religions

Article Women in Israelite Religion: The State of Research Is All New Research

Beth Alpert Nakhai

Arizona Center for Judaic Studies, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; [email protected]


Received: 5 January 2019; Accepted: 21 January 2019; Published: 19 February 2019


Abstract: Historically, those studying Israelite religion have ignored the existence of women in Iron Age Israel (1200–587 BCE). They have, therefore, accounted neither for the religious beliefs of half of ancient Israel’s population nor for the responsibilities that women assumed for maintaining religious rituals and traditions. Such reconstructions of Israelite religion are seriously flawed. Only in the last four decades have scholars, primarily women, begun to explore women’s essential roles in Israel’s religious culture. This article utilizes evidence from the Hebrew Bible and from archaeological sites throughout Israel. It demonstrates that some women had roles within the Jerusalem Temple. Most women, however, resided in towns and villages throughout the Land. There, they undertook responsibility for clan-based and community-based religious rituals and rites, including pilgrimage, seasonal festivals, rites of military victory, and rites of mourning. They fulfilled, as well, essential roles within the sphere of domestic or household religion. At home, they provided medico-magical healing for all family members, as well as care for women and babies throughout pregnancy, childbirth, and beyond. They, and the men in their communities, worshipped Yahweh, Israel’s primary deity, and the goddess Asherah, as well; for most people, these two divinities were inextricably linked.

Keywords: religion; women; Israel; Judah; Iron Age; domestic religion; family religion; rituals; worship; Jerusalem Temple; feminist studies; archaeology; Hebrew Bible; Old Testament; Yahweh; Asherah

European and American exploration of Ottoman Palestine in the nineteenth and early-twentieth century was fueled, to a great extent, by an interest in Israelite religion, since the Lands of the Bible were understood to hold foundational truths about what was commonly understood as the inevitable supremacy of Christianity. The whole region, from the Levantine coast to ancient Ur, was seen as the geographic and spiritual backdrop to the story of Jesus, a story that highlights exemplary acts by a number of women. How ironic it is, then, that the scholars who engaged in the study of ancient Israel felt no compunction about disregarding the existence of women within Israel’s population, thereby eliminating (inter alia) women’s engagement with religion as a topic of discussion. What this means is that most of what scholars have assumed they knew about Israelite religion is wrong, because it has excluded consideration of women (and children), that is, consideration of more than half the population of ancient Israel. It also means that almost everything known today about women’s participation in Israelite religion is newly acquired knowledge. This paper considers the problems created by the exclusion of women from reconstructions of ancient Israel. It then presents a more complete reconstruction, one that incorporates both archaeological and biblical evidence to highlight the spiritual and ritual worlds of women in Iron Age Israel (1200–587 BCE).

1. What Does Traditional Scholarship Look Like? Only in the past four decades have women populated scholarly reconstructions of ancient Israel life, whether religious, or historical, or anything else. And this is not to say that in the past forty

Religions 2019, 10, 122; doi:10.3390/rel10020122 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 122 2 of 11 years, women have been included in all reconstructions of Israel’s past. It has been surprisingly easy, for example, for (male) biblical scholars and archaeologists to write about “daily life”—the quotidian responsibilities upon which all of life’s grand activities are predicated—and to exclude women (Nakhai 2005). One has to wonder who they thought was doing all that work. As easy as it has been to exclude Israelite women when discussing the responsibilities and chores of daily life, easier still has it been to exclude their active role in Israelite religion (Nakhai 2007). This point is particularly critical because there is, in many people’s eyes, a direct link between the religion of ancient Israel and modern-day Judaism and Christianity; therefore, reconstructions of women’s roles in biblical antiquity have influenced expectations for women’s roles in contemporary society.1 What accounts for the unduly limited attention that traditional scholarship has paid to religious ritual and belief as experienced by Israelite women? This question must be answered in the first place by stressing that it is not correct to assume—as scholars have traditionally done—that women did not matter in ancient religion. As it turns out, the near-absence of women in the Bible is not because women had no religious lives, but rather because women were not players within the monarchical, prophetic, priestly, scribal, and other dominant communities that crafted the demonstrably androcentric Bible.2 However, the narrow lens of the Hebrew Bible has been, until recent decades, the primary lens through which scholars have engaged with Israelite religion. Who, we next ask, are the scholars who so misrepresented the roles of women in Israelite religion? Whether priests, ministers, rabbis, or professors, whether seminary-educated or university-trained, they have generally been men who owed their intellectual heritage to that long line of male scholars who began writing sacred text in Israel’s Iron Age and who have been interpreting it ever since. Just as men monopolized religious leadership from ancient times to modernity, so too have men dominated the study of ancient Israel and its religion. Like biblical scholars, archaeologists (who have often held theological degree), have typically focused on bastions of male authority and elite governance, choosing to excavate palaces and temples, city walls and gates. In short, the exclusion of Israelite women as a topic of scholarly study has been, albeit unwittingly, predicated upon a belief system that has supported male privilege and suppressed women’s agency, meaning that the biases of the past have been perpetuated in the present. What, then, have such reconstructions of Israelite religion looked like? They have been, in short, androcentric, favoring men, the Temple and its priests, the Jerusalem royalty, and other elites.3 They have accepted the biblical trope that vilifies the practice of community and private religion and as they do so, they have perpetuated the erasure of women from the story of Israel.4 The cumulative impact of these factors upon the reconstruction of women’s roles in ancient Israelite religion is clear. The marginalization of women’s roles in ancient religion has served to validate the marginalization of women throughout the millennia.

2. Now: What Does Contemporary Scholarship Look Like? As is well documented, it is women who most often engage in gender-related discussions, whether they are advocating for gender equity in the workplace and at home, or reconstructing the lives of

1 For a discussion of the negative consequences of this approach, as found in European (primarily German) biblical scholarship, see Albertz(1994, pp. 1–17). 2 For the challenges faced when utilizing the Hebrew Bible to reconstruct the lives of Iron Age women, see Nakhai(2007, 2018a, pp. 195–99). 3 Ismar J. Peritz’s 1898 article, “Women in the Ancient Hebrew Cult,” is a rare exception. Peritz(1898) endeavored to identify every biblical reference to women’s religious activities. He considered women’s participation in religion to have been legitimate, and he criticized those scholars who dismissed women’s agency in cultic and ritual matters. 4 Two examples make the point. William F. Albright, the “father of biblical archaeology,” included nothing whatsoever about women’s religious practices or beliefs in his highly influential Archaeology and the Religion of Israel (Albright 1942). In his classic study, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, Roland de Vaux restricted his consideration of women to only a few biblically determined social categories: wife, divorcée, widow, and slave (de Vaux 1961). Religions 2019, 10, 122 3 of 11 women in antiquity.5 Change is afoot, though, since in the twenty-first century, men have begun to join women in the study of ancient women. Our brief overview of scholarship on women in Israelite religion looks at the 1970s and beyond, the decades in which women began their assault on what had been male hegemony over the study of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament.6 Feminist biblical scholars have engaged in a two-pronged approach: identifying women in scripture and amplifying their voices, and challenging the notion of male dominance and patriarchy to the exclusion of women’s authority and agency. Among the first were Trible(1973, 1979, 1984) and Bird(1974, 1987); other important contributions soon followed (see, inter alia, Bal 1989; articles in Day 1989b; Exum 1993; Newsom and Ringe 1992; Brenner 1993 and subsequent volumes; Meyers 2000).7 What about the archaeological contribution? Already in 1984, Conkey and Spector(1984) had published “Archaeology and the Study of Gender,” which systematically addressed the subject of gender within the field of archaeology. Several years later, Carol Meyers published Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context, integrating archaeology with biblical studies in its reconstruction of women’s lives; spiritual and ritual dimensions were among the topics explored (Meyers 1988, 2005, 2012). In 1997, Conkey and Gero(1997) emphasized the “the centrality of feminist thought” to all aspects of archaeological method and theory, and discussed an “explosion of literature on archaeological gender” (p. 413). In the study of ancient Israel, and especially of Israelite religion, there is now some sense of this “centrality”—but even now, one would be hard-pressed to experience the “explosion.” Archaeological data is not curated. Material culture, the remnants of myriad lives lived, has an unpredictable quality. It does not “speak” to reality; rather, it reflects realities that otherwise remain unseen. Inanimate objects require archaeologists to give them voice and this means that, just as occurs with ancient texts, the physical past can be misunderstood. That said, archaeologists have begun to alter our understanding of women’s religious beliefs and ritual practices. Their “discovery” of Israelite women has gone hand-in-hand with their “discovery” of non-elite men and rural communities; recently, attention is being paid to children, as well (Garroway 2014, 2018). Evidence for these groups is best revealed through household, family, or domestic archaeology (see, inter alia, Daviau 1993; Albertz 1994; Hardin 2010; articles in Yasur-Landau et al. 2011; Dever 2012; see also Perdue et al. 1997).8 As it turns out, women’s household tasks and responsibilities are made evident, and so, too, are their acts of domestic piety. It is in the domestic sphere that women’s agency, whether practical or spiritual, was most clearly articulated—and is now being illuminated through recourse to artifactual and architectural remains (see, inter alia, van der Toorn 1994, 1996; Daviau 2001; articles in Bodel and Olyan 2008; Meyers 2010; Albertz and Schmitt 2012; articles in Albertz et al. 2014).

3. Women in Ancient Israelite Religion What does a reconstruction of Israelite religion that includes women look like? Two points are, perhaps, the most fundamental. The first is that, under the broad umbrella of religion, women and men did not have the same roles, but together they shared responsibility within the spheres of ritual and belief as they endeavored to ensure the well-being of their families, their kin groups, and their nation. The second is that, notwithstanding biblical attestations to the contrary, Israelite religion was not devoted exclusively to Israel’s male deity, Yahweh (the LORD). Rather, the goddess Asherah was worshiped alongside Yahweh; the worship of both deities was essential to some—although not to

