Vietnam War Casualties

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Vietnam War casualties

50 percent. Civilian deaths caused by communist forces, which included the Viet Cong, North Vietnamese Army, Pathet Lao and Khmer Rouge, mostly resulted from as- sassinations and terror tactics. Civilian deaths caused by the armed forces of the governments of South Viet- nam, Cambodia, Laos, the United States, South Korea, and other allies were primarily the consequence of extensive aerial bombing and the use of massive ﬁrepower in military operations conducted in heavily populated areas. The nature of the war often made it diﬃcult to distinguish The American War Memorial of the dead Vietnamese between combatants and non-combatants. soldiers, Vietnam (Hanoi). A number of incidents occurred during the war in which civilians were deliberately targeted or killed. The best- known are the Massacre at Huế and the My Lai massacre.

1 Total number of deaths

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial, USA (Washington, D.C.). Two major war memorials commemorating the dead soldiers in the Second Indochina War (aka. the Vietnam War and the American War).

Estimates of casualties in the Vietnam War vary widely. The most extensive survey estimates deaths in the war from 1954 to 1975 at between 1.5 and 3.6 million people. This estimate includes both civilian and military deaths in North and South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The Second Indochina War (aka. the Vietnam War or the American War) began in 1955 and ended in 1975 when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon. Dur- ing this period, the war escalated from an insurgency in South Vietnam assisted by the North Vietnamese government to direct military intervention in the south by North Vietnam to assist the insurgents and the intervention of military forces of the United States and other countries to assist South Vietnam. The war also spilled over into the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos. An ex- haustive reckoning of the total casualties must include statistical information available for each theater of the war. Waiting to Lift Off by James Pollock, Vietnam Combat Artists Most of the fighting took place in South Vietnam; accord- Program, CAT IV, 1967. Courtesy of National Museum of the ingly it suffered the most casualties. U.S. Army Civilian deaths caused by both sides amounted to a signif- icant percentage of total deaths, perhaps from 30 to nearly Estimates of the total number of deaths in the Vietnam

