Notes

Introduction

1. To be enfleshed literally means to be “in the flesh.” My usage here of enfleshment refers to the embodied subject, namely human beings. This project’s assertion of enfleshment as a paradoxical phenomenon refers to the reality of multiple ways of being within the flesh that sometimes com- plement, but more often contradict each other. It is from this apparent con- tradiction the enfleshed subject embodies that identity crisis emerges. 2. Womanist theoethicist emilie m. townes posits isness as the physical and spiritual marking of humanity. Isness refers to “concrete existence (lived life) and the impetus for a coherent and unified relationship between body, soul and creation.” For full treatment see emilie m. townes, In a Blaze of Glory: Womanist Spirituality as Social Witness (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995), 48–49. Along these same lines, isness functions here as a referent to concrete embodiedness. 3. G. Reginald Daniel, More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 3. 4. William Edward Burghardt DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (: Bantam Books, 1989), 3. 5. Ibid. 6. I employ this phrase, “the gaze of white supremacy,” throughout the book to refer to the Western optics of morality that normatively disavow the “idea of black equality in beauty, culture, and intellectual capacity” (West, 47). This Western aesthetics establishes a “normative gaze” that essentially determines that blacks do not measure up to the classical aesthetic norm that is based on European cultural values and produces a racialized dis- course that dehumanizes bodies defying this established white normativity. White supremacy emerges from power to “produce and prohibit, develop and delimit, forms of rationality, scientificity, and objectivity which set perimeters and draw boundaries for the intelligibility, availability, and legitimacy of certain ideas.” For full treatment of white supremacy, see , Prophesy Deliverance: An Afro-American Revolutionary (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002), 47–65. 174 Notes

7. Jean-Paul Sartre contends that the look of another goes in front of them to “look upon me without distance while at the same time it holds me at distance” (346–347). For full treatment on the phenomenological con- tours of Sartre’s “look,” see Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: A Phenomenological Essay on Ontology (New York: Washington Square Press, 1992), 340–400. 8. Alexandrian Logos-Sarx Christology maintains the continuous unity of in three stages. The Logos-Son is the eternal Son of God who took on human flesh, rose from the dead, and ascended “to his place within the Godhead” (263). It is clearly summarized in the Athanasian Christological formulation that concedes that the Word is God and the Word became flesh. Antiochene Logos-Anthropos Christology holds that Christ consisted of two distinct natures. Jesus of Nazareth was not God, Godself, but rather was indwelt by God and thus was assumed by the Word. Antioch affirms that God’s divinity and Jesus’s humanity were held together in Jesus Christ. Chapter 1, “The Politics of Incarnation: A Theological Perspective,” explores these divergent perspectives more thoroughly. For a full treatment, see , Jesus: Symbol of God (New York: Orbis Books, 1999), 261–270 and Richard A. Norris Jr. ed., The Christological Controversy (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980). 9. J. Kameron Carter develops his discourse concerning the Rassenfrage (the modern problem of identity and race) in relationship to what he refers to as the Judenfrage that Kant attends to in his Anthropology. Carter essentially argues that Kant reduces all nonwhite people to the Judentum and thus establishes a “binary opposition between white and nonwhite flesh qua white and Jewish flesh” (104). Kant deals with the problem of a mulattic God in Christ by severing Christianity from its Jewish roots and reimag- ining it as a moral religion par excellence of reason. For full treatment see J. Kameron Carter, Race: A Theological Account (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 39–121. My usage of the term “mulattic God” yields to the Christological identity conceived at Chalcedon that mediates between seemingly opposed identities, human and divine, in one body and posits that this apparent brokenness produces wholeness. 10. Gary Dorrien argues that liberal Christian is the “idea of genuine Christianity not based on external authority.” It is the reinterpretation of traditional Christian symbols in ways that create a “progressive religious alternative” to the extremes of atheistic rationalism on the one hand, and “ based on external authority” on the other. Dorrien further pos- its that American liberal theology’s Unitarian beginnings pitted the “sim- ple humanity of Christ” against the high Christology of the Trinitarians’s divine, triune God. For full treatment see Gary Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology: Imagining Progressive Religion, 1805–1900 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 1–57. 11. The black tradition emerges from the religious, cultural, and social experiences of black people in the Americas. This tradition emerged in rebellion against black oppression and embraced ideas of the equality Notes 175

of all people and resistance against enslavement, in addition to opaque interpretations of personal salvation, conviction of sin, charismatic praise and worship, and the promise of heaven. The is primarily described as “those churches whose worship life and cultural sensibilities have reflected . . . a connection to the larger African American commu- nity” and is primarily expressed in independent black Baptist, Methodist, and Holiness-Pentecostal denominations, black congregations in pre- dominantly white congregations like Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, and Lutheran, and nondenominational Christian churches whose ministerial leadership and cultural leadership are African American. However, the black church tradition also includes communities of African descent and Christian faith that may not be connected with any specific denomina- tion. In other words, the black church tradition encompasses the breadth of the African Diaspora. I employ the term “black church” throughout this book to refer to the Christian tradition that emerges from the experience of communities of African descent in the Americas rather than any specific institution. In doing so, I fully realize that “the black church” is no single, monolithic entity to which homogenous religious, social, and cultural val- ues can be ascribed. Nevertheless, I recognize the black church tradition as one that descends from the “invisible institution” of the antebellum South and that “possesses distinctive characteristics and constitutive elements, including key questions, symbols, rituals, and beliefs.” I utilize “black church” and “black churches” interchangeably to refer to this broad tradi- tion. For further treatment, see C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Experience in Religion (New York: Anchor Press, 1974). See also C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya. Black Church in the African-American Experience (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990). See also Stacey Floyd-Thomas et al., Black Church Studies: An Introduction (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2007) and Charles H. Long, Significations: Signs, Symbols, and Images in the Interpretation of Religion (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986). 12. Benjamin Elijah Mays was the president of from 1940–1967. He is fondly remembered as the “godhead” of Morehouse College and the defining influence of the moral importance of this “epicen- ter of black hope.” This statement was made by Morehouse College alumni, Reverend Nicholas S. Richards ’01, Executive Secretary of the Foreign Mission Board of the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc., and Assistant Minister for Global Outreach at The Abyssinian Baptist Chuch in the city of New York. For further treatment of Mays’s influence at Morehouse, see Edward A. Jones, A Candle in the Dark: A History of Morehouse College (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1967). 13. Several of these questions have been formulated as a direct result of emilie m. townes’s comments on my second Doctoral Comprehensive Examination entitled: “The Politics of Incarnation: Identity, Double-Consciousness, and the Feasibility of a Womanist Mediating ,” December 2007. 14. A ballet barre is a portable or permanently mounted waist-high handrail that is traditionally used for the ballet warm-up. Barre exercises include 176 Notes

plies, port de bra, battement tendu, rond de jambe, battement frappe, and grand battement. Through an intentionally designed warm-up, the dancer’s body is prepared at the barre to engage the work of the floor that occurs in the center of the dance studio, stage, or theater. Riggs’s uncovering paral- lels the barre exercise in two critical ways. Most readily, as the barre serves as a ballet dancer’s primary warm-up space, Riggs’s uncovering is a first step that sets the groundwork for fruitful discourse. More importantly, this act of uncovering situates black women and their work as critical for liberative discourse. That is, uncovering sets up/prepares black women’s bodies to be engaged in a larger discourse. 15. Marcia Y. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act: A Womanist Call for Black Liberation. (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1994), 2. 16. See Saidiya V. Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self- Making in Nineteenth Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 3–112. 17. The petit allegro follows the barre warm-up and is executed center floor to further prepare the legs and feet for the scope of the class or performance. The petit allegro consists of small, brisk elevated steps (jumps) like soute, entrechat, cabriole, and jete, which swiftly cut beneath the dancer’s body. The petit allegro parallels Riggs’s debunking in that the dancer is engag- ing the swift, intense, and almost undetectable injustice that undercuts black communities. The petit allegro is often repeated at a greater intensity after the grande allegro (big jumps), immediately preceding the final rever- ence. This is interesting to note because it suggests that the petit allegro, or rather that engagement with injustice, is never complete, but continues into the future. 18. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 2. 19. In her chapter entitled, “Legends are Memories Greater than Memories: Black Reparations in the United States as Subtext to Christian Triumphalism and Empire,” emilie townes contends that legend and truth are not the same. She argues that in order to get at the truth, that is, what really happened, there must first be an engagement with all the memories; this includes those memories that are not true, that are sometimes true, and that are almost true. For townes, the petit allegro is significant because it enables the body (black women) to wrestle with the small, quick steps of injustice on the way toward revealing the entire movement (story). For full treatment, see emilie m. townes, Womanist Ethics and the Cultural Production of (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 79–110. 20. The adage (adagio) actually means “at ease” and is a slow blend of the controlled barre movement and the quick footwork of the petit allegro. It is a center practice that consists of slow, graceful movements that are both simple and complex. The adage is performed with fluidity and appar- ent ease, and develops sustaining power, line, balance, and poise. The adage parallels Riggs’s constructive methodological move in that it connects the subjective movement of the barre with the cutting almost undetectable nar- ratives of life (petit allegro). Riggs’s constructing erases the boundaries Notes 177