5 At the same time, not all women study ancient women, nor should they be expected to. For the challenges faced by women working in Near Eastern archaeology, see Nakhai(2018a, pp. 291–95). 6 For a history of women engaged in biblical interpretation, see (Newsom 1992; Bellis 2000). 7 See Bellis(2007), which contains an overview of women in the Bible. Essential to this overview is Bellis’s presentation of—and engagement with—the ideas of a wide range of female scholars who have published books and articles on biblical women. 8 Albertz notes that “ ... the personal piety of family members constituted a specific stratum of beliefs and ritual practices within the religion of ancient Israel and Judah,” prior to and during the Monarchy (Albertz 2010, p. 135; see also Albertz 1994). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWReligionsReligions 2019 2019, ,10 10, ,x x FOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 4 of 12 44 of of 12 12 ReligionsReligions 2019, 10 2019, x FOR, 10 ,PEER x FOR REVIEW PEERReligions REVIEW 2019 , 10Religions, x FOR 2019PEER, 10REVIEW, 122 4 of 12 4 of 12 4 of 12 4 of 11 notnot devoted devoted exclusively exclusively to to Israel’s Israel’s male male deity, deity, Yahweh Yahweh (the (the LORD). LORD). Rather, Rather, the the goddess goddess Asherah Asherah was was not devotednot devoted exclusivelynot exclusively devoted to Israel’snot exclusivelyto devoted Israel’s male deity,exclusively male to Israel’s Yahwehdeity, tomaleYahweh Israel’s(the deity, LORD). (the male Yahweh LORD). deity,Rather, (the YahwehRather, the LORD). goddess the (the goddessRather, LORD). 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Indeed,Indeed, itit waswas Micah’sMicah’s unnamedunnamed mothermother whowho were notwere excluded not excludedwere from not worshipping fromwereexcluded worshippingnot excludedfromnot at excludedthemworshipping atfrom . themIndeed, fromworshipping. Indeed, atit worshipping themwas it .Micah’s atwasIndeed, them Micah’s at unnamed. them. itIndeed, was unnamed Indeed, Micah’s itmother was it mother unnamedwas Micah’swho Micah’s who unnamedmother unnamed who mother mother who who underwrote inin thethe northernnorthern villagevillage ofof DanDan (Judg(Judg ((ֵבּ ֵבּיתית ֱא ֱא ִהִהיםים)) aa smallsmall shrineshrine ֵבּית ֱא ִהיםunderwroteunderwrote thethe costcost ofof constructingconstructing .(Dan in of thethe (Judg Dan northernvillagenorthern (Judg of village Dan (Judg of of Dan (Judg 17:1–5( ֵבּofnorthern ית village ֱאthe ִ הinים )innorthern( the shrine northern )village ( ֵבּthe small יתa ֱאshrinein ִ(ה ֵבּיםית) ֱאaִ smallה ים)underwroteunderwrote the costunderwrote the of cost constructing underwroteof constructingthe cost a ofsmall thethe constructing a costcost shrinesmall ofof constructingconstructing shrine 17:1–5).17:1–5). 17:1–5).17:1–5). 17:1–5). 17:1–5). FromFromFrom early early early in the in in Monarchythe the Monarchy Monarchy (Iron (Iron (Iron Age Age Age II; 1000–587 II; II; 1000–587 1000–587 BCE), BCE), BCE), worship worship worship in Israelin in Israel Israel and and and Judah Judah Judah took took took place place place in From earlyFrom in early the MonarchyinFrom the earlyMonarchyFrom (Iron in the early Age (Iron Monarchy II;in Age 1000–587the II;Monarchy (Iron 1000–587 BCE), Age (IronII; worshipBCE), 1000–587 Age worship inII; IsraelBCE),1000–587 in andIsraelworship BCE),Judah and in worship Judahtook Israel place took and in Israel Judahplace and took Judah place took place multipleinin multiplemultiple venues, venues, includingvenues, includingincluding the Temple thethe in TempleTemple Jerusalem, inin Jerusalem,Jerusalem, officiallysanctioned officiallyofficially sanctioned placessanctioned of worship placesplaces throughoutofof worshipworship in multiplein multiple venues,in venues, multipleincluding inincluding venues,multiple the Temple the includingvenues, Temple in Jerusalem, includingthe in TempleJerusalem, theofficially inTemple Jerusalem,officially sanctioned in Jerusalem,sanctioned officially places officiallysanctioned placesof worship of sanctionedworship places of placesworship of worship the land,throughoutthroughout pilgrimage thethe land, sanctuaries,land, pilgrimagepilgrimage village sanctuaries,sanctuaries, shrines, housing villavillagege shrines,shrines, compounds, housinghousing and compounds,compounds, individual homes andand individualindividual (Nakhai throughout throughoutthe land,throughout pilgrimage the land, thepilgrimagesanctuaries, land, pilgrimage sanctuaries, village shrines, sanctuaries, villa gehousing shrines, villa compounds,ge housing shrines,11 compounds,housing and individual compounds, and individual and individual throughout the land, pilgrimage sanctuaries, village shrines, housing compounds, and individual 1111 2001,homeshomes pp. 176–93; (Nakhai(Nakhai Nakhai 2001,2001, 2015 pp.pp. 176–93,176–93,; Schmitt NakhaiNakhai11 2014). 2015;2015;The SchmittSchmitt Bible describes 2014).2014). The The religious BibleBible describesdescribes rituals that religiousreligious were carried ritualsrituals homeshomes (Nakhai (Nakhai 2001,homes pp.2001, (Nakhai 176–93, homespp. 176–93, 2001,Nakhai (Nakhai pp.Nakhai 2015; 176–93,2001, Schmitt2015; pp. Nakhai 176–93,Schmitt 2014). 2015; Nakhai 112014). The Schmitt 11Bible 2015; The 2014). describesBibleSchmitt describes The 2014). religious Bible11 religious Thedescribes rituals Bible rituals describesreligious ritualsreligious rituals out boththatthat were atwere mandated carriedcarried out times,out bothboth especially atat mandatedmandated within times,times, the es Temple,especiallypecially and withinwithin in response thethe Temple,Temple, to specific andand inin response needsresponse such toto that werethat carriedwere carriedthat out wereboth outthat atcarriedboth mandated were at out mandatedcarried both times, atout times,mandatedes bothpecially esatpecially mandated withintimes, within esthe peciallytimes, Temple, the es withinTemple,pecially and thein and withinresponse Temple, in responsethe toandTemple, in to response and in responseto to as funeralsspecificspecific or needsneeds celebrations suchsuch asas funeralsfunerals of military oror celebrationscelebrations victories (see, ofof militaryintermilitary alia victories,victories Nakhai (see, (see,2001 interinter, pp. aliaalia 44–73;, , NakhaiNakhai Meyers 2001,2001, 2005 pp.pp.; specificspecific needs needssuchspecific as such funerals needsasspecific funerals orsuch celebrations needs asor funeralscelebrations such ofas or militaryfunerals celebrations of military victoriesor celebrations victoriesof military(see, inter (see,of victories military alia inter, Nakhai alia (see,victories, Nakhai inter2001, (see,alia pp.2001,, Nakhaiinter pp. alia 2001,, Nakhai pp. 2001, pp. Ackerman44–73;44–73; 2016 MeyersMeyers). Some 2005;2005; religious AckermanAckerman figures, 2016).2016). including SomeSome relireli prophetsgiousgious figures,figures, and seers, includingincluding necromancers prophetsprophets and andand diviners, seers,seers, 44–73; 44–73;Meyers Meyers 2005;44–73; 2005;Ackerman Meyers44–73; Ackerman 2005;2016).Meyers Ackerman2016).Some 2005; Somereli Ackerman gious2016). reli giousfigures,Some 2016). figures,reli including Somegious including relifigures, prophetsgious prophetsincludingfigures, and seers, includingandprophets seers, prophetsand seers, and seers, did notnecromancersnecromancers operate from andand officially diviners,diviners, sanctioned diddid notnot sites.operateoperate A brief fromfrom overview officiallyofficially illuminates sanctionedsanctioned the sisites.tes. roles AA women briefbrief overviewoverview fulfilled necromancersnecromancers andnecromancers diviners, and diviners,necromancers did and not did diviners, operate not and operate diviners,didfrom not officiallyfrom operatedid officially not sanctioned fromoperate sanctioned officially fromsites. officiallysanctionedAsites. brief A overviewbriefsanctioned sites. overview A briefsites. overviewA brief overview withinilluminatesilluminates the broad the the spectrum roles roles women women of Israelite fulfilled fulfilled religion. within within the the broad broad spectrum spectrum of of Israelite Israelite religion. religion. illuminatesilluminates the roles illuminatesthe women roles womenilluminates fulfilledthe roles fulfilled within women the roles within the fulfilled womenbroad the broad spectrumwithin fulfilled spectrum the ofwithin broad Israelite of thespectrum Israelite broadreligion. religion.spectrumof Israelite of religion. Israelite religion. TheThe dominantdominant biblicalbiblical voice,voice, articulatedarticulated byby TempleTemple priests,priests, Deuteronomists,Deuteronomists, EzraEzra andand The dominantThe dominant biblicalThe biblicaldominant voice,The voice,dominant articulatedbiblical articulatedThe voice, biblical dominantby Temple articulated byvoice, biblicalTemple priests, articulated by voice,priests, TempleDeuteronomists, articulated byDeuteronomists, priests,Temple by Deuteronomists, TempleEzrapriests, andEzra priests,Deuteronomists, and Deuteronomists,Ezra and Ezra and Ezra and Nehemiah, Nehemiah,Nehemiah, andand manymany others,others, demandeddemanded thethe worsworshiphip ofof YahwehYahweh alonealone andand advocatedadvocated forfor thethe Nehemiah,Nehemiah, and many Nehemiah,and manyothers,Nehemiah, andothers, demanded many demanded and others, the manymany wors demandedthe others,others,hip wors of demandedhipdemanded Yahwehthe of worsYahweh thealone hipthe worship of worsaloneand Yahweh hipadvocated ofand of Yahweh aloneadvocatedYahweh for aloneand thealone advocatedfor and theand advocated advocated for the for thefor exclusivitythe of Temple exclusivityexclusivity ofof TempleTemple worship.worship. WhileWhile menmen andand womenwomen alikealike werewere commandedcommanded toto worshipworship YahwehYahweh exclusivityexclusivity of Temple exclusivityof Temple worship.exclusivity worship.of TempleWhile While menof worship.worship. Temple and men women Whileandworship. While women alikemen men While andwere andalike womenmen womencommandedwere and commandedalike women alike were to were worship alike commanded to commanded wereworship Yahweh commanded toYahweh worship to worship to Yahweh worship Yahweh Yahweh (Ex 20:1–2; Deut 5:6), (Ex(Ex 20:1–2; 20:1–2; DeutDeut 5:6),5:6), onlyonly men men fromfrom thethe lineagelineage ofof Zadok,Zadok, thethe firstfirst of of thethe TempleTemple priestspriests (1(1 KgsKgs 2:35, 2:35, (Ex 20:1–2;(Ex 20:1–2; Deut 5:6), Deut(Ex only20:1–2; 5:6), men (Exonly Deut 20:1–2;from men 5:6), the from Deutonlyonly lineage the 5:6),men men lineage of onlyfrom from Zadok, men theof the Zadok, lineagethefrom lineage first thethe of of of lineagefirstZadok, the Zadok, ofTemple theofthe theZadok, Templefirst priests first of the of thepriests (1 thefirst TempleKgs Temple of(1 2:35, theKgs priests Temple priests2:35, (1 (1Kgspriests Kgs 2:35, 2:35,(1 Kgs 4:1–4), 2:35, could officiate at 4:1–4),4:1–4), couldcould officiateofficiate atat thethe Temple.Temple. However,However, severalseveral passagespassages indicateindicate thatthat somesome womenwomen fulfilledfulfilled 4:1–4),4:1–4), could couldofficiate4:1–4), officiate at thecould4:1–4), atTemple. theofficiate couldTemple. However, atthe officiate the However, Temple. Temple. several at the However, several However, passagesTemple. passages several However, indicateseveral passagesindicate passagesthat several some that indicate indicatepassages womensome thatwomen that fulfilledindicate some some fulfilled womenthat women some fulfilled fulfilled women circumscribed fulfilled roles within presided presided ( ְ(גְּגִּבִב ָירָירהה) ) circumscribedcircumscribed roles roles within within the the Temple Temple and and in in the the Temple Temple precinct. precinct. The The queen queen mother mother presided over the cult of Asherah ( ְגּ ִב ָירה) presided presided ( ְגּ ִ ב motherָיר ה ) presidedqueen ( ְגּ motherִבThe motherָ ירהpresided) ( ְגּ ִבqueenָ queen ירה).circumscribedcircumscribed rolescircumscribed within roles within thecircumscribed Temple roles the Temple within andthe roles in Temple theand the within Temple Templein the and the Temple and inprecinct. Temple the in theprecinct. Temple andThe Temple inqueen precinct.Thethe precinct. Temple queenmother The mother The precinct overover thethe cultcult ofof AsherahAsherah (1(1 KgsKgs 15:13),15:13), whichwhich waswas celebratedcelebrated withinwithin thethe TempleTemple (2(2 KgsKgs 18:4;18:4; 22 KgsKgs over theover cult the of cult Asherahover of Asherahthe (1 cult overKgs of(1 15:13),the AsherahKgs cult 15:13), (1which of Kgs (1Asherah Kgs whichwas 15:13), 15:13), celebrated (1was whichKgs whichcelebrated 15:13), waswithin was celebratedwhich within celebratedthe Templewas the withincelebrated Templewithin (2 Kgs the the(2 18:4; within Temple KgsTemple 2 18:4; Kgs the (2 (2 2Temple Kgs Kgs 18:4;18:4; (2 2Kgs2 KgsKgs 18:4; 21:7, 2 Kgs 23:6), while women, 21:7,21:7, 23:6),23:6), whilewhile women,women, workingworking withinwithin thethe TempleTemple precinct,precinct, wovewove garmentsgarments forfor thethe cultcult statuestatue (2(2 21:7, 23:6), while21:7, 23:6), women,21:7, while working23:6), women, while within working women, the Temple withinworking theprecinct, within Temple thewove precinct, Temple garments woveprecinct, for garments the wove cult garmentsforstatue the (2cult for statue the cult (2 statue (2 12 21:7, 23:6), while women, working withinworking the Temple within precinct, the Temple wove precinct, garments1212 wove for the garments cult statue for the(2 cult statue (2 Kgs 23:7; Ackerman 2003b). KgsKgs12 23:7;23:7; AckermanAckerman 2003b).2003b). They They may,may, asas well,well, havehave playedplayed drumsdrums inin musicalmusical processionsprocessions withinwithin Kgs 23:7;Kgs Ackerman 23:7; AckermanKgs 2003b). 23:7; 2003b).AckermanKgs12 They 23:7;12 may, TheyAckerman 2003b).They asmay, well, may, as They2003b). have well, as well,may, played12 have They haveas playedwell, drumsmay, played have asdrums in well, drumsmusicalplayed in have musical in drumsprocessions musicalplayed processionsin drumsmusical processions within in processions within musical within processions within the Temple within (Ps. 68:26; Ackerman ;(;(ְקְקֵדֵד ָשָׁשׁהה)) TempleTemple engagementengagement ְקofֵדof ָשׁהthethe TempleTemple (Ps.(Ps. 68:26;68:26; AckermanAckerman 2003b).2003b). AA poorpoorlyly understoodunderstood formform as Temple ;( ְק ֵד ָשׁה) commonly engagement ( ); [mis]translated ;( ְק ֵד ָשׁה )engagement); Templeְק ofֵד ָשׁה) the Templethe Temple (Ps. 68:26; the(Ps. Temple 68:26;Ackermanthe Ackerman (Ps. Temple 2003b).68:26; (Ps.2003b 2003b).Ackerman A 68:26;poor). AAly poorlyAckermanpoor understood2003b).ly understoodunderstood A 2003b).poor formly Aunderstood of form poorTemple ofly Templeunderstood engagement form engagementengagementof Temple form AhuviaAhuvia andand ; ;ְבְּבּנוֹת נוֹת ִ י ִיְשְׂ ָשׂר ָר ֵאֵאלל)) certaincertainAhuvia womenwomen and ; ְבּtoto נוֹת ִי ְשׂ ָר openopenֵ א ל) commonly [mis]translated commonlycommonlyas Temple [mis]translatedprostitute),[mis]translated open asas to TempleTemple certain prostitute), prostitute),women p.Ahuvia 9) in earlier and days, was later ;,ְבּנוֹת ִי2018 ְשׂ ָר ֵאל) Ahuvia women andand Gribetz and ; ְבּנוֹת AhuviaִיcertainAhuvia ְ ;שׂ ְָבּר toֵא לנוֹת ) ִ י ְשׂ ָר open ֵא ל) commonlycommonly [mis]translated [mis]translated commonlyas Temple as Temple [mis]translatedprostitute),prostitute), prostitute), open open as to toopenTemple certain to certainprostitute), women women

