaic glass was wall tiles and fragments were discovered. In a story about the Queen of Sheba, Balkis, possess a hoofed foot, it was said her legs 31.6 X 18 CM one of the methods used by glassmakers to contrast with other discovered tiles, which paying a visit to King Solomon. Related were hairy, although thankfully not those of GL.513.2009 produce jewellery, furniture and wall inlays are typically thin and have mortar backing in detail in Qisas al-Anbiya’ (Tales of the a goat. Folklore says a depilatory solved the and vessels. However, with the ability to for adhesion to walls, this tile is believed Prophets) of the 11th century, the story is issue and the king and queen were married. create a multitude of shapes by blowing, to have been made specifcally for the foor summarised here: (Carboni and Whitehouse, 2001; Al-Kisa’i, the production of mosaic glass dwindled al- judging by its thickness and a substantial King Solomon desired to have Balkis 1978); Pritchard, 1974; Wightman, Febru- most immediately and was barely common underlay of plain glass. This glass under- as a wife, but the djinn were fearful, noting ary-May 1990). M.W. the late 4th century. Decorative glass using lay, rather than a stone base, could have such a match could produce children ca- alternative techniques was not abandoned, provided greater light refection from the pable of the continuing enslavement of the however, as testifed by hundreds of glass tile, thereby creating a stunning effect. This djinn. The demons spread rumours she was

22 23

UNSEEN TREASURES

TEXTILE FRAGMENT THIS FRAGMENT COMES from an embroi- with the main piece in the Musée des Tis- FROM THE SHROUD dered silk textile that was given as a gift to sus et des Arts Décoratifs in Lyon, France. OF ST. LAZARE the Spanish Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Ma- Like many other prestigious objects from SPAIN lik, shortly after 1007. It has also become the Western Islamic world, Andalusian C. 1007 known as the Shroud of St. Lazare. silks were brought to Northern Europe and The overall design motif of the textile used in the storage of holy, Christian rel- UMAYYAD from which this fragment originates con- ics. The patronage and possession of such SILK TAFFETA AND sists of bands of sphinxes, falconers on luxury goods became a sign of sovereignty LEATHER SUBSTRATE horseback and eagles with spread wings set throughout Medieval Europe and it is be- 7 X 7.5 CM within roundels in the form of pallia rotata, lieved that this textile was part of the group

TE.150.2007 or beaded wheels. These stylised roundels, of reliquaries associated with the shrine of which evidence suggests originated from the Christian saint, Lazare. 8th century Baghdad, alternate with smaller While it is likely that this textile was star-shaped medallions, in which eagles are made by skilled embroiderers from Alme- shown grasping hares with their claws. ria, the towns of Cordoba, Malaga, Seville The fragment here is one of these small and Alicante were also known for their medallions, and this type of design follows workshops. a widespread artistic tradition throughout The textile is dateable owing to an in- the Middle East of depicting courtly life. In- scription on the belt decoration of a falcon- herited from the pre-Islamic Iranian world, er in one of the larger roundels on the tex- images of princely pursuits such as falconry tile that reads al-Muzaffar, the Victorious, a were disseminated by the spread of Islam title associated with Abd al-Malik. This was and became an international style that was given to him after a great military victory able to cross cultural boundaries in a way over the Christian Armies’ Coalition under that religious iconography could not. the command of the Castilian Count San- Several fragments of the original textile cho Garcia in 1007. (Burns, 2004; L’Institut have been scattered to various collections, du Monde Arabe, 2000-2001). J.M.

26 27 UNSEEN TREASURES

CARVED LARCH THIS GROUP OF larch beams originally came architectural elements preserved from this early BEAM FROM THE from the Great Umayyad Mosque of Córdoba period. This is because wood is vulnerable to GREAT MOSQUE OF CORDOBAOBA in Spain (see right), which is widely regarded to fre and decay, and was often recycled in later be the most important monument of the West- renovations. SPAIN (CÓRDOBA) ern Islamic world. Islamic Spain or al-Andalus was created SECOND HALF OF THE Each beam is carved in high relief on two when an army of Arabs and Berbers, unifed 10TH CENTURY planes over the entire surface of the three vis- under the protection of the Islamic caliphate, UMAYYAD ible sides. Some of the beams are decorated landed in Spain on 19 July 711 (28 Ramadan with carved bands of strap-work and some A.H. 92). Their territories were administered CARVED LARCH WOOD, PAINTED with bands containing natural motifs such as by a provincial government established in the entwined tendrils, pinecones and fower heads. name of the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus. 15 X 21 X 561 CM Originally, the beams would have been colour- When the Umayyads were overthrown by WW.135.2009 fully painted and minute polychromatic traces the Abbasids in 750 (A.H. 133), the last surviv- of paint can still be seen on their surfaces. It ap- ing member of the dynasty fed to the Iberian pears that there would have been a beam span- Peninsula and established himself as Abd al- ning each aisle at distances of approximately 75 Rahman I, Amir of al-Andalus. cm from each other. Building work on the Great Mosque of Cór- It is extremely rare to fnd original, wooden doba occurred in various stages from 785/786

28 29 UNSEEN TREASURES

(A.H. 169) until 987/988 (A.H. 337), under the of holy space had been implemented by the patronage of a succession of amirs and followed Muslim conquerors. by the caliphs who succeeded them. After expansions and alterations to Abd al- Sources suggest that the conquerors of Cór- Rahman’s mosque, already a considerable size doba agreed to share San Vicente, the largest with 11 aisles of 12 bays constructed under his church in the city with the local Christian popu- successors, particularly Abd al-Rahman II and lation, converting half of the building into a III, the caliph al-Hakam II came to the throne. It mosque. These accounts go on to say that when is reported that his very frst act on attaining the Abd al-Rahman I made Córdoba his capital, he caliphate in 962 (A.H. 351) was to give orders purchased the remaining half of the building for additions to be made to the Great Mosque and began construction of his Great Mosque. in order to accommodate the growing Muslim Some scholars have suggested that this story population. A columned hall as large as the is apocryphal and bound up with later preoc- original structure was added and crowned with cupations with the early relationships between an opulent roof supported by beams made of indigenous populations and their Muslim rulers, larch wood, which was not native to the area but it is entirely plausible that, as well as being a and had to be imported from North Africa at practical solution to the lack of a large space to great expense. (Dodds, 1992; Fletcher, 1992; pray in, an evangelising policy of the syncretism Khoury, 1996) J.M.

30 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

OLIPHANT THIS OLIPHANT FROM 12th century Sicily since many European church inventories list Given their primary function as an in- lions attacking a bull is another motif used SICILY OR SOUTHERN or southern Italy has two bands of carving. oliphants as part of their collections. strument used during hunting excursions, widely in Islamic art. For example, the 11th- ITALY The smaller bears a legible Arabic inscription By contrast, we do not have specifc the decoration associated with oliphants century carved Spanish wooden beam has a

12TH CENTURY in kufc script suggesting the object was made mention of oliphants from medieval Islamic is most often the iconography of the hunt, similar depiction. in an area with strong Islamic cultural infu- sources, nor do we have oliphants with a namely, depictions of animals or, in some At one point, this horn probably had NORMAN ence, such as Norman Sicily where Arabic defnite provenance from the Islamic world. cases, scenes of hunters or warriors. two copper alloy bands, one underneath CARVED ELEPHANT was still used. It is one of the few oliphants to However, some 80 oliphants exist that either The fgurative scenes on the carved each band of carving, given the telltale IVORY WITH BRASS PINS feature an Arabic inscription. contain decoration with an Islamic aesthetic decorative upper band depict huntsmen staining. These metal bands presumably L. 51.2 CM The oliphant, which is an elephant ivory or that were manufactured in areas strongly or warriors, many on horseback, involved acted as points for suspension of a carrying horn used in hunting expeditions, is an object infuenced by Muslim culture. in different types of sport or battle, many strap and may have been added at a later IV.11.1998 associated with Europe, most notably with the In addition, there are a very few in- of which were common imagery and used date. (Shalem, 2004; Rosser-Owen, 2004). epic French poem, Chanson de Roland (The stances where oliphants are represented in widely in Islamic art. These images include S.R. and F.H. Song of Roland), whose hero, Roland, is fa- Islamic art, such as the 11th-century Spanish a fgure with a sword and shield, a fgure tally wounded during the battle of Roncevaux wooden beam in the Museum’s collection, wearing a crown on his head with a bow and uses his dying breaths to blow his olipha- which shows human fgures and animals in and arrow, and a horseman holding a spear. nt. The blast from the horn is so strong that his hunt scenes, including a huntsman blowing There is also a fgure dressed in Islamic oliphant cracks, after which Roland dies. The an oliphant (see Carved Wooden Beam, pp. attire, seated on horseback with a falcon cultural association must have been strong 34-35). perched on his left hand. A scene of two

32 33 UNSEEN TREASURES

the black curls of his hair, the black outline elled in gesso rather than by carving the of his face and a rosy cheek detailed in red, wood, as is the case with the dark brown one of his hands reaches under his other round medallions found on the arches. arm and across his midriff, his fngers delin- Remains of blue and red pigments are eated by black paint. Of particular interest found in fairly thick layers in the recesses of is the horn, or oliphant, in his other hand, the carving, forming the background. These which is essentially a European instrument. two colours seem to be clearly delineated, The occurrence of the oliphant imag- red being used for the background within CARVED WOODEN THIS BEAM, CARVED from a single piece much of it has survived, especially the front ery in the carving of this beam makes this each arch and blue being used as the back- BEAM of wood, originates from Spain in the 11th carved surface, is therefore particularly for- a unique piece. There are very few visual ground outside the architectural feature. SPAIN century, from either the late Umayyad peri- tunate. representations of oliphants in Islamic art or Many of the colours have faded over

11TH CENTURY od or that immediately following it, known The fgurative decoration of the beam within an Islamic context. By contrast, many time to a dull brown due to surface coat- as the muluk al-tawa’if, a period of short- depicts imagery associated with elements are found in European art, both secular and ing degradation and weathering. However, UMAYYAD lived Muslim states. of a hunt, including a huntsman blowing an religious. The few examples in existence microscopic examination reveals other CARVED AND PAINTED While many wooden beams have sur- oliphant, which is a type of ivory horn used include depictions on a 9th-10th-century colours: reddish brown for the animal and WOOD, TEMPERA ON vived from this period of Islamic Spain, this in hunting expeditions, as well as a running gilded silver plate from Central Asia, an leaf backgrounds; green, mainly for foliage GESSO one differs from others in terms of its deco- deer, a huntsman carrying a spear, a hound 11th-12th-century ivory casket in Fatimid- detail; and black and white detailing foli- 34.5 X 38.5 X 144 CM ration. Rather than abstract vegetal motifs attacking a boar at its feet, a lion attacking style iconography, featuring a turbaned man age and edging for the arches, as well as WW.141.2008 or inscriptions as commonly found on other the back of a bull and another huntsman blowing what is probably an oliphant, and for fgures and animals, including hair and beams, the images are human fgures and with his hound. Most of the fgures are con- a 13th-century bronze candlestick. facial features. animals, which seem to bear more resem- tained within a cusped arch. Foliage plays Careful cleaning of the beam has Interestingly, minute traces of gold have blance to other types of objects, such as the an important part in the design, weaving brought to life important details of the origi- been found (under high magnifcation) on carved ivories of the 11th and 12th centu- through the fgures and animals and delin- nal appearance of the carving. Remains of the arches. (Shalem, 2004; Rosser-Owen, ries from the Mediterranean region. eating the areas outside the cusped arches. paint indicate that the carved decoration 2004; Art of the Islamic and Indian Worlds, This beam suffered in the past from se- The frst fgure, to the left of the hunts- was covered in gesso and then painted with April 2008). F.H. and S.R vere insect attack to its back; the fact that man, is of particular interest. In addition to tempera. In some cases, detail was mod-

