CULTURE, MEDIA & SPORT

104 ONLINE BEHAVIOUR 108 OPINION: Olympic linguistics 109 MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS 109 ACCENTS 110 PERFORMANCE 112 MIGRATION 112 ONLINE CONTENT 113 BAD SOCIAL MEDIA 114 ASPIRATIONS 115 DATING SCAMS 116 OPINION: Age discrimination 117 FIGURES: Broadcasting

The SAVAGE ARENA Cases of disturbing online behaviour dominate the headlines. But why does the internet bring out the dark side in some, asks Dr Claire Hardaker? h IS B COR

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he internet has brought a new era of invisibility for self-protection. For instance, Perseus uses communication. It is a gateway to his helm to escape the Gorgons, Harry frequently uses unparalleled resources of education his cloak to hide from teachers, and Dracula shields himself and entertainment, but in recent to avoid being hunted down. In other words, invisibility years, disturbing online behaviours offers the opportunity of going somewhere unauthorised, such as cyberbullying and trolling or doing something unpleasant while minimising the risks have become more common. In of suffering any consequences. some instances, those carrying out the attacks have been so persistent INVISIBILITY AND DETACHMENT and cruel that they have driven their targets to move homes, When we return to the internet, we find a very similar effect jobs, or schools, to self-harm, and even to commit suicide. So known as disinhibition: while using a computer, we think Twhy does the internet bring out the worst in some people? we are shielded by anonymity (as though it were a cloak of For a start, the internet offers a perceived anonymity invisibility) that will keep us safe from the repercussions of that has no real parallel offline. In fact, we have long behaving objectionably. But anonymity by itself does not been fascinated with the idea of being unidentifiable, and explain why the internet seems to bring the worst out in mythology worldwide is rich with stories of magical spells some, since many of us are online and anonymous all the and objects that can bestow invisibility on time, yet would never think to be deliberately mean. The the user. In Greek mythology, Perseus had second issue to consider is detachment. the Helm of Hades. In Republic, Linked to disinhibition is the way that the internet Plato wrote of the Ring of Gyges. The allows us to shut down our empathy and, in particular, our central device of JRR Tolkien’s Lord of compassion. In fact, we regularly refuse to empathise when the Rings is an evil invisibility ring. And it suits us. For instance, when someone we love to hate in JK Rowling’s series, Harry Potter is THE INTERNET suffers a minor setback, we can choose to enjoy their given an invisibility cloak. OFFERS A misfortune rather than to consider how we might feel if Invisibility is also linked with stories we were them. The internet drastically increases that of monsters, ghosts and psychopaths: PERCEIVED ability, and allows us to emotionally distance ourselves – Bram Stoker’s Dracula can pass through ANONYMITY not just from people we don’t like but also from those we crowds unobserved; Shakespeare’s Macbeth don’t even know – in several ways. is haunted by an apparition only he can THAT HAS For example, it is easier to ‘forget’ that we are see. And after successfully experimenting NO REAL communicating with another human, because we lose many with making himself transparent, the indications of emotional response, such as eye contact, facial scientist in HG Wells’ Invisible Man turns PARALLEL expressions and tone of voice. Instead, all we have are the to theft, arson and violence. OFFLINE words or images we send, and the words or images they A common theme running through send back. This means that we can downplay any emotional many of these narratives is the use of reaction that they convey. If they claim to be offended or hurt, because we don’t see that reaction, it becomes easier to believe that they are exaggerating or lying. It is also easier to quickly forget the incident ourselves, while it may linger in the other person’s mind for days or weeks. Because of this, it can also be easier to blame the victim for what is happening to them. For example, if someone creates a public memorial page for his deceased friend, and that page is then defaced by trolls, those trolls might say that he brought this on himself by making the page public. But this would be overlooking the fact that the actual wrongdoing is in attacking the page in the first place. Likewise, if a careless driver hits a pedestrian, it is not the pedestrian’s fault for being in the car’s way. Online, it is also easier to diminish the severity of our behaviour. Because we each inhabit our own heads, it seems perfectly obvious to us just how seriously (or not) we meant something, so when trolls and cyberbullies are confronted, we tend to hear excuses like: “Stuff said on the internet isn’t real. I was just joking. I didn’t really mean that threat or insult.” But there are problems with all of these: whatever is said online is real, ‘jokes’ can be very cruel, and how can a recipient know for a fact that a serious- sounding insult or threat wasn’t meant? AL B KO

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A third aspect that seems to encourage some to be deliberately mean online long predates the internet. It is simply the human tendency to glorify aggression, and we find evidence of this around the world, stretching back over thousands of years. There are 3,300-year-old ornately decorated weapons in China, bas-reliefs depicting the 1269BC Siege of Dapur in Egypt, and the 1,000-year-old Bayeux tapestry that narrates the Norman conquest of PREVIOUS PAGE THE HUMAN England. Many sports we enjoy today – javelin-throwing, FASCINATION WITH archery, fencing, boxing, wrestling and martial arts – VIOLENCE IS NOT A NEW PHENOMENON descend directly from military history. And many of our RIGHT, FROM THE TOP TODAY, oldest texts, such as Homer’s Illiad (around 800BC), VIDEOGAMES, FILMS Beowulf (between 700AD and 1100AD), and the Bible (LIKE HUNGER GAMES RIGHT) AND (100-300AD), similarly tell of bloodshed, war and TV SHOWS FEED OUR INTEREST IN genocide. This enjoyment of violence is even responsible AGGRESSION for some of our most impressive architecture. Nearly OPPOSITE IN MYTH AND 2,000 years ago, Emperor Vespasian had the Coliseum LITERATURE, BEING INVISIBLE IS RARELY built so that around 50,000 spectators could be entertained USED FOR GOOD by animal hunts, executions and the gladiatorial combats of slaves fighting to the death.