between these movements and allows for mediating between the two to develop new ways of being for the body. The adage is never performed in an ad hoc fashion. It is always a controlled process that seeks to build strength and sure footing for the journey ahead. 21. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 2. 22. Ibid., 79. 23. The grande allegro is the large jump series that concludes class or perfor- mance, and that traditionally links movements from barre, petit allegro, and the adagio into one smooth choreographic phrase that includes large jumps like sissone ouverte and grande jete en tourneau. The grande allegro converges with Riggs’s envisioning in that it mediates between the barre, adage, and petit allegro to envisage an alternative morality that is light, lively, and life affirming. 24. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 2. 25. Ibid., 97. 26. Stacey M. Floyd-Thomas, Mining the Motherlode: Methods in Womanist Ethics (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2006), 65. 27. The life and work of Reverdy Cassius Ransom (1861–1959) and Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862–1931), respectively, are additional examples of the confluence of liberal religion and being black in America. 28. The Dance of Redemption was first conceived by feminist theologian and “foremother of feminist social ethics,” . It is a seven-step “exploratory process to discern mechanisms of exploitation and identity patterns that must be altered in order for justice to occur.” See Beverly W. Harrison, “Toward a Christian Feminist Liberation Hermeneutic for De-mystifying Class Reality in Local Congregations,” in Beyond Clericalism, Joseph C. Hough Jr. and Barbara G. Wheeler, eds. (: Scholars Press, 1988), 137–151. This method is traditionally uti- lized in the process of womanist ethics and feminist liberationist theological ethics critical engagement of one another. I contend that an intracommunal Dance of Redemption can occur between black women and black men in order to uncover similar patterns of injustice. For full treatment see , Katie’s Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community (New York: Continuum, 1995), 139–140. 29. See Gary Dorrien, Imagining Progressive Religion: The Making of American Liberal Theology: Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003); and The Making of American Liberal Theology: Crisis, Irony, and Postmodernity, 1950–2005 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2006). 30. The first tenet of womanism, radical subjectivity, is evident throughout the entirety of Alice Walker’s definition of womanism, but most especially the first part. For full definition, see Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother’s Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983). For full treatment of womanist ethical tenets, see Floyd-Thomas, Mining the Motherlode, 4–11. 31. townes, In a Blaze of Glory, 68–88. 178 Notes

32. emilie m. townes asserts “apocalyptic vision” as that theoethical, sociopolitical manifesto that evolves from crisis and martyrdom and refuses to accept or tolerate injustice. Womanist apocalyptic vision is concerned with the intersections of oppression and seeks to overcome the discrepancy between what is and what should be. Though apocalyp- tic vision parallels eschatological hope, it is different insofar as it holds God’s divine providence and human agency in tension as it envisions a just future. For further treatment, see townes, In a Blaze of Glory, 120–144; infers that apocalyptic vindication corresponds with the parousia. This future second coming/second chance is approximated in Christ only by mediating between what God has done and what is. Morse employs the Johannine category of the en sarki (“in the flesh”), I John 4:2, and the Pauline kata sarka (“according to the flesh”) to dem- onstrate the mechanics of apocalyptic vindication. This Morsian rubric is engaged more thoroughly in chapter 1, “The Politics of Incarnation: A Theological Perspective.” For full treatment, see Christopher Morse, Not Every Spirit: A Dogmatics of Christian Disbelief, 2nd ed. (New York: Continuum, 2009), 139–170.

1 The Politics of Incarnation: A Theological Perspective

1. Richard A. Norris Jr., ed., The Christological Controversy (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 5. 2. Ibid. 3. Roger Haight, Jesus: Symbol of God (New York: Orbis Books, 1999), 261. 4. Ibid., 266. 5. Ibid., 267. 6. Ibid., 262. 7. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 465. 8. Haight, Jesus, 258. 9. Ibid. See also William Reeves, The Apologies of Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Minutius Felix: In Defence of the Christian Religion (London: J. Churchill, 1717). 10. Haight, Jesus, 257. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 258. 13. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 63. 14. Earl Richard, Jesus, One and Many: The Christological Concept of New Testament Authors (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1988), 448. See also Origen, On First Principles (Gloucester: P. Smith, 1973). 15. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 448. 16. Ibid., 449. See also Alan E. Brooke, The Commentary on S. John’s Gospel: The Text Revised with a Critical Introduction and Indices (Cambridge: University Press, 1896). Notes 179

17. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 260. 18. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 450. 19. Ibid., 453. 20. Haight, Jesus, 275. 21. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 454. 22. Ibid. 23. Haight, Jesus, 274. 24. Ibid., 276–277. 25. Ibid. 26. Homoousion is traditionally translated as “same substance” or “one substance,” and became the single word to summarize the doctrine that emerged from Nicaea. Nicaea’s assimilation of homoousion with hyposta- sis further complicated matters insofar as maintaining Christ’s ambiguous identity. For full treatment, see Haight, Jesus, 256–277. 27. Ibid., 278. See also Patriarch Athanasius, St. Athanasius’ Four Orations against the Arians, and His Oration against the Gentiles (Oxford: H. Clements, 1713), Book 3. 28. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 458. 29. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 19. 30. See ibid., 19 and Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 460. 31. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 460. 32. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 89. 33. Ibid., 23. 34. Haight, Jesus, 263. 35. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 463. 36. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 109. 37. Haight, Jesus, 263. 38. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 463. 39. Ibid., 466. 40. Ibid. 41. Norris, The Christological Controversy, 25. See also Theodore of Mopsuestia, On the Incarnation, Book VII, Fragment 2. 42. Some scholars suggest that Nestorius did not actually preach this sermon, but it was his chaplain Anastasius whom he supported. For further treat- ment, see David N. Bell, A Cloud of Witnesses: An Introduction to the Development of Christian Doctrine to AD 500 (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 2007), 118. See also V. C. Samuel, The Council of Chalcedon Re-examined (Madras: Christian Literature Society for the Senate of Serampore College, 1977), 6. 43. Bell, A Cloud of Witnesses, 118. 44. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 468. 45. Haight, Jesus, 268. 46. Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 470. 47. Ibid., 473. 48. Ibid., 475. 49. Ibid., 477. 50. Ibid., 478. 51. Ibid. 180 Notes

52. In addition to affirming the doctrine about Christ conceived at Nicaea in 325 and expanded by Constantinople in 381 and Ephesus, the Chalcedonian “Definition” also directly condemned Apollinarianism, Nestorianism, and Eutychianism as “distortions of the traditions of Antioch and Alexandria.” For full treatment, see Richard, Jesus, One and Many, 478 and Bell, A Cloud of Witnesses, 129–140. 53. Haight, Jesus, 288. 54. Ibid. 55. Christopher Morse, Not Every Spirit: A Dogmatics of Christian Disbelief, 2nd ed. (New York: Continuum, 2009), 149. 56. Haight, Jesus, 287. 57. See Sarah Coakley, “What Does Chalcedon Solve and What Does It Not? Some Reflections on the Status and Meaning of the Chalcedonian ‘Definition,’” in The Incarnation, Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall S. J., and Gerald O’Collins S. J., eds (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 162. 58. Similarly, the black church tradition emerged from and has been shaped by the problem of body that is evidenced in the tragedy of African enslavement and Jim and Jane Crow. The black body that defied the gaze of white nor- mativity was, like Jesus Christ, redesignated in egregious ways that made sense to and for the arbiters of the status quo. This racialized problem of incarnation is treated with greater detail in chapter 2. 59. A distinction can be made between the body that is choreographed by kata sarka sociohistorical realities and the choreographed body that ascribes to a predetermined logic that begins en sarki, that is, “in the flesh.” The body that is choreographed is subject to a constructed identity that is pro- scribed by what has happened to it in accordance with its social location in history. On the other hand, the identity of the choreographed body is pri- marily determined by the in-itself act of God that occurs en sarki and that is not circumscribed by historical facticity. Thus the juxtaposition of the body that is choreographed and the choreographed body produces a body politics that corresponds with the logic of incarnation as explored through- out this project. The brilliance of Chalcedon is its mediating between the choreographed body and the body that is choreographed according to its social reality in a way that resists the fragmentation of the seemingly opposed embodied identities. It suggests that God is present with the body that is socially and historically broken, and likewise that the “broken” body can be consubstantial with God. This speaks of a fervent hope, rather a bodily vindication that is not restricted by the repugnance of what is.