34 35

UNSEEN TREASURES

JUG INLAID BRASS AND bronze objects in the clarify the design, creating a colour contrast PROBABLY IRAQ (MOSUL) Islamic world produced during the 13th- with the yellow-coloured bronze or brass 15th centuries such as this jug, and the base. A black paste was also often used as A.H. 637 (1239-1240) candlestick and bowl on the following pag- a background colour for the same purpose. ZENGID OR ILKHANID es, were considered among the most luxu- However, the inlay was hammered into BRONZE, ENGRAVED rious and fashionable wares for rulers and shallow recesses, which made it easy for AND INLAID WITH wealthy patrons. The jug was most likely it either to fall out over time or be picked SILVER AND GOLD made in Northern Iraq, the candlestick in out for recycling. This is particularly evident H. 30.7 CM Syria and the bowl in Iran. While their ori- in these three objects, which were once gins may differ, they all share a high level of heavily inlaid but whose engraved designs MW.600.2010 craftsmanship in terms of their complexity now display only minute traces of silver, and attention to fne detail. All three objects gold and copper inlay, which unfortunately contain benedictory inscriptions, while the makes the designs more diffcult to discern. jug also bears the signature of the maker The line drawings of the jug (top), bowl and date of production. (middle) and candlestick (bottom), on page Designs could be very complex on met- 45, give an indication of the details of the alware: silver, gold and copper were there- original designs. fore used as inlaid metals to enhance and The main centre from which this inlaid

38 39 UNSEEN TREASURES

BOWL metalwork technique spread westwards level of fne detail. Much of the inlay bear- IRAN (FARS) from the eastern provinces was Mosul in ing detail of the decoration has long since Northern Iraq. It had a major impact on been lost. However, the faces of the fgures 14TH CENTURY the metalwork of Ayyubid, Mamluk and on the silver inlay located just below the ILKHANID Ilkhanid patronages in the regions, includ- handle have survived, with fne detail of BRASS, ENGRAVED AND ing Syria, Egypt, Iraq and Iran. The Mosul- the eyes, nose, mouth and hair inscribed on INLAID WITH SILVER, style jug featured here, which was signed by a piece of silver less than fve millimetres GOLD AND A BLACK Husayn al-Hakim ibn Mas’ud al-Mawsili, wide. COMPOUND was once heavily inlaid and engraved with In 1261, Mosul was attacked by the H. 11.8 CM, D. 17.8 CM various intricate designs, including an ex- Mongols. It was around this time that the MW.156.2000 traordinary array of fgural representations, city’s craftsmen began making inlaid vessels animals and benedictory knotted kufc and for Ayyubid patrons. While retaining their naskhi inscriptions. The most prominent distinct Mosul style, there was more patron design feature on the jug is a series of four infuence in the use of dedicatory inscrip- exceptionally large poly-lobed medallions, tions during this period. This candlestick each containing a royal scene. However, it was most likely made under late Ayyubid or is the smaller medallions containing pairs early Mamluk patronage and contains three of seated fgures that display an exceptional dedicatory inscriptions to an unknown

40 41

UNSEEN TREASURES

CANDLESTICK owner; one in naskh and the other two in cluding a central frieze of fgures in proces- PROBABLY SYRIA kufc. The most striking feature of this ob- sion with a female fgure on a palanquin, ject, however, is its highly detailed design warriors, hunters, polo players, animals 13TH CENTURY and individualised depictions of each fgure. and dense arabesque designs. The gold in- LATE AYYUBID OR EARLY The main feature is a frieze of nine horses lay detail, such as in the long spears of the MAMLUK and riders around the body, each portraying huntsmen, is especially fne and is less than BRASS, ENGRAVED AND either a Muslim or Christian mounted war- 0.25 millimetres thick. A black compound INLAID WITH SILVER rior in battle displayed with a variety of ar- has also been applied to the background to AND COPPER mour, headgear, weapons, intricate saddle enhance the colours of the metals, although H. 38.5 CM, D. 34.5 CM cloths and dynamic foating banners. the only remnants still visible are around the MW.241.2004 During the 14th to early 15th century, rim area. The unusual feature of this bowl, Fars, in Iran, also had a productive metal- however, is the fact that it is entirely deco- work school. The bowl shows the typical rated on its base and interior. This, together elaborate compositions of Fars-style metal- with the high level of craftsmanship on the work that was infuenced by the sophisti- exterior, makes this bowl an exceptional cated Ilkhanid manuscript illustration of the object. (Allan, 2002; David and McBride, period. It has an abundance of elaborately 1993; Ward, 1993). L.M. and S.R. detailed fgurative scenes and motifs, in-

44 45 UNSEEN TREASURES

BUCKET LATE MEDIEVAL EUROPE appreciated the purchase by the Museum of Islamic Art. EGYPT OR SYRIA excellence and beauty of luxury glassware With only four other glass buckets from Islamic lands, such as this highly dec- known to exist, it is a true rarity, though MID-14TH CENTURY orated piece, which is almost in a class of much of the technical and stylistic meth- MAMLUK its own for the variety of colours and excel- ods are common in Mamluk glassmaking, GILDED AND ENAM- lence of execution. thereby helping to verify the piece. While ELLED GLASS Archaeological fnds have proven the there has been some debate concerning the popularity of gilded and enamelled wares, age of the bucket, the metalwork and dis- H. 22 CM, D. 20 CM with fragments and complete vessels dis- tinctive base construction seem to indicate GL.516.2009 covered as far afeld as Great Britain. Un- the mid-14th century as a likely date. The broken objects were often preserved in bucket would have been used as a fnger cathedral treasuries or shrines, or passed bowl to rinse hands before and after meals. hands until fnding their way eventually Its inscription, “I am a toy for the fngers into private collections, frequently of aris- shaped as [in the form of] a vessel. I con- tocratic or royal families. This gilded and tain cool water,” is the same as that found enamelled Mamluk glass bucket underwent on round-bottomed brass fnger bowls. In- such a journey, making its way into Europe terestingly, this kind of vessel was once be- and the Rothschild household before its lieved to have been a type of lamp whose

46 jutting rings were thought to have acted as tifs. The thick, red enamel ground, which was phy, knotwork, palmette friezes, scrolls, lions ing to some interpretations), bears, leopard, fanges for metal fttings that would suspend made using the impasto technique, is a dem- in roundels and gold animals outlined in red. griffn and hands relate possibly to hunting the vessel from ceilings. However, the in- onstration of the enameller’s great skill and has The scrollwork, woven through the calligraphy scenes that are widely depicted in Islamic art. scription on the bucket and further research been observed only on a small number of glass and terminating with animal heads and two (Ribeiro and Hallet, 1999; Schmoranz, 1899; have since dispelled this theory. objects. This background and the inscription’s pointing hands, has a comparative piece in a Ward, 1998; Ward, 2003). M.W. Beyond its construction, the ornamentation border would originally have been gilded; the pilgrim fask at the British Museum. While the is an obvious indicator of Mamluk origin. Every gold has been worn away by usage and time. fask has two terminations of human heads, design element on the bucket can be found on Within the Museum’s collection of 13th- evoking folkloric references, the bucket has other pieces of enamelled glass, from the thick 14th-century glass objects, many analogous no obvious connection to narrative imagery. treatment of the enamel to the details of the mo- designs exist in terms of monumental calligra- The collection of dogs (or dragons, accord-

48 49 UNSEEN TREASURES

ILKHANID QUR’AN THIS IS A Qur’an manuscript from the early most of Iran and Iraq were under their con- a medallion that includes the Arabic word IRAN (AMOL) Ilkhanid period signed by Muhammed bin trol. Few Qur’ans have survived from the ashr, the word for ten. The sura title and Ibrahim Mahmud al-Haddadi (?) al-Tabari second and third quarters of the 13th cen- verse count are decorated in different de- DATED MIDDLE OF JUMADA 1 A.H. 687 al-Amuli. It is written in bold, black mu- tury as a result of the disruption caused by signs. Sometimes, the title and verse count (JUNE 1288) haqqaq and contains interlinear Persian invasion and the fact that the Ilkhanid Em- appear in an illuminated band with a half translations. The colophon contains indi- pire was ruled by non-Muslims. In the last medallion or appear with scroll designs. In ILKHANID cations of the palace where he copied the quarter of the 13th century, Muslims began addition, the band has been cropped in or- INK, PIGMENT AND manuscript, at Amol, and the date, Jumada to reoccupy a more prominent place in the der to save space for the previous verse. GOLD ON PAPER 1 A.H. 687 (June 1288). There also is a note Islamic empire, which led to a revival in the Several aspects were marked in red, such 34.5 X 28.4 CM recording that the Qur’an is a present to the production of Islamic manuscripts, includ- as the reading rules; also, the juz’, a section of MS.710.2010 khanqah, a spiritual centre, of Sheikh Abu ing the Qur’an. This Qur’an belongs to that the Qur’an, is indicated in red in the margin, al-Abbas Qassab, one of the great Sufs of important period. although it is also marked in gold in marginal Khurasan. This manuscript was decorated with kufc script. Another detail identifed in red From a historical point of view, the date various illuminated ornaments. Each verse is the place of revelation, written above the and place indicate an important period in is highlighted by gold rosettes surrounded bismallah. There are also some notes referring Ilkhanid history. In the frst quarter of the by dots. A group of fve verses is marked to one of the variant readings of the Qur’an. 13th century the Mongols arrived in Eastern by a pear-shaped illuminated medallion in (James, 1992). S.K. Iran and devastated the region. By 1258, the margin, while ten verses are marked by

50 51 LATE MUGHAL THIS COMPLETE QUR’AN is widely re- first sura in the Qur’an, al-Fatiha, it is QUR’AN garded as one of the finest works of art richly illuminated and covered in gold. INDIA of its kind. Inscribed on a small num- In addition, there are three small panels ber of pages, it contains the entire 30 that separate the text and are filled with C.1700-1750 sections of the Qur’an; each page con- gold, and the divisional devices in the MUGHAL tains two complete sections, one on margin are also filled with gold. With INK, PIGMENT AND the verso, and one on the recto, which each sura title, and the margin decora- GOLD ON CREAM PAPER makes it exceptional. What also makes tion of floral scrolls and leaf patterns 38 X 24.5 CM it utterly unique is its design, which is painted in gold, it is obvious that gold is highly elegant; and although we lack the main element of this Qur’an. At the MS.372.2007 evidence, it is believed that the paint- same time, it seems that the artist was er used a type of mathematical skill to also keen on simplicity: in contrast to count the Qur’anic words and divide it the three golden panels, two small pan- into 15 pages. Each page is separated by els are inscribed in red muhaqqaq on four panels and every panel contains 17 a plain background. Moreover, the red lines of the main Qur’anic text. It was colour was used in the text only to mark made in India circa 1700-1750, of a the reading rules and to highlight some thick, smooth, cream and polished laid frames by a thin line. It seems that red paper. The binding is made of red velvet was used to emphasise the dignity of the with a brown morocco spine. The last Qur’an, stating “The word of God”. page has a concluding prayer inscribed This manuscript prompts the thought in the form of a rhombus. One of the that the most important secret of the seals in the manuscript reads, “Navvab Muslim artist is that he creates simply, Nazir Sayyid Darab Khan Bahadur”. and this simplicity is absorbed into law This manuscript is also remark- and the prevailing system as an example able for both its luxury and simplicity; of the greatness of God’s creation. This although it was made from paper, this manuscript can therefore be seen as an Qur’an was produced to appear as if expression of the extent of the artist’s re- it was written on folios of gold. From spect, dignity and faith. (Safwat, 2000). the opening pages, which contain the S.K.