A HISTORY OF VIOLENCE Today, our interest in aggression is as strong as it ever was. We need only consider current popular entertainment sources. For instance, the book series The Hunger Games is about individuals forced to fight to the death for a reality television show. The enduringly popular film Shawshank Redemption tells of a man wrongly convicted for the murder of his wife and incarcerated in a brutal, corrupt prison where inmates are beaten to death, shot and raped. And in the games market, many of the biggest titles, such as the Call of Duty, Halo and Grand Theft Auto series, involve players simulating violence. The above should demonstrate that humans are entertained by violence, and that this phenomenon has been around for millennia. But for some individuals, simply consuming aggression-based entertainment from fiction (books, films) or simulation (games, sports) is not enough. For these people, the internet is a virtual coliseum where they can entertain themselves by throwing strangers to the lions. At the same time, those few may feel that they can hide from consequences behind a cloak of anonymity, and also silence their own conscience by ignoring their target’s feelings. The internet is an unrivalled resource, but because it offers an appearance of freedom from consequence alongside many ways to avoid empathy, it can also be used by some to be cruel simply for the sake of amusement. The next question is how can we change this? There is no single answer, but just one powerful way involves taking careful steps to be more empathetic, compassionate and thoughtful about how we behave online. Q

www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/pro!les/claire-hardaker

Dr Claire Hardaker is a lecturer in Corpus Linguistics at Lancaster University. She specialises in studying aggression, deception and manipulation online. GETTY; ALAMY GETTY;

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A LASTING EFFECT OF THE 2012 LONDON GAMES WAS A SHIFT IN PERCEPTIONS OF DISABLED PEOPLE OPINION I THINK THE GREATEST legacy of last year’s Olympics and Paralympics Games, which will endure long after the medals are forgotten, will be that they changed public perceptions THE LINGUISTIC of disabled people and hastened a change LEGACY OF in how they are referred to. I led a team from Lancaster University’s LONDON 2012 ESRC Centre for Corpus Approaches to Social Science to undertake work for the Department By Professor for Culture, Media and Sport looking at how the Tony McEnery Games of 2012 a!ected media reporting and the English language in general. By far the biggest "nding – and perhaps the most unexpected – is the way in which events like the Paralympics are helping to consign o!ensive terms such as ‘cripple’ to the history books. Our study looked at approximately 13 billion words of general English from 2008 and 2012. It also looked at 93 million words of UK national newspaper reporting and 35 million words of At the same time, the use of more global press reporting about the Games over The empowering and humanising phrases such the same period. The study used specialised as ‘di!erently abled’ and ‘disabled people’ computer software that allowed for the experienced an increase in media usage in the assessment of patterns of meaning in billions Paralympics year of the Paralympics, more than doubling in of words. That, combined with linguistically frequency from 2011. Preferred phrases such as informed investigations of the patterns revealed, ‘disabled person’ increased by almost 20 per cent allowed us an unprecedented insight into what it nudged our per one million words in 2012 compared to the means for a country (in terms of reputation and previous year, while ‘wheelchair user’ increased other socio-cultural impact) to host the Games. in use by 56 per cent. Phrases such as ‘disabled We were able to see, on a scale that until language person’ increased by 135 per cent in the month of recently would be unimaginable, how an event the Paralympics, and by more than 100 per cent like the Paralympics can a!ect language. In this in September 2012 compared to the month before case, positive media reporting of the Paralympics away from the Games began. Similarly, the term ‘wheelchair has helped change the language around disability user’ saw a 335 per cent increase in August. – with di!erently abled people increasingly represented as taking an ever more active part using negative A PROCESS OF CHANGE in society, and o!ensive and degrading terms So the nudge seems to work in two ways – used to refer to them in sharp decline. pushing in preferred words and phrases while terms pushing out dispreferred ones. OFFENSIVE TERMINOLOGY The UK press does not always get it right. But The Paralympics movement is undoubtedly in this case it has played a crucial role in making playing a major role in this. It seems the the enduring legacy of the Paralympics a linguistic Paralympics helped to nudge our language one – it has helped to change our language in away from using negative terms such as ‘cripple’ as sure a way as the Paralympics has changed or ‘handicapped’. This shift is highly marked in the attitudes of many people to disabled people. the year of the Paralympic Games, with the This is a truly British legacy for a very British use of words such as ‘cripple’, ‘crippled’ and Games – by comparison, American English has ‘handicapped’ declining rapidly in the run up to not gone through the same process of change and after each Paralympic Games. For example, PROFESSOR in referring to disabled people. So as Britain’s the media’s use of the word ‘cripple’ dropped by performance at the games was outstanding – it 40 per cent and ‘crippled’ by 30 per cent per one TONY MCENERY is also outstanding that Britain leads the way in million words in 2012, compared to 2011. Use of Professor of English Language and Linguistics, changing how speakers of English choose to refer the term ‘crippled’ fell by almost 50 per cent from Lancaster University. to the di!erently abled. Q July, before the Paralympics began, to September, when they ended. References to ‘cripple’ went www.gov.uk/government/publications/london- down by more than 30 per cent over that period. 2012-media-impact-study

