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Pressepolitik in Den US- Kriegen Des 20 Die andere Front: Pressepolitik in den US- Kriegen des 20. Jahrhunderts Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophischen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln vorgelegt von Andreas Elter Saarbrücker Str. 5 51107 Köln Köln, April 2003 ii Danksagung Angeregt wurde diese Dissertation durch den verstorbenen Leiter der Anglo- Amerikanischen Abteilung der Universität zu Köln, Prof. Jürgen Heideking. Unmittelbar nach Abschluss meines Studiums im Jahre 1996 kamen Prof. Heideking und ich in mehreren Gesprächen gemeinsam zu der Auffassung, dass bei der Untersuchung US- amerikanischer Kriege des 20. Jahrhunderts häufig ein ganz entscheidender Aspekt fehlte: Nämlich eine übergreifende Analyse der Pressepolitik, die vor allem die Bedeutung der Medienlenkung im Krieg herausarbeitet. Auf dieser Grundlage entstand überhaupt erst mein Entschluss, eine entsprechende Dissertation vorzulegen. Daher soll hier an erster Stelle Prof. Heideking gedankt werden. Durch einen beruflich bedingten Umzug nach Mainz und den Tod Prof. Heidekings verzögerte sich der Start des Projekts um drei Jahre. Eine Initialzündung für die Wiederaufnahme und Vervollständigung der Recherchen stellte dann 1999 ein Aufenthalt als "Visiting Media Fellow" der RIAS-Kommission am "Institute for Public Policy" der Duke University in North Carolina dar. Die Leiterin des Instituts, Ellen Mickiewicz, gewährte mir unter anderem auf Grund ihrer Erfahrungen einer Beratertätigkeit für den ehemaligen US-Präsidenten Jimmy Carter tiefe Einblicke ins Innenleben pressepolitischer Zusammenhänge und Kontakte zu amerikanischen Journalisten. Ihr und den anderen Lehrkräften der Duke University, insbesondere Prof. David Paletz, gebührt ebenfalls Dank. In den USA haben mich darüber hinaus Martin Bohley (CNN Atlanta), Susan Tifft (New York Times), Rick Atkinson (Washington Post), Albert Dagliesh (Presseabteilung des Pentagon) sowie die freundlichen Damen und Herren im CBS und NBC-Archiv sowie an der Library of Congress und den National Archives bei meinen Recherchen unterstützt. Es folgte ein weiterer längerer Rechercheaufenthalt in den USA am Historischen Institut in Washington. Seinem Leiter, Prof. Christof Mauch, der sich auch bereit erklärte, Prof. Heideking als meinem Doktorvater nachzufolgen, gebührt schließlich ein ganz besonders herzliches Dankeschön. Erst durch seine intensive Betreuung und seine systematischen Anregungen konnte ich die unübersehbare Menge des gesammelten Quellen-Materials erfassen und strukturieren. Ebenso möchte ich mich bei Prof. Norbert Finzsch von der Anglo-Amerikanischen Abteilung der Universität zu Köln für seine Ratschläge und Hinweise bedanken. Diese Arbeit wäre aber niemals fertig gestellt worden, hätte ich nicht die Hilfe und Ermutigung zahlreicher Freunde und Kollegen gehabt. Stellvertretend sei hier Kai und Hanna gedankt, die sich die Mühe gemacht hat, in kürzester Zeit das gesamte Manuskript Korrektur zu lesen. Über die Jahre ständig begleitet hat mich bei dieser Arbeit meine Frau Constanze, der diese Dissertation gewidmet ist. Sie hat mich wie kein anderer stets inhaltlich wie ideell unterstützt. ii iii Inhaltsverzeichnis Einleitung Thematische Einführung 1 Grundüberlegungen und Definitionen 10 Thesen, Methoden und Forschungsstand 16 Gliederung und Quellenlage 20 I. Medientheoretische Ansätze Der konstitutionelle Ansatz und die First Amendment Forschung 22 Die Rolle der FCC 31 Der realistische Ansatz 34 Der skeptische Ansatz 40 Theorien vom visuellen Primat 45 II. Krieg der Worte und Bilder: Der Erste Weltkrieg Isolation oder Intervention? Die ideologische Ausgangssituation 49 Der Krieg um die öffentliche Meinung: Struktur, Gliederung und Aufgaben des CPI 55 Die Zentralisierung des Informationsflusses: Die Nachrichtenabteilung 68 Zensur an der Front 74 Das juristische Schlachtfeld: Der Espionage Act und seine Folgen 81 Propaganda versus Demokratie: Die Debatte nach dem Krieg 89 II.I. Krieg der Worte und Bilder: Der Zweite Weltkrieg Zensur im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Das Office of Censorship 94 Wieder Zensur an der Front 102 Propaganda im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Das Office of War Information 108 Neue Waffen der Propaganda: Film und Radio 115 Folgen und Auswirkungen der Propaganda 126 III. Krieg im Fernsehen: Der Vietnamkrieg Ein neues Medium: Aufstieg der TV-Berichterstattung (1948-60) 133 Der unsichtbare Krieg: Die Frühphase (1961-64) 139 Begrenztes Engagement oder Eskalation? Pressepolitik in der Johnson-Ära (1964-68) 152 iii iv Die Stimmung kippt: Die Tet-Offensive und ihre Folgen (1968) 165 Ein ehrenvoller Frieden? Pressepolitik in der Nixon-Ära (1969-71) 172 Lügen fliegen auf: Die Pentagon-Papers (1971) 191 Ein unehrenhaftes Ende: Watergate und die Folgen (1972-74) 202 IV. Zwischenspiele: Grenada und Panama Die Grenadainvasion: Hintergründe und Legitimation 217 Zugangsverweigerung und Ausschluss: Eine neue Form der Pressepolitik? 