52 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

THE DALA’IL THIS IS AN extraordinary copy of the 870 (1465). He is said to have stayed in and golden foral motifs. There are ten such presumed to be that of Jesus Christ. The il- AL-KHAYRAT OF Dala’il al-Khayrat, featuring both calligra- Mecca and Madina for a number of years. headings, all decorated differently. The col- lustration of Mecca and Madina differs from ABU ABDULLAH phy and with an illumination viewpoint. Upon his return to Morocco, he studied ophon was signed by both the calligrapher that in other Ottoman copies of Dala’il al- MUHAMMAD IBN SULAYMAN AL-JUZULI It was made in Istanbul and is dated A.H. in the Qarawiyyin Library in Fez, writing and the illuminator. The calligrapher was Khayrat; the painting is not in the three- 1216 (1801). the prayer book which made him famous Muhammad Amin, who was a teacher and quarter bird’s eye perspective. In fact, it fol- TURKEY (ISTANBUL) The Dala’il al-Khayrat is one of the throughout the Islamic world. He eventu- master-clerk at the Divan-i Humayun, the lowed an older tradition that shows the sites DATED A.H. 1216 (1801) most successful and favoured kinds of ally became a member of the shadhiliyya imperial Chancery. The illuminator’s name as if viewed from directly above. (Witkam,

OTTOMAN prayer book in the Islamic world. It reads as tariqa Suf order, and then established him- was Mehmed Nuri, who was well known 2000; Safwat, 2000). S.K. a long litany of blessings over the Prophet self in Saf where the number of his follow- for his work with other calligraphers. INK, PIGMENT AND Muhammad. Usually, Dala’il al-Khayrat ers grew rapidly, recognising him as the In this manuscript, the double images GOLD ON CREAM PAPER manuscripts have two illustrations showing long-awaited Mahdi. The governor of Saf of Ka’ba and Rawdah (Mecca and Madina) 23.3 X 16 CM either elements of the Prophet’s Mosque in had him expelled or killed. come directly after a passage that reads: MS.427.2007 Madina or views of both the Great Mosque This prayer book was made with 107 ‘‘This is the depiction of the blessed of Mecca and the Prophet’s Mosque in Ma- folios of cream-coloured, thin, polished pa- garden in which the Prophet of God, peace dina. It comes from the Islamic West, where per, and presented in a contemporary bind- be upon him, was buried with his two com- it was written by the Moroccan mystical ing. It can be noted that it was made in a panions Abu Bakr and Umar – with whom activist, Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Su- typical Qur’anic way with illuminated pag- God was pleased.” layman al-Jazuli, who was killed in A.H. es, and decorated with ornamental patterns The text also refers to a fourth tomb,

54 55 56 57 UNSEEN TREASURES

THE HAJJ CERTIFICATE is a stylised legal places; the last part is scripted in black. HAJJ CERTIFICATE or juridical document bearing the names of The frst illustration (check all refs?) IRAQ (POSSIBLY NAJAF) witnesses inscribed at the foot, and indicat- is al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, the Holy 21 MUHARRAM A.H. 837 ing that the person specifed executed a mi- Mosque. In the centre is the Ka’ba, House (6 SEPTEMBER 1433) nor or major pilgrimage, Umra or Hajj. The of God, surrounded by concentric rings of function of such a large, heavy certifcate monuments. The internal ring starts from the TIMURID might be as a wall hanging to display sym- Hatim, a small wall enclosing the presumed INK, PIGMENT AND bolic images of the holy places on the walls tombs of Isma’il and his mother Hajar. We GOLD ON PAPER of mosques. This could have meant that the also fnd the Black Stone, identifed by plain 665 X 34.7 CM certifcates were to be displayed in public circles in the Ka’ba, which pilgrims stop to MS.267.1998 to give praise to the prestige of the Hajji. touch or kiss in veneration. We then fnd This certifcate is dated 21 Muharram Maqam Ibrahim, the Station of Ibrahim, A.H. 837 (6 September 1433). It was cre- protecting a stone rock on which Ibrahim ated in Iraq, possibly Najaf, for a pilgrim stood when building the Ka’ba. We also named Sayyid Yusuf bin Sayyid Shihab al- fnd Maqam Jibril, the Station of Gabriel, Din Mawara al-Nahri, who undertook an which is identifed by a red band near the Umra. The manuscript is about seven metres Ka’ba. In addition, details of other monu- long and is characterised by the fact that it ments in the Holy Mosque can be seen. Be- contains many details of religious symbols low is another small rectangular illustration, and religious sites for Muslims. The inscrip- which depicts the Mas’a, or trotting space, tions vary from benedictions to Qur’anic that stretched between the two mountains verses that relate to those in the pilgrimage. of Safa and Marwa. As is known, God forgives the sins of the The third illustration shows al-Masjid al- pilgrims, and a verse about this has been Nabawi, the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina. given special attention by being inscribed The illustration of the mosque is split into in gold before each of the three main holy three sections: on the right is the minbar,

58 59 UNSEEN TREASURES

the middle shows the mihrab and, on the details, Maqam Ibrahim and the minbar. left, the three tombs of the Prophet, Abu Underneath is a small illustration entitled Bakr and Umar can be seen. There is also a Issa’s Torah. large illustration of the Prophet’s sandal, fol- Next is the al-Haram al-Ibrahim, Cave lowed by the main text including a pilgrim’s of the Patriarchs, in Hebron. The illustration name and the rituals he performed. After contains seven tombs for the prophets and the text, the names of witnesses appear. their wives. Below it are Iraq’s shrines: the After the frst main text, and the end of frst is Ali’s tomb, and the second is Husayn’s the journey to Arabia, the journey to Pal- tomb, followed by a text and six signatures estine is presented in two separate illustra- of witnesses. tions. The frst shows Jerusalem, while the Careful meditation of the symbols of main illustration is separated as two build- this piece reveal many details related to ings. On the right is the Dome of the Rock, its religious history, which covers a trip to where interesting details can be noted, such the holiest sites in the globe. The Hajj cer- as the Prophet’s footprint, Moses’ Stick, and tifcate, in fact, can also be described as a a knife that probably refers to the story manuscript of a journey of faith. (Aksoy and when Abraham was to sacrifce Isma’il. On Milstein, 2000). S.K. the left is al-Aqsa Mosque, containing two

60 61 62 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

MONGOLIAN THE MONGOLS WERE particularly attracted from occupied areas and placed them to- body is lampas-woven cloth of gold with two each roundel is decorated with two serrated WOMAN’S GOLD to gold and silk, as this robe exemplifes. This gether, regardless of their diverse backgrounds, different types of gold threads on paper sub- discs and two sun-like discs enclosing motifs ROBE was a continuation of an earlier tradition of the using weaving as a common international strate. The cuffs, the strip around the collar and of a pair of eyes and eyebrows. These discs CENTRAL ASIA steppe peoples dating back to the Scythians language to exchange knowledge, traditions the wrap-over panels at the front along with the surround a central fower with eight inter- – Iranian nomads who migrated from Central and ideas. The result was an amalgamation of belt loops are made of a darker silk in twining linked petals. Leaves fll the background. The LATE 12TH-EARLY 14TH CENTURY Asia to Southern Russian in the 7th-8th centu- styles, techniques and materials leading to the weave. The same weave is also found in Liao area between the roundels is decorated with ries B.C., who sewed gold plates on their outer creation of spectacular textiles known as cloths dynasty textiles, indicating a Chinese weaver. a stylised foral design balanced by four fy- MONGOLIAN garments. This robe, for a high-ranking Mon- of gold, nasij in Mongolian, or Pani Tartarici in The excessive size of the robe, which is ing geese whose beaks meet in the centre. The 169 X 229 CM golian woman possibly of imperial origin, was medieval inventories. Pure gold, used for its 169 centimetres in height and 229 centimetres wide sleeves are cut in curve, a rare element CLOTH OF GOLD, SILK created between 1166 and 1399, according to malleable, ductile and non-oxidizing proper- in width, can be explained by the preference in existing Mongolian robes, to meet the three- AND GOLD THREADS carbon-14 dating analysis. ties, was stuck to paper or leather substrate and of Mongols for exceedingly large women. tiered tight cuff. The three tiers are repeated CO.159.2002 From the 13th to the late 14th centuries, wound around silk core thread. Such threads The wrap-over robe consists of gold cloth around the neck and the wrap-over opening. the Mongols ruled most of Eurasia. Pax Mongol- would cover almost the entire surface of com- that is also unusually wide (120 centimetres) The shoulder area along the width of the silk ica, the phrase used to describe the Mongols’ plex woven textiles. In this way, the nomadic woven with four and a half large tangent roun- is woven with an elegant repeat and mirror policy of freer, pan-Asian communication dur- Mongols would wear their wealth. dels with a wide border of 12 circles interlaced image in a pseudo-kufc inscription, bordered ing 1250-1350, and the Silk Road, both acted The result of cross-cultural communica- with 12 smaller circles. They enclose a gal- top and bottom by a row of running animals. as catalysts for cultural exchange. In particular, tion and the use of weaving as an international loping antelope, a rampant lion and a seated Compared with other existing Mongol robes, the Mongols relocated skilled textile workers language can be seen in this robe. Its main antelope, repeated four times. The centre of this one is spectacular. K.C.

64 65 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

WOMAN’S BOKHTAS, TOWERING ITEMS of headgear these pieces would have been be assem- to the hat. Pearls, gold and other jewellery upper part is missing here, along with the HEADGEAR, BOKHTA up to almost 90 centimetres in height, were bled in different periods and areas, bokh- embellished the headgear creating a strik- metal and feather construction, and is pad- CENTRAL ASIA worn by Mongolian women, both offcial tas were made from column-shaped bark ing polychrome and pricey construction. ded with silk wadding and lining. The sec- wives and concubines, during the 13th-14th cloth extending from the top of the head The main part of this hat is made of ond part, worn underneath the top hat, is a 13TH CENTURY centuries. Also known as ku-ku or gu-gu in and topped by a conical piece terminating silk lampas cloth of gold woven on what tabby silk woven piece with small leather MONGOLIAN China, they are perhaps the most distinctive in a square. This would be attached frmly is possibly a blue silk background, based discs embroidered with pearls. The extend- CLOTH OF GOLD, SILK, items of Mongolian women’s wardrobes, under the chin with a secondary hat, which on blue thread remains. The textile depicts ed strips would tie strongly under the chin GOLD THREADS AND and have caught the attention of historians would have a hole for the column exten- walking lions entangled at the bottom with of the wearer. The creases from the original PEARLS for what they reveal about society during sion to pass through. The bark cloth was hares, depicted on a larger scale than that knot are still visible. K.C. 61.5 X 38.5 CM the Imperial Mongolian period. Headgear, covered with gold cloth cut in the shape of of the lions. The composition is repeated, especially for women, was an important a hat with lappets, its length reaching the possibly alternatively, in the grain direc- CO.118.2000 indicator of social status and wealth in the shoulders. It was also padded with light tion and widthwise. In between the motif nomadic world. This piece, possibly of Chi- silk wadding and plain-woven silk lining repetitions, the remaining area is decorated nese or Iranian provenance, is one of the inside. A further extension, worn by mar- with curled clouds originating in China. A most important extant examples and the ried women but not concubines, was a wide decorative band, in a darker twined most complete of the fve in the Museum’s sharp gold or other metal spire, decorated woven monochrome silk, is placed on the collection. with peacock, or possibly bird-of-paradise lower margins of the hat’s lappets following Although it is not absolutely clear how tail feathers and mallard tails, adding height the shape of the hat around the face. The

66 67 UNSEEN TREASURES

THREE SILK GLOVES A PAIR OF GLOVES and a single glove are their outer side for tying securely around CENTRAL ASIA OR CHINA presented here as parts of a more com- the wrist. (Allsen, 1977; Wardwell, 1989; plete Mongolian dress code. A compari- Thompson, 2004; (Bier, 1987). K.C. 14TH CENTURY son with Liao dynasty (907-1125) textiles MONGOLIAN OR LIAO at the Museum of Islamic Art shows that SILK textiles with identical weave were used in the Liao dynasty and possibly survived APPROX. 30 CM X 18 CM until the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (1271- (EACH GLOVE) 1368). While it is not clear whether CO.109.2000 AND these three pieces are indeed Mongolian, CO.96.2000 based on miniatures and historical infor- mation, such items would be part of the Central Asian clothing tradition. The pair of gloves is made of terracotta-red mono- chrome silk threads. The single glove is made of monochrome twined silk of an unknown original colour. All three gloves have a silk tabby woven strip attached to