1 2 3 CIVILIAN DEATHS IN THE VIETNAM WAR

War vary widely depending upon the time period and area communists and 98,000 by South Vietnam and its allies. covered by the data. Deaths in Cambodia and Laos were estimated at 273,000 * Guenter Lewy in 1978 estimated 1,313,000 total deaths and 62,000 respectively. [6] in North and South Vietnam during the period 1965– 1974 in which the U.S. was most engaged in the war. Lewy reduced the number of Viet Cong and North Viet- namese battle deaths claimed by the U.S. by 30 percent 2 Major incidents (in accordance with the opinion of United States Depart- ment of Defense officials), and assumed that one third of • the battle deaths of the VC/NVA were actually civilians. 1968 Tet Offensive – Hanoi failed in its most am- His estimate of total deaths is reflected in the table.*[1] bitious goal of producing a general uprising in the South, it suffered more than 45,267 (mainly Viet A detailed demographic study in 1995 calculated Cong) deaths but gained a propaganda, political and 791,000–1,141,000 war-related Vietnamese deaths, both strategic victory.*[9]*[10] soldiers and civilians, for all of Vietnam from 1965 to 1975. The study came up with a most likely Vietnamese death toll of 882,000, which included 655,000 adult • 1972 Easter Offensive – This saw 50,000 to 75,000 males (above 15 years of age), 143,000 adult females, and North Vietnamese combatants killed plus their loss 84,000 children. Those totals include only Vietnamese of over 250–700 tanks and APCs. The attack was deaths, and do not include American and other allied mil- broken up mainly by US air power.*[11] itary deaths which amounted to about 64,000.*[2] The study has been criticized for its small sample size, the imbalance in the sample between rural and urban areas, and the possible overlooking of clusters of high mortality rates.*[3] 3 Civilian deaths in the Vietnam Also in 1995, the Vietnamese government released its War estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955 to 1975. According to the Vietnamese, Commu- Levy estimates that 40,000 South Vietnamese civil- nist battle deaths totaled 1.1 million and civilian deaths ians were assassinated by the Viet Cong/North Viet- of Vietnamese totaled 2.0 million. These estimates namese; 250,000 were killed as a result of combat probably include battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in in South Vietnam, and 65,000 were killed in North Laos and Cambodia, but do not include deaths of South Vietnam. He suggests that another 222,000 civilians Vietnamese and allied soldiers which would add nearly were counted as military deaths by the U.S. in com- 300,000 for a grand total of 3.4 million military and civil- piling its "body count.”His estimated total of civilian dead.*[4] ian deaths is 587,000.*[12]*[13]*[14] It was difficult A 2008 study by the BMJ (formerly British Medical Jour- to distinguish between civilians and military personnel nal) came up with a higher toll of 3,812,000 dead in on the Viet Cong side as many persons were part-time Vietnam between 1955 and 2002. For the period of guerrillas or impressed laborers who did not wear uni- * * * the Vietnam War the totals are 1,310,000 between 1955 forms. [15] [16] [17] and 1964, 1,700,000 between 1965 and 1974 and 81,000 in 1975. (The estimates for 1955 to 1964 are much higher than other estimates). The sum of those totals is 3.1 Deaths caused by North Vietnam/VC 3,091,000 war deaths between 1955 and 1975.*[3] forces Uppsala University in Sweden maintains the Armed Con- flict Database. Their estimates for conflict deaths in Viet- R. J. Rummel estimated that NVA/VC forces killed nam are 164,923 from 1955 to 1964 and 1,458,050 from around 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and 1965 to 1975 for a total of 1,622,973. The database also 1975 in South and North Vietnam, from a range of be- estimates combat deaths in Cambodia for the years 1967 tween 106,000 and 227,000, plus another 50,000 killed to 1975 to total 259,000. Data for deaths in Laos is in- in North Vietnam.*[18] Rummel's summary has a mid- complete.*[5] level estimate of 17,000 South Vietnamese civil ser- R. J. Rummel's mid-range estimate in 1997 was that the vants (ARVN's local millitia) killed by North Vietnamese total deaths due to the Vietnam conflict totaled 2,450,000 forces (including the Viet Cong). In addition, at least from 1954 to 1975. Rummel calculated communist war 36,000 Southern civilians were executed for various rea- deaths at 1,062,000 and South Vietnamese and allied war sons in the period 1967–1972.*[19] About 130 Amer- deaths of 741,000, both totals including civilians inad- ican and 16,000 South Vietnamese POWs died in cap- vertently killed. He estimated that victims of democide tivity.*[20] During the peak war years, Lewy attributed (deliberate killing of civilians) included 214,000 by the almost a third of civilian deaths to the Viet Cong.*[21] 3.3 Deaths caused by the American military 3

Burial of 300 unidentiﬁed victims from the Huế Massacre, killed by communist forces and found after the ARVN and U.S. Marines retook the area in March, 1968. U.S. Military photo*[27]*[28]