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LANGUAGE ALTERED ACCENTS Watching television can influence the way we speak

A STUDY HAS PROVIDED the !rst evidence that active and engaged television viewing helps accelerate language change. Published in the American journal Language, it looked at how watching the TV soap EastEnders is altering certain features of the Scottish accent. Research, led by Jane Stuart-Smith, Professor of Phonetics at the University of Glasgow, found two particular Repeated negative representations of features of pronunciation typically associated Muslims in the press skews our views with London English that were becoming more apparent in the Glaswegian dialect among people STEREOTYPES who regularly watched the television soap opera. The researchers investigated why certain linguistic factors that are normally found within the Cockney dialect in London were gradually Islam in the news entering into Glaswegian. Although this trend was apparent in people who had contact with friends A recent study has measured how press reporting or family living in London, there was a stronger e"ect for people who had strong psychological has subtly created negative views of Muslims engagement with EastEnders characters.

PRESS REPORTING IS contributing to became extended, eventually encompassing EMOTIONAL ENGAGEMENT negative ‘terrorist’ stereotypes and an increase any Muslim who received benefits, as well as The particular features in question are: using in deeply skewed views of Islam, according appearing to influence the ways in which right- ‘f’ for ‘th’ in, for example, think or tooth, and a to what is believed to be the biggest survey of leaning broadsheets wrote about Muslims. vowel like that in ‘good’ in place of ‘l’ in words like news stories about Muslims ever undertaken. Editors, of course, argue that it is not milk and people. The results show signi!cant The study, by Professor Paul Baker at that newspapers are Islamophobic, it is just correlations between using these features ESRC Centre for Corpus Approaches to Social that the media’s role is to report on bad with strong emotional and psychological Science (CASS), used the latest computer news. If Muslims are involved in bad news engagement by the viewers of the soap. The technology to search and analyse it will be reported as such. But study also concluded that simply being exposed 143 million words of reporting when the researchers compared to television is not su#cient to cause accent about Muslims and Islam in stories about Islam against news change; for someone’s speech to alter, they the UK press since 1998. Using stories in general they found need to regularly watch the show and become such a large body of evidence is IF MUSLIMS significantly more references to emotionally engaged with the characters. vital: There is not a great deal ARE conflict related to Muslims. Researchers caution that TV and other forms of clumsy explicit Islamophobia INVOLVED Even taking into account the of popular media constitute only one of many in the UK Press but there is a IN BAD NEWS general press tendency to focus on factors that help accelerate language change more subtle and ambivalent IT WILL BE bad news, the number of conflict and other, more powerful factors, such as social pattern of reporting that REPORTED stories relating to Islam and interaction between peers, have a much stronger indirectly contributes to negative Muslims looks suspiciously high. e"ect on language change in the study. Q stereotypes and only a large-scale Likewise, there are many other study can reveal this. people living in the UK in receipt of benefits www.linguisticsociety.org For example, some newspapers (mainly who have been convicted of crimes. These people right-leaning tabloids) have focused upon may be Christian, Jewish or atheist, yet their a very small number of Muslims who were religious identity is not seen as newsworthy. either extremist ‘preachers of hate’ or terrorists It is undoubtedly true that the actions of – especially those who were in receipt of people like Osama Bin Laden have contributed government benefits. It is not far-fetched towards the negative representation of Islam to assume that if someone reads about such in British newspapers. Bin Laden’s goal was people on a daily basis, and this is the main to incite conflict between Muslims and way that they encounter Islam, their views non-Muslims so it is sadly ironic that some about Muslims will become deeply skewed. members of the British press have played an obliging role, reacting in a way that at times BAD NEWS IS BAD NEWS threatens to alienate the great majority of Over time the study found that the original Muslims in the UK. Q tabloid focus on high-profile ‘hate preachers’ Watch too much EastEnders and you could end up talking like Peggy Mitchell /KIERON MCCARRON; ALAMY /KIERON MCCARRON;

who were ‘scrounging’ benefits gradually cass.lancs.ac.uk/?p=129 C BB

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PERFORMING UNDER PRESSURE Knowing and controlling the emotions that affect performance can help in high-pressure situations. Andy Lane explains how