68 UNSEEN TREASURES

CENOTAPH ISLAMIC FUNERAL RITES do not permit grey stone (grey schist) and would have Nava’i (1441-1501), minister and adviser of Stone Timurid cenotaphs and tomb- AFGHANISTAN richly decorated graves or impressive mau- been a marker standing on top of a grave. It the last ruling Timurid, Sultan Husayn Bai- stones have survived in numbers; we fnd (PROBABLY HERAT) solea. Only two simple stones should mark is decorated with foral motifs, moderately qara (1469-1501), who was well known as them in situ mainly in Eastern Iran, Afghani-

A.H. 859 (1455) the head and feet of the dead, whose faces carved into the relatively hard stone. The patron of the arts and responsible for the stan and Uzbekistan, but also in various should be turned towards Mecca. Nev- corners are accentuated by small columns restoration of many buildings, immediately museums, often as fragments. TIMURID ertheless, since the early Islamic period, with indicated capitals. comes to mind. He also promoted Chaga- A stylistical near-parallel is the tomb- CARVED GREY SCHIST elaborated mausolea did exist; for example, The various inscriptions are surrounded tai Turkish (turki) as the language of poetry stone in the mausoleum of Jahangir ibn the qubbat al-silsila, or Dome of the Chain, by cartouches and include quotations from and literature and commissioned illustrated Timur (Hazrat Imam) at Shahr-i-Sabz in Uz- 41 X 31 X 142 CM at al-Haram al-Sharif, which is datable to the Qur’an (Sura II, Baqara, verse 255, the manuscripts such as the Turkish transla- bekistan, from the frst half of the 15th cen- SW.152.2009 the 9th century. Similarly, the decoration of so-called “throne verse” ayat al-kursi); bless- tion of the famous Mantiq al-Tayr (Confer- tury, where we fnd the same relatively fat graves also became common after a while ings of Allah, the Prophet Muhammad and ence of the Birds) by Farid al-Din Attar (d. carving with foral decoration. (The Art of as the many richly carved gravestones com- the 12 Imams; and the name of the dead c.1220), which is now in the Topkapi Saray the Islamic and Indian World, 2007; Lentz memorating the dead demonstrate. person with the date A.H. 859 (1455-56). Museum. and Lowry, 1989; Hillenbrand, 1994). J.G. This cenotaph is an example of that The deceased is Dawlat, daughter of Amir To support an attribution to Mir Ali Shir practice. Originating from the 15th century, Ali Shir. Nava’i, the date must be read “899” instead when the dynasty of the Timurids, founded Given his title of khazin or treasurer, of “859”. In fact, it is worth mentioning that by Timur in 1370, ruled over Iran, Iraq and Amir Ali Shir must have been an impor- since the “fve” is written in an unusual way, parts of Central Asia, it consists of a hard, tant person in Timurid society. Mir Ali Shir a reading of “nine” seems also possible.

70 71 UNSEEN TREASURES

ARCHITECTURAL THIS SQUARE PANEL appears at frst sight Jali were used as a sightscreen allowing the PANEL as a pierced screen, but is in fact a massive circulation of air and creating privacy, espe- INDIA stone slab with a decoration of several felds cially for women inside who were able to perfectly imitating screenwork. A large pan- look out while remaining invisible from the 15TH CENTURY el in the centre is surrounded by smaller outside (like the wooden mashrabiya well SULTANATE square sections with a geometrical pattern known from houses in Cairo). Such screens CARVED SANDSTONE as well as fgurative motifs. While the up- were an integral part of Indo-Islamic archi- per four panels are decorated with scrolling tecture over a long period of time. 121.3 X 118.5 CM elements enriched by peacocks, the other Due to the lack of convincing compara- SW.142.2003 eight panels show geometrical screens of tive stone screens, the exact date and prov- a similar or even the same ornamentation. enance of this jali is not easy to determine. The relief is deeply carved so that the back- However, the interesting and rather unusual ground lies in the shadow, leading to the decoration, as well as the high quality stone illusion of a real screen. The central panel carving, point to the fact that it once be- is set in a deeper frame with its front stand- longed to a building commissioned by ing out more, which again supports the idea the royal court. The stylistic differences in that the decoration was carved to imitate a relation to Mughal pierced screens, which window screen. often used red sandstone or white marble, Pierced stone grills, jali, are well known indicate another provenance, probably in Indo-Islamic architecture of the 16th and Northern India in the Sultanate period (15th 17th centuries, when the Mughals ruled century; Indian and Southeast Asian Art, over large parts of the Indian subcontinent. 2003). J.G.

72 73 UNSEEN TREASURES

TURBAN HELMET TURBAN HELMETS ARE so-called because reveals the remains of leather on the un- mets tended to differ slightly in style; the the distinctive small circular stamp clearly WITH MARK OF THE of their distinctive bulbous shape; they also derside of these studs, indicating that they former were more tapered and elongated, seen engraved on the frontal right side of OTTOMAN ARSENAL OF ST. IRENE usually have a futed bowl that tapers to a would probably have served as fxings for as is this case with this helmet, while the the helmet bowl. (Alexander, 1983; Nickel, fat or conical fnial. This shape has been leather padding attached to the underside latter were more rounded and squat in ap- 1991). L.M. and S.R. TURKEY compared to the outline of mosque domes, of the helmet and cheek pieces to protect pearance. EARLY 16TH CENTURY therefore giving these helmets an Islamic the wearer from chafng. In the 15th century, under the rule of “look”, even though their prototypes derive Turban helmets were produced in Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, the Byzantine OTTOMAN from the rounded Sassanid-style helmets of various workshops in Turkey and Iran from church of Hagia Eirene (St. Irene) in Con- STEEL WITH GILT STUDS, pre-Islamic Iran. around the 14th to 16th centuries. The stantinople was turned into an imperial de- ENGRAVED AND OPEN- WORK DESIGN This helmet is decorated with engraved main patrons of these helmets included the pot for military equipment, including arms foral scroll designs around the bowl and Aq Qoyunlu (a 14th to early 16th century and military regalia taken as booty from H. 39 CM, D. 33 CM has a nose-guard, typical of many turban dynasty originating from a Turkic federa- both Christian and Muslim armies. In fact, AA.100.2003 helmets, with an open-work fnial that tion in Central Turkey that later extended its the building was converted into a military matches the pair of open-worked cheek rule over Herat and Baghdad), Shirvanshah museum in the early 18th century, but the protectors. There are single rows of gilded (rulers of the Aq Qoyunlu vassal state of mark of the Ottoman arsenal of St. Irene studs running along the bottom of the hel- Shirvan, which is now the area of Azarbai- can still be found on many pieces of mili- met and around the edges of the cheek jan), and the Ottomans. It seems as though tary equipment in collections around the pieces. Examination under magnifcation the Ottoman and Aq Qoyunlu/Shirvani hel- world. This helmet is one such piece, with

74 75 UNSEEN TREASURES

DAGGER (KHANJAR) IN THE MUGHAL Empire, daggers and is particularly notable in the inscription OF SHAH JAHAN swords were considered not just functional inlaid on both sides of the blade in a very INDIA (AKBARABAD objects, but also beautiful precious metal, fne nasta’liq script, with two shades of high [AGRA]) gem-set works of art. These would have be- quality gold that were used in productions A.H. 1039 (1629-1630) longed to emperors and would have given from the royal workshop in the capital, to princes, notables and high offcials of Akbarabad. The inscription, which is com- MUGHAL the Mughal court as symbols of status. This plete, provides the Emperor’s name and the STEEL BLADE WITH FINE dagger and sword belonged to the ffth Mu- date and place of the dagger’s manufacture TWO-TONE GOLD INLAY, SARDONYX HILT ghal emperor, Shah Jahan – a Persian title encased within an elegant cartouche deco- meaning “King of the World” – who reigned rated with delicate foral and cartouche L. 39 CM from 1628 to 1658. Shah Jahan is particu- designs. Even more interesting is the small MW.579.2008 larly known for his famous building proj- chattra, or royal parasol, placed beside the ect, the Taj Mahal. Not only are these two cartouche on each side of the blade. objects historically signifcant, the fact that The chattra is a royal symbol represent- very few of the Emperor’s personal objects ing heaven as it sits above the head of a are still in existence makes them even more ruler who, according to the Mughals, was exceptional. believed to hold a special place between The quality and beauty of the dagger the divine and ordinary people. Therefore,

76 77 UNSEEN TREASURES

SWORD (TALWAR) OF when a chattra is held above the Emperor’s stamp may have been produced at the same SHAH JAHAN head, his elevated status is represented; workshop at the same time. (Krishnan and INDIA when it is engraved onto an object, such as Kumar, 1999; Zebrowski, 1997). L.M. and the blades of swords and daggers of princes S.R. REGNAL YEAR 10 (A.H. 1047 [1637-1638]) and members of the royal army, it symbol- ises a status of honour. MUGHAL The inscription on the sword is more WATERED STEEL BLADE worn than the inscription on the dagger, but WITH GOLD INLAY AND OVERLAY, HILT contains Shah Jahan’s name and the sword’s DECORATED IN GOLD date of production. There is also a chattra on one side of the blade and a European stamp L. 84 CM applied over the gold detail on both sides MW.532.2007 of the blade, which is an indication that the sword had been imported from Europe. The stamp is set onto a brown compound, which appears to be the same material on the hilt into which gold foral scroll designs are set. This is an indication that the hilt and

78 UNSEEN TREASURES

DISH SOME OF THE most notable examples of and feur-de-lis, placed inside crests. On large SPAIN (VALENCIA, PROB- Hispano-Moresque lustreware are the armo- dishes, the reverse is sometimes decorated ABLY MANISES) rial dishes of the 15th century, such as these with an enlarged heraldic motif. Decoration,

C.1470 pictured here. These were mostly produced which often incorporates cobalt blue, is or- in Manises, near Valencia, which became the nate and detailed, and is composed of intri- HISPANO-MORESQUE main centre of production. European heraldic cate scales and scrolls or foliate patterns such EARTHENWARE PAINTED motifs decorate their centres, which are sur- as the striking “ivy leaf” design in the dish and IN LUSTRE AND COBALT rounded by Moorish-style ornamentation, re- pair of albarellos. BLUE ON A WHITE GLAZE fecting the primarily Moorish craftsmanship By the late 15th century more specifc and Christian patronage. Impressive in scale Christian coats of arms began to appear in D. 45.5 CM and design, fne dishes, jugs, pitchers and al- lustre ceramics. These include the arms of PO.206.2003 berellos – a type of earthenware jar – were Atienda of Aragon, Castile and Leon, and the produced for display, for serving at feasts and arms of Castile and Navarre. Painting on the to honour important marriages. Some of the reverse remains less dense than the obverse, greatest examples of Spanish lustre ceramics usually with foliate patterns executed in light were made during this period. brushstrokes, such as the lanceolate leaves, Wares from the mid-15th century usually which are distinctly shaped like a lance’s depict generic emblems, such as eagles, lions head.