99 9 forbidden For For to further further them discussion discussion (Deut. 23:18). of of As Asherahherah By thein in Jerusalem Jerusalem time of and, theand, Temple’sadditionally, additionally, destruction Anat Anat at at Bethel Bethel by and and the Astarte Astarte Babylonians, at at Dan, Dan, all all some three three 9 For9 further For further discussion discussion For of further As9 herah of Fordiscussion As in furtherherah Jerusalem in discussionof Jerusalem As and,herah additionally, of inand, As Jerusalem herahadditionally, inAnat and,Jerusalem at additionally, Anat Bethel atand, andBethel additionally, Astarte Anat and at Astarte at Bethel Dan, Anat at andall Dan,at three BethelAstarte all three and at Dan, Astarte all threeat Dan, all three women withinofof them them thelinked linked Temple to to Yahweh, Yahweh, precinct see see Freedman lamentedFreedman (1987). (1987). the god Tammuz (Ezek 8:14). of them linkedof them to Yahweh, linked to see Yahweh, Freedman see (1987).Freedman (1987). of themof linked them tolinked Yahweh, to Yahweh, see Freedman see Freedman (1987).1010 (1987). 10 See See AckermanAckerman (1992,(1992, pp.pp. 37–99)37–99) forfor aa discussiondiscussion ofof thisthis passage,passage, whichwhich concludesconcludes thatthat somesome womenwomen 10 See10 Ackerman See Ackerman (1992, See pp.(1992, Ackerman 1037–99) pp. See 37–99) forAckerman(1992, a discussion forpp. a (1992, 37–99)discussion of pp.for this 37–99) a of passage,discussion this for passage, awhich discussionof this whichconcludes passage, ofconcludes this that which passage, some that concludes womensomewhich women concludesthat some thatwomen some women worshippedworshipped thethe godgod Tammuz.Tammuz. Zevit,Zevit, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, susuggestsggests thatthat thethe referencereference isis toto aa certaincertain kindkind ofof worshippedworshipped the god worshippedthe Tammuz. god Tammuz.worshipped Zevit, the god onZevit, Tammuz.the the onother god the hand,Zevit, Tammuz.other suonhand,ggests the Zevit, suother ggeststhat on hand, thethe that referenceother su theggests hand,reference is that tosu aggests the certainis toreference athat certainkind the isof reference kind to a certainof is to kind a certain of kind of ritualritual wailing wailing rather rather than than to to the the wors worshiphip of of a a specific specific deity deity (2001, (2001, pp. pp. 555–61). 555–61). ritual wailingritual rather wailing9 than rather to the thanwors tohip the of wors a specifichip of deity a specific (2001, deity pp. 555–61).(2001, pp. 555–61). ritual wailingritual wailing rather thanrather to than the wors to thehip wors of aForhip specific1111 furtherof a specific deity discussion (2001, deity of pp.(2001, Asherah 555–61). pp. in 555–61). Jerusalem and, additionally, Anat at Bethel and Astarte at Dan, all three of them linked 11 The The Jerusalem Jerusalem Temple Temple was was constructed constructed by by Solomon Solomon (mid (mid-10th-10th c. c. BCE; BCE; 1 1 Kgs Kgs 6:1–8:65) 6:1–8:65) and and destroyed destroyed by by the the 11 The11 Jerusalem The Jerusalem Temple The Temple was Jerusalem11 constructed was The constructedTempleJerusalem by wasSolomonto Temple Yahweh, byconstructed Solomon (mid was see-10th Freedmanconstructed (midby Solomonc.-10th BCE;(1987 c. by1 BCE;(midKgs). Solomon 6:1–8:65) -10th1 Kgs c.(mid 6:1–8:65) BCE; and-10th 1destroyed Kgs andc. BCE; 6:1–8:65) destroyed by1 Kgs the and 6:1–8:65) by destroyed the and bydestroyed the by the 10 BabyloniansBabylonians (587(587 BCE;BCE; 22 KgsKgs 25:8–9).25:8–9). ForFor aa recentrecent discdiscussionussion ofof “popular”“popular” andand “official”“official” religion,religion, seesee BabyloniansBabylonians (587 BCE; Babylonians(587 2BCE; Kgs Babylonians225:8–9). (587Kgs BCE;25:8–9). For See(5872a Kgsrecent ForAckerman BCE; 25:8–9).a recentdisc 2 Kgs(ussion1992 Fordisc 25:8–9)., pp.a ussion ofrecent 37–99)“popular” For of disc for a“popular” arecentussion discussionand disc“official”of and “popular”ussion of this“official” religion, passage,of “popular”and religion, whichsee“official” and concludessee religion,“official” that see somereligion, women see worshipped the god Tammuz.StavrakopoulouStavrakopoulou Zevit, on the other (2010). (2010). hand, suggests that the reference is to a certain kind of ritual wailing rather than to the worship StavrakopoulouStavrakopoulou (2010). (2010). StavrakopoulouStavrakopoulou (2010). (2010). 1212 12 of a specific This This statue deitystatue (2001, was was sometimes pp.sometimes 555–61). described described as as a a sacred sacred pole, pole, symbolic symbolic of of the the Tree Tree of of Life Life (Deut (Deut 16:21). 16:21). 12 This statue12 was sometimes described as a sacred pole, symbolic of the Tree of Life (Deut 16:21). 12 This statue This wasstatue sometimes was sometimes described This described statue as 11a sacredwasThe as sometimes a Jerusalem sacredpole, symbolic pole, Templedescribed symbolic of was the as constructed Treeaof sacred the of Tree Life pole, by of(Deut Solomon Lifesymbolic 16:21). (Deut (mid-10th of 16:21). the Tree c. BCE;of Life 1 Kgs (Deut 6:1–8:65) 16:21). and destroyed by the Babylonians (587 BCE; 2 Kgs 25:8–9). For a recent discussion of “popular” and “official” religion, see Stavrakopoulou(2010). 12 This statue was sometimes described as a sacred pole, symbolic of the Tree of Life (Deut 16:21). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12 ReligionsReligionsReligions 2019 2019, 10, 201910, x, xFOR, FOR10, xPEER PEERFOR REVIEWPEER REVIEW REVIEW 5 5of of 12 12 5 of 12 Religions 2019, 10, 122 5 of 11 Gribetz 2018, p. 9) in earlier days, was later forbidden to them (Deut. 23:18). By the time of the GribetzTemple’sGribetzGribetz 2018, 2018,destruction 2018,p. p. 9) 9) p.in in by 9)earlier earlier thein earlierBabylonians, days, days, days,was was later somewaslater laterforb womenforbidden iddenforb withinidden to to them them theto themTemple(Deut. (Deut. (Deut. 23:18). precinct23:18). 23:18). By By lamented the theBy time timethe the timeof of godthe the of the Temple’sTemple’sTemple’s destruction destruction destruction by by the the by Babylonians, Babylonians, the Babylonians, some some somewomen women women within within within the the Temple Temple the Temple precinct precinct precinct lamented lamented lamented the the god god the god Tammuz (EzekWomen 8:14). participated in public ceremonies in Jerusalem. These include the sacred celebrations TammuzTammuzTammuz (Ezek (Ezek (Ezek 8:14). 8:14). 8:14). whenWomen David participated brought in the public Ark ceremonies to Jerusalem in (2Jerusalem. Sam 6:1–17), These and include when the Solomon sacred placedcelebrations the Ark in his WomenWomenWomen participated participated participated in in public public in public ceremonies ceremonies ceremonies in in Jerusalem. Jerusalem. in Jerusalem. These These These include include include the the sacred sacredthe sacred celebrations celebrations celebrations whennewly David constructed brought the TempleArk to Jerusalem (1 Kgs 8:1–14, (2 Sam 65–66). 6:1–17), In and the late-eighthwhen Solomon century, placed the the era Ark of Kingin his Hezekiah whenwhenwhen David David David brought brought brought the the Ark Arkthe to Arkto Jerusalem Jerusalem to Jerusalem (2 (2 Sam Sam (2 6:Sam 6:1–17),1–17), 6:1–17), and and when andwhen when Solomon Solomon Solomon placed placed placed the the Ark Arkthe in Arkin his his in his newlyand constructed the prophet Temple Isaiah, (1 aKgs new 8:1–14, code 65–66). of law (now,In the Deutlate-eighth 12–26) ce wasntury, adopted the era inof JerusalemKing Hezekiah (2 Kgs 18:1–6). newlyandnewly thenewly constructed constructedprophet constructed Isaiah, Temple Temple aTemple new (1 (1 Kgs codeKgs (1 8: Kgs8: 1–14,of1–14, law 8: 1–14,65–66). 65–66).(now, 65–66). InDe In theut the In 12–26)late-eighth late-eighththe late-eighth was adoptedce century,ntury, century, inthe the Jerusalem era erathe of ofera King King of(2 KingHezekiahKgs Hezekiah 18:1– Hezekiah From here on, women were included in the injunction to celebrate pilgrimage festivals and share and6).and From the andthe prophet hereprophetthe prophet on, Isaiah, Isaiah,women Isaiah, a a newwere new a codenew includedcode ofcode of law law inof (now, thelaw(now, injunction (now, De Deutut De12–26) 12–26)ut to 12–26) celebrate was was adopted wasadopted pilgrimage adopted in in Jerusalem Jerusalem in festivals Jerusalem (2 (2 andKgs Kgs (2 share18:1– Kgs18:1– 18:1– in sacral meals, not only within their communities but also in the Temple precinct (Deut 12:12, 18; 6).in6). sacralFrom From6). From heremeals, here on,here on, not women womenon, only women withinwere were wereincluded includedtheir included communities in in the the in injunction injunctionthe butinjunction also to to celebrate incelebrate tothe celebrate Temple pilgrimage pilgrimage pilgrimageprecinct festivals festivals (Deut festivals and 12:12,and share andshare 18; share 14:22–26; 15:19–23; 16:9–15). While the Bible provides no description of the public ceremony in which in14:22–26;in sacral sacralin sacral meals, 15:19–23;meals, meals, not not 16:9–15). only onlynot withinonly within While within their their the theircommunitiesBible communities communities provides but butno also descriptionalsobut in alsoin the the in Temple ofTemplethe the Temple public precinct precinct precinctceremony (Deut (Deut (Deut 12:12, in12:12, which 12:12, 18; 18; 18; Hezekiah’s covenant was adopted, it does describe women participating in a comparable covenant 14:22–26;Hezekiah’s14:22–26;14:22–26; 15:19–23; 15:19–23; covenant 15:19–23; 16:9–15). 16:9–15). was 16:9–15). adopted, While While While the theit doesBible Bible the describeBibleprovides provides provides women no no description description no participating description of of the the of inpublic public the a comparable public ceremony ceremony ceremony covenantin in which which in which Hezekiah’sceremonyHezekiah’sceremonyHezekiah’s a covenant centurycovenant a covenant century later, was was later,whenadopted, wasadopted, adopted, whenKing it it Josiahdoes Kingdoes it doesdescribe Josiahdescribereestablished describe reestablished women women women Hezekiah’s participating participating Hezekiah’sparticipating code in inof a codelawacomparable incomparable (2a ofcomparable Kgs law 23:1–3). (2covenant covenant Kgs covenant 23:1–3). ceremonyceremonyAceremony number Aa a century number century aof century biblical later, oflater, biblical later, when passageswhen when King passagesKing make KingJosiah Josiah it makeJosiah reestablishedclear reestablished itreestablishedthat clear the that Hezekiah’sMonarchy Hezekiah’s the Hezekiah’s Monarchy facilitatedcode code ofcode of facilitatedlaw law worshipof (2 law(2 Kgs Kgs (2 worship23:1–3).at Kgs23:1–3). a limited 23:1–3). at a limited numberAnumberA number numberofA sanctuaries number of of sanctuariesof biblical biblical of throughoutbiblical passages passages throughout passages themake make Land make theit it clear (1clear Land itKgs clearthat that 12:31; (1 the Kgsthatthe Monarchy 2 Monarchythe 12:31;Kgs Monarchy 23:5). 2 Kgs facilitated facilitated One 23:5). facilitated such Oneworship worshipsanctuary suchworship at at sanctuary ahas a limited atlimited been a limited has been numberdiscoverednumberdiscoverednumber of of sanctuaries atsanctuaries ofthe sanctuaries at military the throughout militarythroughout fortress throughout fortress the atthe Arad;Land Landthe at Land(1at Arad; (1 KgsBeersheba, Kgs (1 12:31; at Kgs12:31; Beersheba, 12:31; 2 some2 Kgs Kgs 2 23:5). Kgs4023:5). some km 23:5).One One due 40 suchOne such kmwest, sanctuarysuch duesanctuary the sanctuary west, remains has has the been ofbeenhas remains a been of a discoveredmassivediscoveredmassivediscovered stone at at stonethefour-horned the at military militarythe four-horned military fortressaltar fortress fortresswere altar at at found.Arad; wereArad; at Arad; atfound. Lachish,at Beersheba, Beersheba, at Lachish,Beersheba, Judah’s some some Judah’ssecond some40 40 km km largest40 second due duekm west,city, duewest, largest contained west,the the city,remains remainsthe contained aremains small, of of a a of a small,a massivebench-linedmassivebench-linedmassive stone stone sanctuary stone four-horned four-horned sanctuary four-horned filled altar withaltar filled werealtar rituwere withal werefound. found.objects. ritual found. Lachish, objects.Lachish, In the Lachish, north, Judah’sIn Judah’s the Judah’s assembla north, second second second assemblages geslargest largest of largestritual city, city, objects of containedcity, contained ritual contained were objects a a small,found small, a were small, found bench-linedatbench-lined Megiddo,atbench-lined Megiddo, sanctuary ansanctuary Israelite sanctuary an Israelite filled filled administrative filledwith with administrative rituwith ritualal ritu objects. center. objects.al objects. center. InRoya In the the lIn Royal north,sanctuaries north, the north, sanctuaries assembla assembla assemblaat Dangesges at ofand Danofges ritual ritual Bethel of and ritual objects objects Bethel are objects described were were are describedwerefound found in found in the attheat Megiddo, Megiddo,BibleBibleat Megiddo, (inter (inter an an aliaIsraelite aliaIsraelite an, 1, 1IsraeliteKgs Kgs administrative administrative12:28–30); 12:28–30); administrative finds finds center. center. from from center. RoyaDan Roya Dan lsupportRoya lsanctuaries sanctuaries supportl sanctuaries that that narrative.at at Dan narrative.Dan at andDan and While Bethel andBethel While ritualBethel are are ritual described objects describedare objects described vary in in vary in from the Bible (inter alia, 1 Kgs 12:28–30); finds from Dan support that narrative. While ritual objects vary thefromthe Bible siteBible site to( tointer(intersite, site, alia alia overall,overall,, ,1 1Kgs Kgs they12:28–30);they 12:28–30); includedincluded finds finds somethsomething from from Dan ingDan supportfrom fromsupport the the that thatfollowing: following: narrative. narrative. massive massive While While stoneritual ritual stone four-hornedobjects objects four-horned vary vary altars; from fromsite to site site, to overall,site, overall, they includedthey included someth something froming fromthe following: the following: massive massive stone stone four-horned four-horned ing ceramic from offeringthe offering following: stands; stands; massive priestly priestly