223 Rechtsbruch durch die Regierung? Die juristische und politische Debatte nach der Grenadainvasion 232 Perspektiven einer neuen Pressepolitik: Die Sidle-Kommission 238 Legitimationen für die Panamainvasion: Das Feindbild Noriega 241 Pressepolitik während der Operation "Just Cause" 244 Spätfolgen der Invasionen: Die Pool-Regelung setzt sich durch 249 V. Fernsehkrieg: Der Golfkrieg Der CNN-Faktor: Krieg im Zeitalter der Live-Berichterstattung 257 Die "Patriotismusfalle": Abhängigkeiten und Zwänge großer Medienkonzerne 263 Journalismus unter militärischer Kontrolle: Das Poolsystem im Golfkrieg 275 Die Schlacht der Lügen: Zensur, Desinformation und Propaganda 295 Inszenierungen eines sauberen Krieges: "Chirurgische Eingriffe" und "intelligente Bomben" 305 Ein Desaster für die Pressefreiheit? Reaktionen und Reflexionen nach dem Golfkrieg 319 Resümee US-Pressepolitik zwischen Kontinuität und Wandel 328 Anhang Abkürzungsverzeichnis 341 Literaturverzeichnis 342 iv 1 Einleitung Thematische Einführung Congress shall make no law... abridging the freedom of speech or the press Die Meinungs- und Pressefreiheit ist im ersten Zusatzartikel der amerikanischen Verfassung als staatstragendes Element verankert. Sie genießt daher in der öffentlichen Diskussion in den USA einen besonders hohen Stellenwert. Das Konzept der Presse- und Meinungsfreiheit US-amerikanischer Prägung geht auf das ausgehende 18. Jahrhundert zurück: im heutigen Sinne schließt es auch die Informations-, Kommunikations- und Medienfreiheit mit ein. Der Diskurs um die öffentliche Meinung wird in den USA eng mit dem Prinzip der Volkssouveränität verbunden und damit wesensgemäß der Demokratie zugeordnet. Das lässt sich bis in die Gründungsgeschichte der Vereinigten Staaten zurückverfolgen. Die Verfassungsväter übersahen keineswegs den möglichen Missbrauch der Pressefreiheit und damit die Beeinflussung der öffentlichen Meinung: Give to any set of men the command of the press, and you give them the command of the country, for you give them the command of public opinion, which commands everything.1 Jedoch erschienen ihnen eine Reglementierung der Presse und eine generelle Zensur in jeglicher Art als wesentlich abträglicher für das Gemeinwesen als eine freie Presse. Für diese Geisteshaltung sprechen die Worte von Thomas Jefferson: The basis of our governments being the opinion of the people, the very first object should be to keep that right; and where it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. 2 1Richter Alexander Addisson zit. in. Sloan, W.D.: The Media in America. A History, Northport (AL), S.87 2Thomas Jefferson to Edward Carrington in: Writings of Thomas Jefferson, The Memorial Edition, 20Bde, Washington D.C. 1903-1904, Bd.6., S.57. Vgl. auch Steffens, Bradley: Censorship, San Diego (CA) 1996, S.99 1 2 Die Überzeugung, dass die Medien3 - damals noch ausschließlich die Zeitungen - überhaupt erst einen demokratischen Staat ermöglichen und einen seiner wichtigsten konstitutionellen Eckpfeiler darstellen, findet sich auch bei James Madison: A popular [democratic] government, without popular information [available to the public] or the means of acquiring it, is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or, perhaps, both.4 Damit setzte sich der neue Staat USA bewusst von alten europäischen Traditionen ab. Die historischen Erfahrungen der geistigen Enge und des Absolutismus europäischer Staaten sollten überwunden werden. Einwanderer der ersten Generation hatten Europa auch auf Grund religiöser Verfolgung oder Diskriminierung verlassen. Viele US-Denker der "ersten Stunde“ waren zudem durch ein neues, liberales Gedankengut geprägt. Die Legitimation von Regierungsgewalt ließ sich nicht mehr nur aus der reinen militärischen Macht eines Herrschers oder durch das Konzept des Gottesgnadentums aufrechterhalten.5 Stattdessen bezogen sich die Gründerväter der amerikanischen Verfassung auf das moderne Gedankengut, das im Zuge der Aufklärung entstanden war. Der Philosoph und Staatsrechtler Alexis de Tocqueville, der die USA zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts bereiste, schilderte seine Erfahrungen mit der US-Demokratie unter anderem in seinem Werk „De la démocratie en Amerique“.6 Darin versuchte er, den Europäern das neue amerikanische Denken zu erklären. Er kam zu dem Schluss, dass unter den damals rund zwölf Millionen Menschen, die das Gebiet der Vereinigten Staaten bewohnten, kein einziger zu finden sei, der es wagen würde, eine Einschränkung der Pressefreiheit vorzuschlagen. 3Die Begriffe „Medien“ und „Presse“ werden im Folgenden in dieser Arbeit synonym verwendet.
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