sprayed by the U.S. military over more than 10% of Southern Vietnam,*[29] as part of the U.S. herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. Vietnam's government claimed that 400,000 people were killed or maimed as a result of after effects, and that 500,000 children were born with birth defects.*[30] Viet Cong massacred hundreds of Montagnard civilians at the German historian Bernd Greiner mentions the following village of Dak Son, 1967 war crimes reported, and/or investigated by the Peers Commission and the Vietnam War Crimes Working * 3.2 Deaths caused by South Vietnam Group, among other sources: [31] – Seven massacres officially confirmed by the American side. My Lai (4) and My Khe (4) claimed the largest num- From 1964 to 1975, an estimated 1,500 people died dur- ber of victims with 420 and 90 respectively, and in five ing the forced relocations of 1,200,000 civilians, another other places altogether about 100 civilians were executed. 5,000 prisoners died from ill-treatment and about 30,000 – Two further massacres were reported by soldiers who suspected communists and fighters were executed. 6,000 had taken part in them, one north of Đức Pho in Quảng civilians died in the more extensive shellings. In Quảng Ngãi Province in the summer of 1968 (14 victims), an- Nam province 4,700 civilians were killed in 1969. This other in Bình Định Province on 20 July 1969 (25 victims). totals, from a range of between 16,000 and 167,000 – Tiger Force, a special operations force, murdered hun- deaths caused by South Vietnam (Diệm-era), and 42,000 dreds, possibly over a thousand, civilians. and 118,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam (post – In the course of large-scale operations an unknown Diệm-era), excluding North Vietnamese forces killed by number of non-combatants were killed either accidentally the ARVN in combat.*[22] or deliberately – with some estimating more than 5,000 allegedly died in the course of Operation Speedy Express. Excluding deaths from artillery and air attacks, the total 3.3 Deaths caused by the American mili- number of dead may have reached tens of thousands dur- tary ing the entire war. – According to the 'Information Bureau of the Provisional Rummel estimated that American forces committed Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam' (PRG), around 5,500 democidal killings between 1960 and 1972, between April 1968 and the end of 1970 American from a range of between 4,000 and 10,000.*[23] Esti- ground troops killed about 6,500 civilians in the course mates for the number of North Vietnamese civilian deaths of twenty-one operations either on their own or along- resulting from US bombing range from 50,000–65,000. side their allies. Three of the massacres reported on the Although information is sparse, American bombing in American side were not mentioned on the PRG list. Cambodia is estimated to have killed between 40,000 and * * * Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves, 150,000 civilians and combatants. [24] [25] [26] argues that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, 18.2 million gallons of Agent Orange (Dioxin) was a widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement 4 5 NORTH VIETNAMESE AND VIET CONG MILITARY DEATHS

where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could 4 Army of the Republic of Vietnam be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and The Army of the Republic of Vietnam suffered between * endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops. [32] One 171,331 and 220,357 deaths during the war.*[43]*[44] example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an R.J. Rummel estimated that ARVN lost between 219,000 operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was de- and 313,000 deaths during the war.*[18] scribed by John Paul Vann as, in effect,“many My Lais” .*[32] In more detail, 5 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong Air force captain, Brian Wilson, who Military deaths carried out bomb-damage assessments in free-fire zones throughout the delta, saw the results firsthand. “It was the epitome of immorality...One of the times I counted bodies after an air strikewhich always ended with two napalm bombs which would just fry everything that was leftI counted sixty-two bodies. In my report I described them as so many women between fifteen and twenty-five and so many children usually in their mothers' arms or very close to themand so many old people.” When he later read the official tally of dead, he found that it listed them as 130 VC killed.*[33]

3.4 Deaths caused by the South Korean military

According to the Vietnamese government, there were 1,100,000 North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong military personnel deaths during the Vietnam War (includ- * United States Marine recovered victim's bodies who were killed ing the missing). [45] Rummel reviewed the many ca- by Korean Marines in Phong Nhi and Phong Nhat hamlets on sualty data sets, and this number is in keeping with his February 12, 1968.*[34] mid-level estimate of 1,011,000 North Vietnamese com- batant deaths.*[46] The official US Department of De- ROK Capital Division massacred Tây Vinh citizens be- fense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Viet- tween February and March 1966.*[35] ROK Capital nam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials Division massacred Bình An citizens on 26 February believed that these body count figures need to be de- 1966.*[36] In October 1966, Tịnh Sơn citizens were mas- flated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy as- sacred.*[37] 2nd Marine Brigade massacred Binh Tai sumes that one-third of the reported“enemy”killed may citizens on 9 October 1966.*[38] In December 1966, have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of * deaths of communist military forces was probably closer Blue Dragon Brigade massacred Bình Hòa citizens. [39] * Second Marine Brigade massacred Phong Nhị citizens to 444,000. [43] on 12 February 1968.*[40]*[41] South Korean Marines The Phoenix Program, a counterinsurgency program ex- massacred Hà My citizens on 25 February 1968.*[42] ecuted by the United States Central Intelligence Agency 5