stoneimplements; implements; four-horned and, and, votive;( ַמ ֵצּבוֹת ) altars;fromsmaller smallersite to stonesite, stone overall, altars; altars; standing standingthey included stones someth ,ceramic offering offering offering stands; stands; stands; priestly priestly priestly implements; implements; implements; and, and, and ;( ַמ ֵצּceramic ceramic ;(בוֹתַמ;() ֵַ צּמ ֵצּבוֹת)בוֹת ) altars;altars;altars; smaller smaller smaller stone stone stone altars; altars; altars; standing standing standing stones stones stones votivevessels. vessels. As As at at the the Temple, Temple, worship worship at at these these sites sites was was likely likely restricted restricted to to men; men; at at Arad Arad and and Beersheba, votivevotivevotive vessels. vessels. vessels. As As at atAs the the at Temple, Temple,the Temple, worship worship worship at at these these at thesesites sites wassites was likely waslikely likely restricted restricted restricted to to men; men; to men;at at Arad Arad at Aradand and and Beersheba,inscriptions inscriptions on ostraca on ostraca link their link priests their priest to thoses to atthose the Jerusalemat the Jerusalem Temple. Temple. At the At same the time, same the paired Beersheba,Beersheba,Beersheba, inscriptions inscriptions inscriptions on on ostraca ostraca on ostraca link link their linktheir theirpriest priest priests sto to those sthose to thoseat at the the at Jerusalem Jerusalemthe Jerusalem Temple. Temple. Temple. At At the the At same samethe same time,altars the paired and standing altars and stones standing in the stones Holy in of the Holies Holy of of the Holies Arad of sanctuary the Arad intimatesanctuary the intimate worship the of Asherah time,time, time,the the paired pairedthe paired altars altars altars and and standing andstanding standing stones stones stones in in the the in Holy Holythe Holyof of Holies Holies of Holies of of the the of Ar Artheadad Arsanctuary sanctuaryad sanctuary intimate intimate intimate the the the worshipalongside of Asherah Yahweh alongside (Holladay Yahweh 1987 (Holladay; Nakhai 2001 1987;, pp.Nakhai 177–87; 2001, Nakhai pp. 177–87; 2011, Nakhai2015, pp. 2011, 91–92; 2015, Zevit 2001, worshippp.worship 91–92;worship of of Zevit Asherah Asherah of 2001,Asherah alongside alongside pp. alongside122–349; Yahweh Yahweh Schmitt Yahweh (Holladay (Holladay 2014). (Holladay 1987; 1987; 1987;Nakhai Nakhai Nakhai 2001, 2001, 2001,pp. pp. 177–87; 177–87;pp. 177–87; Nakhai Nakhai Nakhai 2011, 2011, 2011,2015, 2015, 2015, pp. 122–349; Schmitt 2014). pp.pp. 91–92; 91–92;Thepp. 91–92;Bible Zevit Zevit also Zevit2001, 2001, gives 2001,pp. pp. witness122–349; 122–349;pp. 122–349; to Schmitt Schmitta multiplicity Schmitt 2014). 2014). 2014). of smaller shrines on hilltops and within villages The Bible also gives witness to a multiplicity of smaller shrines on hilltops and within villages throughoutTheThe Bible TheBible the Biblealso alsoLand gives alsogives (see, giveswitness witness inter witness to aliato a a , multiplicity to2multiplicity Kgsa multiplicity 17:9–11). of of smaller smaller ofBefore smaller shrines shrines the shrines Te on onmple hilltops hilltops on was hilltops and constructed,and within andwithin within villages villages these villages throughout the Land (see, inter alia, 2 Kgs 17:9–11). Before the Temple was constructed, these throughoutshrines—likethroughoutthroughout the thethe Land theLandpilgrimage Land(see, (see, (see,inter intersanctuaries interalia alia, ,2 alia 2Kgs Kgsat, 2 Shilo 17:9–11). Kgs17:9–11).h, 17:9–11). Bethel, Before Before Gilgal,Before the the TeandtheTemplemple Teelsewhere—had mplewas was constructed, wasconstructed, constructed, raised these these no these shrines—like the pilgrimage sanctuaries at Shiloh, Bethel, Gilgal, and elsewhere—had raised no shrines—likeconcerns.shrines—likeshrines—like13 David, the the pilgrimage pilgrimagethefor example,pilgrimage sanctuaries sanctuaries went sanctuaries to Bethlehem,at at Shilo Shilo at h,Shiloh, Bethel, hisBethel,h, family’s Bethel, Gilgal, Gilgal, village,Gilgal, and and elsewhere—had andtoelsewhere—had participate elsewhere—had in raised araised familial raised no no no concerns.1313 1313 David, for example, went to Bethlehem, his family’s village, to participate in a familial concerns.festivalconcerns.concerns. of sacrifice David, David, David, (1for for Sam example, example,for 20:5–7, example, went 28–29).went wentto to Bethlehem,Given Bethlehem, to Bethlehem, what hisis his known family’s family’shis family’s about village, village, women village, to to participate worshippingparticipate to participate in in aat a familial inShiloh,familial a familial festivalitfestival is likelyfestivalfestival of of thatsacrifice sacrifice ofof in sacrificesacrifice Bethlehem (1 (1 Sam Sam (1 20:5–7,Sam Sam20:5–7, too, 20:5–7, 20:5–7, the 28–29). 28–29). women 28–29). 28–29). Given Given in Giventhe Givenwhat what family whatis whatis known known participated is is known known about about about women aboutalongsidewomen women women worshipping worshipping the worshipping men. worshipping In at atthe Shiloh, Shiloh, days at Shiloh, at Shiloh, it itofit is theis likely islikelyit kings, likelyis likely that that as that in that inIsrael’s Bethlehem Bethlehem in in Bethlehem Bethlehem populati too, too, theon too,too,the grew,women women the women womenthe in in numberthe the in infamily family the the of family familyparticipatedsmall, participated participated local participated placesalongside alongside alongside of alongside worship the the men. men. the would the men.In In the men.the In dayshave days the In days the days have have ,( ֵשׁwould ֶבhave טofincreasedof the theofof kings, thekings,the accordingly. kings, as as Israel’s Israel’s as Israel’s Israel’s Israel’spopulati populati populati population long-establishedonon grew, grew,on grew, the grew,the number numberthe social the number number of structure,of small, small, of ofsmall, local small,localwhich localplaces places localemphasized places of of places worship worship of worship ofthe worshipwould wouldtribe would (have ֵשׁ ֶבט clan ,( ,() ֵ,(שׁ ֵֶבשׁ.pp ֶטב )ט ) which; whichsee whichStager emphasized emphasized 1985; emphasized Nakhai the the tribe tribethe 2001, tribe ֵבּ ית- ָא,structure ב ) ,accordingly. ִ ),accordingly. and accordingly.accordingly. residential Israel’s Israel’s Israel’sIsrael’skin long-established long-establishedgrou long-establishedlong-establishedp or extended social social family social structure, structureמ ְשׁ ָפּ ָחהincreasedclanincreased increased(increased ֵבּית- ָאב ִמ ְשׁ ָפּ ָחה ;see seethe Stager; traditional,Stagersee Stager 1985; 1985;1985 1985; Nakhaipre-monarchical,; NakhaiNakhai Nakhai 2001, 2001, 2001 2001,pp. ,pp. pp. pp. 161–93; ֵבּ; ֵבּ)ית that- ית ָא- ָבא )ב ) and and 2012,), residential andresidential pp. residential 156–58; kin kinkin Faustgrou group groukin p grou2012,p or oror extended pextendedextended pp. or extended172–74) family family, meant family ,( ִמ,( ְִ)משׁ ְָפּשׁDeverָָחפּ ָהח)הclan161–93;clan ( clan 161–93;modes161–93;Dever161–93; of Dever Dever worship 2012 Dever 2012, 2012,, pp. flourished 2012,pp. pp. 156–58; 156–58; 156–58;pp. during156–58;Faust Faust Faust 2012 the Faust 2012, 2012, Monarchy, pp. 2012,pp. pp. 172–74), 172–74) 172–74)pp.. The 172–74) meant, oft-repeated,meant meant, meant that that that the the thatDeuteronomisticthe traditional, traditional, traditional,the traditional, pre-monarchical,pre-monarchical, pre-monarchical, condemnation pre-monarchical, modes of modesofmodes localworshipmodes of ofplaces worship worship of flourished worshipof worship,flourished flourished flourished during over during during which the during the the Monarchy. Monarchythe Monarchy the Jerusalem Monarchy The. The. The oft-repeatedpriesthood oft-repeated. Theoft-repeated oft-repeated had DeuteronomisticDeuteronomistic Deuteronomistic no Deuteronomistic control—and condemnation condemnationcondemnation perhaps, condemnation in oflocal ofreality,of local localplacesof madelocalplaces places of placesno worship,of ofeffort worship, worship, of toworship, over control over over which untiloverwhich which the thewhich the Jerusalem the Deuter Jerusalem Jerusalemthe onomisticJerusalem priesthood priesthood priesthood reforms priesthood had had noofhad the control—and no hadno era control—and control—andno of Isaiahcontrol—and perhaps, and perhaps, perhaps, Hezekiah perhaps, in reality, in in in made reality, made no effort to control until the Deuteronomistic reforms of the era of Isaiah and Hezekiah reality,(Deutreality,no 12–26; made effortmade 2 no toKgsno effort control effort 18:22) to to untilcontroland, control a the cent until until Deuteronomisticury the the later, Deuter Deuter of Josiahonomisticonomistic reforms (2 Kgs reforms reforms of22: the8–23:25)—attests eraof of the the of era Isaiah era of of Isaiah andIsaiahto their Hezekiah and and widespread Hezekiah Hezekiah (Deut 12–26; 2 (Deut(Deut(Deut 12–26; 12–26; 12–26; 2 2 Kgs Kgs 2 18:22) Kgs18:22) 18:22) and, and, a and, acent cent aury urycent later, later,ury later,of of Josiah Josiah of Josiah (2 (2 Kgs Kgs (2 22: Kgs22:8–23:25)—attests8–23:25)—attests 22:8–23:25)—attests to to their their to widespreadtheir widespread widespread popularity.Kgs 18:22) and, a century later, of Josiah (2 Kgs 22:8–23:25)—attests to their widespread popularity. popularity.popularity.popularity. It is Itin isthese in these village village settings settings that that women’s women’s participation participation in inreligious religious rituals rituals is ismost most evident. evident. Several ItIt is is in Itin isthese these in thesevillage village village settings settings settings that that women’s thatwomen’s women’s participation participation participation in in religious religious in religious rituals rituals rituals is is most most is mostevident. evident. evident. Severalpoints points are are particularly particularly relevant. relevant. The The first first is is that that community community and and family family worship worship waswas thethe exclusive SeveralSeveralSeveral points points points are are particularly particularlyare particularly relevant. relevant. relevant. The The first Thefirst is firstis that that is community thatcommunity community and and family andfamily family worship worship worship was was the wasthe the exclusiveprovince province neither neither of men of men nor nor of women.of women. Their Their essential essential concerns,concerns, concerns concerns about about which which one one would exclusiveexclusiveexclusive province province province neither neither neither of of men men of normen nor of ofnor women. women. of women. Their Their Their essential essential essential concerns, concerns, concerns, concerns concerns concerns about about about which which which one one one wouldentreat entreat the the Divine, Divine, werewere for health, health, sustenan sustenance,ce, and and progeny, progeny, and and these these were were concerns concerns shared shared by wouldbywould everyone.would entreat entreat entreat Elders the the Divine, Divine,the in townsDivine, were were and werefor for villages,health, health, for health, sustenan sustenanheads sustenan ofce, ce,households, and andce, progeny, andprogeny, progeny, and and andindividuals these andthese thesewere were as wereconcerns well,concerns concerns all shared shared shared everyone. Elders in towns and villages, heads of households, and individuals as well, all shared byresponsibilityby everyone. everyone.by everyone. Elders forElders the Elders in physical—andin towns towns in towns and and villages, andvillages, hence villages, spiritheads heads ual—maintenanceheads of of households, households, of households, and and of theindividuals andindividuals community individuals as as well, (Nakhaiwell, as well,all all shared 2011).shared all shared responsibility for the physical—and hence spiritual—maintenance of the community (Nakhai 2011). responsibilityThisresponsibility meansresponsibility that for for no the the for one physical—and physical—andthe was physical—and exempt hence hencefrom hence spiritreligiou spirit ual—maintenancespiritual—maintenances responsibilities,ual—maintenance of of althoughthe the of community communitythe communitythose responsibilities(Nakhai (Nakhai (Nakhai 2011). 2011). 2011). This means that no one was exempt from religious responsibilities, although those responsibilities ThiswouldThis meansThis means have means that variedthat no thatno accordingone one no was onewas exempt was exemptto social exempt from from status fromreligiou religiou and religiou sgender. sresponsibilities, responsibilities,s responsibilities, A passage although althoughin Jeremiah, although those those inthose responsibilities responsibilitieswhich responsibilities (so the would have varied according to social status and gender. A passage in Jeremiah, in which (so the wouldstorywould wouldgoes) have have the havevaried varied people varied according according of Judah,according to toin social exilesocial to social instatus status Egypt status and and after gender. andgender. the gender. Babylonian A A passage passage A passage destruction in in Jeremiah, Jeremiah, in Jeremiah, of theirin in which which Templein which (so (so andthe the(so the storytheirstorystory storygoes)homeland, goes) goes)the the people people the theturn people people of ofagainst Judah, Judah, of ofJudah, in Judah,thein exile exile prophet,in inexile inin Egypt exileEgypt in highlights Egypt after in after Egypt theafter the Babylonian theBabylonian afterthe Babylonianshared the Babyloniandestruction destructionresponsibilities destruction of destruction of their their ofof Templetheir Templethe Temple ofentire and their and and Temple their their and their homeland, homeland, their homeland, homeland, turn turn turnagainst against turn against the the against prophet,theprophet, prophet, the prophet,highlightshighlights highlights highlights thethe sharedtheshared shared the responsibilitiesresponsibilities shared responsibilities responsibilities ofof the theof entiretheentire of entirethe entire 13 For the agricultural roots of Israel’s pilg rimage festivals, see Albertz (1994, pp. 82–91). 13 13 For For13 the the For agricultural agricultural the agricultural roots roots ofroots of Israel’s Israel’s of Israel’s pilg pilgrimagerimage pilgrimage festivals, festivals, festivals, see see Albertz Albertz see Albertz (1994, (1994, (1994,pp. pp. 82–91). 82–91). pp. 82–91).