A glorious summer of sport in 2012 saw the credibility; he introduced the study, narrated mood of the nation improve as Team GB the interventions and provided feedback. The MICHAEL JOHNSON celebrated winning medal after medal. In feedback is personalised and required detailed MASTERCLASS competitive sports or other high-pressure planning to ensure it was meaningful. situations, psychological factors could well mean The research team was particularly interested The American athlete amassed the difference between success and failure. in the emotional states people experience when 13 World Championship and Olympic One factor that has been shown to predict performing successfully and when performing gold medals in his career. Known for performance is emotion: knowing the emotions badly in their everyday life. A key aim was to his intense focus, he is well placed that influence your performance and having teach participants about how emotions might to give advice on how controlling strategies to control intense and unwanted influence their own performance and so help the mind’s responses can enhance emotions might help you perform better. people manage their emotions better. performance. Here are his top tips: A research project, ‘Can you compete under The mind is absolutely pressure?’, identified factors that could help Emotional responses instrumental in achieving results. people perform better under pressure. Led by Participants were asked about emotional myself and Professor Peter Totterdell of experiences in a situation that was important I trained my mind to be disciplined Sheffield University, it formed the final study to them in their own life, choosing from a and execute a strategy prior to a of a four-year ESRC-funded project, Emotion long list of options that included a sporting race, just like I trained by body. Regulation of Others and Self (EROS). event, playing music, or public speaking. Pressure is nothing more than the ‘Can you compete?’ was carried out with Participants reported emotions when they shadow of great opportunity. support from the BBC LabUK. Millions have performed successfully, repeating this process participated in the different LabUK projects when performing poorly. They then received Ensuring that you fully understand and this level of interest gives the BBC LabUK feedback on which emotions appeared to help a situation before going into it and team considerable expertise on what works and performance and which emotions did not. The preparing for all types of potential what does not. The BBC LabUK team secured results showed that people generally performed scenarios help an athlete. It can the services of Olympic gold-medal winning better when feeling happier, more energetic also help people in everyday life. athlete Michael Johnson to give the project and excited and that people perform badly Source: ssl.bbc.co.uk/labuk GETTY

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STAGE FRIGHT A common way for emotions to affect performance is stage fright. Many stage performers suffer from this crushing condition. Here are a few famous musicians who have found ways to overcome the obstacle to achieve success in their field.

ADELE The down-to-earth young songstress has the music world at her feet, but is renowned for throwing up before performances. She has seen a hypnotherapist to control her anxieties.

BARBRA STREISAND The legendary diva stopped performing live for almost three decades as a result of her crippling fears.

CHER Hard to believe, but the exuberant and colourful star only joined Sonny Bono to become a duo because when people started recognising her talent in the Sixties she was too shy to perform alone. Andy Murray always had the physical talent but he needed to control his emotions to get to the top DAVID BOWIE One of our most original and explosive rock stars describes himself as “unbearably shy” when feeling highly anxious, dejected, fatigued – his exotic persona as Ziggy Stardust was a and angry. But closer inspection showed that mask to hide behind. the difference between too much anxiety and sufficient anxiety was close. This was not the ANNIE LENNOX case for other emotions. Results of the EROS project demonstrated The former Eurythmics front woman used that unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and to suffer appallingly from stage fright sadness are not always bad for performance before her concerts. Now she uses – intense anxiety raises levels of arousal and the mantra ‘Feel the Fear and Do it can energise the individual to try harder. The Anyway’ and it works. research also showed that some intentionally use strategies to make themselves feel more anxious or more angry to perform better. Feedback from participants showed that they gained personal insights and tips to enhance their wellbeing. They also felt better equipped to deal with future pressure situations, such as exams and presentations that extend beyond the realm of game-playing and into everyday life. Q

www.erosresearch.org Performers often hide

behind extravagant Professor Andy Lane is Professor of Sport and personas to mask Learning at the University of Wolverhampton. excessive nerves when on stage REX

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IMMIGRATION discourse around the word refugees is much more international in nature, with descriptive words including camps, the MIGRATION United Nations, war and a number of specific geographical terms. Refugees are depicted IN THE NEWS as fleeing and, in broadsheet newspapers, are associated with numerous countries of UK media coverage of origin. So the word refugees, rather than asylum seekers, appears most associated with migration issues influences international crises. On the other hand, asylum the general public’s reactions seekers are more likely to be associated with people in Britain seeking refugee status, and often with being unable to attain that status.