(CIA), United States special operations forces, and the from 23,300 in 1965 to 465,600 by the end of 1967. Be- Republic of Vietnam's security apparatus, killed 26,369 tween October 1966 and June 1969, 246,000 soldiers suspected NLF operatives and informants.*[47]*[48] were recruited through Project 100,000, of which 41% were black, while blacks only made up about 11% of the For historian Christian Appy,"search and destroy was * the principal tactic; and the enemy body count was the population of the US. [60] Of the 27 million draft-age primary measure of progress”in Westmoreland's war of men between 1964 and 1973, 40% were drafted into mil- attrition. Search and destroy was coined as a phrase in itary service, and only 10% were actually sent to Viet- 1965 to describe missions aimed at flushing the Viet Cong nam. This group was made up almost entirely of either work-class or rural youth. College students who did not out of hiding, while the body count was the measuring stick for the success of any operation. Competitions were avoid the draft were generally sent to non-combat and service roles or made officers, while high school drop- held between units for the highest number of Vietnamese killed in action, or KIAs. U.S. Army and marine officers outs and the working class were sent into combat roles. Blacks often made up a disproportionate 25% or more knew that promotions were largely based on confirmed kills. The pressure to produce confirmed kills resulted in of combat units, while constituting only 12% of the military.*[58]*[62] massive fraud. One study revealed that American com- manders exaggerated body counts by 100 percent.*[49] Civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, John Lewis, Muhammad Ali, and others, criticized the racial disparity in both casualties and repre- 6 United States armed forces sentation in the entire military, prompting the Pentagon to order cutbacks in the number of African Americans in combat positions. Commander George L. Jackson Casualties as of 4 June 2015: said, “In response to this criticism, the Department of Defense took steps to readjust force levels in order to • 58,307 KIA or non-combat deaths (including the achieve an equitable proportion and employment of Ne- * missing & deaths in captivity) [50] groes in Vietnam.”The army instigated myriad reforms, • 153,303 WIA (excluding 150,332 persons not re- addressed issues of discrimination and prejudice from the quiring hospital care)*[51] post exchanges to the lack of black officers, and intro- duced“Mandatory Watch And Action Committees”into • 1,627 MIA (originally 2,646)*[52] each unit. The proportion of black casualties began to decrease, and by late 1967, black casualties had fallen to • 766–778 POW (652–662 13%, and were below 10% in 1970 to 1972.*[60]*[63] freed/escaped*,*[53]*[54] 114–116 died in * * Upon the war's completion, black casualties made up captivity) [53] [55] 12.5% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly During the Vietnam War, 30% of wounded service mem- higher than the 10% who served in the military.*[63] bers died of their wounds.*[56] Note: *One escapee died of wounds sustained during his rescue 15 days later.*[57] 7 Specific incidents

• 6.1 Disproportion of African American ca- 2,800–6,000 civilians were killed by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in the Massacre at Huế sualties throughout February 1968.*[66]

Blacks were suﬀering disproportionately high casualty • 1,200 civilians were killed by South Korean forces rates in Vietnam, and in 1965 alone they comprised al- in Tây Vinh Massacre between February 12 – March most one out of every four combat deaths.*[58]*[59] 17, 1966.*[67] With the draft increasing due to the troop buildup in • 380 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in South Vietnam, the military signiﬁcantly lowered its ad- Gò Dài massacre on February 26, 1966.*[67] mission standards. In October 1966, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara initiated Project 100,000 which fur- • 66 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in ther lowered military standards for 100,000 additional Binh Tai Massacre on October 9, 1966.*[68] draftees per year. McNamara claimed this program • 280 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in would provide valuable training, skills and opportunity Diên Niên – Phước Bình massacre on October 9, to America's poor – a promise that was never carried 1966.*[69] out. Many black men who had previously been ineligible could now be drafted, along with many poor and racially • 430 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in intolerant white men from the southern states.*[60]*[61] Bình Hòa massacre between December 3 and De- The number of US military personnel in Vietnam jumped cember 6, 1966.*[39] 6 8 DEATHS AFTER U.S. WITHDRAWAL