13 For the agricultural roots of Israel’s pilgrimage festivals, see Albertz(1994, pp. 82–91). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 Religions 2019, 10, 122 6 of 11 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 Religions 2019community—women, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW and men, royalty, elite and commoners, in Jerusalem6 of 12 and throughout the community—women and men, royalty, elite and commoners, in Jerusalem and throughout the Land—incommunity—women worship rituals (Jer and and 44:15–19). men, men, royalty, royalty, elite elite and and commoners, commoners, in Jerusalem in Jerusalem and andthroughout throughout the the community—women and men, royalty, elite and commoners, in Jerusalem and throughout the Land—in worship rituals (Jer 44:15–19). ExtensiveLand—in archaeological worship worship rituals rituals (Jerevidence (Jer 44:15–19). 44:15–19). has clarified what the Bible only hints at, by means of Land—in worship rituals (Jer 44:15–19). Extensive archaeological evidence has clarified what the Bible only hints at, by means of ExtensiveExtensive archaeological archaeological evidence evidence has has clarified clarified what what the theBible Bible only only hints hints at, by at, means by means of of Extensivecondemnation archaeological (e.g., evidence 2 Kgs has17:9–11), clarified thatwhat religithe Bibleon wasonly practicedhints at, by not means only of condemnationin state-sponsored (e.g., 2 Kgs 17:9–11), that religion was practiced not only in state-sponsored condemnation (e.g.,(e.g., 22 Kgs Kgs 17:9–11), 17:9–11), that that religion religi wason was practiced practiced not onlynot inonly state-sponsored in state-sponsored sanctuaries, condemnationsanctuaries, (e.g., 2but Kgs also 17:9–11), in community that religi andon domesticwas practiced setting nots, andonly at in burial state-sponsored sites. In towns sanctuaries, such as but Mizpah also in community and domestic settings, and at burial sites. In towns such as Mizpah sanctuaries,but also in but community also in community and domestic and domestic settings, setting ands, at and burial at burial sites. sites. In townsIn towns such such as as MizpahMizpah (Tell sanctuaries,(Tell but en-Nasbeh), also in community Tirzah and (Tell domestic el-Far‘ah setting [N]),s, and and at burial Rehov sites. (Tel In towns Rehov), such simple as Mizpah “shrines (Tell en-Nasbeh), of the elders” Tirzah (Tell el-Far‘ah [N]), and Rehov (Tel Rehov), simple “shrines of the elders” (Tellen-Nasbeh), en-Nasbeh), Tirzah Tirzah (Tell (Tell el-Far‘ah el-Far‘ah [N]), [N]), and and Rehov Rehov (Tel (Tel Rehov), Rehov), simple simple “shrines “shrines of of the the elders” elders” were (Tell en-Nasbeh), Tirzah (Tell el-Far‘ah [N]), and Rehov (Tel Rehov), simple “shrines of the elders” were fashioned within housing complexes for use by extended families (Nakhai 2011). The common were fashionedwere fashioned within within housing housing complexes complexes for for use use by by extended extended familiesfamilies (Nakhai (Nakhai 2011). 2011). The Thecommon common ”were men fails to consider the fact that the Hebrew “masculine ( ְז ֵק ִנים) ”were fashioned withinfashioned housing within complexes housing for use complexes by extended for usefamilies by extended (Nakhai 2011). families The (commonNakhai 2011assumption). The that common “elders ”were men men fails fails to to consider consider the factfact that that the the Hebrew Hebrew “masculine” “masculine ( ְז ֵק ִנwere ים() ְז ֵק ִנים) ”assumptionassumption that “elders” that “elders were “elders” men (fails )to were consider men failsthe fact to consider that the theHebrew fact that “masculine” the Hebrew plural “masculine” can include plural women. It also ignores those biblical passages that highlight the responsibility that ( ְזthat ֵק ִנים) assumption that “elders”assumption plural canplural include can include women. women. It also It alsoignores ignores those those biblic biblicalal passages passages thatthat highlight highlight the the responsibility responsibility that that bore ”,( ִאישׁ אוֹ ִא ָשּׁה אוֹ ִמ ְשׁ ָפּ ָחה אוֹ ֵשׁ ֶבט) plural can includecan women. include It also women. ignores It those also biblic ignoresal passages those biblical that highlight passages the that responsibility highlight that the responsibilityall members of that the allcommunity, “man or woman, family or tribe ִאbore ישׁ ”,( ִאאוֹ ִישׁא ָשּׁאוֹ ה ִ א ָשּׁאוֹה ִמאוְֹשׁ ִָמפּ ְָחשׁ ָפּה ָ חה אוֹ אוֹ ֵ שׁ ֵֶבשׁ ֶבטט) all members of the community, “man or woman, family or tribe bore toward Israel’s),” public borebore and private religious obligations (Deut 29:17; Nakhai 2014a, p. 63). Women, as ”,( ִאישׁ אוֹ ִא ) ָ שּׁה אוֹ tribeִ tribeמ ְשׁ orָ פּorָח ה אוֹ ֵשׁ familyֶ בטall membersall members of themembers community, of the of community, the “man community, or woman, “man “man family or orwoman, or woman, tribe (family toward Israel’s public and private religious obligations (Deut 29:17; Nakhai 2014a, p. 63). Women, as toward Israel’stoward public Israel’stoward and public Israel’s private and publicreligious private and obligati private religiousons religious (Deut obligati 29:17; obligations onsNakhai (Deut 2 (Deut014a, 29:17; 29:17;p. 63). Nakhai NakhaiWomen, 2 014a,2014a as well ,p. p. as63). 63). men, Women, Women, would asas have been counted among Israel’s elders, adjudicating conflicts, dispensing well as men, would have been counted among Israel’s elders, adjudicating conflicts, dispensing well as wellmen, aswould men,well have as would men, been would havecounted have been among been counted countedIsrael’s among elders, among adjudicating Israel’sIsrael’s elders, elders, conflicts, adjudicating adjudicating dispensing conflicts, conflicts, justice, dispensing and—most dispensing justice, significant for this discussion—participating in ritual ceremonies (Nakhai 2011). justice, and—most significant for this discussion—participating in ritual ceremonies (Nakhai 2011). justice, and—mostjustice, and—mostand—most significant significant significantfor this discussion—participating for for this this discussion—participating discussion—participating in ritual ceremonies in ritual in ceremonies (Nakhairitual ceremonies 2011). (Nakhai Even 2011 (Nakhaimore). Evenspecifically, 2011). more the Bible delineates positions of authority that women held within their Even more specifically, the Bible delineates positions of authority that women held within their see Gen 24:28 [(Meyers 1991)]; for a “mother in ,[ ֵבּית- ֵאם] ”Even more specifically,specifically, the Bible the Bibledelineates delineates positions positions of authority of authority that thatwomen women held heldwithin within their their communities communities (for a (for “mother’s household see of Gen authority 24:28 [(Meyers that women1991)]; for held a “mother within in their ,[ ֵבּtionsית- ֵאםEven morecommunities specifically, (for a the “mother’s Bible household”delineates [posi ,see Judg 5:7; for a female elder at the gates of the town, see Prov 31:31). Women [ ֵאם ְבּ ִי ְשׂ ָר ֵאל] ”,see Gen 24:28 [([(MeyersMeyers 1991)];1991)]; for a “mother in Israel ,[ ֵבּית- ֵאם ] ”communities (for aa “mother’s“mother’s household atsee the Gen gates 24:28 of the [(Meyers town, see 1991)];Prov 31:31). for aWomen, “mother in ,[ ֵבּיתelder- ֵאם] see Judg household” 5:7; for a female [ ֵאם ְבּ mother’s“ִי ְשׂaָר ֵאל] communitiesIsrael,” (for Judg see Judg 5:7; for 5:7; a for female a female elder elder at the at gatesthe gates of the of the town, town, see see Prov Prov 31:31). 31:31). Women, Women, like like men, men, could could take take the the vows of the Nazirite and thereby enter a community of people consecrated[ ֵאם ְבּ ִי ְשׂ ָר ֵאל] ”,Israel ,couldֵ ] see takeJudg the 5:7; vows for of a thefemale Nazirite elder an dat thereby the gates enter of a thecommunity town, seeof people Prov consecrated31:31). Womenא ם ְבּ ִי ְ,menשׂ ָר ֵאלIsrael,” [like like men, could take the vows of the Nazirite and thereby enter a community of people consecrated to Yahweh (Num 6:1–21; Judg 13:6–14). tovows Yahweh of the (Num Nazirite 6:1–21; and Judg thereby 13:6–14). enter a community of people consecrated to Yahweh (Num 6:1–21; to Yahwehlike (Num men, 6:1–21; could Judg take 13:6–14). the vows of the Nazirite and thereby enter a community of peopleWorship consecrated took place not only at community and family shrines but also within the home. In Iron JudgWorship 13:6–14). took place not only at community and family shrines but also within the home. In Iron Worshipto Yahweh took place (Num not 6:1–21;only at community Judg 13:6–14). and fami ly shrines but also within the home. In Iron Age Israel, women participated fully in the domestic economy, not only as household workers but as Age Israel,Worship women took participated place not only fully at in community the domestic and economy, family shrinesnot only but as household also within workers the home. but as In Iron Age Israel, womenWorship participated took place fully notin the only domestic at community economy, not and only fami as lyhousehold shrines workersbut also but within as partners the home. in a heterarchicalIn Iron society in which responsibilities for food production and household partnersAge Israel, in womena heterarchical participated society fully in which in the responsibilities domestic economy, for food not onlyproduction as household and household workers but partners in a heterarchical society in which responsibilities for food production and household maintenance were shared by women and men alike (Prov 14:1, 31:10–31; Meyers 1988, 2006, 2013; Age Israel,maintenanceas partnerswomen participated inwere a heterarchical shared byfully women society in the and indomestic men which alike responsibilities economy, (Prov 14:1, not 31:10–31; foronly food as Meyers household production 1988, 2006,workers and household2013; but as maintenance were shared by women and men alike (Prov 14:1, 31:10–31; Meyers 1988, 2006, 2013; Ebeling 2010; Nakhai 2014a). This means that women had access to the material goods (grains, partnersEbeling maintenancein a heterarchical 2010; wereNakhai shared 2014a).society by This womenin whichmeans and thatresponsibilities men wome aliken (Provhad access for 14:1, food 31:10–31;to the production material Meyers goods 1988and (grains,, household2006, 2013; Ebeling 2010; Nakhai 2014a). This means that women had access to the material goods (grains, livestock, oils, wine) that were used in Israel’s most common religious rituals, the rituals of sacrifice maintenancelivestock,Ebeling were 2010 oils, shared; Nakhaiwine) thatby 2014a womenwere). This used and means in Israel’s men that alike womenmost common(Prov had access14:1, religious 31:10–31; to the rituals, material Meyers the goods rituals 1988, (grains, of sacrifice 2006, livestock, 2013; livestock, oils, wine) that were used in Israel’s most common religious rituals, the rituals of sacrifice and offering (Jer 44:15–19; Prov 7:14). Domestic religion was, in particular, the responsibility of andoils, offering wine) that (Jer were 44:15–19; used inProv Israel’s 7:14). most Domestic common religion religious was, rituals, in particular, the rituals the of responsibility sacrifice and offeringof and offeringEbeling (Jer 2010;44:15–19; Nakhai Prov 7:14).2014a). Domestic This meansreligion thatwas, womein particular,n had theaccess responsibility to the material of women, goods who more(grains, fully occupied the four-room house, as the typical Israelite house is known. It was women, who more fully occupied the four-room house, as the typical Israelite house is known. It was women,livestock, who more(Jer fullyoils, 44:15–19; occupiedwine) Provthat the 7:14).werefour-room Domesticused house, in Israel’s religion as the typicalmost was, incommon Israelite particular, house religious the is responsibilityknown. rituals, It was the ofboth rituals women, their placeof who sacrifice of more residence and their primary workplace, where they managed the storage of food both their place of residence and their primary workplace, where they managed the storage of food both theirand place offering offully residence occupied(Jer 44:15–19;and their the four-room primary Prov 7:14).wo house,rkplace, Domestic as where the typical theyreligion managed Israelite was, housethe in storage particular, is known. of food Itthe products, was responsibility both fuels, their and place otherof necessities, the production of textiles and clothing, and the preparation of products, fuels, and other necessities, the production of textiles and clothing, and the preparation of products, fuels, andof residenceother necessities, and their the primaryproduction workplace, of textiles whereand clothing, they managed and the preparation the storage of of meals food products,for daily consumption fuels, and for festivals and ritual celebrations (Dever 2012, pp. 142–205; Faust women, mealswho morefor daily fully consumption occupied and the forfour-room festivals and house, ritual as celebrations the typical (Dever Israelite 2012, house pp. 142–205; is known. Faust It was meals for daily consumptionand other necessities,and for festivals the production and ritual celebrations of textiles and(Dever clothing, 2012, pp. and 142–205; the preparation Faust 2012, of pp. meals 213–29; for daily Faust and Bunimovitz 2014; Meyers 2014). What this means is that each ritual act both their2012, place pp. of213–29; residence Faust and Bunimovitz their primary 2014; wo Meyersrkplace, 2014). where What theythis means managed is that the each storage ritual actof food 2012, pp. 213–29; consumptionFaust and Bunimovitz and for festivals2014; Meyers and ritual 2014). celebrations What this means (Dever is 2012 that, each pp. 142–205;ritual act Faust that took2012 place, pp. 213–29;within the home transformed that home, or at least some part of it, into sacred space. products,that fuels, took andplace other within necessities, the home transformed the production that home of textiles, or at least and some clothing, part of it,and into the sacred preparation space. of that took place withinFaust the and home Bunimovitz transformed 2014 that; Meyers home, or2014 at least). What some this part means of it, into is that sacred each space. ritual At actthe thatsame took time, place given the many domestic tasks taking place in and around the house and housing At the same time, given the many domestic tasks taking place in and around the house and housing At the samemeals time, forwithin given daily the the consumption many home domestic transformed and tasks for that taking festivals home, place or and in at and leastritual around some celebrations part the house of it, into (Deverand sacred housing 2012, space. compound, pp. At 142–205; the samethis Faustsacralization time, was impermanent, meaning that space, like people, “multi-tasked” compound, this sacralization was impermanent, meaning that space, like people, “multi-tasked” compound,2012, this pp. sacralizationgiven 213–29; the manyFaust was domesticimpermanent,and Bunimovitz tasks meaning taking 2014; place that Meyers inspace, and 2014).like around people, What the “multi-tasked” housethis means and housing is (Nakhai that compound, each 2014a, ritual p. 56). this act (Nakhai 2014a, p. 56). (Nakhaithat 2014a, took p. sacralization56). place within was the impermanent, home transformed meaning that that space,home, like or at people, least “multi-tasked”some part of it, (Nakhai intoFor sacred their2014a domestic, space. p. 56). rituals, women used clothing and textiles made of fabrics dyed in specially For their domestic rituals, women used clothing and textiles made of fabrics dyed in specially ForAt their the domestic same time,For rituals, their given women domestic the usedmany rituals, clothing domestic women and textilestasks used taking clothing made ofplace andfabrics textilesin dyedand made aroundin specially of fabricsthe chosen house dyed colors, and in speciallyhousing or woven, knotted or twisted in special ways, to perform acts of apotropaia and healing chosen colors, or woven, knotted or twisted in special ways, to perform acts of apotropaia and healing chosen colors, or woven, knotted or twisted in special ways, to perform acts of apotropaia and healing (Gen 38:27–30). A panoply of small, easy-to-move cultic objects that might include figurines, votive compound,(Genchosen this 38:27–30). colors, sacralization orA woven,panoply was knotted of small, impermanent, or easy-to-move twisted in specialmeaning cultic ways,objects that to that performspace, might like acts include ofpeople, apotropaia figurines, “multi-tasked” andvotive healing (Gen 38:27–30). A panoply of small, easy-to-move cultic objects that might include figurines, votive vessels, lamps, little stone altars, ceramic offering stands, amulets, specially colored beads, and more, (Nakhai vessels,(Gen2014a, 38:27–30). lamps,p. 56). little A panoplystone altars, of small, ceramic easy-to-move offering stands, cultic amulets, objects specially that might colored include beads, figurines, and more, votive vessels, lamps, little stone altars, ceramic offering stands, amulets, specially colored beads, and more, some configuration of which is found in most four-room houses, highlights women’s agency in For somevessels,their configurationdomestic lamps, little rituals, of stone which women altars, is found ceramic used in clothingmost offering four-room stands,and textiles amulets,houses, made highlights specially of fabrics coloredwomen’s dyed beads, agency in andspecially in more, some configuration of which is found in most four-room houses, highlights women’s agency in domestic religion (Meyers 2005; Willett 2008; Nakhai 2011, pp. 355–59; 2014a, p. 56). Of particular domesticsome configuration religion (Meyers of which 2005; isWillett found 2008; in most Nakhai four-room 2011, pp. houses, 355–59; highlights2014a, p. 56). women’s Of particular agency in domesticchosen religion colors, (Meyers or 2005;woven, Willett knotted 2008; orNakhai twisted 2011, in pp.spec 355–59;ial ways, 2014a, to performp. 56). Of acts particular of apotropaia concern to and women healing were the risks of childbirth-related morbidity and mortality, and the dangers concerndomestic to religion women (wereMeyers the 2005 risks; Willettof childbirth-related 2008; Nakhai morbidity2011, pp. and 355–59; mortality, 2014a ,and p. 56). the Ofdangers particular concern (Gento women 38:27–30). were theA panoplyrisks of childbirth-related of small, easy-to-move morbidity cultic and mortality, objects that and mightthe dangers include posed figurines, by infant votiveand childhood illness and death. Demographic studies show that the average lifespan posedconcern by toinfant women and werechildhood the risks illness of childbirth-relatedand death. Demographic morbidity studies and show mortality, that the and average the dangers lifespan posed posed byvessels, infant and lamps, childhood little illness stone and altars, death. ceramic Demographic offering studies stands, show amulets, that the averagespecially lifespan colored for beads,women andwas thirty,more, as compared to forty for men; a third of children died by age five, and half by forby infantwomen and was childhood thirty, as compared illness and to death.forty for Demographic men; a third of studies children show died that by age the five, average and half lifespan by for for women was thirty, as compared to forty for men; a third of children died by age five, and half by age eighteen (Willett 2008, pp. 79–81; Nakhai 2018b, p. 109). Along with midwifery, many other some configurationagewomen eighteen was thirty,(Willettof which as 2008, compared is pp.found 79–81; to fortyin Nakhaimost for men; four-room2018b a, third p. 109). ofhouses, children Along highlightswith died midwifery, by age women’s five, many and halfagencyother by age in age eighteen (Willett 2008, pp. 79–81; Nakhai 2018b, p. 109). Along with midwifery, many other healthcare responsibilities fell under the purview of women. They assumed responsibility for domestichealthcareeighteen religion (Willett responsibilities(Meyers 2008 2005;, pp. 79–81;fellWillett under Nakhai 2008; the 2018b purvieNakhai, p.w 109). of2011, women. Along pp. with355–59;They midwifery, assumed 2014a, responsibility manyp. 56). other Of particular healthcare for healthcare responsibilities fell under the purview of women. They assumed responsibility for medico-magical tasks, blending remedies both spiritual and practical (Gerstenberger 2014). The concern medico-magicalto women were tasks, the blending risks of remedies childbirth-related both spiritual morbidity and practical and (Gerstenberger mortality, and 2014). the Thedangers medico-magical tasks,responsibilities blending remedies fell under both the purviewspiritual and of women. practical They (Gerstenberger assumed responsibility 2014). The healer’s for medico-magical arsenal included apotropaia, incantations, spells, prayers, blessings, and vows, echoes of healer’s arsenal included apotropaia, incantations, spells, prayers, blessings, and vows, echoes of healer’s posedarsenal by includedtasks, infant blending andapotropaia, childhood remedies incantations, illness both and spiritualspells, death. prayers, and Demographic practical blessings, (Gerstenberger and studies vows, show echoes 2014 that ).of thewhich The average healer’s are found lifespan arsenal in the Bible (Gen 30:14–17; 1 Sam 1:10–13, 26–27; Judg 17:2; Jer 44:15–19; Prov 7:14, which are found in the Bible (Gen 30:14–17; 1 Sam 1:10–13, 26–27; Judg 17:2; Jer 44:15–19; Prov 7:14, which arefor found women inincluded the was Bible thirty, apotropaia, (Gen as30:14–17; compared incantations, 1 Sam to 1:10–13, forty spells, for 26–27; prayers, men; Judg a blessings,third 17:2; Jerof 44:15–19;children and vows, Prov died echoes 7:14, by age of31:2). which five, Even areand the found half naming by in of babies reflected women’s personal piety; the names women chose often 31:2). Even the naming of babies reflected women’s personal piety; the names women chose often 31:2). Evenage the eighteen namingthe Bible (Willettof babies (Gen 30:14–17; 2008,reflected pp. 1wome Sam79–81; 1:10–13,n’s personalNakhai 26–27; piety;2018b Judg the, 17:2; p. names 109). Jer 44:15–19; women Along chose Provwith 7:14,often midwifery, 31:2). mirrored Even manythe the concerns naming other and beliefs they shared with their families and communities (Albertz 2012, pp. mirrored the concerns and beliefs they shared with their families and communities (Albertz 2012, pp. mirrored the concernsof babies and beliefs reflected they women’s shared with personal their families piety; the and names communi womenties (Albertz chose often 2012, mirrored pp. 245–367). the concerns and healthcare245–367). responsibilities fell under the purview of women. They assumed responsibility for 245–367).medico-magical beliefs they tasks, shared blending with their remedies families andboth communities spiritual and (Albertz practical 2012, pp.(Gerstenberger 245–367). 2014). The