2 Moving the Body: The Logic of Incarnation in Theoethical Perspective

1. Sarah Coakley, “What Does Chalcedon Solve and What Does It Not? Some Reflections on the Status and Meaning of the Chalcedonian ‘Definition,’” Notes 181

in The Incarnation, Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall S. J., and Gerald O’Collins S. J., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 162. 2. Ibid., 161. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Christopher Morse, Not Every Spirit: A Dogmatics of Christian Disbelief, 2nd ed. (New York: Continuum, 2009), 139–140. 6. Ibid., 165–166. 7. Ibid., 155. 8. Ibid., 152. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid., 151. 11. Ibid., 168. 12. For more detailed treatment of Christopher Morse’s employment of the en sarki/kata sarka distinction see Christopher Morse, The Difference Heaven Makes: Rehearing the Gospel as News (New York: T&T Clark, 2010), 120–121. 13. Donald M. Baillie, God Was in Christ: An Essay on Incarnation and Atonement ( London: Faber and Faber, 1948), 106–108. 14. Ibid., 126. 15. Ibid., 128. 16. Ibid., 150. 17. Ibid. 18. Marcia Y. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act: A Womanist Call for Black Liberation (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1994), 97. 19. Ibid., 3. 20. Ibid., 82. 21. Ibid., 83. 22. Ibid., 93. 23. Ibid., 94. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid., 95. 26. See Gloria T. Hull, Barbara Smith, and Patricia Bell Scott, eds., All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women’s Studies (Old Westbury: Feminist Press, 1982). townes employs black women’s bodies as the “exclusive inclusivities” that dem- onstrate that in order to ascertain the truth all of the memories must be recounted. When the narratives and memory of the oppressed are held together with the “history” of the oppressor, a different, yet more accurate account of “what really happened” emerges. This project employs a similar method in its development of incarnation ethics. For further treatment of the nuance of history and memory, see emilie m. townes, Womanist Ethics and the Cultural Production of Evil (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 11–27. 27. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 95–96. 28. Morse, Not Every Spirit, 151. 182 Notes

29. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 77. 30. Ibid., 95. 31. Davis, Kendall and O’Collins, The Incarnation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 143. 32. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 95. 33. Stephen W. Need. Truly Divine & Truly Human: The Story of Christ and the Seven Ecumenical Councils (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008), 110. 34. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 96. 35. emilie m. townes employs “almostness” in her assertion of the Tragic Mulatta as mediating ethic. The Tragic Mulatta consists of two seemingly opposed identities in one body and yet is reimaged within the context of townes’s countermemory discourse as one who is not subject to apparent brokenness, but rather is able to utilize her embodied difference (almost- ness) to “interpose and communicate between different sides.” For further treatment, see townes, Womanist Ethics, 79–110. 36. Riggs, Awake, Arise, & Act, 97. See also Coakley, “What Does Chalcedon Solve,” 143. 37. townes, Womanist Ethics, 54.

3 The Problem of Incarnation: Theorizing the Veil

1. Omi and Winant challenge essentialist and illusionist perspectives that assert race as a fixed construct and as an ideological illusion, respectively. They argue instead that race is an unstable “complex of social meanings” that constantly shifts with the ebb and flow of political struggle. Although biological human characteristics (phenotypes) have historically been asserted as the viable basis for racialization, Omi and Winant posit that racial signification is a social and historical process and thus that “there is no biological basis for distinguishing between human groups along the lines of race.” I depart from Omi and Winant’s formulation insofar as they argue that since race is not biologically determinable, identifying race as a prob- lem is a misconception. Though contrived, race and the problem of body that undergirds the impetus toward racialization is a significant social and ethical dilemma. To suggest otherwise is to succumb to the realm of the delusional. For further treatment of race and racial formation, see Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 54–61. 2. J. Kameron Carter, “Matthew’s Melancholy: Matthew Arnold and the Political Theology of Radical Orthodoxy.” Public Lecture, Ethics and Theology Doctoral Seminar, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY, November 2008. 3. J. Kameron Carter, Race: A Theological Account (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 49. 4. Ibid. Notes 183

5. emilie m. townes employs this language to destabilize the myth of American freedom, justice, and equality, and to posit instead the disjunction between the legend and the facts of the American past. For detailed treatment, see Womanist Ethics and the Cultural Production of Evil (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 79–110. 6. Carter, Public Lecture. In his lecture, Carter asserted that race is not a question of science, but rather a question of narration. Race discourse is created ex nihilo, as an exercise that stabilizes cultural identity. The iden- tity of the American nation was unstable at its birth precisely because of the violent cultural confluence that shrouds its emergence. The fictive nar- rative of belonging that seeks to stabilize American/white identity, that is, national consciousness, is a narrative that also naturalizes unnaturalness. For detailed treatment, see Carter, Race. 7. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (New Hampshire: Wesleyan University Press, 1971), 43. 8. Ibid., 44. 9. Anthony B. Pinn, Terror and Triumph: The Nature of Black Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003), 3–4. 10. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 43. See also, Pinn, Terror & Triumph, 4. 11. The “three-fifths” Clause also known as the “three-fifths” Compromise is found in Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution. It essen- tially determined that all enslaved persons counted as “three-fifths” of a person regarding the apportionment of representation and taxation. Native Americans were excluded entirely from this formulation. The impetus to count slaves as three-fifths of human beings was intended to increase the political power of slave-holding states. Ratified in 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment that includes the “Due Process” and “Equal Protection” clauses removed the “three-fifths” clause so that all persons who inhabit a respective state count equally toward that state’s population. For further treatment, see Peter Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court (New York: Viking Press, 1999). 12. My assertion of the black body’s reimaging as “everything and nothing” emanates from Hardt and Negri’s formulation of Empire as being “every- where and nowhere.” They argue that the “everywhere and nowhereness” of Empire manifests in its misrepresentation as a spontaneous phenom- enon that rises up “out of the interactions of radically heterogeneous global forces,” and its being “dictated by a single center of rationality” that tran- scends the variety of global forces, neither of which can be readily identi- fied. Similarly, the reimaging of black bodies emerges from the confluence of seemingly heterogeneous identities and yet is apparently shaped by a sin- gle center of rationality that is guided by the white normative gaze. Black bodies embody everything that emerges from the fear, frustration, hate, eroticism of the white gaze, namely, the confluence of the radically hetero- geneous (this is seen in the variety of caricatures that haunt black bodies) in 184 Notes

such a profound manner that blackness is neutralized and redesignated as no-thing. For detailed treatment of empire, see Michael Hardt and Antoni Negri, Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000). 13. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 70. 14. In line with Fredrickson’s outline of American ethnological thinking (1817–1914), this project claims that there are striking parallels between how Jesus’s “different” body was theoretically misconstrued by the Alexandrian and Antiochene “schools” and how black bodies were (wrongly) scientifi- cally, biblically, and morally theorized within the context of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century American ethnological projects. 15. Negrophobia, rather the hate and/or fear of black people, took its cue from the concept of black degeneracy as it emerged and was promulgated by proslavery theorists and advocates. See Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 256–282. 16. Ibid., 71. 17. Ibid., 71–72. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid., emphasis added. 20. Ibid., 73. See also, Charles Caldwell, Thoughts on the Original Unity of the Human Race (Cincinnati: J. A. & U. P. James, 1852). 21. James Ussher was the archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625 and 1656. Ussher is most renowned for his Annales Veteris Testamenti, A Primi Mundi Origine Deducti (Annals of the Old Testament, deduced from the first origins of the world, 1650) in which he calculated the date of creation to be nightfall preceding October 23, 4004, BCE. For full treatment, see Alan Ford, Ussher, James (1581–1656), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). See also, R. Buick Knox, James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1967). 22. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 73. 23. My usage of “ethic of escape” intends to point to the aspect of Smith’s monogenesis theory that suggests that black people are able to escape their blackness and become white by being removed from the brute African physical and social climate. 24. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 73. 25. Ibid., 74. 26. Ibid., 75. See also Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana or a Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America (Philadelphia: J. Penington, 1839). See Samuel George Morton, Crania Aegyptiaca or Observations of Egyptian Ethnography (Philadelphia: J. Penington, 1844). 27. Edward Lurie, Louis Agassiz: A Life in Science (: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 245–255. 28. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 75. 29. Ibid., 83. 30. Ibid., 84. Notes 185