• At least 81 civilians were killed by American Forces, Tiger Force 101st Airborne Division, during the Song Ve Valley and Operation Wheeler military campaigns.*[76]

8 Deaths after U.S. withdrawal

Vietnamese women and children in Mỹ Lai before being killed in the massacre, March 16, 1968.*[64] They were killed seconds after the photo was taken.*[65] Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle

• 79 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre on February 12, 1968. • 135 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in Hà My massacre on February 25, 1968. • More than 500 civilians were killed by an Ameri- Vietnamese "Boat People" refugees waiting for rescue in the South China Sea, taken from the USS Blue Ridge in 1984. 2–3 mil- can Army company during the My Lai Massacre on * * lion Vietnamese refugees fled Vietnam during the late 1970s and March 16, 1968. [64] [70] 1980s.*[77] • 19 civilians killed by American Forces Feb. 8, 1968 in Quảng Nam Province.*[71] Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final NVA Spring Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy • 80–90 civilians killed by American Forces March Hòa in 1975.*[78] Sources have estimated that 165,000 16, 1968 at My Khe.*[72] South Vietnamese died in the re-education camps out of 1–2.5 million sent,*[79]*[80] while somewhere between • A Newsweek journalist claimed an unnamed offi- 50,000 and 250,000 were executed.*[79]*[81]*[82]*[83] cial told him that an estimated 5,000 civilians died Rummel estimates that slave labor in the “New Eco- as“collateral damage”from the American military nomic Zones”caused 50,000 deaths (out of a total 1 mil- * during Operation Speedy Express. [73] lion deported).*[79]*[81] According to the United Na- • Almost 252 Degar civilians were killed by the Viet tions High Commission for Refugees, between 200,000 * Cong in the Đắk Sơn massacre on December 5, and 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, [84] al- 1967.*[74] though Rummel cites estimates ranging from 100,000 to 1,000,000.*[81] Including Vietnam's foreign democide, • More than 25,000 South Vietnamese civilians were Rummel estimates that a minimum of 400,000 and a killed and almost a million become temporary maximum of slightly less than 2.5 million people died refugees, with over 600,000 interned in South Viet- of political violence from 1975–87 at the hands of namese Government camps as a result of North Hanoi.*[81] In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that af- Vietnam's 1972 Easter Offensive.*[75] flicted millions.*[85] 7

Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge killed • 11,232 WIA 1–3 million Cambodians in the killing fields, out of • * a population of around 8 million.*[86]*[87]*[88]*[89] 4 MIA [104] The Pathet Lao killed some 100,000 Hmong people in Laos.*[90]*[91] Australia Unexploded ordnance especially bombs dropped by the United States, continue to detonate and kill people today. • 426 KIA, 74 died of other causes*[105] The Vietnamese government claims that Unexploded ord- • 3,129 WIA*[105] nance has killed some 42,000 people since the war offi- * * cially ended. [92] [93] In 2012 alone, unexploded bombs • 6 MIA (all accounted for and repatriated)*[106] and other ordnance claimed 500 casualties in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, according to activists and govern- Thailand ment databases. The United States has spent over $65 million since 1998, trying to make Vietnam safe.*[94] • 351 KIA *[104]*[107] Agent Orange and similar chemical substances, have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over • 1,358 WIA the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled them. The government of Vietnam says that 4 million New Zealand of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; • * * these figures include the children of people who were ex- 37 KIA + 2 Civilians [108] [109] posed.*[95] The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up • 187 WIA to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to contaminated Agent Orange.*[96] Philippines On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part • 9 KIA*[110] of Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Or- • 64 WIA*[110] ange in Vietnam. Da Nang was the primary storage site of the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States Republic Of China (Taiwan) and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai – a 'hotspot' for dioxin – and Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says • 25 KIA U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to the Vietnamese newspaper Nhân Dân, the U.S. govern- People's Republic Of China ment is providing $41 million to the project, which will reduce the contamination level in 73,000 m3 of soil by • 1,446 KIA late 2016.*[97]