DIFFERING MEDIA COVERAGE This research offers insights into the language used and the ways that different types of newspapers approach the subject of immigration. It also provides a foundation for further research into the relationship between media coverage and public attitudes. The investigators plan to link the results from this initial work with previous research on public opinion. Prior research based Contrary to what the press may suggest, at the Migration Observatory has shown immigrants with legal status far the complexity of public attitudes toward outnumber those without it migration, and conceptions of who immigrants are. But does media coverage BRITAIN’S NATIONAL newspapers play from the political controversies around play a role in generating these perceptions? a critical role in framing the country’s this phrase, it is worth noting that By accurately and comprehensively opinions on immigration. Studying the immigrants with legal status far outnumber analysing media coverage, and then testing language that these newspapers use to discuss those without it. Of course, this fact does the impact of commonly used media migrants and migration can provide important not carry any automatic implications for language in controlled experiments, this insights into the nature of this debate. news coverage, as newspapers are not research will advance understanding of Researchers at the Migration Observatory, obligated to reflect migration statistics in this sensitive issue. Q a project of the ESRC Centre on Migration, the way they report. Policy and Society (COMPAS) at the The second key finding is the emergence www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/reports/ University of Oxford, used ‘big data’ research of the EU and Eastern Europe as the primary migration-news techniques to develop a geographic reference www.compas.ox.ac.uk quantitative analysis of point for discussions of the language used in 58,000 immigrants and migrants, articles – amounting to 43 especially in tabloid million words – from 20 of coverage. Again, this ONLINE BUSINESS Britain’s main national balance in coverage daily and Sunday NEWSPAPERS does not reflect the THE MULTI" newspapers from PLAY prevalence of EU and 2010-2012. non-EU migrants in The researchers, A CRITICAL official statistics, as PLATFORM Will Allen and Scott ROLE IN non-EU nationals Blinder, used continue to clearly MEDIA computerised linguistic FRAMING THE outnumber EU analytics to identify the COUNTRY’S nationals in the UK’s CHALLENGE words that are particularly migrant populations likely to appear near OPINIONS ON and in new arrivals. How easy, and economic, is four key target words: IMMIGRATION Third, refugees and migrants, immigrants, asylum seekers are described it to deliver content across refugees and asylum using different sets of multiple platforms? seekers. This form of ‘big terms. Asylum seekers are data’ research aims to remove or minimise described as failed, more often than by any human bias from analysis by using automated other single descriptive word. Asylum seekers DIGITAL CONVERGENCE and growth of procedures rather than human readers to find are also associated with immigrants in all three the internet have had a major e!ect on how significant patterns in a large body of text. publication types, and with illegal (in the media content is produced and distributed The first noteworthy pattern to emerge mid-markets) as well as being destitute and in the 21st century and are re-shaping the is the prominence of the phrase ‘illegal vulnerable (in the broadsheets). economics of the media industry. immigrants’. Illegal far outnumbered The terms surrounding refugees, A three-year project led by a research any other modifier of immigrants and migrants especially in tabloids and mid-market team at the Centre for Cultural Policy Research across all three types of publication. Aside newspapers, are relatively distinct. The (CCPR) at the University of Glasgow GETTY

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SOCIAL MEDIA hateful and socially disruptive content. policy formulation, intervention and inform The project involves advice and team wider debates about the emerging contours, mentoring from Google. The inter-disciplinary rights and obligations of digital citizenship WHY project team includes academics from the in a 21st-century democracy. Q Cardiff School of Social Sciences (William Housley, Matthew Williams, Adam Twitter @cosmos_cardi! THE Edwards and Jeff Morgan), from the Cardiff www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/research/researchgroups/ School of Computer Science and Informatics comsc-socsi/projects.html (Pete Burnap and Omer Rana), from the HATE? Cardiff School of Mathematics (Vincent COSMOS is an ESRC and Joint Information Night) and from the Universities of Warwick Systems Committee (JISC) investment A better understanding (Rob Procter) and St Andrews (Alex Voss). that brings together social, political, health, The project aims to create a mathematical and computer scientists to study of abusive behaviour computational tool, informed by social the methodological, theoretical, empirical and science knowledge, which will allow users policy dimensions of Big ‘Social’ Data. in social media is needed to forecast the spread of hateful content over digital networks, providing an The project aims to create a tool to THE CARDIFF ONLINE Social Media opportunity forecast the spread of hateful content Observatory (COSMOS) – an innovative for intervention interdisciplinary collaboration between the before such School of Social Sciences and the School of content ‘goes viral’ Computer Science and Informatics at Cardiff ‘HATE and potentially University – has secured an ESRC-Google SPEECH’ causes harm Data Analytics Research grant to examine the IN SOCIAL to individuals, character of hate speech online. MEDIA IS minority groups The proliferation of ‘hate speech’ in AN AREA OF and communities. social media is an area of growing concern. GROWING The project For the social sciences, the migration of hate CONCERN will generate speech to social media platforms provides computational new opportunities to study hateful and social scientific antagonistic behaviours to understand the insight into antagonistic online behaviour impact of social media and to identify how and empirically explore the balance between agencies can respond more effectively to its community, social cohesion, identity and threats and consequences. freedom of speech within digital society, This project aims to study the ‘social economy and culture. media ecosystem’ to better understand The COSMOS project will provide how the complex combination of user empirical data and social scientific Caption here blah blah Me modi apel ipsunt. Adit behaviours, global communication networks, interpretation to policymakers, commercial and flows of information interact to promote providers and relevant agencies to shape

investigates the recent migration of media Content can be disseminated across content and diversity within the composition businesses towards diversi!ed digital multiple platforms but to what e!ect? of media output. Is multi-platform publishing distribution and multi-platform growth and distribution contributing to a widening strategies, and the impact this has had of content diversity and choice or, conversely, on economic e"ciency, the organisation of encouraging greater standardisation and production, and on the nature and diversity uniformity around safe and popular media of media content. themes and brands? Re#ecting changes in the appetites and The project started in July 2012 and is behaviours of audiences, distribution of media led by Professor Gillian Doyle, Professor Philip content these days is typically not con!ned to Schlesinger and Dr Katherine Champion. An a single mode of delivery – such as print, initial phase of research centred on national broadcast or electronic – but instead involves newspapers including the Financial Times Group dissemination in a variety of formats and and Telegraph Media Group suggests that the versions and across multiple digital platforms. two-way connectivity and availability of return The research project investigates how the path data that accompany digital platforms are move to a multi-platform approach is substantially in#uencing production practices a$ecting investment #ows and patterns of and content decisions. resource usage across industry and to what Caption here blah blah Me As the project progresses, the project team modi apel ipsunt. Adit extent this approach is enabling media !rms hopes to reveal how current organisational to exploit their assets and serve audience responses to the arrival and growth of digital demands more e$ectively. delivery platforms and especially the internet By focusing on a range of di$erent sorts of and the role of convergent digital technologies have altered and potentially improved the media organisations, the study aims to uncover and the internet in encouraging such strategies. economics of supplying media. Q what are the main economic opportunities and Another question is how a multi-platform advantages created by multi-platform expansion approach is a$ecting production of media www.gla.ac.uk/schools/cca/research ALAMY; GETTY ALAMY;