31. Ibid., 87. For further treatment on biblical and theological justifications for black oppression, see also David Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity and Islam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Stephen R. Haynes, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); and David M. Whitford, The Curse of Ham in the Early Modern Era: The and the Justifications for Slavery (Burlington: Ashgate, 2009). 32. Pinn, Terror & Triumph, 7. 33. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 87. 34. Ibid., 87–88. 35. Ibid., 90. 36. Ibid., 262–263. 37. Ibid., 267. 38. Sexual fear was singularly directed against black men insofar as it held that black men desired to rape white women. With all the talk of “mongreliza- tion” and miscegenation as “original sin,” no substantial discourse ever emerged regarding the constant rape of black women by white men. 39. The 1896 decision of Plessy v. Ferguson (163 U.S. 537) legalized segrega- tion by upholding the constitutionality of the doctrine of “separate but equal.” Ida B. Wells-Barnett, an African American journalist and freedom fighter, penned two infamous pamphlets, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in all Its Phases and A Red Record in order to call attention to the horror of lynching and black oppression in the American South. For full treatment, see Ida B. Wells-Barnett, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, Alfreda M. Duster, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). See also, emilie m. townes, Womanist Justice, Womanist Hope (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993). 40. See Charles Carroll, The Negro a Beast (St. Louis: American Book and Bible House, 1900). See also Thomas Dixon Jr., The Leopard’s Spots: A Romance of the White Man’s Burden, 1865–1900 (New York: Doubleday, 1902). See also, Thomas Dixon Jr., The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1905). 41. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 282. 42. W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, Centenary ed., Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Terri Hume Oliver, eds. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 5. 43. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 287. 44. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Holt, 1993), 265. 45. Ibid., 272. 46. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 269–270. 47. Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois, 274. 48. Ibid., 268. 49. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 293. 50. Manning Marable, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), 45–51. 186 Notes

51. Alonford James Robinson Jr., “Atlanta Compromise,” in Africana, Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr., eds. (New York: Basic Civitas, 1999), 147. 52. Marable, W. E. B. DuBois, 42. See also, Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (Garden City: Doubleday, 1963). 53. Marable, W. E. B. DuBois, 43. 54. Ibid., 46. 55. Edward J. Blum, W. E. B. Dubois: American Prophet (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 65. 56. See Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1976), 39. 57. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 42. 58. Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois, 277. 59. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 10–11. 60. Blum, W. E. B. Dubois, 76–79. 61. Anthony B. Pinn, “Charting DuBois’s Souls: Thoughts on ‘Veiled’ Bodies and the Study of Black Religion,” in The Souls of W. E. B. DuBois: New Essays and Reflections, Edward J. Blum and Jason R. Young, eds. (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2009), 71. 62. Blum, W. E. B. Dubois, 77. 63. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 6. 64. Ibid., 5. 65. Blum, W. E. B. Dubois, 78. See also Appendix II. 66. Keith E. Byerman, Seizing the Word: History, Art, and Self in the Work of W. E. B. DuBois (Athens: University of Press, 1994), 10. 67. C. Eric Lincoln, “The Duboisian Dubiety and the American Dilemma: Two Levels of Lure and Loathing,” in Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation, Gerald Early, ed. (New York: Penguin Press, 1993), 196. 68. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 10–11. 69. Blum, W. E. B. Dubois, 80. 70. Ibid. 71. Ibid., 10. 72. Herbert Aptheker, ed., Against Racism: W. E. B. DuBois’ Unpublished Essays, Papers, Addresses, 1887–1961 (Amherst: University of Massachu- setts Press, 1985), 50. 73. Phil Zuckerman, ed., The Social Theory of W. E. B. DuBois (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 2004), 8. 74. Byerman, Seizing the Word, 15. 75. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 11. 76. Byerman , Seizing the Word, 15. 77. Ibid. 78. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 11. 79. Lewis, W. E. B. DuBois, 282. 80. Ibid., 281. 81. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 11. Notes 187

82. Ibid., ix. See also Lincoln, “The Duboisian Dubiety,” 196. 83. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, x. 84. See Susan Gillman and Alys Eve Weinbaum, eds., Next to the Color Line: Gender, Sexuality, and W. E. B. DuBois (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 351. 85. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, 10. 86. Lincoln, “The Duboisian Dubiety,” 194.

4 Bodies and Souls: The Moral Problem of “Making Men”

1. Gary Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology: Imagining Progressive Religion, 1805–1900, vol. 1 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), xiii–xiv. 2. Ibid., xiii. 3. Ibid., xxiii. 4. Ibid., 1. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 4. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid., 21. For further treatment, see Roland H. Bainton, Hunted Heretic: The Life and Death of Michael Servetus, 1511–1553 (Gloucester: P. Smith, 1978). See also R. Emmet McLaughlin, Caspar Schwenckfeld, Reluctant Radical: His Life to 1540 (New Haven: Press, 1986). 9. Dorrien, Imagining Progressive Religion, 27. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 21–22. 13. Ibid., 24–31. 14. Ibid., 28. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., 33. 17. Gary Dorrien, The Making of Liberal Theology: Idealism, Realism, & Modernity, 1900–1950, vol. 2. (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003), 5. 18. Dorrien, Imagining Progressive Religion, 1805–1900, 295. 19. Ibid., 293. 20. Ibid., 295. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., 295–298. 23. Ibid., 297. 24. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, & Modernity, 1900–1950, 24. 25. Ibid., 25–26. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 188 Notes

28. Ibid., 26–27. 29. Ibid., 25, 48. 30. The primary theologians that emerged from Ritschlian school historicism were Wilhelm Hermann, Julius Kaftan, and Adolf von Harnack. Of the three, Harnack became the “legendary figure” with his 1900 bestseller What is Christianity? Affirming Ritschl’s assertion of Christianity as a life rather than a doctrine or ethic, Harnack contended that Christianity as a religion was fundamentally concerned with the human self. Therefore, true religion is always concerned with the fundamental problems of life, suffering, meaning, and death. Harnack thus contended that history and historical criticism are critical for ascertaining the depths of lived real- ity. For further treatment, see Adolf von Harnack, What Is Christianity? (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1957). See also Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 24–31. 31. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 42. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid., 43. 34. Ibid., 45. 35. Ibid., 46. 36. Ibid., 90. For Rauschenbusch, the biblical idea of the “kingdom of God,” especially as its image is deployed in one’s praying “Thy kingdom come,” does not merely point toward eschatological expectation. To be sure, Rauschenbusch did contend that the “kingdom” would certainly include apocalyptic divine activity at the consummation of history; however, he simultaneously and primarily espoused the “kingdom” as an ongoing ethical project that is as much about what occurs on earth as it is about what is to come in heaven. Indeed, the “kingdom was the sum of all divine and righteous forces on the earth,” and the church was the instrument for its advancement. For further treatment, see Walter Rauschenbush, “The Kingdom of God,” in Walter Rauschenbusch: Selected Writings, Winthrop S. Hudson, ed. (New York: Paulist, 1984). See also Robert T. Handy, ed., The Social Gospel in America, 1870–1920 (New York: Oxford, 1966). See Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, & Modernity, 1900–1950, 87–93. 37. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 91. 38. Ibid., 80–90. 39. Ibid., 110. 40. Ibid., 151. Although born in West Virginia in 1858, George Burman Foster developed his Ritschlian leanings while a graduate student at Gottingen and Berlin. He argued that the problem of liberal Protestantism was its ethical posturing of the gospel. For Foster, even though the world did need an ethic of social justice, “the ethic of Jesus was about compassion, purity, inner disposition, and personality;” therefore modern Christianity should not be based in historical criticism alone, but also in personality and the life of the spirit” (167) Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity. Though Foster would be largely forgotten in the shadow of Matthews and Case, he helped establish the post-Ritschlian identifying characteristic of the Notes 189