healer’s arsenal included apotropaia, incantations, spells, prayers, blessings, and vows, echoes of

which are found in the Bible (Gen 30:14–17; 1 Sam 1:10–13, 26–27; Judg 17:2; Jer 44:15–19; Prov 7:14, 31:2). Even the naming of babies reflected women’s personal piety; the names women chose often mirrored the concerns and beliefs they shared with their families and communities (Albertz 2012, pp. 245–367).

Religions 2019, 10, 122 7 of 11 ReligionsReligions 2019, 10 ,2019 x FOR, 10 PEER, x FOR REVIEW PEER REVIEW 7 of 12 7 of 12 Religions 2019Religions, 10Religions, xReligions FOR2019 ,PEER 201910 2019, x, FORREVIEW10, 10, x, PEERFORx FOR PEER REVIEW PEER REVIEW REVIEW 7 of 12 7 of 127 of7 of12 12 Religions 2019, 10, x ReligionsFOR PEER 2019 REVIEW, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12 7 of 12 Within villages and homes, as well as in tombs and a cave in Jerusalem, Judaean pillar-based Within villagesWithinWithinWithin andvillages villages homes,villages villages and and as andhomes, homes,andwell homes, homes, as as asin well astombs well as well as well as inand as in tombsas in tombs ain tombscave tombs and andin anda Jerusalem, andcave a a cave acave incave Jerusalem, in in Judaean Jerusalem,in Jerusalem, Jerusalem,Within pillar-basedJudaean JudaeanJudaean Judaean villages pillar pillar-based - pillar-basedbasedand homes, as well as in tombs and a cave in Jerusalem, Judaean pillar-based Within villages and homes, as well as in tombs and a cave in Jerusalem, Judaean pillar-basedfigurines were common. More than a thousand of these small, simple ceramic pieces depicting a Within villages andfigurines homes,figurines figurineswere asfigurines figurineswellcommon. were wereas inwere common.were common.tombsMore common. common. thanand MoreMore aa caveMorethousand Morethan than in than aJerusalem,than thousand a of thousanda athesethousand thousand Judaeansmall,of ofthese of these of simplethese pillar-basedthesesmall, small, small, ceramicsmall, simple simplesimple simple piecesceramicfigurines ceramicceramic ceramicdepicting pieces were pieces pieces depicting common.a depicting depicting depicting aMore a a athan a thousand of these small, simple ceramic pieces depicting a figurines were common. More than a thousand of these small, simple ceramic pieces depictingfemale a figure whose arms support her breasts, come from eighth-seventh century Judah (see, inter figurines were common.female More figurefemale thanfemale whosefemale afigure figure thousand figure arms figure whose supportwhose ofwhose arms these arms her supportarms small, breasts,support support simpleher her come breher breasts, her ceramicasts, breasts, frombreasts, come come eighth-seventhpieces come fromcome from fromdepicting eighth eighth-seventhfrom eighth-seventh eighth-seventh -centuryseventh a female Judahcentury century century figurecentury(see, Judah Judah inter whoseJudah Judah(see, (see, (see,armsinter (see,inter inter support inter alia , her breasts, come from eighth-seventh century Judah (see, inter female figure whose arms support her breasts, come from eighth-seventh century Judah (see,alia inter, Kletter 1996; Darby 2014). Presumably, they were used to invoke the protection of the Goddess, female figure whose aliaarms, Kletter supportKletteralia 1996;,alia Kletterheralia ,1996 DarbyKletter ,breasts, Kletter ;1996 Darby 2014). 1996;; 1996;comeDarby 2014 DarbyPresumably, Darbyfrom 2014). Presumably, 2014). ).eighth-seventh 2014). Presumably, theyPresumably, Presumably, were they they centuryused were they werethey to used wereinvokeJudah usedwere to used to (see,used invokethe invoke toprotection interto invoke invoke the the protection aliaprotectionthe ofthe, protectionKletterthe protection Goddess, of of 1996; the the of Goddess,of Goddess, Darbythe the Goddess, Goddess, 2014). who Presumably, they were used to invoke the protection of the Goddess, alia, Kletter 1996; Darby 2014). Presumably, they were used to invoke the protection of the Goddess,who would provide succor and sustenance for those who beseeched her (see, inter alia, Dever 2005, alia, Kletter 1996; Darbywho 2014). wouldwouldwho Presumably, providewho wouldwho provide would would succorprovide they succorprovide provide wereand succor sustenance andused succor succor and sustenance to sustenanceandinvoke and for sustenance sustenancethose the for protectionfor thosewho those for beseechedfor who those whothose of beseechedthe whobeseeched who Goddess,her beseeched (see,beseeched her her inter (see, (see, whoher alia herinter inter(see,, wouldDever(see, alia interalia inter ,provide2005, Dever, aliaDever alia , Dever, 2005Dever succor2005 ,2005,, 2014 2005, and ; sustenance for those who beseeched her (see, inter alia, Dever 2005, who would provide succor and sustenance for those who beseeched her (see, inter alia, Dever 2014;2005, Willett 2008, pp. 93–97; Nakhai 2014b, pp. 183–85). Rachel (Gen 31:19–35) and Michal (1 Sam who would provide succor2014; Willett andWillett2014 sustenance 2014;2008,; Willett2014; 2008 Willettpp. Willett, pp.2008 for93–97; 93–97;those2008,, pp.2008, Nakhai 93pp.who Nakhai pp.–97 93–97; beseeched;93–97;2014b, Nakhai 2014b Nakhai Nakhaipp. 2014, her pp.183–85). 2014b,b, (see, 183–85).2014b, pp. interRachel183pp. pp.– Rachel183–85).alia85 183–85). ).(Gen, RachelDever (Gen 31:19–35)Rachel Rachel 2005,(Gen 31:19–35) (Gen 31: (Genand2014;19 31:19–35) and–Michal31:19–35)35 Willett) Michaland (1 andMichal Samand2008, (1 Michal SamMichal pp.(1 Sam 19:11–17) 93–97;(1 (1 Sam Sam Nakhai 2014b, pp. 183–85). Rachel (Gen 31:19–35) and Michal (1 Sam to protect their household interests; teraphim were also ( ְתּ ָר ִפים ; ְתּ ָר ִפיםWillett 2008, pp. 93–97; Nakhai 2014b, pp. 183–85). Rachel (Gen 31:19–35) and Michal (119:11–17) Sam both used figurines (teraphim ;2014 to )andprotect to householdprotect household protect Michal their their their (1interests; household interests; householdSam household teraphim19:11–17)teraphim interests; interests; interests; were bothwere teraphim teraphim also teraphim used also figurines used werewere were in also also the (teraphim ; ) to protect their household interests; teraphim were also תְּרָ ( toְפִתּtheirָ their(ר ִפים תְּרָ ;יםפִׁ ;ים (Gen()teraphim to protect protect ;31:19–35)ְ תּ teraphim ָ)ר ִפteraphimים) ; ;Willett 2008, pp.19:11–17) 93–97; Nakhaiboth19: both1119:11–17)– usedused19:11–17)17 2014b,) both figurinesfigurines both pp. usedboth used183–85). (usedfigurinesteraphim figurines figurines Rachel ;2014 to protect their household interests; teraphim wereused also in the household shrine at Dan commissioned by Micah’s mother (Judg 17:5, 18:14–20). Such ( ְתּ ָר ִפים ;both used figurines (teraphim (17–19:11 theshrine) to householdhousehold household atprotect Danat Dan commissionedtheir shrine shrine commissionedshrine household at at at Dan DanDan by commissionedinterests; commissioned commissionedby Micah’s Micah’s teraphim mother mother by byby wereMicah’s (Judg Micah’sMicah’s (Judg also 17:5, mother 17:5,mothermother 18:14–20).used 18:14–20). (Judg (Judg(Judgin the Such17:5, 17:5, 17:5, householdSuch images,18:14–20). 18:18:14–20). 14– 20shrine used ).Such Such by at Dan commissioned by Micah’s mother (Judg 17:5, 18:14–20). Suchְ תּ theָרthe ִ פin shrineinיםboth used figurinesused in the(householdalsoteraphim household usedusedused; in (17–19:11 used in the household shrine at Dan commissioned by Micah’s mother (Judg 17:5, 18:14–20).images, images,Such used by used women by women in domestic in domestic contexts contexts and eventually and eventually forbidden forbidden to them to in them the reformsin the reforms of of used in the householdimages, shrine used womenSuchat Danimages, byimages,images, commissioned inwomen domestic used usedused in by by domesticby contextswomen women bywomen Micah’s contexts in andin in domesticdomestic domestic eventuallymother and contexts(Judgeventually contexts forbidden 17:5, and and forbidden18:14–20). eventuallyeventually toeventually them Suchto in forbidden forbiddenthem theforbidden reforms in the toto tothem reformsthem of them Hezekiah in in thein ofthe the reforms reformsand reforms Josiah of of images, used by women in domestic contexts and eventually forbidden to them in the reformsHezekiah of and Josiah (2 Kgs 23:24), may have been used for the purpose of divination (1 Sam 15:23). images, used by womenHezekiah in domesticof and HezekHezekiah JosiahHezekiah contextsiah (2and andKgs and Josiahand Josiah23:24), Josiah eventually (2 (2Kgsmay (2 Kgs Kgs 23:24), have 23:24), forbidden 23:24), been may may may usedhave tohave have themforbeen been the been usedin purpose usedthe used for reforms for the for of the purpose thedivination purposeof purpose ofHezekiah divination of(1 of divinationSam divination and15:23). (1 Josiah Sam (1 (1 Sam 15:23).Sam (2 15:23).Kgs 15:23). 23:24), may have been used for the purpose of divination (1 Sam 15:23). Hezekiah and (2Josiah Kgs (2 23:24), Kgs 23:24), may have may beenhave usedbeen used for the for purpose the purpose of divination of divination (1 Sam (1 Sam 15:23). 15:23). The four-room house may also have been the setting in which laws of ritual purity were fulfilled. Hezekiah and Josiah (2 KgsThe 23:24), four-room Themay Thefour have Thehouse four-room-room four-roombeen may hou used also sehouse housefor mayhave the may also beenmay purpose alsohave alsothe have settingbeen haveof divination been the been in setting thewhich the setting (1setting inlaws Sam which in of 15:23).in which ritual which laws lawspurity of laws ritual of ofwere ritualThe purityritual fulfilled.four-room purity purity were were fulfilled. were house fulfilled. fulfilled. may also have been the setting in which laws of ritual purity were fulfilled. The four-roomThe house four-room may also househave been may the also setting have in been which the laws setting of ritual in which purity laws were of fulfilled. ritualIt is puritynot possible were fulfilled.to conclusively situate the prescriptive and proscriptive Priestly laws delineated in The four-room houseIt is not may possibleIt also is Itnot have Itis istopossiblenot not conclusivelybeen possible possible the to settingconclusively to to situateconclusively conclusively in which the situate prescriptive laws situate situate the of ritual prescriptivethe the andprescriptive purityprescriptive proscriptive wereand andproscriptive fulfilled. and Priestlyproscriptive proscriptive laws PriestlyIt is Priestlynotdelineated Priestly lawspossible laws delineated laws in to delineated delineatedconclusively in in in situate the prescriptive and proscriptive Priestly laws delineated in It is not possibleIt isto not conclusively possible to situate conclusively the prescriptive situate the and prescriptive proscriptive and Priestly proscriptive laws delineated Priestlythe laws inbook delineated of Leviticus in thebeyond the confines of the Temple. At the same time, it is not impossible that It is not possible to conclusivelythe book theof situateLeviticus bookthethe book ofbookthe Leviticus beyond prescriptiveof of Leviticus Leviticus the beyond confines beyondand beyond the proscriptive confinesofthe thethe confines confinesTemple. of Priestly the of of AtTemple.the the lawsthe Temple. Temple. same delineated At the time,At At samethe the itin sameis tsame ime,notthe time, impossible ittime, book is itnot it isof isimpossiblenot Leviticus notthat impossible impossible beyondthat that that the confines of the Temple. At the same time, it is not impossible that the book of Leviticusbook of beyond Leviticus the beyond confines the of confinesthe Temple. of the At Temple. the same At time, the sameit is not time, impossible it is notlaws impossiblethat of ritual that purity, laws those of dealing with menstruation, sexual intercourse, and childbirth (Lev 12:1– the book of Leviticuslaws beyond of ritual thelaws confineslaws purity,oflaws ritual of of ritualthoseof ritualpurity, the purity, deaTemple. purity, thoseling those with thosedealingAt the deamenstruation, dealing same lingwith with time,menstruation, with menstruation, itsexualmenstruation, is not inte impossible sexualrcourse, sexual sexual intercourse, and thatinte inte childbirthrcourse,rcourse,laws and ofandchildbirth and(Lev ritual childbirth childbirth 12:1– purity, (Lev (Lev 12:those (Lev1 –12:1– 12:1–dealing with menstruation, sexual intercourse, and childbirth (Lev 12:1– laws of ritual purity,ritual purity, those dea thoseling dealing with menstruation, with menstruation, sexual inte sexualrcourse, intercourse, and childbirth and childbirth (Lev 8,12:1– 15:18–33, (Lev 12:1–8, 18:19, 15:18–33, 20:18), and those dealing with the preparation and serving of food for everyday laws of ritual purity, 8,those 15:18–33, dea8ling, 15: 18:19,8, 18with8, 15:18–33,– 15:18–33,33 20:18), menstruation,, 18:19, 18:19,and 18:19,20:18), those 20:18), 20:18), sexualand dealing andthose and inte those withrcourse,thosedealing dealingthe dealing withandpreparation with childbirth thewith preparationthe the andpreparation preparation(Lev serving 12:1– and of andserving andfood8, serving 15:18–33,serving for of everydayfood of of 18:19,food forfood everyday for 20:18), for everyday everyday and those dealing with the preparation and serving of food for everyday 8, 15:18–33, 18:19,18:19, 20:18), 20:18), and and those those dealing dealing with with the the preparation preparation and and serving serving of of food food for for everyday everydayconsumption consumption and for andfamilial and community celebrations (Lev 11:1–46), had traction within at least 8, 15:18–33, 18:19, 20:18),consumption and consumptionthoseconsumption and consumptiondealing for familial andwith andfor andthe and fami for preparationfor community familiallial familial and andcommunity andand celebrations community communityserving celebrations of (Lev celebrations food celebrations 11:1–46), for (Lev everyday (Lev 11:had (Lev1 – 11:1–46),traction46 11:1–46),), hadconsumption within hadtraction had traction tractionat within least and within forwithin at familialleast at at least least and community celebrations (Lev 11:1–46), had traction within at least consumption andfor familialfor familial and and community community celebrations celebrations (Lev (Lev 11:1–46), 11:1–46), had had tractiontraction withinwithin atsome least least households some households beyond the Temple community (e.g., Gen 31:35; 2 Sam 11:2–5). The layout of the consumption and for somefamilial households andsome communitysome somehouseholds beyond households households celebrations the beyond Temp beyond beyond thele (Lev community Templethe the 11:1–46),Temp Temp communityle (e.g.,le communityhad community Gentraction (e.g., 31:35; (e.g., within Gen(e.g., 2 Sam Gen31:35; Gen at 31:35;least11:2–5). 31:35;2 Sam 2 2Samsome The1 Sam1:2 layout–11:2–5). 5 households11:2–5).). The of Thelayout theThe layoutbeyond layout of the of the of the the Temp le community (e.g., Gen 31:35; 2 Sam 11:2–5). The layout of the some householdsbeyond beyond the Templethe Temp communityle community (e.g., (e.g., Gen Gen 31:35; 31:35; 2 Sam 2 Sam 11:2–5). 11:2–5). The The layout layout of theoffour-room the four-room house house may may have allowed for privacy and seclusion while facilitating access to women’s some households beyondfour-room the fourTemp housefour-room-roomfour-roomle communitymay house have house house may allowed (e.g., may have may Gen have forallowedhave 31:35; privacy allowed allowed for2 Sam and privacyfor for 11:2–5).seclusionprivacy privacy and The andseclusion whileand layout seclusion seclusion facilitating whileof the while whilefacilitating access four-roomfacilitating facilitating to accesswomen’s house access access to women’s may to to women’s havewomen’s allowed for privacy and seclusion while facilitating access to women’s four-room househave may allowed have allowed for privacy for privacy and seclusion and seclusion while while facilitating facilitating access access to women’s to women’swork work areas areas (see (see Faust Faust and Bunimovitz 2003, p. 29; Faust 2012, pp. 223–24; Faust and Katz 2017, pp. four-room house maywork have areas allowedwork (seework workareas forFaust areasprivacy (areassee and (seeFaust (seeBunimovitz and Faust Faustand seclusion andBunimovitz and 2003, Bunimovitz Bunimovitzwhile p. 29; 2003facilitating Faust 2003,, p.2003, 29;2012, p. p.accessFaust 29; 29;pp. Faust Faust2012 223–24;to women’s 2012,, pp.2012, Faust 223pp. pp. – 223–24; 24and 223–24;work; Faust Katz Faustareas Faustand 2017, and(seeKatz and pp. KatzFaust 2017Katz 2017, ,and pp.2017, Bunimovitzpp. pp. 2003, p. 29; Faust 2012, pp. 223–24; Faust and Katz 2017, pp. work areas (see Faust and Bunimovitz 2003, p. 29; Faust 2012, pp. 223–24; Faust and Katz 2017,13–16). pp. If laws of ritual purity were observed at home, their implementation would have been, work areas (see Faust13–16). and Bunimovitz Ifand13 laws–1613–16). Bunimovitz).13–16). ofIf 2003, ritual laws If If lawsp. oflawspurity 200329; ritual of Faustof, ritual p.were ritualpurity 29; 2012, observedpurityFaust purity werepp. 