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TOM DALEY WAS THE MOST TALKED ABOUT OLYMPIAN AND EMMA WATSON WAS CONSIDERED HARD-WORKING

saw as hard-working, ‘real’ and not money-driven, such as actors Emma Watson, and Olympian Tom Daley. But celebrities like singers Nicki Minaj and Justin Bieber were often described as ‘famous for nothing’ and ‘fake’. The researchers say that how young people talk about celebrities should not be taken at face THE TOP value, and that their talk about celebrities serves important social functions at a time when politicians talk about meritocracy, in a climate of austerity and growing inequality. Academic Michael Billig has argued that when ordinary people talk about elites, like royalty and celebrity, they are also talking about themselves. When 12Case studies were they compare themselves to the more privileged, it is conducted on 12 of often their own lives that end up looking better. the celebrities that were discussed regularly in CRITICAL DISCUSSIONS initial group interviews. The young people were often critical of celebrity culture, Who they were dismissing footballers’ ‘ridiculous’ salaries and debating The top men: Tom Daley the value of modelling, reality TV stardom, or being in (Olympian), Justin Bieber a boy band. While some were envious of celebrities’ jobs (singer, right), Will Smith or wealth, many criticised those they felt hadn’t worked (!lm star), Bill Gates hard and didn’t deserve their fame, comparing this (entrepreneur), to their own experiences and their past and possible Mario Balotelli future struggles. For example, a 16-year-old young man (footballer) and compared his life to Justin Bieber’s: “At the end of the Prince Harry. day, when I leave school I’ve got to go out looking for a job. He can just sing a couple of songs, and there we go.” The top women: They also talked about Katie Price (ex-glamour the pressures celebrities model), Kim Kardashian faced, comparing this to (reality TV star), Nicki the anonymity of ordinary Minaj (singer), Emma life – a 14-year-old initially Watson (actress), CELEBRITY talked about liking the idea Kate Middleton of being rich and famous, (princess, right) but also felt that this would and Beyonce ASPIRATION have drawbacks: “People (singer). wish they were rich, like What was said Are young people obsessed with finding easy fame or Eminem… …[but] you Singers Justin Bieber wouldn’t be able to go and Nicki Minaj attracted are their expectations much more realistic? McDonald’s without being the most negative harassed by loads of fans.” comments, while DEBATES ABOUT THE impact of celebrity often Many of the students were taking exams, and facing Beyonce was considered dismiss young people as ‘The X Factor generation’, who university fees and rising youth unemployment. The a role model. want to get-rich-quick through reality TV. But the ESRC- researchers show that their judgements about celebrities’ funded CelebYouth research by Dr Heather Mendick lives create a framework for understanding the world Katie Price was attacked, and Dr Laura Harvey at Brunel University, and Dr around them, including these inequalities, and reflect but defended by some Kim Allen at Manchester Metropolitan University, dominant contemporary values like hard work. The for her role as a mother. challenges this. It shows that few young people stories show what kinds of aspirations and futures are seen Bill Gates was much aspire to easy fame; their talk about celebrity actually as desirable and achievable in our society. discussed in relation to serves a social function. By comparing their lives with Young people are already having critical conversations his philanthropy, and how those of the rich and famous they are making sense of about celebrities. The researchers believe that rather than stars use money. the massive inequalities between them, replacing envy dismissing celebrity culture, educators can engage with with pleasure in being ‘ordinary’. these cultural stories to talk with young people about their Follow on Twitter@ Last year, the researchers spoke to young people education and career futures. Q CelebYouthUK and aged 14-17 in schools across England about their views Facebook at CelebYouthUK on ‘celebrity culture’. Most valued celebrities who they www.celebyouth.org REX