80 UNSEEN TREASURES

Lustre-painting of pottery is an expen- remarked, “… in Málaga is made a wonder- sive and diffcult technique, requiring a ful golden pottery and is sent abroad to far double fring and a glaze that combines distant lands”. copper and silver oxides. Dating back to In response to the decline of the Nasrid 9th century Iraq, it has a long and diverse dynasty later that century, potters migrated history in the Islamic world. It frst arrived north to work in Christian Spain where lus- in Málaga in the mid-13th century, and was treware remained to be lucratively traded. probably introduced by migrating craftsmen The industry in Manises rapidly increased from Fatimid Egypt after the destruction in in the 15th century with pieces being traded 1169 of Fustat, an important centre for ce- in Europe to French and Italian noble fami- ramics and home to many lustre potters. lies. (Caiger-Smith, 1985; Martinez Caviró, By the 14th century, lustreware produc- 1991; Ray, 2000). K.K. tion was well established in Málaga and in high demand from the Nasrid court, rul- ing from neighbouring Granada, as well as from noblemen in the Christian kingdoms to the north. Visiting the region in the mid- dle of the century, the traveller Ibn Battuta

83 84 85 86 87 UNSEEN TREASURES

CALLIGRAPHIC FOLIO THESE TWO COLOURFUL and striking calli- there is very little published on any of his ex- AND BIFOLIO graphic pieces by the 15th century calligrapher isting works. He is best known as the teacher TURKEY Asadullah Kirmani (d.1487-1488), probably of many famous calligraphers, including the come from an album compiled for the Otto- Ottoman calligrapher, Ahmad Qarahisari 1450-1500 man Sultan Beyezid II (r.1481-1521) or for his (d.1556). However, it is unclear in what city or OTTOMAN father Sultan Mehmed II (r.1451-1481). region his famous pupils, including Qarahisari, INK AND PIGMENTS ON The folio and bifolio are composed of bold studied with him. SIZED PAPER panels of calligraphy and various pieces of It is possible to speculate that the main cal- 38.8 X 28.5 CM writing in varied calligraphic scripts, laid down ligraphic panels and most likely various small- 38.6 X 29.2 CM on paper. The different calligraphic composi- er versions were composed for other purposes MS.700.2009 tions include a heading of an instructive guide and then compiled, perhaps posthumously, in MS.701.2009 for assorted scripts, verses from the Qur’an and an effort to gather and save the work of the re- poetic verses, including one attributed to the spected calligrapher. calligrapher’s father. An inscription on a panel In these folios, Asadullah demonstrates the of the recto of one of the non-illustrated bifolio mastery of the various scripts in his repertoire, page gives the name of the calligrapher, Asa- including thuluth (sülüs in Turkish), nasta’liq dullah bin Beyezid al-Sadiq al-Suf al-Kirmani. (nesta’lik in Turkish) and naskh (nesih in Turk- The details of Asadullah’s life elude us and ish), while, at the same time, much of his calli-

88 89 UNSEEN TREASURES

graphic exercises could be termed experimen- ry of the development of calligraphy for many tal or innovative. reasons. They are relatively unique in the man- One example is a large black composition ner in which they have been assembled and in of the bifolio, which is a refecting composi- the experimental quality of many of the calli- tion where the words are written so that they graphic compositions. Asadullah Kirmani and appear to be a mirrored image (muthanna in his famous pupil, Qarahisari, can be credited Arabic; musenna in Turkish) done in a proto- with bringing the school of the 13th-century jali thuluth (celi sülüs in Turkish) script. A master calligrapher, Yaqut al-Musta’simi, into a closer examination allows us to theorise on the Turkish context. However, shortly after Asadul- method employed to compose this panel. The lah and his pupil Qarahisari the Yaqut tradition calligrapher probably tapped a type of powder of calligraphy all but died out in Anatolia. By through a perforated sheet to lay down the out- the 16th century, Ottoman calligraphers had line of the refecting composition. He then out- adopted the methods of the revolutionary cal- lined the resulting image with black and flled ligrapher, Sheikh Hamdullah (d.1520), whose in the remaining space with black pigment, approach completely reformed the art of cal- thereby creating the effect that the white lines ligraphy. (Derman, 1998; McWilliams and of the letters are scratched into the black. Roxburgh, 2007; Roxburgh, 2005). F.H. These pages are signifcant within the sto-

90 91 UNSEEN TREASURES

HANGING ORNAMENT CERAMICS BEGAN TO be produced in the ferent to earlier examples produced in from a distance or from underneath, Ot- of 16th-century Iznik wares by noting the DISH Turkish town of Iznik in the late 15th cen- Turkey. toman ceramic hanging ornaments were development of designs and colour. Earli- TURKEY (IZNIK) TURKEY (IZNIK) tury. By the mid-16th century, in response Dishes, jugs and tiles are the most often attached to mosque lamps and sus- er wares are muted in colour, usually dec- 1575-1588 to growing elite and imperial Ottoman commonly known types of Iznik ware. pended in clusters around the minbar. As orated with blue on white. By the 1540s, 1545-1550 OTTOMAN demand, Iznik potters were producing However, spherical hanging ornaments, well as being decorative, their purpose turquoise and blue was a popular com- OTTOMAN exceptionally high quality ceramics, such such as the one above, were also in de- could also have been functional, possibly bination, as were sage, olive greens and FRITWARE WITH UNDER- FRITWARE WITH UNDER- GLAZE PAINTING as the hanging ornament, bottle and dish mand. Possibly originating from the use of serving as acoustic devices for the read- purple, as seen in the following pages. GLAZE PAINTING here. Made from fritware, a stone paste ostrich eggs in ancient burials, it is com- ing of prayers and to prevent rodents from These mid-16th century wares often dis- H. 25.5 CM D. 29.8 CM combining quartz, clay and frit (ground mon practice for religious groups in the drinking oil in the lamps. play naturalistic foral repertoires, typical- PO.17.1997 glass), and decorated with underglaze Middle East, both Christian and Muslim, to This selection of objects shows that it ly including tulips, carnations, roses, hya- PO.48.1999 painting, these new wares were very dif- hang spherical ornaments. To be viewed is possible to trace a general chronology cinths and plum blossoms. On occasion

92 93 UNSEEN TREASURES

WATER BOTTLE other fowers and plants were included, of production. Designs and composition TURKEY (IZNIK) such as the pomegranates and chrysan- also diversifed, becoming more abstract themums, as seen on the dish here. Çin- and including fgurative scenes. (Atasoy C. 1540 tamani, a design of three grouped circles, and Raby, 1989; Carswell, 2003). K.K. OTTOMAN clearly visible on the bottle pictured above FRITWARE WITH UNDER- and to the right, was another pattern that GLAZE PAINTING became popular during this period. Much has been written about the origin of çinta- H. 37.5 CM mani, which has been linked to Buddhist PO.47.1999 traditions in Central Asia. The addition of tomato red, painted in relief, during the second half of the 16th century marked a major development in Iznik ware. This new colour scheme, which also included emerald green, which is seen in this hanging ornament, was to characterise Iznik ceramics until the close of the century and the eventual demise

94 95 NAVIGATIONAL THIS MAP IS a navigational chart com- al charts (portolans) are known to have sions of this book exist, and while the frst duced to the Ottoman world at the end of CHART OF THE posed of two parts and compiled from existed from the late 15th or early 16th edition (1521) was intended to be a prac- the 16th or beginning of the 17th century. MEDITERRANEAN SEA several pieces of treated paper depict- centuries onwards. The surviving material tical portolan, the second one (1526) has (Harley and Woodward, 1992; Art of the TURKEY ing the whole Mediterranean Sea, from has led experts to believe in a strong in- been revised and visually embellished Islamic and Indian Worlds, 2009). J.G. C. 1600 the Straits of Gibraltar in the West to the teraction between the maritime traditions and was designed to be presented to Sul- Turkish and Lebanese coasts in the East. of Islamic and Christian states bordering tan Sulayman (r. 1520-1566). OTTOMAN The names of cities, forts and ports on the on the Mediterranean. With this in mind, and given the over- INK ON PAPER coasts were written in Ottoman Turkish, The most famous of such charts is the all size of both parts, of approximately APPROX. 120 X 260 CM while the inner parts of the countries were map of Piri Re’is (ca. 1470-1554), which 120 x 260 centimetres, the map presented (BOTH PARTS) left blank. Islands were either painted in is dated from 1513 and is kept in the Top- here could well be an unfnished decora-

MS.709.2010 green, red or beige, although the reason kapi Saray Museum (R.1633 mük). Lavish- tive wall chart. for this is not clear. Some major cities or ly decorated with fantastic inlands, ships The dating of this chart to around places are depicted by a small red per- and mythical beasts, it is a work of art. 1600 has been established by the pres- spective plan, while shallows are marked Re’is is also known for his Kitab-i Bahriye ence of towns such as New Tripoli or with small black dots. This clearly indi- (Book of Navigation), which is notable for New Alexandria, which are not depicted cates that this chart had been drawn up its section on the discovery of America in Piri Re’is’ map of 1526, as well as by for nautical purposes. based on Christopher Columbus’ maps, the type of paper, which was made using Several Ottoman Turkish navigation- which did not survive. Two different ver- wire moulds, a technique that was intro-

96 97 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

SILK VELVET PANEL TEXTILES, AND PARTICULARLY silk vel- Islamic Art, which features pairs of women Abbas II sent some of his court painters to the wealth and sophistication of the 17th IRAN vets, were among the most treasured ob- holding fowers in a vertical repeat, and sur- Rome to study Italian art. century Safavid court. The gold velvet bro- jects made in Safavid Iran. This composi- rounded by fowering shrubs that are of a These luxury fabrics were admired cade of the Shah Abbas period, known as EARLY 17TH CENTURY tion of elegantly attired fgures engaged in similar style to those in this velvet. The foli- throughout the known world, especially zarbaft-i makhmal, and the use of a silver- SAFAVID various leisurely pursuits is an example of age surrounding the two huntresses in this in Europe where they were valued for their gold alloy with a high gold content in the VOIDED SILK BROCADE a popular theme during this period. This piece depicts a range of fowers including highly skilled construction, detailed design, threads used for the background of this tex- VELVET WITH METAL panel presents two female fgures equipped carnations and irises, along with some of expensive material and overall exotic ap- tile leave little doubt about the expense and THREADS with the general fttings for the hunt, such the more stylised palmette motifs. pearance. Members of the European elite skill involved in making such a luxurious 81 X 114 CM as pigeon wings tied around their waists to While the svelte fgures, long robes, and were not the only admirers of Safavid tex- object. (Spuhler, 1978; Thompson, 2004; use as lures, and the cord and hood for the pointed shoes of the fgures in this silk panel tiles, and there are sources that suggest that Pope and Ackerman, 1939; Baker, 1995; TE.204.2010 falcon. are typical of Safavid fashion of the period, Asian monarchs, such as the King of Siam, (Bier, 1987). J.M. Falconry and hunting were favou- the small hats and the deep necklines of acquired Persian silks in great quantities. rite pastimes of the Persian elite and were the bodices indicate a European infuence. Iranian rulers often sent silk velvets as dip- popular subjects for Safavid artists, appear- Stimuli from the West was common in Iran lomatic gifts to foreign courts. Velvets given ing in a variety of media, from textiles to during this period and was welcome at the as gifts for political reasons were always of miniatures. Other examples of Safavid fgu- Safavid court. It became particularly strong the highest quality and were made of the rative velvets exist, including an object in in the 1600s, when European artists visited fnest materials, such as silk enriched with the permanent exhibition of the Museum of the royal courts in Isfahan and when Shah gold and silver foil, in order to demonstrate

98 99 UNSEEN TREASURES

PRAYER CARPET THIS PRAYER RUG forms part of a pres- corner cartouche. Its content indicates that it IRAN (ISFAHAN) tigious set of Safavid Persian Niche rugs was given as diplomatic gift from the Safavid known as the Salting or Topkapi group. Cal- Persian court to that of the Ottoman Turks. LATE 16TH OR EARLY 17TH CENTURY ligraphic inscriptions are a common feature It is possible that the rug was presented in of the majority of these rugs. This one is in- celebration of a peace treaty signed between SAFAVID scribed as follows: the two powers in 1590, in which case, the SILK, WOOL AND METAL name Sultan Murad would refer to the Ot- THREADS “As long as there is trace of this earth or sky/ toman Sultan Murad lll. Shah Abbas would 174 X 121 CM Let the Ottomanhouse be the supreme lords/ have been the Safavid ruler during this pe- On the throne of justice and good fortune/ riod. CA.82.2010 May it be perpetually joyful and successful/ Another shared feature amongst many Let the name of Sultan Murad/ Be the beau- rugs in this group is the technique of metal tifying ornament of sermons and coinage/ thread brocading. Here we see it being used In Iran, as well as in Anatolia and the Arab successfully as a contrast to the colourful lands/Let your might be that of a hero/ May palmettes, vines and curling leaves of the your new spring never ripen to autumn/ Be design. young as long as the world is in existence/ Despite these similarities this rug is an Let the dust of your carpet, like Mirza Makh- anomaly because it is made of silk, while dum/Be the most noble caller to prayer” all of the other rugs in the Salting group are made of wool, therefore indicating that it This poetic inscription is executed in nast’aliq was a particularly important and precious script, in Persian verse and includes the object. (Eiland and Pinner, 1999; Thompson, name Sultan Murad in the upper left-hand 2006; Canby, 2009). J.M.