Chicago School. See George Burman Foster, The Finality of the Christian Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1906). See also George Burman Foster, The Function of Religion in Man’s Struggle for Existence (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1909). 41. Ibid., 185. 42. Ibid., 188. 43. Ibid., 186. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., 188. 47. Ibid., 187. 48. Ibid., 189. 49. Ibid., 190. 50. Ibid., 191. 51. Ibid., 196. 52. Ibid., 197. 53. Ibid., 196. 54. See Dorrien, Idealism, Realism & Modernity, 1900–1950, 145–150. See also Ralph E. Luker, The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885–1912 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991). 55. Benjamin E. Mays, Born to Rebel: An Autobiography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971), 1. 56. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, & Modernity, 1900–1950, 415. 57. Mays, Born to Rebel, 23. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid., 35. 60. Ibid., 13. 61. Ibid., 14. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid., 15–16. 64. Ibid., 17. 65. Mays graduated at age 22 from the high school of South Carolina’s Negro State College in 1916. Having applied to and been rejected by several Northern prep schools because of his race, Mays enrolled at Virginia Union in Richmond to begin his undergraduate studies. After a successful year at Virginia Union, Mays enrolled at in with the sup- port of his math teacher, Roland A. Wingfield, and his YMCA adviser, Charles E. Hadley, both Bates graduates. Mays enrolled at Bates College, in September 1917. Mays’s doctoral studies were interrupted several times while at the University of Chicago where he enrolled in 1921. The first interruption was due to his being invited by then Morehouse College president John Hope to teach mathematics at the College. He returned to Chicago in 1924 and completed his Master’s degree in 1925. Although Mays intended to immediately complete his PhD, he left Chicago again in 1925 to teach at South Carolina State in Orangeburg before moving to 190 Notes

Tampa in September 1926 to serve as executive secretary of the Tampa Urban League. Working for the National YMCA and then the Institute of Social and Religious Research lengthened Mays’s academic detour. For full treatment, see Mays, Born to Rebel, 50–138. 66. Randal M. Jelks, “Mays’ Academic Formation, 1917–1936,” in Walking Integrity: Benjamin Elijah Mays, Mentor to King Jr., Lawrence Edward Carter Sr., ed. (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1998), 114–115. 67. Ibid., 115. 68. Ibid., 118. 69. Ibid., 120. 70. Mays’s work on his Master’s degree at Chicago coincided with the high period of sociohistorical research at the Divinity School where Shirley Jackson Case was one of the leading scholars. Case had spent a year teach- ing at Bates (Cobb Divinity School) while finishing his dissertation and had befriended one of Mays’s professors, with whom Case shared mutuality in religious ideas. These religious ideas were inevitably passed down to Mays and profoundly informed his graduate work. For further treatment on the impact of the sociohistorical method on Mays, see Jelks, “Mays’ Academic Formation, 1917–1936,” 121–122. 71. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, & Modernity, 1900–1950, 417. 72. Benjamin Elijah Mays, “Pagan Survival in Christianity,” (MA Thesis: University of Chicago, 1925), 5. In his thesis Mays noted six “pagan” factors that influenced early Christianity: The existence of universal empire as developed under Alexander and Rome, Stoic spirit of cosmopolitanism and brotherhood, philosophical conception of spiritual deity, Greek doctrine of immortality, the Jewish ideal of a personal God, and Jewish notions of Diaspora and scriptural canon. 73. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 422. 74. Ibid., 422. 75. Jelks, “Mays’ Academic Formation, 1917–1936,” 125. 76. Benjamin E. Mays, The Negro’s God as Reflected in His Literature (Boston: Mount Vernon Press, 1938), 23–24, 82. 77. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 424. 78. Mays, The Negro’s God, 59–61. 79. Ibid., 7. 80. Ibid., 254–255. 81. Dorrien, Idealism, Realism, and Modernity, 1900–1950, 422. 82. Barbara Dianne Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us: The Politics of Black Religion (Cambridge: Belknap, 2008), 206. 83. Mays, The Negro’s God , 162. 84. See Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 207. See also Mays, Born to Rebel, 149–169. The World Conference of YMCA was held in Mysore, India, in 1937. The Oxford Conference on the Church, Community, and State gath- ered in Oxford, England, in 1937 and the Conference of Christian Youth convened in Amsterdam, Holland, in 1939. Notes 191

85. Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 206–207. 86. Mays, Born to Rebel, 166. 87. See Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 205–237. 88. Edward A. Jones, A Candle in the Dark: A History of Morehouse College (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1967), 29. See also Mays, Born to Rebel, 172. 89. Mays, Born to Rebel, 175. 90. Jones, A Candle in the Dark, 10, 139. See also Carrie Dumas, Benjamin Elijah Mays: A Pictorial Life and Times (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2006), 33. At that time the Atlanta University Affiliation com- prised Atlanta University, Spelman College, and Morehouse. The for- mer Affiliation is contemporarily known as the Atlanta University Center (AUC). Composed of four historically black colleges, namely, Clark Atlanta University, Spelman College, Morehouse College, College, and the Morehouse School of Medicine, the AUC represents the largest consortium of African Americans in higher education. 91. Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 222–223. See also Dereck Joseph Rovaris, “Mays’ Leadership at Morehouse College” in Lawrence Edward Carter, Walking Integrity, 353–375. 92. Rovaris, “Mays’ Leadership,” 354. Mays believed that “qualified lead- ers” could emerge from the most disadvantaged Negro students who were trained and prepared for graduate and professional education. See also Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 222. 93. See Rovaris, “Mays’ Leadership,” 353–375. 94. Morehouse College was propelled into crisis because of the military draft that accompanied World War II. Black men were being pulled from their academic institutions to fight on behalf of a nation that regularly terror- ized their humanity. In light of the fact that many of its older students were being summoned to serve in the armed forces, Morehouse instituted an early admissions program that admitted high school juniors into its freshman class. In 1944, Martin Luther King Jr. was admitted under these circumstances. 95. Rovaris, “Mays’ Leadership,” 357. Robert Michael Franklin employs Morehouse’s Latin motto, “et facta est lux” (and then there was light), in his opening Convocation and Inaugural addresses to hearken back to the Genesis creation narrative that posits that light was made out of darkness. He contends that Morehouse College was the light that emerged from the dark cataclysm of the Civil War, before engaging his hermeneutical posture on Genesis 1: “Let us make man in our own image.” Thus, Franklin infers not only that Morehouse was created by God, but more importantly that the mission of Morehouse is to “make men” in a world that has the “unmaking of man” as its primary objec- tive. Morehouse is empowered to “make men.” For full treatment, see Robert Michael Franklin, “Let Us Make Man . . . Morehouse Man,” Inaugural Address, Morehouse College, Atlanta, GA, February 15, 2008, www.morehouse.edu/inauguration/cer_address.html. 192 Notes

96. Established in 1808 by eight women and two Ethiopian merchants who requested dismission from the First Baptist Church in , the Abyssinian Baptist Church in the city of New York, Inc. is 205 years old and is the oldest black Baptist church in New York State and one of the oldest in the nation. In its two hundred and five–year history only two women, the Reverend Dr. Violet L. Dease (Lee) (1970–) and the Reverend Dr. Eboni K. Marshall (Turman) (1981– ) have been hired as full-time assis- tant ministers and have presided over the ordinances. Reverend Violet Dease (Lee) is the first woman to serve as assistant pastor and Reverend Eboni Marshall (Turman) is the youngest woman to be licensed and ordained by the Abyssinian Baptist Church, and the first to serve as the assistant min- ister. At Abyssinian, women are ordained to the office of Deaconess, but not to the Office of Deacon, which is reserved for men. The historic in Atlanta, Georgia, was founded in 1886 by the Reverend John A Parker. Although a woman has never served as pastor or assistant pastor in its 128 years, Ebenezer Baptist Church employs women as staff ministers and ordains women to the diaconate. 97. Calvin Otis Butts III., Personal Interview, The Abyssinian Baptist Church, New York, NY, January 2010. Reverend Butts admitted that he enrolled at Morehouse College primarily because he did not have enough money to attend his first choice of Trinity College in Hartford, CT. Raphael G. Warnock, Personal Telephone Interview, February 2010. Reverend Warnock was attracted to Morehouse because of the legacy of Martin Luther King Jr. and its tradition of training well-educated black ministers. Nicholas S. Richards, Personal Interview, The Abyssinian Baptist Church, New York, NY, February 2010. Reverend Richards revealed that he knew very little about Morehouse College when he applied for admission, but was encouraged to engage the application process by family members and Morehouse alumni. 98. Richards, Personal Interview. 99. As a high school student, Raphael Warnock came across a book enti- tled Outstanding Black Sermons wherein most of the preachers were Morehouse Men—Samuel Berry McKinney, Williams Holmes Borders, etc. See J. Alfred Smith Sr., Outstanding Black Sermons (Valley Forge: Judson, 1976). 100. Butts, Warnock, and Richards, Personal Interviews. 101. Richards, Personal Interview. 102. Warnock, Telephone Interview. 103. The mission of Morehouse College is to develop men with disciplined minds who will lead lives of leadership and service. For further treatment see, www.morehouse.edu/about/mission.html. 104. Richards, Personal Interview. 105. Ibid. 106. Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 213–215. 107. See Benjamin E. Mays, “Job Discrimination against Women Wrong,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 10, 1962. See also Mays, “It’s Up to Women to Get Equal Amendment Okay,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 24, 1973. Mays, “Men-Women Parity,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 31, 1976. See also Notes 193