114 BRITAIN IN 2014 NEWS | CULTURE, MEDIA & SPORT

ONLINE “Daters need to be told, from the moment they sign up, that if a person is not willing to meet them in the first month they should move NEWS IN on. They also need to be told never to respond to requests for money. Dating companies LESSONS could target advice at particularly vulnerable individuals, especially those with high romantic ideals, previous mental health problems or a BRIEF history of abuse,” says Professor Whitty. IN LOVE The study shows that victims are often in denial when they are told that their ‘lover’ is WHERE’S MY MOTIVATION? Fraudsters are using online a fiction invented by criminal gangs to extort Researchers from the universities of dating sites to extort money money. This has important implications for Birmingham and Southampton found that police work, as it means that they are vulnerable a person motivated by the enjoyment or to a second wave of attack. Furthermore, personal importance of a tough sporting AS INTERNATIONAL criminal gangs victims can feel suicidal when the scam is goal will strive harder and be more increasingly target online dating and social exposed. The study recommends that the successful compared to someone motivated networking sites, as a means of extorting money police call in health professionals as soon as the by external pressure or feelings of guilt. from unwary victims, research by Professor crime is reported. Doctors should also be made And athletes with high self motivation Monica Whitty of the University of Leicester aware of these suicidal tendencies. who could recognise when a goal was and Professor Tom Buchanan of the University If courts don’t recognise the psychological impossible could switch to challenging, of Westminster suggests that new strategies trauma of the witnesses, there is a potential new targets that were also compatible are needed for tackling the crime and for cases to be with their overall objectives. This group supporting its victims. The research argues jeopardised and of athletes made the most progress toward that the police, policymakers, doctors and criminals to remain achieving their central goal. dating companies must take into account the unprosecuted, www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/ emotional state of those who have been conned, PEOPLE HAVE Professor Whitty sport-exercise in order to prevent the crime, bring criminals TO DEAL WITH believes. “Imagine to justice and support victims effectively. THE TRAUMA having to confront “In romance scams, people have to deal OF BEING a criminal in court with losing thousands of pounds, but also with BOTH ROBBED when you had 2006 TWITTER CREATED. the trauma of being both robbed and jilted by a AND JILTED believed them to IT NOW HAS 554,750,000 ‘lover’,” says Professor Whitty. Almost 230,000 be the love of your USERS. EACH DAY 135,000 people in the UK have been conned by online life,” says Professor SIGN UP AND THERE ARE romance fraudsters since 2007, according to the Whitty. Standing in the witness box could be 58 MILLION TWEETS study. The criminals pretend to be seeking a extremely intimidating. She suggests that new relationship, using a fake profile and traditional policies are needed, which identify victims of grooming techniques, in order eventually to romance scams as ‘vulnerable witnesses’ with extort money from their would-be lover. the right to give their evidence via a video-link. 135,000 The study suggests that dating companies Professor Whitty has been working closely need to issue clear warnings on their sites to with courts in several romance scam cases. users about potential dangers ‘before’ they fall Much of her advice has already been taken on THE EFFECTS OF HANDS- in love. Although some people interviewed by board. She is also working with the Serious OFF SPORTS COACHING Professor Whitty became suspicious when they Organised Crime Agency in the UK, and Research suggests the growing practice of were asked for money, they were so infatuated international crime prevention organisations. Q ‘hands-o!’ and ‘no-touch’ sports coaching with their fictional ‘sweetheart’ by that time may have negative implications for the that they chose to ignore the warning signs. www2.le.ac.uk/departments/media continued recruitment of coaches, their e!ectiveness, and also for the development of healthy relationships between adults and children through participation in sport. Interviews carried out with over 60 coaches around the UK, in sports such as football, gymnastics and swimming, revealed that coaches are overwhelmed with confusing rules about what constitutes ‘appropriate behaviour’, leaving them too scared to have any physical contact with pupils. Many are afraid of breaching often contradictory child protection guidelines or being investigated for assault or abuse. The study found that coaches feel they are no longer trusted to be with or near young people and the perceived risk of accusation has led some to withdraw entirely from coaching www.esri.mmu.ac.uk Online scams can a!ect a victim "nancially and psychologically THINKSTOCK

114 BRITAIN IN 2014 BRITAIN IN 2014 115 CULTURE, MEDIA & SPORT | OPINION

WHY MORE NEEDS TO BE DONE TO COMBAT AGEISM AND SEXISM IN THE MEDIA OPINION THE COMBINATION OF age and gender has emerged as a powerful barrier to the equal opportunities of older women. The discriminatory idea that women age earlier WHY DOESN’T THE than men in employment leads to the creation FACE FIT? of a glass ceiling preventing career progression. In public life too visual representations de!ne age for women in this country, as they have By Dr Lorna Warren and done for many centuries. Professor Alan Walker This locates the media in a critical strategic position in the transmission of images, positive and negative, of older women. Frequently the physical signs of ageing are negatively stereotyped or become the target of humour. Sometimes they are simply air- brushed out of existence. These techniques of presentation in consumer literature and the media cannot be dismissed as super!cial because social value, resources and opportunities, the right to full citizenship, in presenting women’s sexual allure as their may be assigned by such representations. The media passport to success and images of ageing, if The digital age has brought increased diversity visible at all, are increasingly in#uenced by the of visual representations of older women narrative of the anti-ageing industry. but, also, increased the chances of their must recognise This context emphasises the importance of misrepresentation by image manipulation. There the ‘Representing Self – Representing Ageing’ are fewer images of women than men in the (RSRA) project, which focused on the positive media. Front pages of the major UK national daily it shapes representation of older women in public life. It newspapers feature women in 36 per cent of was funded by the ‘New Dynamics of Ageing’ photographs compared with men in 50 per cent, (NDA) programme, an eight-year collaboration and the women who are most commonly the perceptions between !ve Research Councils led by the ESRC. subjects of those photos are young and included The RSRA project found that women in because of their appearance rather then ‘strong their !fties and sixties felt more pressure from news-related reasons’. of women the media and advertising imagery compared with those in their eighties and nineties; THE DOMINANT MALE participants wanted to see more images of Further evidence of ageism and sexism in and ageing ‘ordinary’ older women who were still ‘making the media is male domination. A log of BBC1’s a contribution’; and images produced by older Question Time in 2011 found the show featured women themselves revealed the experience 71.5 per cent male contributors compared to of ageing is strongly related to the body, for