100 101 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

PORTRAIT OF FATH THIS PORTRAIT DEPICTS Fath Ali Shah, of the political message they carried. It is the wealth, opulence and unquestionable ALI SHAH the second ruler of the Qajar dynasty. Born also likely Fath Ali Shah considered himself power of his court to his own people and to The artist, Mir Ali, was the most promi- IRAN in 1771, he succeeded his uncle Agha as the rightful heir to an ancient tradition of an international audience. Objects such as nent courtly portrait painter of the early Muhammad, the founder of the dynasty in Persian kingship and it may be that this sty- this painting were given as gifts to foreign period of Fath Ali Shah’s reign. He painted 1231 AH (1816 AD) 1797, and reigned until his death in 1834. lised aesthetic was inspired by the imperial ambassadors, monarchs and governments at least 12 life-size oil portraits or smaller QAJAR He is instantly recognisable in this por- art of the Sassanid dynasty, as seen in the to transmit notions about the superiority of verre églomisé paintings of the monarch, OIL PAINTING ON trait owing to his idiosyncratic appearance: rock-cut reliefs at Taq-i Bustan, in Western Iran abroad. The majority were sent west- and was clearly skilled at capturing the CANVAS observe the extremely long black beard, Iran. wards to European nations, a refection of grandeur, power, majesty and wealth of the 168 CM X 109.5 CM which reached well beneath his very nar- Much of Fath Ali Shah’s reign was the international political situation in Iran emperor, which seemingly satisfed Fath Ali row waist and his opulent dress and ac- marked by a literary and artistic revival at the time, where Great Britain and Rus- Shah’s vanity and helped to build an icon- PA.18.2010 coutrements. Here, we see him wearing known as Bazgasht, which literally means sia competed for infuence at the Qajar ic imperial image. (Falk, 1972; Diba and a bejewelled royal cap and holding an “return”. Largely as a result of his personal court. One portrait was famously sent to Ekhtiar, 1998). J.M. impressive sword with a gem-encrusted patronage, both portraiture and large-scale the Prince Regent, later King George IV of dagger fastened behind his girdle. These oil painting reached heights previously un- Great Britain, in 1812, along with an illus- trappings were clear symbols of power and known under any other Islamic dynasty. trated manuscript of Fath Ali Shah’s own po- obvious visual aspects of the iconography etry, Diwan-i Khaqan, which is now in the of his royal authority. Their repeated use in Many iconic, large-scale court portraits collection of the Royal Library at Windsor portraits of the Shah was an important part of Fath Ali Shah were produced to convey Castle.

102 103 UNSEEN TREASURES

ROYAL SEAL OF THIS ROYAL FOB seal was used to authen- of Raja Dev Raj to authenticate, or sign MYSORE ticate royal documents within the Mughal off, royal documents. However, it appears INDIA Empire during the reign of Ahmad Shah (r. as though this item could be a copy of an 1748-1754). The seal demonstrates both earlier seal. 1748-1754 the offcial and private sides of the ruler, Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) is MUGHAL and is important for its representation of reported to have sent a ring inscribed, “Jug GOLD SEAL SET WITH power while at the same time retaining the Deo Raj”, to Chikka Deva Raja of Mvsore RUBIES, EMERALDS AND intimate quality of a personal object. It is set [Mysore] (1672-1704) in 1700. This is the A SINGLE DIAMOND SET IN FOILED GOLD with alternating table-cut emeralds and ru- same inscription as the Museum of Islam- bies in foiled gold mounted in lines to form ic Art’s Mysore seal with the exception of 5 X 5.5 CM a strip effect, with a diamond at the top of Ahmad Shah’s name and date. Chikka JE.215.2009 the seal where the loop meets the base. Deva Raja was also a feudatory, a ruler of The Mughals had a great passion for Mysore. This earlier ring would have been jewellery and gems, and many functional sent by the Mughal Empire in recognition items, such as this seal, were gem-encrusted of Mysore’s signifcant expansion as a trib- objects of art designed to display the status utary state, which would have helped the and wealth of the owner. They were often Empire extend its centralised military rule. sent as gifts from emperors to vassal rulers By closely modelling this seal on the earlier and other notables. one, a political tradition of courtly rewards At the base of the seal is an engraved was maintained. Arabic inscription in nasta’liq script, which It is possible that the original seal was says, “Raja Jagdev Raj Ahmed Shahi 1162 either lost or destroyed and a request for a (1748-1749).” This refers to Raja Dev Raj, new ring was sent by Raja. Therefore, this feudatory of the Mughal Emperor, Ahmed seal may be a duplicate of Aurangzeb’s orig- Shah, in the Emperor’s second regnal year. inal seal of 1700 with Ahmad Shah’s name This seal, therefore, was used as a signature and date added to it. S.N.

104 105 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

COFFEE CUP HOLDER THIS IMPRESSIVE 19th century coffee cup Ottoman culture from the 16th century 1710, Pope Clement XI banned coffee as working there together with local masters, TURKEY OR EUROPE holder (zarf in Turkish) is richly decorated onwards. The plants originated from the an Islamic beverage, but with little effect. or whether it was imported from Europe, (PROBABLY SWITZER- with diamonds and rubies, attached to a Ethiopian mountains and were imported In the 19th century, coffeehouses ex- in this case most likely from Switzerland. LAND) golden metal skeleton. This piece is also via the Yemeni harbour Mokha (the origin isted all over Istanbul, serving as social (Rogers and Köseoglu, 1986; Kleiterp and 19TH CENTURY remarkable for the method of its manufac- of the word “mocca”), where according to and cultural meeting-places. Serving cof- Huygons, 2006). J.G. ture: the rubies have been cut to ft, which legend, a local sheikh discovered the heal- fee to guests became a traditional part of OTTOMAN could have resulted in a considerable ing power of a beverage made from coffee any invitation, in a private home as well as DIAMOND AND wastage of stones. beans. during a reception at the Sultan’s palace. RUBY-SET GOLD Coffee-cup holders held fne porce- As a result of the Ottoman expansion During the 19th century, when late Otto- H. 5.1 CM, D 5.5 CM lain cups without handles to protect the of the Balkans, coffee rapidly reached Eu- man culture was already heavily exposed JE.206.2008 hand from the heat. These cups were frst rope, and by the 17th century the frst cof- to European infuence, luxury goods com- imported from Meissen in Germany, and feehouses were opened in Venice (1645), missioned by the court (the Sultan) were later made after models from Sèvres, by London (1652) and Marseille (1659). The often produced by European manufactur- court manufacturers in Istanbul. Complete new taste became so fashionable that laws ers, mainly in France, owing to the specifc sets containing coffee-cup holders, coffee- against its consumption were soon put in needs of the patron. cups and a tray are preserved in the Top- place. Sultan Murad IV (r. 1634-40) im- It is not clear whether this coffee-cup kapi Saray Museum. posed a complete ban on coffee, and gave holder was made in Ottoman court fac- Coffee played an important role in orders to pull down all coffee houses. In tories, perhaps by European craftsmen

106 107 UNSEEN TREASURES

WOODEN ARCH THIS IMPRESSIVE WOODEN arch is a typical gether to form stalactite ornaments and create PANEL example of North African woodwork of the a so-called “lambrequin arch”. MOROCCO late medieval or early post-medieval period, Similar wooden arches can be found in and would originally have been part of the the courtyard of the Bu Inaniya Medersa in 16TH-17TH CENTURY architectural decoration of a wealthy house, a Fez, Morocco, which was built in the middle POST MARINID palace or most probably of a madrasa, a term of the 14th century, and is notable for its CARVED AND STAINED often translated as Qur’anic school. In fact a coloured tiling that covers the lower portion WOOD medersa – as it is spelled in North Africa – is of the interior walls, while stucco and wood- 182 X 249 CM a college with living rooms for the students, en panels decorate the upper part of the two- where, in addition to Qur’anic studies, sub- storey courtyard. The best comparison is the WW.80.2002 jects such as Islamic law, astronomy, math- fountain house of the Qarawiyin Mosque in ematics and other sciences were taught. Fez – a refection of one of the fountains in the The arch – approximately 2.50 metres in Alhambra at Granada – where a very similar width – has the shape of the upper part of a wooden panel is integrated into the transition portal, in which a round arch is surrounded zone between the columns and capitals and by a rectangle frame. Both sides are decorated the roof. mainly with foral motifs, interlaced with a While stucco and wood are similar simple geometrical pattern in the spandrels. in terms of technique in that they are both The different parts of the ornament are sepa- carved, they are otherwise quite different. The rated by small bands painted with stylised light stucco contrasts strongly with the dark blossoms or a herringbone pattern. The dec- brown woodwork. The result is a sophisticat- oration is fat carved and painted in several ed general decoration that varies during the colours: red, yellow, green and brown, among day owing to the different colour and density others. The intrados (of the arch) is flled with of the light. (Gros & Dellettrez, 2002); (Gabri- muqarnas, that is little separate honeycomb- eli et al., 1991). J.G. like pieces of wood that have been put to-

108 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

EAR ORNAMENTS WHILE THE MUSEUM displays objects wealth and sophistication of a particular ternal infuences, these necklaces and ear jewels in Morocco and across the Islamic NECKLACE from the 8th to the 19th century, the per- section of Moroccan society, the small ornaments are strongly representative of world, as can be seen in the Mughal orna- MOROCCO MOROCCO manent exhibition focuses on the medi- aristocratic community in the urban cen- Moroccan style and craftsmanship. It is ments on display at the Museum. 19TH CENTURY 18TH CENTURY eval period. These gold ornaments are tres, in the run-up to the 20th century. interesting to note the intricate work of Since the jewellery is a traditional de- ALAOUITE ALAOUITE therefore important because they shed This style of jewellery refects Berber the goldsmith in creating the fligree and sign from Northern Africa, it carries the light on an artistic tradition in the Islamic traditions in addition to showing signs of enamelwork, particularly given that most cultural symbols passed through the gen- GOLD, PEARL NECKLACE GOLD SET WITH DIA- WITH SAPPHIRE, EMER- MONDS, EMERALDS AND world. Unlike the typical jewellery of Ottoman and Spanish infuences. Paral- ornaments at that time would have been erations in the region. Soft, ovoid forms ALD, RUBY-SET GOLD SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES 18th and 19th century Morocco, char- lels can be seen, for example, with the valued according to weight rather than and droplets are meant to represent fe- PENDANTS D. 8.7 CM acteristically made in silver, these three necklace with the three large roundels, by workmanship. This type of enamel is male virtues, while the choice of jewels 43 X 45 CM pieces were crafted in gold. They are also tab’as, set with gems in 17th century considered one of the superior crafts in Is- carry their own symbolism, such as pearls JE.5.1997 JE.4.1997 important in that they give a sense of the Spanish jewellery. However, despite ex- lamic art and is used in the most valuable for purity, emeralds for protection against

110 111 UNSEEN TREASURES

NECKLACE poison, according to folklore, and ruby ering the ears. Indeed, these fne pieces

MOROCCO for strengthening the heart. of jewellery were all parts of dowries of As seen in the necklace above, which upper-class Moroccan ladies at one time; 18TH CENTURY has melon-futed beads and nine drop- the pieces passed through generations ALAOUITE lets, a common motif is the pomegranate, and eventually sold as fashions changed.