2012 223–24;were wereobserved at, pp.home,observed observedFaust 223–24; attheir and home, at Faustat implementationKatzhome, home, their 2017, and their implementationtheir Katz pp. implementation implementation2017 would13–16)., pp. have 13–16). wouldIf laws wouldbeen, would have Ifof laws ritualhave been,have of been,purity ritual been, were observed at home, their implementation would have been, 13–16). If laws of ritual purity were observed at home, their implementation would have primarily,been, the responsibility of women, providing yet another way in which they engaged with the 13–16). If laws of ritualprimarily, puritypurityprimarily, thewereprimarily, responsibilityprimarily, were observed the observed responsibilitythe the atresponsibility ofresponsibility home, women, at home, theirof providingwomen, theirof implementationof women, women, implementation providing yet providing anotherproviding yewouldt way another wouldyet yet haveanotherin another whichhave way been, way been,in theyway which in engagedprimarily, in which which they they engagedwith they the the engaged theresponsibilityengaged responsibility with with the with the ofthe of women, providing yet another way in which they engaged with the primarily, the responsibility of women, providing yet another way in which they engaged withDivine. the primarily, the responsibilityDivine. ofwomen,Divine. women,Divine.Divine. providing providing yetyet anotheranother wayway inin whichwhich they engaged with with the the Divine.Divine. Divine. Women shared in the tasks and ritual acts required to properly care for the dead, whether Divine. Women sharedWomenWomenWomen in shared sharedthe shared tasksshared in in the theandin in tasksthe tasksritualthe tasks tasks and andacts and ritualand ritualrequ ritual ritual actsired acts acts requiredtoacts required properlyrequ requ ired toired properly to careto toproperly properly forproperly the care caredead, care forcareWomen theforfor whetherfor dead,the theshared dead, dead, whether in whether whether whetherthe tasks and ritual acts required to properly care for the dead, whether Women shared in the tasks and ritual acts required to properly care for the dead, whetherpreparing corpses for burial, determining burial locations, or participating in burial rites and the Women shared preparingin the taskspreparing corpses andpreparingpreparing ritual forcorpses corpses burial, corpsesacts corpses for forrequ determining burial,for burial, iredfor burial, burial, todetermining determiningproperly determiningburial determining locacare burialtions, burial forburial burial locations, theor locations, locaparticipatingdead, locations, tions,or whether participating oror or participating participatingin participating burialpreparing inrites burial in andin corpsesburial burialrites the rites rites andforrites andburial,the and and the thethe determining burial locations, or participating in burial rites and the preparing corpses for burial, determining burial locations, or participating in burial rites andsubsequent the annual commemorations (Ebeling 2010, pp. 129–46; Schmitt 2012, pp. 429–73; Nakhai preparing corpses forsubsequent burial, subsequentdetermining annualsubsequentsubsequent commemorations a annualnnualburial annual annual commemorationsloca commemorations commemorationstions, commemorations (Ebeling or participating (Ebeling2010, (Ebeling (Ebeling (Ebelingpp. in2010 129–46; 2010burial 2010,, 2010,pp., pp. Schmittrites129pp. pp. 129–46; – 129–46;and46 129–46;; 2012,Schmitt the Schmitt Schmitt pp.Schmitt subsequent2012 429–73; 20122012,, 2012,pp. , Nakhai pp.429pp. annualpp. –429–73; 73 429–73; ; Nakhai commemorations NakhaiNakhai Nakhai (Ebeling 2010, pp. 129–46; Schmitt 2012, pp. 429–73; Nakhai ְבּנוֹת ] ְבּ1:24 נוֹת subsequent annual commemorations (Ebeling 2010, pp. 129–46; Schmitt 2012, pp. 429–73; Nakhai2018b, pp. 113–15). Wise women, skilled in singing dirges, led laments of mourning (2 Sam ] skilled in singing dirges, led laments of mourning (2 Sam 1:24 בְּ ְבּנוֹת ]1:24 נוֹת ] ,Samְ 1:24 Sam (2Wise 1:24 Sam 1:24 womenבּ 2) 2)נוֹת subsequent annual commemorations2018b, pp.2018b2018 113–15).2018b,b,2018b,, pp. pp.(Ebeling Wise 113pp. 113–15).pp.– 113–15).15 women, 113–15). 2010,). Wise Wise pp.Wise sk women,Wiseilled 129–46; women, women, women, in skilledsinging Schmitt sk skilled skilled inilled dirges, singing 2012, in in in singing singing singing ledpp. dirg laments 429–73; dirges,es dirges, dirges,, led of lamentsNakhailed mourningled led laments laments laments of mourning2018b, (2of of Sammourning ofmourning pp. mourning1:24 (2113–15). [Sam and taught them to their daughters (Jer 9:19). They may have been ([ ֲח ָכמוֹת ; ְמֲח ָכ ְקוֹנמוֹתנוֹת ]; ְמ ְקוֹננוֹתJer 9:16–20 ;[ ְִיבּ ְשׂ ָרנוֹת ֵ א] ל ִי ְשׂ1:24ָ ר ֵאל2018b, pp. 113–15). Wise women, skilled in singing dirges, led laments of mourning (2 Sam Theys (Jers (Jer (Jer may 9:19). (Jer9:19).]; 9:19). Jerhave 9:19). They9:16–20 They They been Theymay may may [ have mayhave have been have been ]) and taught them to their daughters (Jer 9:19). They may have been ְבּdaughters נוֹת ]them]) ])and and and of totaught mourningtaught taught taughttheir them daughterthem them them (2 to Samto to their toth stheir (Jereir1:24 their daughter daughters 9:19). daughter([ ֲח ָכחֲכָמוֹת lamentsחֲכָמֹות ;מוֹתמְ ;מְּ ;led ְ taughtמ ְקוֹנקוֹנְנוֹתand[] קֹונְּנֹות נוֹת] ([] ֲח,dirgesָכ 20–מוֹת16 20–9:16;20–9:16 ְ:9מ Jersinging 9:16–20ְקוֹנ in ];Jer Jerנוֹתבְּ ;[נֹות;[] ִי יִשְׂרָ ְשׂאֵ ָרל illedֵאלskיִׁשְּרָ אֵּ 20–9:16 ל]Jer ;[ ִי ְ,women שׂ ָר ֵאל2018b, pp. 113–15). Wise and taught them to their daughters (Jer 9:19). They maythe have samethe been womensame women who engaged who engaged with the with realm the ofrealm war; of several war; several biblical biblical passages passages attest toattest women to women ([ ֲח ָכמוֹת ; ְמ ְקוֹננוֹת] ֲח ָכמוֹת20–9:16 ; ְמJer ְקוֹנ;[ ִי ְנוֹתשׂ ָר ֵאל ִי ְשׂ ָר ֵאל ]; Jer 9:16–20 [ the samebeen women]) andthe the the taughtsame same samewhosame women womenengagedthem womenwomen to who their whowithwho engagedengaged daughter engagedtheengaged realm withwiths withwith(Jer of the thewa9:19). thethe realm r;realm realmseveralrealm They of of war;ofmayof wabiblical war;wa severalr;have r;severalseveral several passagesbeen biblical biblical biblicalbiblical attestpassages passages passagespassages to women attest attest attestattest to women to to to women women women the same womenthe who same engaged women with who the engaged realm withof wa ther; several realm ofbiblical war; severalpassages biblical attest passagesto women attest leading to womenleading victory victory celebrations celebrations with song, with dance, song, dance,and the an playingd the playing of drums of drums(Exod 15:20–21;(Exod 15:20–21; Judg 5:1–31, Judg 5:1–31, leading victoryleadingleadingleading celebrations victory victory victory victory celebrations celebrations with celebrations celebrations song, with withdance, with song, with song, ansong, dance,song,d dance,the dance, dance,playing and and anthe and theof playing dthe drums the playing playing playing of (Exod drums of of of drums drums15:20–21; drums (Exod (Exod(Exod (Exod 15: Judg20 15:20–21; – 5:1–31,15:20–21;21; Judg Judg Judg5: Judg1– 315:1–31, 5:1–31,5:1–31,, ,was both memorial (בְּנוֹת ִי ְשׂ ָרבְֵּאל)נוֹת ִי ְשׂ ָר ֵאלleading victory celebrations with song, dance, and the playing of drums (Exod 15:20–21; Judg 5:1–31,11:34; 1 Sam 18:6–7). A ritual ceremony enacted by young women ,was)both was 18:6–7). both memorial,both memorial, Amemorial, ritual ceremony enacted by young women ( ) was both memorial בְּ(Samבְּ ,memorialנוֹת was1 י נוֹת( ִיִשְׂרָ בְּּנֹות ְ שׂאֵ bothָר ל ֵא);11:34 ל) יִׁשְּרָ wasאֵּ (לבְּ) womenנוֹת ִיwomen ְ ,31–5:1שׂ ָר ֵאלleading victory celebrations11:34; 1 with Sam11:34; song, 11:34;18:6–7). 11:34;1 Sam dance, 1 1Sam A18: Sam ritual an6 –18:6–7).7d 18:6–7).). the ceremonyA playingritual A A ritual ritualceremony enactedof ceremonydrums ceremony byenacted (Exod young enacted enacted 15:20–21; by women young by by young Judg young (women women) was both ( memorial,mourning) was both the death memorial, of Jephthah’s daughter, and celebratory, marking the transition from girlhood to בְּנוֹת ִי ְשׂ ָרyoung ֵאל) Sam 18:6–7).11:34; 1A Sam ritual 18:6–7). ceremony A ritualenacted ceremony by young enacted women by 1 ;11:34 andcele wasand marking bratory,cele celebothbratory,bratory, memorial, markingthe transition marking marking the transition mourningthe from the transition transition girlhood from the fromdeath girlhood tofrom girlhood of girlhood Jephthah’s to to to daughter, and celebratory, marking the transition from girlhood to( בְּנוֹתbratory,ִ andי ְשׂ ָר ֵ,daughterאcele ל,Sam 18:6–7). mourningA ritual mourningceremony themourning deathmourning theenacted of Jephthah’sdeath the the death by deathof youngJephthah’s ofdaughter, of Jephthah’s Jephthah’swomen daughter, and (daughter 1 ;11:34 mourning the deathmourning of Jephthah’s the death daughter, of Jephthah’s and cele daughter,bratory, andmarking celebratory, the transition marking from the girlhood transitionwomanhood; to from girlhoodit took place to in the wilds of nature (Judg 11:36–40; Trible 1984, pp. 100–101; Day 1989a; mourning the death ofwomanhood; Jephthah’swomanhood; daughter,womanhood; itwomanhood; took place itand took in itcele ittookthe place tookbratory, wilds place inplace the of markingin naturein wildsthe the wilds wildsof (Judgthe nature oftransition of 11:36–40;nature nature (Judg (Judg from (Judg11: Trible36 11:36–40;girlhood– 11:36–40;40 1984,; Trible pp. toTrible Trible 1984100–101;womanhood; 1984,, pp. 1984, 100Daypp. pp.– 100–101;1011989a; 100–101; it; Daytook Day1989 place Day 1989a;a ; 1989a; in the wilds of nature (Judg 11:36–40; Trible 1984, pp. 100–101; Day 1989a; womanhood; itwomanhood; took place in itthe took wilds place of nature in the (Judg wilds 11:36–40; of nature Trible (Judg 1984, 11:36–40; pp. 100–101; Trible 1984Day ,1989a; pp.Ahuvia 100–101; and Gribetz Day 1989a 2018,; p. 7). womanhood; it took placeAhuvia in theandAhuvia wilds GribetzAhuviaAhuvia and of nature2018, andGribe and Gribetzp. tz(JudgGribetz 7). 2018 11:36–40;2018,, p.2018, 7). p. p. 7). Trible 7). 1984, pp. 100–101; Day 1989a; Ahuvia and Gribetz 2018, p. 7). Ahuvia and GribetzAhuvia 2018, and p. Gribetz 7). 2018, p. 7). The Bible makes it clear that men held no monopoly over knowing the will of God. Yahweh or Ahuvia and Gribetz 2018, Thep. 7). Bible The makes TheBibleThe itBible makesclearBible makes thatmakes it clear men it itclear thatclearheld thatmen nothat menmonopo held men held no held lymonopoly no over no monopo monopoly knowing overly over knowing theover knowingwill knowing of the God. willthe Thethe Yahweh willof willBible God. of of God. makes orYahwehGod. Yahweh Yahwehit clearor or that or men held no monopoly over knowing the will of God. Yahweh or The Bible makesThe it Bibleclear that makes men it clearheld no that monopo men heldly over no monopoly knowing the over will knowing of God.the Yahweh willhis of ordivine God. Yahwehmessengers or his appeared to some women (Eve in Gen 3:13; Hagar in Gen 16:7–14, 21:17–21; The Bible makeshis it clear divine thathis messengers divinemenhishis divine held divine messengers noappeared messengers messengersmonopo appeared toly someappeared over appeared womenknowingto some to to some (Eve somewomen the womeninwill women Gen (Eve of God. 3:13;(Eve in (Eve Gen HagarYahwehin in Gen3:13; Gen in 3:13; orHagar Gen3:13; Hagar 16:7–14,hisHagar in divineGen in in Gen21:17–21;16: Gen messengers7 –16:7–14,14 16:7–14,, 21: 17 21:17–21; –appeared 21:17–21;21; to some women (Eve in Gen 3:13; Hagar in Gen 16:7–14, 21:17–21; his divine messengersdivine messengers appeared to appeared some women to some (Eve women in Gen(Eve 3:13; inHagar Gen 3:13;in Gen Hagar 16:7–14, in Gen 21:17–21;Sarah 16:7–14, in 21:17–21;Gen 18:9–15; Sarah Samson’s unnamed mother in Judg 13:2–21). Some women were prophets his divine messengersSarah appeared in SarahGen toSarah 18:9–15; someSarah in Gen in womenin GenSamson’s 18:Gen9 –18:9–15; 15(Eve18:9–15;; Samson’s unnamedin Samson’sGen Samson’s 3:13; unnamed mother Hagarunnamed unnamed in motherin Judg Genmother mother 13:2–21).16:7–14, in Judg in in Judg 13:21:17–21;JudgSome2 –13:2–21). 2113:2–21). women). SomeSarah Some wereSome women inwomen prophets womenGen were 18:9–15; were prophetswere prophets Samson’sprophets unnamed mother in Judg 13:2–21). Some women were prophets Sarah in Gen in18:9–15; Gen 18:9–15; Samson’s Samson’s unnamed unnamed mother motherin Judg in 13:2–21). Judg 13:2–21). Some women Some women were prophets were(Miriam prophets [Ex (Miriam15:20–21; [Ex Num 12:1–2], Deborah [Judg 4:4], Huldah [2 Kgs 22:11–20], Isaiah’s unnamed Sarah in Gen 18:9–15;(Miriam Samson’s [Ex(Miriam unnamed15:20–21;(Miriam(Miriam [Ex 15: [Ex Nummother [Ex20 15:20–21;– 15:20–21; 2112:1–2],; inNum Judg Num Deborah 12:Num 13:2–21).1 –12:1–2],2 12:1–2],], Deborah[Judg SomeDeborah Deborah4:4], [Judg women Huldah [Judg [Judg4:4], were [2 4:4],Huldah 4:4], Kgs Huldahprophets Huldah22:11–20], [2 Kgs [2 [2 Kgs22: KgsIsaiah’s(Miriam11 22:11–20],– 22:11–20],20], unnamed Isaiah’s[Ex 15:20–21;Isaiah’s Isaiah’s unnamed unnamed Numunnamed 12:1–2], Deborah [Judg 4:4], Huldah [2 Kgs 22:11–20], Isaiah’s unnamed ִמ ְת ַנ ְבּאוֹת Miriam [Ex 15:20–21; Num 12:1–2], Deborah [Judg 4:4], Huldah [2 Kgs 22:11–20], Isaiah’s unnamed) Ezek ; Ezek ; ִמ ]ְת ַנ ְבּאוֹת] Neh Ezek 6:14], [Neh and,6:14], more and, generally,more generally, “women “women who prophesy who prophesy];מִ,[4–8:3 תְ Noadiah נַבּIsaEzekְ] ; מִאוֹתתְ ]wife8:3–4], Noadiah נַבְ EzekאֹותIsa] ]; ִמ ,[4–8:3 ְ ת ַנwifeְprophesyבּ Isa unnamed] אוֹת]Miriam [Ex 15:20–21;wife Num [Isa 12:1–2], 15:20–21;wife8:3–4], [Isa wifeDeborah Noadiah 8: Num [Isa3–4], 8:3–4],[Judg 12:1–2], Noadiah[Neh 4:4], Noadiah6:14], Deborah [NehHuldah and, 6:14],[Neh [Judg more[2 Kgs6:14],and, 4:4],generally, 22:11–20], moreand, Huldah moregenerally, “women Isaiah’s [2 generally, Kgs “ 22:11–20],unnamedwhowomen prophesy“women who Isaiah’swife prophesy who) Ezek 14 ; ִמ ְת ַנ ְבּאוֹת] wife [Isa 8:3–4], Noadiah [Neh 6:14], and, more generally, “women who prophesy Ezek and some were judges (Deborah [Judg 4:4–5:31]).14 Others were necromancers (for the,([13:17 ; ִמ ְת ַנ ְבּאוֹת] wife [Isa 8:3–4], Noadiah [Neh 6:14], and, more generally, “women14 who prophesy14 14 14Ezek necromancersOthers [ 13:17]), were; Ezekand necromancers(for 13:17]),some the were and (for judg some thees (Deborah [Judg 4:4–5:31]). Others were necromancers (for the ; ִמ were ְ ת ַנprophesy ְבּ.([5:31–4:4אוֹת ]wife [Isa 8:3–4], Noadiah13:17]), [Neh andNoadiah 6:14], some13 and,:17]), [Nehwere moreand 6:14],judg somegenerally,es and, (Deborah were more “women judg generally,[Judges (Deborahwho 4:4–5:31]). prophesy “women [Judg Others who 13:1713:17]),]), and andsome some were were judges judg (Deborahes (Deborah [Judg14 [Judg 4:4– 54:4–5:31]).:31]). Others Others were were necromancers necromancers (for (for the the of Endor, who not only conjured the ghost of Samuel but also slaughtered a [ ֵא ֶשׁת ַבּ ֲﬠ ַלֵאת ֶ-שׁת ַאוֹבבּ] ֲﬠ ַלת -אוֹבand some were judges (Deborah [Judg14 4:4–5:31]).14 Others were necromancers (for“witch” the ,([13:17 Endor,] of] of notEndor, 4:4–5:31]). Endor, whoonlyOthers who not conjuredwho were onlynotOthers not only necromancersconjured theonly were conjuredghost conjured necromancersthe of Samuelghostthe (forthe ghost ghosttheof but Samuel of (foralsoof “witch”Samuel Samuel the slaughteredbut “witch” alsobut[ but alsoslaughtered also [ aslaughtered slaughtered] of aEndor, ] a of a who not only conjured the ghost of Samuel but also slaughtered a -אֵשֶׁ ֵ אwhoתJudg] ֶ שׁ of ת[ ַבּ.([5:31–4:4אֵּשֶ ֲﬠבַּﬠֲלַת ַלתת ,Endor- אוֹב]Judgof]אוֹבDeborah) בַעֲלַת] [- ֵא ֶשׁאֹובת] ַבּ” ֲﬠ”judges“witch ַל”witch“ת-witch (Deborahאוֹב“and some were“witch” judg [werees ,([13:17 of Endor, who not only conjured the ghost of Samuel but also slaughteredcalf aand prepared and baked unleavened bread to serve King Saul, see 1 Sam 28:7–25; see also Lev [ ֵא ֶשׁת ַבּ ֲﬠ ַלת-אוֹב] ”witch“ calf] of andEndor, preparedEndor,calf who calfandcalf who not andprepared and and only notprepared bakedprepared onlyconjured and unleavened conjured andbaked and the baked baked unleavenedghost the bread unleavened ghostunleavened of Samueltoof breadserve Samuel bread but breadKingto servealso butto Saul,to serveslaughtered also serveKing see slaughteredKing Saul,King1 Sam Saul, seeaSaul, 28:7–25; 1see calf aSamsee calf 1 and 1Sam see28: andSam 7preparedalso –28:7–25;25 prepared28:7–25;; Levsee alsoseeand see and also Levbaked also baked Lev Lev unleavened bread to serve King Saul, see 1 Sam 28:7–25; see also Lev ֵא ֶשׁת ַבּ ֲﬠ ַלת-אוֹב] ”witch“ calf and prepared and baked unleavened bread to serve King Saul, see 1 Sam 28:7–25; see also20:27) Lev and wise women (for Tekoah, see 2 Sam 14:4–20; for Abel Beth Maacah, see 2 Sam 20:14–22 calf and prepared and20:27) baked and unleavened20:27) wise20:27) 20:27)and women andwise bread and bread wise (for womenwise to toTekoah, womenserve women serve (for King see(forTekoah, King (for 2Saul,Tekoah, SamTekoah, Saul, seesee 14 see 2:4–20;see1 SamseeSam 12 Sam 2Sam for 14: 28:7–25;Sam 4Abel 28:7–25;–1420 14:4–20;; :4–20; forBethsee Abelforalso see Maacah,for Abelalso LevBethAbel Beth Lev Maacah,seeBeth20:27) 20:27)2Maacah, SamMaacah, andsee and20:14–22 2wisesee Samsee wise 2 women2Sam 20: Sam women14 20:14–22– 20:14–22 22(for (for Tekoah, see 2 Sam 14:4–20; for Abel Beth Maacah, see 2 Sam 20:14–22 ִל ְד ֹרשׁ ֶאת- ְי ָהוה ִא ָשּׁה ֲח ָכ ָמהand wise women (for Tekoah, see 2 Sam 14:4–20; for Abel Beth Maacah, see 2 Sam 20:14–22 (20:27 to understand) to understand her difficult her difficult pregnancy pregnancy (Gen (Gen ( ִל ְד ֹרשׁ ) ֶ את- ְי ָהוה) ”pre Rebecca Rebecca(Gengnancy ]).pregnancy Rebecca “inquired “inquired(Gen “inquired(Gen of Yahweh” of Yahweh .([ ִאdifficult ָ]שּׁה ֲחher ָכ ָמpregnancydifficult ה ] herto 20:14–22 understand difficult her 22–20:14( ָה-לִדְ Samunderstand ר2ֹ שׁSamto ֶ (א2תלִׁדְּ see יְהורֹשunderstand see אֶ) תto- ( ִל ְדיְּהוָה ֹ,Maacah ר) שׁ”,Maacah ֶא”Yahwehת - Bethְ יBethָ ofהו ה) Sam Sam]). Rebecca 14 14:4–20;“:4–20; inquiredof Yahweh” “inquired for for Abelof Abel Yahwehאִשּׁ2Rebecca 2ָהinquired“ .(ח[see ֲכָמָ seeאִׁשָ ה]ה Rebeccaחֲכָמָ ה.([],Tekoah ִא,Tekoah ָשּׁה ֲחfor) ָכ ָמה]and wise women (20:27 to understand her difficult pregnancy15 (Gen 16 ( ִל ְד ֹרשׁ ֶאת- ְי ָהוה) ”Rebecca “inquired of Yahweh .([ ִא ָשּׁה ֲח ָכ ָמה] to understand her difficult16 pregnancy16 25:19–26).(Gen1615 All these women accessed the Divine through their own actions.16 ( ִל ְד ֹרשׁ ֶאת- ְי ָהוה) ”Rebecca15 “inquired15 15 of Yahweh .([ ִא ָשּׁה ֲח ָכ ָמה] .to women understand the Divine accessed throughher thedifficult Divine their pregnancy own through actions. their(Gen own 25:19–26). actions.16 15 All these women accessed the Divine through their own actions ( ִל ְד ֹרthese שׁaccessed ֶאAllת- ְי ָהו15ה)Rebecca “inquired25:19–26). of Yahweh” All25:19–26). these women .([ ִא ָשּׁה ֲח ָכ ָמה] 15 of25: Yahweh”1925:19–26).–26). All ( these All these women) women to understandaccessed accessed the herDivinethe difficultDivine through through pregnancy their16 their own (Genown actions. actions. 25:19–26). All these women 15 25:19–26). All these women accessed the Divine through their16 own actions. 25:19–26). All these women accessedaccessed the the Divine Divine through through their their own own actions. actions. 16 4. Final Thoughts 4. Final Thoughts4. Final4. 4.Final ThoughtsF inal Thoughts Thoughts 4. Final Thoughts 4. Final Thoughts4. Final Thoughts