Soviet Union 9 Other nations' casualties • ~16.*[111] Cambodian Civil War 10 See also • 200,000–300,000 killed*[86]*[87]*[88]

• Lai Đại Hàn Laotian Civil War

* * * * * * • 20,000–200,000 killed [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103]11 References

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[48] Harbury, Jennifer (2005). Truth, torture, and the Ameri- [69] Gerassi, John (1968). North Vietnam: a documentary. can way: the history and consequences of U.S. involvement p.148 Bobbs-Merrill. in torture. Beacon Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-8070-0307- 7. [70] BBC News Murder in the name of war – My Lai 20 July 1998 Retrieved 25/09/12 [49] Harbury, Jennifer (2005). Truth, torture, and the Ameri- can way: the history and consequences of U.S. involvement [71] LA Times“Civilian Killings Went Unpunished”August in torture. Beacon Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-8070- 6, 2006 Retrieved 26/09/12 0307-7. [72] LA Times “Veriﬁed Civilian Slayings” August 6, 2006 [50] In Memory Day Ceremony to honor 165 Vietnam veterans Retrieved 26/09/12 whose lives were cut short by their service [73] Kevin Buckley,“Paciﬁcation's Deadly Price”, Newsweek [51] US Military Operations: Casualty Breakdown 1972.

[52] “Vietnam-era unaccounted for statistical report”(PDF). [74] Time "Đắk Sơn Massacre” Dec. 15, 1967 4 June 2015. [75] Andrade, p. 529. [53] Vietnam War Statistics [76] Toledo Blade “Rogue GIs unleashed wave of terror in [54] Central Highlands” 10/19/2003, Retrieved 23/09/12

[55] American Vietnam War Casualty Statistics [77] Nghia M. Vo The Vietnamese Boat People, 1954 and 1975–1992,ISBN 978-0-7864-2345-3, 2006 [56] Scott McGaugh (16 September 2012). “Learning from America's Wars, Past and Present U.S. Battleﬁeld [78] Wiesner, Louis, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons Medicine Has Come a Long Way, from Antietam to Iraq” and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam, 1954–1975 (Green- . San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved 22 February 2013. wood Press, 1988), pp. 318–9.

[57] Vietnam Prisoners of War – Escapes and Attempts [79] Desbarats, Jacqueline. “Repression in the Socialist Re- public of Vietnam: Executions and Population Reloca- [58] Fighting on Two Fronts: African Americans and the Viet- tion”, from The Vietnam Debate (1990) by John Morton nam War; Westheider, James E.; New York University Moore.“We know now from a 1985 statement by Nguyen Press; 1997; pgs. 11–16 Co Tach that two and a half million, rather than one million, people went through reeducation....in fact, possibly [59] African-Americans In Combat more than 100,000 Vietnamese people were victims of extrajudicial executions in the last ten years....it is likely [60] War within war; The Guardian; September 14, 2001; that, overall, at least one million Vietnamese were the vic- James Maycock tims of forced population transfers.”

[61] Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers & Viet- [80] Anh Do and Hieu Tran Phan, Camp Z30-D: The Sur- nam; Appy, Christian; University of North Carolina vivors, Orange County Register, April 29, 2001. Press; 2003; pgs. 31–33 [81] Rummel, Rudolph, Statistics of Vietnamese Democide, in [62] Vietnam: The Soldier's Revolt his Statistics of Democide.