ENAMELLED AND symbol of fertility and protection against (Behrens-Abouseif and Vernoit, 2006; ENGRAVED GOLD SET the evil eye. This type of necklace, along Hasson, 1987; Jenkins and Keene, 1982). WITH EMERALDS AND with the earrings, was an important part M.W. AMETHYSTS of a bride’s adornment for the wedding D. 13 CM ceremony. The ceremonial ear ornaments JE.3.1997 would have been suspended from the headdress, falling at the level of and cov-

112 113 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

MAMLUK REVIVAL AT FIRST GLANCE, these lamps and this to both local and foreign markets. These lowed closely by the decorative arts, as more likely, export to Europe. The Islam- CAIROWARE MOSQUE LAMP Qur’an stand seem to be the epitome of metalwork pieces, which were crafted seen by these lanterns and the Qur’an ic script cartouches with simple endless LANTERNS FRANCE (PARIS) Mamluk period art and could be rec- in Egypt and France in the 19th century, stand on the following page. Curiously, knot medallions and strapwork are direct EGYPT (CAIRO) ognised as medieval Islamic pieces to demonstrate the significance of Islamic this was further bolstered by the grow- copies of metalworking traditions from 1870-1880 19TH CENTURY judge from their design and techniques. art as a major influence in the world of ing wave of Orientialism throughout the the 13th to 15th century. The revival ob- FRENCH THIRD REPUBLIC In truth, these objects look to the deeper design, even for non-Muslims. West: the idealised depiction or imita- jects are resplendent with inlay as their ALAWIYYA ENAMELLED GLASS past for inspiration and, moreover, repre- The political climate in Egypt tion of aspects of Eastern cultures be- medieval counterparts would once have BRASS WITH SILVER AND sent a cultural reflection and connection changed dramatically with the overthrow came a prominent influence in the late been before the precious metals were COPPER INLAY H. 40.5 CM, D. 29 CM to this medieval heritage. Revival occurs of the Mamluks and, subsequently, of the 19th century. picked away, and therefore provide an H. 84 CM, D. 34.5 CM GL.153.2003 with a rediscovery of a certain aesthetic, occupying French by the Ottomans, al- Cairoware, as the name suggests, insight into how medieval inlaid metal- MW.235.2003 or political or cultural identification with though this did not stop the admiration was crafted in Cairo by local artisans. work would have appeared. past eras. The art of the Mamluk dynasty, for Mamluk aesthetics nor European in- The romanticism did not end with evoca- By contrast, the glass mosque lamps with its bold calligraphy and grand de- fluence on the arts in the late 18th and tion of the Mamluk dynasty; many cai- on the following page are completely sign, embodies the power of the rulers; early 19th century. To some extent, the roware pieces bear depictions of ancient European. Several world fairs, held in with their patronage, these objects were identification with Mamluk rule was Egyptian monuments and iconography Paris in 1867 and 1878, and in Vienna created to display and proclaim their used to bolster the Ottomans by solidify- as well. The copper and silver inlaid in 1873, assisted in reintroducing Middle authority. The associations of power and ing their right to rule Egypt. This began brass stand and lanterns could have been Eastern art and culture to Europe. As flo- romanticising the Mamluk era appealed with the revival of the architecture, fol- made for either the regional market or, ral and geometric designs from Islamic

114 115 UNSEEN TREASURES UNSEEN TREASURES

MAMLUK REVIVAL art became more popular in the West, by Islamic works for eager European des Arts Decoratifs in 1874 states that, raries could confuse his work with the CAIROWARE QUR’AN MOSQUE LAMP objects decorated with “oriental” motifs consumers. inspired by the mosque lamps at the Mu- originals. To this day, experts have dif- STAND FRANCE (PARIS) became fashionable. In the 19th century, The lamps were both made by sée de Cluny in Paris, he began to col- ficulty distinguishing his products from EGYPT (CAIRO) glassmakers in Austria, Bohemia and Philippe-Joseph Brocard (1831-1896) lect and copy them. He painstakingly re- the 14th-century works that inspired 1881 OR 1884(?) France began to create objects that were who began as a restorer of glass. He searched the glassmaking techniques of them. (Rudoe, 1994; Ribeiro and Hallet, LATE 19TH CENTURY FRENCH THIRD REPUBLIC decorated in the Islamic style. Philippe- is considered the first to revive Mam- Islamic glass artists, particularly enamel- 1999). M.W. ALAWIYYA ENAMELLED GLASS Joseph Brocard, Émile Gallé, Joseph and luk enamelling techniques. Several of ling and glazing. Brocard distinguished BRASS WITH SILVER AND Ludwig Lobmeyr, and Antonio Salviati his works were included in the Exposi- himself by mimicking every minute de- COPPER INLAY H. 41 CM were some of the more famous glass art- tion Universelle in Paris (1867), nota- tail of original Islamic glass objects. He H. 85 CM, D. 40.5 CM GL.512.2008 ists who manufactured hanging lamps, bly mosque lamps with finely executed was so skilful in imitation and his designs beakers and long-necked bottles inspired enamel. A bulletin of the Union Centrale were so thorough that his contempo- MW.234.2003

116 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aksoy, S. and R. Milstein. “A Collection of from the Heart: Textiles Arts of the Safavid Derman, M.U. Letters in Gold: Ottoman Oxford: Nour Foundation in association Thirteenth-century Illustrated Hajj Certif- and Qajar Iran 16th-19th Centuries. Exhi- Calligraphy from the Sakip Sabanci Collec- with Azimuth Editions and Oxford Univer- cates”. In M. Ugur Derman 65 Yas Arma- bition catalogue. Washington D.C: Textile tion, Istanbul. New York: The Metropolitan sity Press, 1992. gani / 65th Birthday Festschrift. Edited by Museum, 1987. Museum of Art, 1998. Irvin Cemil Schick. Istanbul: Sabanci Uni- Khoury, N.N. “The Meaning of the Great versity, 2000. Burns, E. Jane (ed.). Medieval Fabrications Eiland, M.L. Jr. and R. Pinner (eds.). “The Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century”. – Dress, Textiles, Cloth work and Cultural Salting Carpets”. In Oriental Carpet and In Muqarnas, Vol. 13 (1996). Al-Kisa’i, Mohammed bin ‘Abd Allah. Trans- Imaginings. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, Textile Studies, Vol. 5, part 2. ICOC: Milan, lated by W. M. Thackston Jr. Tales of the 2004. 1999. Kleiterp, M, and C. Huygons. Istanbul: The Prophets. Boston: Twayne, 1978. City and the Sultan. Amsterdam: Heleen Caiger-Smith, Alan. Lustre Pottery: Tech- Falk, S.J. Qajar Paintings: Persian Oil paint- van Ketwich Verschuur, 2006. Alexander, D. G. “Two Aspects of Islamic nique, Tradition and Innovation in Islam ings of the 18th and 19th Centuries. Lon- Arms and Armour: I. The Turban Helmet and the Western World. London: Faber and don: Faber and Faber, 1972. Kröger, J. Nishapur: Glass of the Early Islam- and II. Watered Steel and the Waters of Faber, 1985. ic Period. New York: Metropolitan Museum Paradise.” Metropolitan Museum Journal, Fletcher, R. Moorish Spain. London: We- of Art, 1995. Vol.18 (1983): 97-104. Canby, S.R. Shah ‘Abbas; The Remaking of idenfeld & Nicolson, 1992. Iran. London: British Museum Press, 2009. Lentz, T.W. and G.D. Lowry. Timur and the Allan, J. Metalwork Treasures from the Is- Gabrieli, F., et al. Maghreb Medieval. Princely Vision. Washington D.C.: Smithso- lamic Courts. Islamic Art Society and Mu- Carboni, S. and D. Whitehouse. Glass of L’Apogee de la civilisation islamique dans nian Institution Press, 1989. seum of Islamic Art: London and Doha, the Sultans. New York: Metropolitan Mu- l’occident Arabe. Paris : Edisud, 1991. Martinez Caviró, B. Cerámica Hispano- 2002. seum of Art, 2001. musulmana Andalusí y Mudéjar. Madrid: Gros and Delettrez. Voutier Orientalisme. Ediciones El Viso, 1991. Allsen, T. Commodity and Exchange in the Carswell, J. Iznik. Pottery for the Ottoman Auction catalogue. Gros and Delettrez: Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Is- Empire. Doha: Islamic Art Society, 2003. Paris, 24 and 25 June 2002. McWilliams, M. and D.J. Roxburgh. Traces lamic Textiles. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- of the Calligrapher: Islamic Calligraphy in versity Press, 1977. Christie’s. The Art of the Islamic and In- Harley, J.B. and D. Woodward (eds.). “The Practice, c. 1600-1900. Houston: The Mu- dian World. London: Christie’s, 7 October History of Cartography”, Vol. 2, Book 1, in seum of Fine Arts, Houston, 2007. Atasoy, N. and J. Raby. Iznik: The Pottery of 2007. Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and Ottoman Turkey. London: Alexandria Press, South Asian Societies. Chicago: The Univer- Nickel, H. “Arms and Armor: From the 1989. ______. Art of the Islamic and Indian sity of Chicago Press, 1992. Permanent Collection”. In The Metropoli- Worlds. London: Christie’s, April 2008. Hasson, R. Later Islamic Jewellery. Jerusa- tan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 49, No. 1 Baker, L. Islamic Textiles. British Museum lem: L.A. Mayer Memorial Institute for Is- (Summer, 1991). Press: London, 1995. ______. Art of the Islamic and Indian lamic Art, 1987. Worlds. London: Christie’s, 6 October 2009 Nicolle, D. and A. McBride, Angus. The Bala Krishnan, U.R. and M.S. Kumar. Indian (using information supplied by Professor Hillenbrand, R. Islamic Architecture. Edin- Mamluks: 1250-1517. In Men-At-Arms Se- Jewellery: Dance of the Peacock (reprint). Beatrice Gruendler) burgh: Edinburgh University Press 1994. ries (259). London: Osprey, 1993. Mumbai: India Book House, 1999. Curtis, J. and S.J. Simpson (eds.). The World Jenkins, M. and M. Keene. Islamic Jewelry in Pope, A.U. and P. Ackerman. A Survey of Bass, G. F., et al. Serçe Limani: An Elev- of Achaemenid Persia: The Diversity of An- the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Persian Art, London and New York: Oxford enth-Century Shipwreck, Vol. II. College cient Iran. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982. University Press, 1939. Station: Texas A&M University, 2009. Behrens-Abouseif, D. and S. Vernoit. Islam- Diba, L. and M. Ekhtiar. Royal Persian Paint- L’Institut du Monde Arabe. Catalogue of the Pritchard, J.B. (ed.). Solomon and Sheba. ic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Inno- ings: The Qajar Epoch 1785-1925. New Exhibition, “Les Andalousies de Cordoue à London: Phaidon Press, 1974. vation and Eclecticism. Leiden: Koninklijke York: I.B. Tauris, 1998. Damas”. L’Institut du Monde Arabe: Paris, Brill NV, 2006. 28 November 2000 until 15 April 2001. Ray, A. Spanish Pottery 1248-1898. Lon- Dodds, J. Al Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New don: Victoria and Albert Museum Publica- Bier, C. (ed.). Woven from the Soul Spun York: The Metropolitain Museum of Art, 1992. James, D. The Master Scribes. London and tions, 2000.