14 14 For women as prophets and as priests, see Ackerman (2002). For female prophets, whether named and 14 For women 14 ForFor14 14as women women prophetsFor aswomen as prophets and prophets as as andprophets pr iests, andas priests, as seeand priests, Ackerman see as Ackerman pr seeiests, Ackerman (2002). see(2002 Ackerman). For For (2002 female female) .(2002). For prophets,prophets, female For whetherfemale prophets,whether Forprophets, named namedwomen whether and whetherandunnamed, as named prophets named and operating and and as priests, see Ackerman (2002). For female prophets, whether named and 14 For women as prophets and as priests, see Ackerman (2002). For female prophets, whether named and 14 For women as prophets and as priests, see Ackerman (2002). For female prophets, whether namedunnamed, andunnamed, operating operating on their on own their or ownin guilds, or in seeguilds, Gafney see Gafney(2008). (2008). For women as prophetsunnamed, and as onprunnamed, operatingiests, theirunnamed,unnamed, ownsee operating onAckerman or their in operating guilds,operating own on (2002). see theiror on inGafneyon their ow guilds, Fortheirn (ownor2008female own seein ).or guilds, Gafneyor inprophets, in guilds, guilds, see (2008). Gafney see whether see Gafney Gafney (2008 named (2008).). (2008). and 15 15 unnamed, operating15 on their own or in guilds, see Gafney (2008). 15 The Hebrew root drš is typically used for prophetic inquiries. unnamed, operating15 on Thetheir Hebrew 15own TheThe 15or root Hebrewin Hebrew guilds,The drš Hebrewis root roottypicallyseedrš Gafneydrš isroot typicallyis used typically drš (2008). isfor usedty prophetic pically used for for prophetic used propheticinquiries. for inquiries.prophetic inquiries. inquiries. The Hebrew root drš is typically used for prophetic inquiries. 15 16 The Hebrew root drš is typically used for prophetic inquiries. 16 15 The Hebrew rootFor drš16 the is work typically of diviners, used for soothsayers, prophetic magicians, inquiries. and witches, who might heal by appealing16 to divinities For the other work than of Yahweh, diviners, soothsayers, magicians, and witches, who might heal by appealing to divinities The Hebrew root drš16 is typically For the16 work usedFor16 ofthefor Fordiviners, propheticwork the ofwork soothsayerdiviners, inquiries. of diviners, soothsayers,s, magicians, soothsayer magicians, ands, witches,magicians, and who witches, and might witches, who heal might whoby appealing mightheal by Forheal ap to thepealing bydivinities work appealing to of divinities diviners, to divinities soothsayer s, magicians, and witches, who might heal by appealing to divinities 16 see Gerstenberger For the work(2014 of ).diviners, soothsayers, magicians, and witches, who might heal by appealing to divinities 16 For the work of diviners, soothsayers, magicians, and witches, who might heal by appealing to divinitiesother thanother Yahweh, than Yahweh, see Gerstenberger see Gerstenberger (2014). (2014). For the work of diviners,other soothsayer thanother Yahweh,s,other magicians,thanother see thanYahweh, than Gerstenberger Yahweh, andYahweh, see witches, Gerstenberger see see Gerstenberger(2014). Gerstenbergerwho might (2014 heal (2014).) .(2014). by appealing to divinities other than Yahweh,other see thanGerstenberger Yahweh, see (2014). Gerstenberger (2014).

Religions 2019, 10, 122 8 of 11

4. Final Thoughts The fact that the stories of these women, and others as well, appear in the Bible demonstrates that women in at least some Israelite communities fulfilled meaningful religious functions. That there are so few of these stories speaks to the androcentric biases of the biblical authors, editors, and redactors. That so little has been known about women, including information about their religious beliefs and behaviors, can be attributed both to the androcentric nature of the Hebrew Bible and to the enthusiasm with which this androcentrism has been embraced by male scholarship over the millennia. Archaeology has become an invaluable resource for reconstructing the lives of women and examining their religious behaviors. The relationship between the Bible and archaeology is two-way. That is, evidence from each explicates otherwise obscure passages or realia in the other; taken together, they expand our ideas about what was possible, and about what was. The scholarly biases of the past are now being contested by female scholars—and by their likeminded male colleagues—who together strive to develop reconstructions of ancient Israelite religion that highlight both its inclusivity and its diversity.

Acknowledgments: My thanks to Avi Faust for inviting me to contribute to this special issue. Thanks, too, to the two anonymous reviewers whose thoughtful comments helped to improve the paper. A version of this paper was presented at the 2018 annual meeting of the Association for Jewish Studies. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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