Mays, “A Tribute to Woman and a Tribute to Motherhood,” Mother’s Day Address at North Carolina A&T College, May 10, 1964. Mays Papers. 108. Savage, Your Spirits Walk beside Us, 229–230. 109. Ibid., 231. 110. See Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, If It Wasn’t for the Women: Black Women’s Experience and Womanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll: Orbis, 2001), 4, 8. 111. emilie m. townes, “Keeping a Clean House Will Not Keep a Man at Home: An Unctuous Womanist Rhetoric of Justice,” in New Visions for the Americas: Religious Engagement and Social Transformation, David Batstone, ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 141. 112. Notable pastors/preachers who are “Morehouse men” include Martin Luther King Jr., Lawrence Edward Carter Sr., Calvin O. Butts III, Raphael G. Warnock, M. William Howard Jr., Thomas Kilgore Jr., Otis Moss Jr., Otis Moss III, and Michael Walrond Jr., among others.

5 Beyond the Veil: Toward a Womanist Ethic of Incarnation

1. There is a corresponding element of gender injustice within the church and society. They are not mutually exclusive. The black church is employed here as a “control group” to help inform understanding of the mechanics of intracommunal gender injustice that certainly extend beyond the church context. Although still facing severe challenges of sexual-gender injustice, black women have made remarkable strides toward inclusion in many of the professions; however the black church still lags behind in terms of its embrace of women as senior pastors and deacons. 2. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, If it Wasn’t for the Women: Black Women’s Experience and Womanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll: Orbis, 2001), 108–115. 3. Ibid., 112. 4. Ibid., 115. 5. Riggs’s six scenarios demonstrate how structures of labor, power, and desire secure male domination and play out in the church. For more thor- ough treatment, see Marcia Y. Riggs, Plenty Good Room: Women versus Male Power in the Black Church (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2003). 6. Riggs, Plenty Good Room, 19–20. 7. Ibid., 19. 8. Ibid., 20. 9. Ibid., 11. 10. Ibid., 21–22. 11. Ibid., 24. 12. Ibid., 25. 13. Ibid., 27–28. See also Elizabeth Janeway, Man’s World, Woman’s Place: A Study in Social Mythology (New York: William Morrow, 1971), 295–296. 194 Notes

14. Riggs, Plenty Good Room, 36. 15. Ibid., 39. 16. Invisibilization occurs when interpreters of the biblical text always identify with the conquerors of the narrative; for example, the Hebrew slaves of the Exodus liberation tradition, Abraham and Sarah in the Hagar narrative, and as noted above, even the “lost sheep of Israel” in the Jesus tradition. Interpreters often fail to take into account “events, characters, and circum- stances” that have been victimized by and/or left unidentified in the text. This synopsis is taken from my Three Thinkers Doctoral Comprehensive Examination entitled, “A Love Supreme?: Re-creative Love, Redemptive Love, and Radical Self-Love in the Theoethical Thought of Peter Abelard, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Delores S. Williams,” October 23, 2007. For full treatment, see Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk (New York: Orbis Books, 1993), 149. 17. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness, xii. 18. Ibid., xiii. Williams highlights several examples of the social sin of African American denominational churches, including the sexism that denies black women equal opportunity for leadership, immoral models of male leader- ship, collusion between some black male preachers and oppressive American political forces, sexual exploitation of black women, oppressive theological teaching, encouragement of homophobia, and the emotional exploitation of black women. Williams distinguishes between the “black church” and “African American denominational churches” insofar as she contends that the “black church” is an invisible, communal memory that has the ability to hide the multiplicity of sin that is perpetrated against black women in the denominational churches. To speak of African American denominational churches calls visible institutions to accountability and does not suggest a unity among denominations that does not consistently exist. Williams fur- ther posits the Universal Hagar’s Spiritual Church as an African American denominational church that has never “spurned female leadership and female content at the highest levels of the church’s organization and liturgy” (219). For more detailed treatment, see Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness, 206–234. 19. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness, 144. 20. Ibid., 2. 21. Ibid., 144. 22. Ibid., 71. 23. emilie m. townes, Womanist Ethics and the Cultural Production of Evil (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 61,116. 24. Triple jeopardy is indicative of black women’s struggle against oppression on at least three fronts, namely, race, gender, and class. 25. townes, Womanist Ethics, 11. 26. Ibid., 14. 27. Ibid., 18–19. 28. Ibid., 20. 29. Ibid., 21. 30. Ibid. Notes 195

31. Ibid., 3. 32. Ibid., 15. 33. Ibid., 11. 34. Ibid., 7. 35. Riggs, Plenty Good Room, 20–23, 86. 36. Ibid., 86. 37. Eddie Glaude Jr., “The Black Church is Dead,” The Huffington Post, Online, February 24, 2010, www.thehuffingtonpost.com. 38. Riggs, Plenty Good Room, 11. 39. For full treatment, see Kelly Brown-Douglas, Sexuality & the Black Church: A Womanist Perspective. (New York: Orbis, 1999), 125. 40. Brown-Douglas, Sexuality & the Black Church, 63–86. 41. Ibid., 112–113. 42. Katie Cannon, Katie’s Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community (New York: Continuum, 1995), 23. 43. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother’s Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), xi–xii. 44. Cannon, Katie’s Canon, 126. 45. For description of additional tenets—traditional communalism, redemp- tive self-love, and critical engagement—see Stacey Floyd-Thomas, Mining the Motherlode: Methods in Womanist Ethics (Cleveland: Pilgrim, 2006), 8–11. 46. For full treatment, see chapter 2, 40–46.

6 On the Parousia: The Black Body Electric

1. The Matthean gospel reveals the paradox of enfleshment insofar as it asserts the “broken” body as that which mediates the reconciliation of God and humanity and thus precedes wholeness. The veil that formerly sepa- rated two seemingly opposed identities, namely, the divine and the human, is rent in twain by the mediating activity of the mulattic body; that is, of the body that defies established normativity. 2. Christopher Morse, “Bonhoeffer,” Class Lecture, Union Theological Seminary, New York, NY, 2006. 3. See chapters 1 and 2 for full treatment. 4. Afro-Christian colloquialism for God that connotes God’s sustaining power in the midst of crisis and chaos. 5. Marcia Y. Riggs, Plenty Good Room: Women versus Male Power in the Black Church (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2003), 10. 6. Christopher Morse, Not Every Spirit: A Dogmatics of Christian Disbelief, 2nd ed. (New York: Continuum, 2009), 151. 7. See emilie M. townes, Womanist Ethics and the Cultural Production of Evil (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 161. Bibliography