118 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rogers, J.M. and K. Cengiz. The Topkapi Ward, R. Islamic Metalwork. New York: Sarayi Museum: The Treasury. Boston: Little, Thames and Hudson, 1993. Brown and Company, 1986. ______. “Glass and brass”. In Gilded and Rosser-Owen, M. Ivory: 8th to 17th centu- Enamelled Glass from the Middle East. Lon- ries Treasures from the Museum of Islamic don: British Museum Press, 1998. Art, Qatar. Doha: National Council for Cul- ture, Arts and Heritage, 2004. ______. “Big Mamluk Buckets. In Annales du 16e Congres de l’Association Interna- Ribeiro, M. and J. Hallet. Mamluk Glass in tionale pour l’Histoire du Verre. London: the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum. Lisbon: 2003. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, 1999. Roxburgh, D.J. (ed). Turks: A Journey of a Wardwell, A. “Pani Tartarici: Eastern Is- Thousand Years, 600-1600. London: Royal lamic Silks. In Islamic Art, Vol. III. Genoa Academy of Arts, 2005. and New York: Bruschettini Foundation for Islamic and Asian Art, and Islamic Art Foun- Rudoe, J. Decorative arts 1850-1950. Lon- dation, 1989. don: The British Museum Press, 1994. Witkam, J.J. “The Battle of the Image: Mekka Safwat, N.F. The Golden Pages. Oxford: vs. Medina in the Iconography of the Man- Oxford University Press, 2000. uscripts of al-Jazill’s Dala’il al-Khajtrat”. In Theoretical Approaches to the Transmission Schmoranz, G. Old oriental gilt and enam- and Edition of Oriental Manuscripts (Bei- elled glass vessels, English version. Vienna ruter Texte und Studien 111). Judith Pfeiffer and London: Imperial-Handels Museum of and Manfred Kropp (eds.). Würzburg: Ergon Vienna, 1899. Verlag, 2000.

Shalem, A. The Oliphant: Islamic Objects in Whitehouse, D. Roman Glass in the Corn- Historical Context. Leiden: Brill, 2004. ing Museum of Glass: Volume II. Corning, N.Y.: Corning Museum of Glass, 2001. Sotheby’s. Indian and Southeast Asian Art. London: Sotheby’s, 26 March 2003. Wightman, G. J. “The Myth of Solomon.” In Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Spuhler, F. Islamic Carpets and Textiles in Research, 277/278, (February-May 1990). the Keir Collection. London: Faber & Faber, 1978. Zebrowski, M. Gold, Silver and Bronze from Mughal India. London: Alexandria ______. Thompson, J. Silk. Doha: Nation- Press, 1997. al Council for Culture, Arts and Heritage, 2004.

Milestones in the History of Carpets. Moshe Tabibnia: Milan, 2006.

Von Folsach, K. Art from the World of Is- lam in the David Collection. Copenhagen: Kjeld von Folsach, 2001.

120 121 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

References to dates and centuries are to the Christian era, unless otherwise stated.

Abbasid dynasty (known as supplementary weft) is added to the capitals in Tabriz and Sultaniya. They were ruled over Morocco and the central Maghreb The second of the two great dynasties of the ground weave. noted for bringing both European and Chinese from 1196 to 1465, with its capital at Fez. Muslim empire of the caliphate. It overthrew Brocading weft infuences into Iran, thereby changing the face Mashrabiya the Umayyad caliphate in 750 and reigned A supplementary weft introduced into a ground of Islamic art. A screen made of turned wooden pieces, glued until it was destroyed by the Mongol invasion weave for only the width of the motif that is Inlay together. Used in houses to circulate air, they in 1258. The Abbasid period is defned as the required by the pattern such that it does not A technique in which gold, silver or copper is also served as screens to conceal those stand- beginning of the Golden Age. extend from selvedge to selvedge of the fabric. hammered into depressions that have been en- ing behind them. Achaemenid Cameo glass graved (in designs) on the surface of a bronze Minbar This Persian empire was the largest in the an- Glass of one colour covered with one or more or brass object. A pulpit often made of wood or marble, on the cient world, and was founded by Cyrus the layers of contrasting colours. The outer layers Iridescence right of the mihrab (c.f.), from where the Friday Great. It extended from Iran to Anatolia and are carved, cut or engraved to produce a de- The rainbow-like effect caused by the interfer- sermon (khutba) is delivered. Egypt, Western and Central Asia, and Northern sign that stands out from the background. ence effects of light refected from several lay- Mihrab India. Çintamani ers of weathering. A niche in a wall of a mosque indicating the Al-Andalus A pattern comprising three balls and wavy Iznik ceramics qibla, the bearing towards Mecca to which The southern half of the Iberian Peninsula lines that probably originated in Central Asia, Ceramics produced in Iznik, Turkey, since the prayers are directed. that was under Muslim rule between 711 and but is most often found in Ottoman art. 15th to 17th centuries. Made from fritware Mughal dynasty 1492. Engraving (c.f.), they are decorated with underglaze This dynasty of emperors ruled the Indian sub- Albarello A technique in which a design or inscription is painting in distinct colours. continent from 1526 to 1857. Claiming de- The oldest known type of pharmaceutical jar. created by removing material from a surface by Kufc script scent from the Mongols, they were the richest Made from ceramic, they are usually cylindri- cutting into it with a tool. An angular Arabic script with clear vertical and and most powerful of the Islamic empires in cal and tapered in the centre for easier han- Folio horizontal lines that was developed in the 7th- the later period and were known for their arts dling. Folio is one of the two leaves constituting a bi- 8th century. Its name derives from the town of and architecture. A.H. folio (a two-leaf folded paper or parchment). Kufa in Iraq. Muhaqqaq script Abbreviation of the Latinised phrase Anno He- Folio is only a one-leaf with two pages (verso Lampas A cursive Arabic script characterised by a mini- girae. The Islamic calendar is dated from the and recto), but it originates from a bifolio. A complex fgured weave in which a pattern- mal zone below the baseline, descenders with frst day of the lunar year in which the Hegira Fatimid dynasty weave (weft foats bound by a binding warp) is shallow bowls and letters with straight pointed took place (16 July 622), and the abbreviation This Shi’a caliphate was centred in Tunisia and added to the ground weave, which is formed tips. It evolved in North Africa (the Maghreb) A.H. is used with that year (A.H. 1) and subse- then in Egypt, ruling over areas of the Maghreb, by a main warp and main weft. A secondary or and Spain in the 10th century. quent years. Sicily, Malta, Hijaz and the Levant from 909 to binding warp is essential to bind the wefts that Naskh script Ayyubid dynasty 1171. The Fatimids were known for their toler- form the design. One of six forms of cursive script that was ad- A Sunni Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin, ance of other faiths, a political structure based Lustre opted during the reforms of the 10th-century with capitals in Cairo and Damascus that ruled on merit and for their arts. Lustreware (c.f.), a A type of decoration achieved by painting a calligrapher Ibn Muqla. These largely replaced much of the Middle East c.1171-1260. Their type of ceramic was popular during this pe- pigment containing a metallic oxide (usually a kufc (c.f.), especially for copying the Qur’an. rule was marked as the beginning of a new era riod, as was glassware and metalwork. mixture of copper and silver) onto a fred glaze Nasrid dynasty of economic prosperity and intellectual activ- Fritware and then re-fring in a reduced atmosphere. The last of the Muslim dynasties in Spain, it ity stimulated by Ayyubid patronage. A ceramic body, also known as “stone-paste”, The oxide is reduced to a metallic state and rose to power following the defeat of the Al- B.C. made from ground quartz with small additions bonds with the glaze, leaving a golden and mohads in 1212. They ruled Granada, and also Before the Christian era. In academic circles, of clay and ground glass. iridescent effect. Jaén, Almería and Malaga, in the Southern Ibe- this term is also known as Before Common Era Hispano-Moresque ceramics Mamluk dynasty rian peninsula, from 1238 to 1492. (B.C.E.). Ceramics produced in Christian Spain pre- This dynasty was founded by Turkish slave sol- Nasta’liq script Bohkta dominantly by Moorish potters. Its decoration diers in 1250, who overthrew the last Ayyubid Literally translated as “hanging naskh”, this was Towering headgear worn by upper-class Mon- combines Christian symbolism with Islamic sultan and established their rule across Egypt developed in Iran in the 15th century. Popular golian women between the 13th and 15th design. and Syria. The Mamluks are renowned for in Iran and Mughal India from the 16th cen- centuries. Ilkhanid dynasty fghting the Crusaders and defeating the Mon- tury, it was commonly used for poetry rather Brocade This Mongolian dynasty ruled over Iran, Iraq, gols. than for copying the Qur’an. A textile with a woven pattern, particularly parts of Syria, Eastern Anatolia and the Cau- Marinid dynasty Oliphant with metal thread, where a discontinuous weft casus from 1252/56 to1335, with their main A North African Zenata Berber dynasty that A hunting horn carved from an elephant tusk.

122 123 GLOSSARY

Openwork Literally translated as “one third”, this is an Any kind of work, especially ornamental, such Arabic cursive script characterised by large as embroidery, lace, metal, stone or wood, and rounded endings. It was often used for with a lattice-like nature. inscriptions on monuments, especially by the Ottoman dynasty Mamluk (c.f.) sultans of Egypt. The Ottoman Empire (c.1280-1922) emerged Timurid dynasty after the collapse of the Seljuk sultanate in This Mongol-derived dynasty, which was de- Anatolia. Its territory expanded to cover Byz- scended from Timur (r. 1370-1405), ruled antine regions in Anatolia, culminating in the Iran and Central Asia from 1370 to 1501. The capture of Constantinople in 1453. By the 16th dynasty had a Turko-Mongol heritage mixed century the Ottoman Empire extended across with a sophisticated Persian literary and artistic the Middle East and into Central Europe. court culture. Palmette Umayyad dynasty A design derived from the fan-shaped leaves The second of the four Islamic caliphates es- of palm trees. tablished after the death of the Prophet Mu- Qajar dynasty hammad, with Damascus as its capital. The An Iranian royal family of Turko-Persian origin Ummayad territory (661-750), eventually cov- that ruled Iran from 1794 to 1925. The Qa- ered more than 5 million square miles, mak- jar monarch Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797-1834) is ing it the ffth largest contiguous empire ever famous for having commissioned European- to exist. infuenced oil-on-canvas portraits. Umayyad Spain Rock crystal Also known as the Caliphate of Córdoba. Abd Quartz, chemically pure silicon dioxide, which al-Rahman III escaped Abbasid persecution as is usually colourless, and which glassmakers the last of the Umayyad line, and proclaimed have sought to imitate from the earliest times. himself caliph. He ruled al-Andalus (c.f.) and Safavid dynasty North Africa from the city of Córdoba. The This dynasty of Shahs ruled Iran from 1501 to Umayyads ruled from 756 to 1031. 1732 and made Shi’a the state religion. Their Verre églomisé capital at Isfahan became the centre of a vast French term for gilded glass where the back commercial network based on the production side of the glass is gilded with gold or metal and export of textiles and commissioned illus- leaf leading to a mirror-like refective fnish in trated manuscripts. which designs are engraved. Sassanid dynasty Wheel engraving Successors to the Parthian Empire, this was the A process of decorating glass through the last pre-Islamic empire to rule from Iran c. 220- grinding action of a wheel, using disks of vari- 650. Their empire stretched from the River Eu- ous sizes and materials (usually copper, but phrates to the River Indus, and included Arme- sometimes stone), and an abrasive grease or nia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. slurry applied to a wheel. Suf/Sufsm Zengid dynasty Mystical or ascetic order in Islam under the au- This Turkish dynasty ruled over Northern Iraq thority of a sheikh. and parts of Syria from 1127 to 1262, on be- Tempera half of the Seljuk Empire, from their main capi- A permanent, fast-drying painting medium tals of Aleppo and Damascus. consisting of coloured pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder (usually a glutinous mate- rial, such as egg yolk). Thuluth script

124