REX 28.5 per cent female. Ageing female example in the form of wrinkles and greying hair. presenters continue to disappear Building on this pioneering project the NDA as TV programmes are Programme held two workshops on ageism ‘refreshed’. Dropped and sexism in the media. The !rst was chaired suddenly from the BBC by Miriam O’Reilly. At the second a Charter programme Country!le, was presented aimed at combating ageism 51-year-old Miriam and sexism. The Charter was developed in O’Reilly’s charge of conjunction with Age UK, Women in Journalism, age discrimination Women Ageing and Media and the National Union was upheld at an DR LORNA WARREN AND of Journalists and has been sent to all major employment tribunal, media outlets. It calls for the media to recognise but not the claim of PROFESSOR ALAN WALKER the important role it plays in shaping perceptions sex discrimination. Both at the University of She"eld, Dr Warren is Senior of women and ageing and to take action to better Popular culture colludes Lecturer in Social Policy, and Director of Learning and represent the diversity, complexity and potential Teaching; Professor Walker is Professor of Social of women aged 50 and over. Q MIRIAM O’REILLY HAD TO FIGHT Policy and Social Gerontology and Director of the RCUK DISCRIMINATION WHEN DROPPED New Dynamics of Ageing Programme BY THE BBC AT THE AGE OF 51 newdynamics.group.shef.ac.uk/home.html

116 BRITAIN IN 2014 FACTS & FIGURES | CULTURE, MEDIA & SPORT BROADCAST NEWS From the ‘father of television’ to the world’s biggest media mogul, the history of TV broadcasting

IN THE BEGINNING The visionary Scottish inventor, John Logie Baird, turned his dream into reality when in 1927 he demonstrated colour television and a video-recording system he called a ‘Phonovision’. In 1928, he made the "rst transatlantic television signal. Source: www.historylearningsite.co.uk

1939 1954 TV is suspended because of The government announces a the war –fewer than 20,000 second TV channel, to be TV sets are in operation. operated on commercial lines.

1958 1936 1946 The number of TV BBC TV broadcasting begins. In TV resumes after households exceeds the 1937, George VI’s Coronation the war with a £2 number of radio-only becomes the "rst outside broadcast. licence fee. households, with over 1971 10m by the end of 1950s. Radio only licence is abolished. 1960 Morecambe and Wise are 1967 The landmark soap 1959 smashing TV audience "gures. 1969 The "rst News at Coronation 9 million TV licences ITV goes colour. Ten is broadcast. Street begins. are bought.

1969 1968 1964 1982 1982 16m TV licences A colour TV BBC2, the third television and TV is blamed licence is channel, goes on air in 1964, Europe’s "rst The fourth for plummeting introduced. transmitting in colour in 1967. satellite channel analogue cinema audiences. is launched. channel is

Rupert Murdoch named 1990 takes over in Channel 4. 1985 BSB is merged with Sky to form BskyB. The Cable Authority is created as 1984 and In 1992 rights acquired to exclusive live the "rst cable systems emerge. renames it Sky. coverage of newly-formed Premier League.

2002 1983 1986 Freeview is Breakfast TV starts on BBC and BSB (British Satellite 1996 introduced, ITV. Thames is the "rst TV Broadcasting) wins satellite The "rst pay-per-view event as Sky with station to start 24-hour broadcasting franchise. charges for the Frank Bruno vs Mike subsidised broadcasting in 1987. Tyson world title boxing bout. set-top boxes o!ering 28 1997 1997 channels. The original 15 ITV franchises are reduced: Carlton, Granada, The "nal analogue channel United News, Ulster Television, and Scottish Media Group. The is launched, Channel 5. funeral of The Princess of Wales is watched by 32.1 million.

2005 2005 2010 The government announces a YouTube is founded – more than The "rst iPad is released. region-by-region programme for the 1 billion unique users each month Now recording, live switch from analogue to digital TV. and over 6 billion hours of video are streaming and on demand The "rst analogue signals were cut in watched each month. Source: YouTube statistics services are changing Whitehaven, Cumbria in October 2007. viewing habits for ever.

HOW HAS 600 Total UK cinema MEDIA POWER CINEMA BEEN admissions for the year Love him or hate him, Rupert 500 AFFECTED? Murdoch remains the most Figures have steadily 400 in#uential media baron of declined since the peak the era, with over 40 years at the end of the 300 of dominant history in Second World War. The British media. 1990s and 2000s saw 200 Sources: www.ofcom.org.uk and #uctuations, but now www.publications.parliament.uk the trend is on the up. 100 Source: launching!lms.com 0 INFOGRAPHIC: TIDY DESIGNS TIDY INFOGRAPHIC:

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