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Gulf Cooperation Council Countries' Climate Change Mitigation

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Gulf Cooperation Council Countries' Climate Change Mitigation applied sciences Review Gulf Cooperation Council Countries’ Climate Change Mitigation Challenges and Exploration of Solar and Wind Energy Resource Potential Fahad Radhi Alharbi * and Denes Csala Engineering Department, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YR, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Climate change mitigation is one of the most critical challenges of this century. The unprecedented global effects of climate change are wide-ranging, including changing weather patterns that threaten food production, increased risk of catastrophic floods, and rising sea levels. Adapting to these impacts will be more difficult and costly in the future if radical changes are not made now. This review paper evaluates the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries’ potential for solar and wind energy resources to meet climate change mitigation requirements and assesses the ability of the GCC region to shift towards low-carbon technologies. The review demonstrates that the GCC region is characterized by abundant solar energy resources. The northwestern, southeastern, and western mountains of the region are highlighted as locations for solar energy application. Oman displays the highest onshore wind speed range, 3–6.3 m s−1, and has the highest annual solar radiation of up to 2500 kWh/m2. Kuwait has the second highest onshore wind speed range of 4.5–5.5 m s−1. The western mountains and northwestern Saudi Arabia have a wind speed range of 3–6 m s−1. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has the second highest annual solar radiation, 2285 kWh/m2, while Saudi Arabia and the state of Kuwait have equal annual solar radiation at Citation: Alharbi, F.R.; Csala, D. Gulf 2 Cooperation Council Countries’ 2200 kWh/m . This review demonstrates that abundant offshore wind energy resources were Climate Change Mitigation observed along the coastal areas of the Arabian Gulf, as well as a potential opportunity for wind Challenges and Exploration of Solar energy resource development in the Red Sea, which was characterized by high performance. In and Wind Energy Resource Potential. addition, the GCC countries will not be able to control and address the interrelated issues of climate Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2648. https:// change in the future if they do not eliminate fossil fuel consumption, adhere to the Paris Agreement, doi.org/10.3390/app11062648 and implement plans to utilize their natural resources to meet these challenges. Academic Editor: Luisa F. Cabeza Keywords: GCC countries; renewable energy; transition towards sustainability; CO2 emissions; climate change mitigation Received: 22 February 2021 Accepted: 15 March 2021 Published: 16 March 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in In the 21st century, the shift in global energy networks to low-carbon technologies is published maps and institutional affil- considered a significant challenge [1]. Climate change issues have forced nations around iations. the world to explore more low-carbon and sustainable energy options. The average global temperature could increase by up to 6 ◦C by the end of this century, if the world continues emitting greenhouse gases at today’s levels [2], and the average global temperature increase must not exceed 2 ◦C to avoid the most dangerous impacts of climate change [2]. In addition, the Paris Agreement on climate change (December 2015) and the International Panel on Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Climate Change (IPCC) (2018) strive to restrict the increase in global temperature to below Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ◦ ◦ This article is an open access article 2 C—or ideally below 1.5 C[3]—which means that global emissions must be reduced distributed under the terms and to at least 50% below the recorded level in 1990, with the goal of reaching zero emissions conditions of the Creative Commons by 2050. A number of international organizations support this goal, such as the United Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (2018). Figure1 provides more details regarding creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the carbon dioxide (CO2) performance and the temperature reduction plan, including the 4.0/). effects of COVID-19 during the international lockdown. The United States (USA), European Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2648. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062648 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (2018). Figure 1 provides more details re- garding the carbon dioxide (CO2) performance and the temperature reduction plan, in- cluding the effects of COVID-19 during the international lockdown. The United States (USA), European Union (EU), China, and Russia are the largest producers of CO2 emis- Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2648 sions. Saudi Arabia, the USA, Canada, and South Korea are the largest producers2 of 23 of CO2 per capita. The CO2 per capita in Saudi Arabia is 18 tons, versus 16.6 tons for the USA [4]. In addition, Canada and South Korea are at 15.3 and 12.4 tons, respectively. Coal provides approximatelyUnion (EU), 60% China, of and the Russiaenergy are in the China; largest howe producersver, renewable of CO2 emissions. energy Saudi is rising Arabia, at a faster pacethe [4]. USA, Based Canada, on the and Global South Carbon Korea are Proj theect largest [4], China producers was of the CO largest2 per capita. source The of CO CO2 2 emis- sion perin 2018, capita at in 27%, Saudi and Arabia its is emissions 18 tons, versus are growing; 16.6 tons for however, the USA [ 4China]. In addition, is firmly Canada on target to reachand its South peak Korea reduction are at 15.3emissions and 12.4 by tons, 2030 respectively. in accordance Coal provides with its approximately Paris Agreement 60% com- of the energy in China; however, renewable energy is rising at a faster pace [4]. Based on mitments. The USA’s global share of CO2 emissions surged in 2018 to 15%, but CO2 has the Global Carbon Project [4], China was the largest source of CO2 emission in 2018, at fallen27%, in the and last its emissions decade due aregrowing; to the decline however, in Chinacoal consumption is firmly on target in favor to reach of itsrenewable peak en- ergyreduction and natural emissions gas. However, by 2030 in accordancePresident Dona with itsld Paris Trump Agreement scaled back commitments. measures The to curtail greenhouseUSA’s global gas shareemissions of CO2 andemissions withdrew surged the in 2018 nation to 15%, from but the CO 2Parishas fallen Agreement. in the last On his verydecade first day due in to office, the decline President in coal Biden consumption recommitted in favor ofto renewablethe Paris energyAgreement. and natural In 2018, the gas. However, President Donald Trump scaled back measures to curtail greenhouse gas EU recorded a 9% global share of CO2 emissions, representing a reduction of 20% since emissions and withdrew the nation from the Paris Agreement. On his very first day in 1990,office, which President means Bidenthat the recommitted EU is on totrack the Paristo reach Agreement. its Paris In Agreement 2018, the EU goals. recorded The global sharea 9%of CO global2 emissions share of CO was2 emissions, recordedrepresenting at 7% for India, a reduction indicating of 20% that since it has 1990, contributed which to climatemeans change that the to EUa much is on tracklesser to extent reach its compar Paris Agreemented to other goals. large The countries. global share Despite of CO2 the fact that emissionsits energy was and recorded coal consumption at 7% for India, are indicating rising rapidly, that it has India contributed is emerging to climate as change a competitor to a much lesser extent compared to other large countries. Despite the fact that its energy in sustainable energy technologies. Russia recorded a 5% global share of CO2 emissions in and coal consumption are rising rapidly, India is emerging as a competitor in sustainable 2018, and the climate action tracker (CAT) reported that Russia has made significant re- energy technologies. Russia recorded a 5% global share of CO2 emissions in 2018, and the newableclimate energy action investments. tracker (CAT) Since reported the that collapse Russia of has industry made significant after the renewable break-up energy of the Soviet Union,investments. CO2 emissions Since the are collapse continuing of industry to plunge. after the Th break-upe Global ofCarbon the Soviet Project Union, [4] CO reported2 a 2% globalemissions share are each continuing of CO to2 emissions plunge. The for Global Iran, Carbon South Project Korea, [4 Saudi] reported Arabia, a 2% globaland Canada, whereasshare Japan each of was CO 2atemissions 3%. Values for Iran, of 2 South‒3% of Korea, the global Saudi Arabia,share of and CO Canada,2 emissions whereas would be highJapan compared was at to 3%. other Values countries, of 2-3% of such the globalas the share United of CO Kingdom,2 emissions Italy, would France, be high Poland, compared to other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Italy, France, Poland, Australia, Australia, Turkey, Brazil, South Africa, and Mexico, which produce a global share of CO2 Turkey, Brazil, South Africa, and Mexico, which produce a global share of CO2 emissions emissionsof 1% eachof 1% [5 ]each yet have [5] yet higher have total higher populations. total populations. However, no However, country has no been country able tohas been able reachto reach zero zero emissions. emissions. The rest The of therest world of the accounted world accounted for around for 21% around of the global 21% of share the global shareof of CO CO2 emissions2 emissions [5]. [5]. Figure 1.Figure The 1.globalThe global CO2 COperformance2 performance and and the the temperaturetemperature reduction reduction plan (dataplan obtained(data obtained from climate from action climate tracker action (2020).
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