[63] Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and [82] Al Santoli, ed., To Bear Any Burden (Indiana University Vietnam: American Combat Press, 1999), pp272, 292–3. 10 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[83] Morris, Stephen J. Glastnost and the Gulag: The Numbers [102] Taylor, Charles Lewis, The World Handbook of Political Game, Vietnam Commentary, May–June 1988. and Social Indicators, estimates 20,000 total.

[84] Associated Press, June 23, 1979, San Diego Union, July [103] Stuart-Fox, Martin, A History of Laos, estimates 200,000 20, 1986. See generally Nghia M. Vo, The Vietnamese by 1973. Boat People (2006), 1954 and 1975–1992, McFarland. [104] KOREA military army oﬃcial statistics, AUG 28, 2005 [85] Crossette, Barbara, Hanoi, Citing Famine Fears, Seeks Emergency Aid, The New York Times, May 15, 1988. [105] “Vietnam War, 1962–72 – Statistics”. Australian War Memorial. 2003. Retrieved 2008-02-04. [86] Heuveline, Patrick (2001). “The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia.”In Forced Migration and Mor- [106] “Australian servicemen listed as missing in action in Viet- tality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washing- nam”. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 14 February ton, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests 2015. that a range of 1.17–3.42 million people were killed. [107] The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Po- [87] Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse litical, Social, and Military History By Spencer Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995). C. Tucker "http://books.google.com.au/books?id= qh5lffww-KsC&lpg=PA53&dq=the%20encyclopedia% [88] Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). “After 20of%20the%20vietnam%20war%20page%2064&pg= the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia.”In Geno- PA176&output=embed" cide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben [108] “New Zealand Rolls Of Honour – By Conﬂict”. Freep- Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast ages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Retrieved 2012- Asia Studies. 09-25.

[89] Craig Etcheson (2005), After the Killing Fields Praeger, p. [109] “Overview of the war in Vietnam | VietnamWar.govt.nz, 119, estimates over 2 million killed based on mass grave New Zealand and the Vietnam War”. Viet- count. namwar.govt.nz. 1965-07-16. Retrieved 2012-09-25.

[90] Statistics of Democide Rudolph Rummel [110] Asian Allies in Viet-Nam

[91] Forced Back and Forgotten (Lawyers’Committee for Hu- [111] James F. Dunnigan; Albert A. Noﬁ (2000). Dirty Little man Rights, 1989), p8., gives the same estimate. Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're [92] “Vietnam War Bomb Explodes Killing Four Children”. Not Supposed to Know. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-25282- Huﬃngton Post. 03.12.2012. Check date values in: |date= X. (help)

[93] Vietnam war shell explodes, kills two ﬁshermen The Aus- tralian (April 28, 2011) 12 External links

[94]“Vietnam War Bombs Still Killing People 40 Years Later” • National Archives AAD Searchable database. . The Huffington Post. 2013-08-14. • The Vietnam Center and Archive. Texas Tech Uni- [95] Ben Stocking for AP, published in the Seattle Times May versity. 22, 2010 [seattletimes.com/html/health/2011928849_ apasvietnamusagentorange.html Vietnam, US still in con- • Vietnam War Casualties Records search by names flict over Agent Orange] and/or dates . [96] Jessica King (2012-08-10). “U.S. in first effort to clean • up Agent Orange in Vietnam”. CNN. Retrieved 2012- Vietnamese Casualties During the American war 08-11.

[97] “U.S. starts its ﬁrst Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam”. Reuters. Aug 9, 2012.

[98] Warner, Roger, Shooting at the Moon (1996), pp366, estimates 30,000 Hmong.

[99] Obermeyer,“Fifty years of violent war deaths from Viet- nam to Bosnia”, British Medical Journal, 2008, estimates 60,000 total.

[100] T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule, (1996), estimates 35,000 total.

[101] Small, Melvin & Joel David Singer, Resort to Arms: In- ternational and Civil Wars 1816–1980, (1982), estimates 20,000 total. 11

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