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abolitionist movement, Aubrey, Edwin, 116 American, 61 Aunt Jemima, 145, 149 Abraham, 142, 143 Abyssinian Baptist Church, 169, Bachman, John, 65 192n.96 Baillie, Donald M., 46–8 accomodationism, 70–1, 72 God Was in Christ, 12 “according to the flesh.” See kata barre, 7, 10, 175n.14 sarka Bates College, 114 adage, 10, 176n.20. See also adagio Belsham, Thomas, 92 adagio, 9–11 Bennett, John C., 101 aesthetic valuation, 60 binary hierarchy. See hierarchy, African American biblical binary appropriation, 141 black body, 60, 62, 111, 180n.58, African American denominational 183n.12 churches, 194n.18 as beast, 69–70 African American literature, 116–18 of Christ, 155 compensatory patterns, 117 as site of ethical production, 75 constructive patterns, 117–18 black church, 48, 112–13, Agassiz, Louis, 65 174–5n.11, 180n.58, 193n.1, allegro 194n.18 grande, 9–10, 177n.23 as body of Christ, 48, 159 petit, 8–9, 176n.17, n.19 compensatory ideas about God, American Unitarian Controversy, 113, 117, 119 91, 95 death of, 151–2 Andover Seminary, 91, 96 paradox of, 137, 139 apocalyptic vision, 18, 178n.32 patriarchal privilege of, 151 Apollinaris of Laodicea, 28–30, 39 relationship to Social Gospel, 6 Arius of Alexandria. See as supportive institution, Christology, Arian 136, 137 Athanasius, 26–8 Black Codes, 69 “Atlanta Compromise,” 72 Black Freedom Movement, 2 Atlanta University, 71, 121 black masculinity, 122 Atlanta University Affiliation, 121, Black Matriarch, 145, 149, 154 191n.90 Black Power movement, 126 208 Index black soul, 74, 75, 77, 83 As not-boundary, 41, 42, 55 black women’s bodies, 6, 154, Channing, William Ellery, 92–4 181n.26 Chauncy, Charles, 89–90 as exclusive inclusivity, 160 Chestnutt, Charles, W., 79–80 homoousios with Christ, 18, 48, Christ. See Jesus Christ 49, 161 Christology images of, 145, 154 Alexandrian, 20–1, 36, 54. See relationship to white also Logos-sarx supremacy, 140 Antiochene, 20, 36, 54. See also source for constructive womanist Logos-anthropos ethics, 7, 13, 14, 160 Arian, 25–6, 27, 90 sources of threats to, 14–15 Christ-value, 100, 102 black women’s club movement, 8, Clarke, Samuel, 90 10, 11, 49, 50–1, 135 Coakley, Sarah, 16, 39–41 black women’s moral agency, 8, color line, 15, 70 15–16, 129, 135 communication of idioms, 36 Blum, Edward J., 74, 77–8 Cone, James H., 153 body politics, 1, 38, 60, 96, 112, 154 Conference for Christian Youth, body, problem of, 37, 54, 134, 152. 120, 190n.84 See also enfleshment, problem of Constantine, 26 Brown, William Adams, 101 constructing as methodological Burroughs, Nannie Helen, 135 move, 9–10 Butts, Calvin O., 123, 126, 192n.97 Council Byerman, Keith E., 76 Constantinople, Second, 55 Bynum, Caroline Walker, 146 Constantinople, Third, 55 Ephesus, First Council, 33 Cabell, J.L., 65 Ephesus, Second Council, 34 Caldwell, Charles, 64. See also Great Ecumenical, 35, 53 polygenesis counterhegemony, 148–89 , 90, 91 countermemory, 149 Cannon, Katie, 156–7 craniology, 64 Katie’s Canon, 13, 177n.28 Creed Carter, J. Kameron, 174n.9 Constantinopolitan, 40 Carter, Sr., Lawrence Edward Nicene, 26, 40 Walking Integrity, 12–13 Crummell, Alexander, 72 Cartwright, Samuel A., 66–7 cultural production of evil, 150 Case, Shirley Jackson, 104, 107–8, “Curse of Canaan,” 66–7, 185n.31 114, 115, 190n.70 Cyril of Alexandria, 32–4 Chalcedon, Council of, 3, 20 Letter accepting Formula of Chalcedonian Definition of Reunion, 36 Faith, 4, 12, 35–7, 39, 55, 165, Second letter to Nestorius, 36 180n.52 As boundary (horos), 40, 41 Dance of Redemption, 13, 177n.28 mediating nature of, 36–37, 42, Daniel, G. Reginald, 173n.3 45, 55 Darwin, Charles, 98 Index 209

Dease, Violet L., 192n.96 problem of, 1, 5, 6, 8, 11, 17, debunking as methodological 173n.1, 195n.1 move, 8–9 as theoethical strategy, 16 Dioscorus, 34 envisioning as methodological Dorrien, Gary, 88, 96, 100, 101, move, 10 117, 174n.10, 177n.29 ethic of care, 143 Making of American Liberal ethic of escape, 64, 184n.23 Theology, The, 12, 89, 174n.10 Eutyches, 34–5, 39. See also Social Ethics in the Making, 12 monophysitism double-consciousness Evarts, Jeremiah, 91 DuBoisian, 2, 3, 4, 12, 15, 17, exclusive inclusivity, 42, 160 77, 78, 84, 133; definition, 79–81; relationship with Social fantastic hegemonic imagination, Gospel, 6 131, 147–8, 149, 150 of God, 3 Fisk University, 71 Douglas, Kelly Brown, 131, 153, Flavian, 34–5 155 Floyd-Thomas, Stacey, 175n.11, Sexuality and the Black Church, 177n.26, 177n.30 13, 154 Formula of Reunion, 33–4 Dred Scott v. Sanford, 73 Fosdick, Harry Emerson, 101 DuBois, W.E.B., 2, 17, 72–4 Foster, George Burman, 104, The Papers of W.E.B. DuBois, 188n.40 12, 74–5 Foucault, Michel, 147 The Souls of Black Folk, 12, 74, Franklin, Donna L., 140 173n.4, n.5 Franklin, Robert Michael, 125, 129, DuBoisian dialectic, 79, 82–3, 191n.95 130. See also veil, double- Frederickson, George, 60, 62, 64, consciousness 67, 72 Dusen, Henry P., 101 Gay, Ebenezer, 90 Ebenezer Baptist Church, 123, gaze, white, 130, 133–4, 173n.6, 192n.96 183n.12 education as advancement discipline of, 62, 112 strategy, 71 images of, 149 educational disenfranchisement, 69 relation to double consciousness, Emancipation, 62 3, 6, 17, 82 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 79 relation to kata sarka, 82, 154 empire, 183n.12 relation to “making men,” 145, empiricism. See University of 150, 151 Chicago relation to womanist project, 156 en sarki, 16, 42–3, 45–6, 110, 155, General Education Board, 71 159, 166, 180n.59 Gilkes, Cheryl Townsend, 129, enfleshment, 1, 134–5, 169 of black church, 49 Glaude, Eddie S., 151–2 of God, 20, 27, 28, 33, 35, 42, 45 Gliddon, George R., 64 210 Index

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, logic of, 46, 52, 130, 158, 159 79–80 problem of, 11, 13, 109, 111 Gramsci, Antonio, 147 as womanist mediating ethic, Gudorf, Christine E., 138 14, 18, 49, 53, 55–6, 159–60, 164–5, 166 Hadley, Charles, 114 inclusivity (community), 50, 52, 55, Hagar, 140, 141–4, 150 165, 166, 168 Haight, Roger, 22, 26, 32, 174n.8 in-itself a priori. See incarnation a Halbwach, Maurice, 146 priori “Hamitic Curse”. See “Curse of Institute of Social and Religious Canaan” Research, 116 Hampton Institute, 71, 73 institutions, 5 Harnack, Adolf von, 101, 188n.30 intracommunal sexual-gender Harrison, Beverly W., 177n.28 oppression. See sexual-gender Hartman, Saidiya V., 176n.16 injustice Harvard University, 72, 80 invisibilization, 3, 194n.16 Hegel, Wilhelm Friedrich, 88, 101 Ishmael, 143, 144 Heidelberg University, 72 isness, 1, 3, 7, 18, 130, 169, 173n.2 hermeneutic of aesthetics, 74 of black women, 7 hermeneutic of suspicion, 144 Herrmann, Johann Wilhelm, 101 James, William, 80 hierarchy Jane Crow. See Jim Crow legislation binary, 15, 38, 46, 130, 134, 169 Jesus Christ racial, 1, 15, 48, 59, 61–2, 69, apocalyptic, 105 140, 177n.30 body of, 3, 4, 6, 37, 42, 54, 95, historical criticism, 104 153, 155, 159, 164 history, 146 correspondence to black body, homouousios, 18, 26, 27, 56, 166, 4, 48 171, 179n.26 flesh of, 23, 37, 45 hypostasis, 22, 30, 40, 158 future of, 41, 42 hypostatic union, 32, 33, 45, homoousios with God, 56 159, 166 identity of, 3, 165–6 natures of, 34, 36 identity person of, 34, 36 Christological, 20, 40, 41, resurrection of, 41, 42 54, 166 subordination of, 24–5 crisis of, 5, 14, 19, 37 will of, 29 of God’s people, 20, 56 Jezebel, 154 politics of, 5 Jim Crow legislation, 2, 69, 111, image, 148 118, 137 of God, 15, 163 Jones, Edward A., 175n.12 “in the flesh”. See en sarki Justin Martyr, 19, 22 incarnate a priori, 13, 18, 57, 157–8, 170 Kaftan, Julius, 101 incarnation, doctrine of, 7 Kant, Immanuel, 88, 99 Index 211 kata sarka, 14, 16, 18, 43–6, 88, Mathews, Shailer, 104–7, 110, 115 108, 110, 130, 154, 155, 159, Mayhew, Jonathan, 90 180n.59 Mays, Benjamin Elijah, 4, 6, 87, “kingdom of God,” 99, 102, 103, 111–16, 175n.12, 189n.65, 106, 188n.36 190n.70 as eschatological event, 105 dean of Howard University as social process, 107, 108 School of Religion, 120 “kingdom sayings,” 105, 107 dissertation, 116–19 King, Jr., Martin Luther, 123, 191n.94 legacy, 124–5, 126 master’s thesis, 190n.72 Leo I, 35. See also Tome of Leo President of Morehouse College, Lewis, David Levering, 71 12, 121–3 liberalism, religious, 87, 88, 89, 96 privileging of Social Gospel, American, 4, 88 14, 87 connection to Afro-Christian women’s rights, 128–9 religion, 4, 14 Mays, Sadie Gray, 120, 127 German, 88 mediating ethic, 5, 10, 11, 49 politics of incarnation, 89 negotiation of en sarki and kata liberal theology. See liberalism, sarka, 52 religious relationship to Chalcedonian Lincoln, C. Eric, 83–4, 175n.11 Definition of Faith, 53–4 Lindsey, Theophilus, 91 memory, 146 Little, Joanne, 128 collective, 146 Locke, John, 90 sites of, 146 Logos-anthropos, 3, 34, 174n.8. See monogenesis, 63, 65–6, 184n.23 also Antiochene Christology monophysitism, 34 Logos-sarx, 3, 34, 174n.8. See also moral managers, 4, 87, 125, Alexandrian Christology 127, 150 Logos-Son, 24, 174n.8 Morehouse College, 14, 87, 114, Long, Charles H., 147, 175n.11 127, 191n.94, 192n.103 Luker, Ralph Morehouse Men, 125, 193n.112 The Social Gospel in Black and Morrison, Toni, 144 White, 12 Morse, Christopher, 16, 41, 159 lynching, 69, 137 Not Every Spirit, 12 “making men,” 12, 17–18, 122, Morse, Jedediah, 91 129, 150, 191n.95 Morton, Samuel George, 64 as moral gender problem, 130–1, mulattic body, 195n.1 133–4 mulattic God, 164, 174n.9 relation to Social Gospel, Munger, Theodore, 96–7 123, 160 National Youth Administration, 127 Marable, Manning, 72 Need, Stephen W., 55 Marcian, 35, 54 Negrophobia, 184n.15 Mary, 31, 32, 33. See also Nestorian Controversy, 33 theotokos Nestorius, 31–3, 39, 179n. 42 212 Index

New England Arminians, 90 scientific basis of, 65, 99 new scientific ethnography, 65 racial hierarchy. See hierarchy, New Theology, 96–9 racial Newton Theological Seminary, 115 racial segregation, 111 Nicaea, Council of, 3, 20, 26, 35 radical disjunction, 17 Nicholson, Joseph W., 116 radical subjectivity, 14, 157, 159, Niebuhr, H. Richard, 52 195n.44 Nora, Pierre, 145–6 Ransom, Reverdy C., 72, 177n.27 Norris, Richard A., 174n.8 Rauschenbusch, Walter, 103, 110, Nott, Josiah C., 65 111, 114, 188n.36 reach, 13, 170 one-drop rule Reconstruction, 68 “oppressed of the oppressed,” Religionsgeschichtliche, 105 141, 171 renunciation (relationality), 50, 54, Origen of Alexandria, 19, 23–4, 25 165, 168 responsibility, ethic of, 50, 52, 56, paradox of grace, 46–7. See also 165, 166, 168 Baillie, Donald M. Richards, Earl, 21, 24, 27 Parks, Robert Ezra, 116 Richards, Nicholas S., 123, 126–7, parousia, 42, 45 175n.12, 192n.97 physis, 40, 158 Riggs, Marcia Y., 7, 8, 49, 139, 165, Pinn, Anthony, 61 193n.5 Plessy v. Ferguson, 73, 111, 118, Awake, Arise, & Act, 12, 185n.39 176n.15, n.18, n.25 plurality hypothesis, 65 Plenty Good Room, 13, 131, 135 politics of incarnation, 37, 49, 82, Ritschl, Albrecht, 99 89, 95, 96 Ritschlian theology in America, polygenesis, 63–5, 66–8 101–2 Priestley, Joseph, 92 “simile of the ellipse,” 102 Princeton University (College of New Jersey), 63 Sapphire, 144, 145, 149, 154 practice-based theory of power and Sarah, 141, 142, 143 gender relations, 138 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 174n.7 privilege of difference, 4, 10, 51, 52, Savage, Barbara Dianne, 122, 55, 76, 165 128–9 propsopon, 30, 32 Your Spirits Walk Beside Us, 12 Pulcheria, 54 “saving bodies,” 87, 109, 110, 130, Purinton, Herbert, 114, 115 138. See also Social Gospel pigmentocracy, 3, 153 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 88, 101 Schleiermacherian experientialism quality of life as theological in America, 101, 102 category, 142 Schweitzer, Albert, 105 Schwenckfeld, Caspar, 91 race, construction of, 59, 182n.1 second-sight, 3, 78. See also double- race, discourse of, 60, 61, 183n.6 consciousness; veil Index 213 separate origins theory. See theotokos, 31 polygenesis Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion of Servetus, Michael, 91 the Church of England, 75–6 sexual-gender injustice, 4, 18, 48–9, Three-fifths Clause, 183n.11 134, 137, 193n.1 Tome of Leo, 35, 36 of black church, 138 Topsy, 145, 149 definition, 138 townes, emilie m., 18, 57, 131, 155, examples of, 49, 135 173n.2 relationship to white racism, 140 In a Blaze of Glory, 173n.2, sin of whiteness, 153, 155 177n.31 Slave Codes, 69 Womanist Ethics and the slave narratives, 144 Cultural Production of Evil, slavery, 2, 59, 60 13, 144, 176n.19 advocates of, 60 Tragic Mulatta, 145, 149, 182n.35 economic justification of, 60–1 Trinitarianism. See Calvinism moral justification of, 68–70 triple jeopardy, 8, 134, 144, theological justification of, 62 194n.24 Smith, Gerald Birney, 101 Troeltsch, Ernst, 106 Smith, Samuel Stanhope, 63. See “truth-telling,” 9, 176n.19 also monogenesis Turman, Eboni K. Marshall, social construction of gender 192n.96 theory, 138 Tuskegee Institute, 71, 72 Social Gospel, 4, 5, 12, 95–6, 103, 104 uncovering as methodological move, politics of incarnation, 109 7–8, 176n.14 relationship to black American Union Theological Seminary, identity, 6, 17 101, 126 social myth, 139, 140, 145, 148, 149 “Unitarian Manifesto,” 93 destabilization of, 183n.5 Unitarianism, 91–3 Socinus, Faustus, 91 University of Berlin, 101 sociohistorical method, 17, University of Chicago, 87, 104, 114, 104–5, 163 115, 127 Southern Education Board, 71 empiricism, 4, 17, 108 Spelman College, 121, 126 theological modernism, 104, 130 stand, 13, 170, 171 Urban League, 120 surrogacy, 131, 142, 143 Ussher, James, 184n.21 survival as theological category, 142 sway, 13, 170, 171 veil metaphor, 3, 7, 13, 15, 74–5, 134, 144 “Talented Tenth,” 72 as color line, 78 Tertullian of Carthage, 19, 22–3 politics of incarnation, 82 Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia theological significance of, 77–8 Theodosius II, 33, 34–5 as tool of racial uplift, 79 theological modernism. See with sexual-gender oppression, 137 University of Chicago Virginia Union University, 114 214 Index

Wakefield, Roland, 114 Williams, Delores S., 18, 131, Walker, Alice, 156, 177n.30 140–4, 155 “loves dance,” 14, 167 Sisters in the Wilderness, 13 Warnock, Raphael G., 123–4, 126, womanist dancing mind, 145 192n.97, n.90 womanist, definition of, Washington, Booker T., 72 156–7 Weiss, Johannes, 105 womanist ethics, 157 Welfare Queens, 144 womanist mediating ethic. See Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 72, 177n.27, mediating ethic 185n.39 women’s boards, 135 West, Cornel, 60, 173n.6 World War I, 118 white normativity, 140, 147, 150 white supremacy, 2, 60, 62, 173n.6 YMCA, 120 Wieman, Henry Nelson, 116 Young, Iris Marion, 138