...... TRIBUTE TO DMMY GRUCCI (29 December 1940 - 26 November 1983) Jimmy Grucci was an honored member of a after dinner was to relax, and on the great curved remarkable profession - craftsmen whose artistic extra-sized television screen at the foot of his bed function is momentarily to change the face of the sit and watch tapes of his favorite Grucci fireworks heavens themselves, to make the night sky more shows. What awoke him in the morning - and I beautiful than it is, and in the process give de­ might add everyone else in the Grucci household light and wonder to countless hundreds of thou­ - was an alarm-clock system rigged to that same sands. It surely can be said that Jimmy Grucci TV screen. At the wake-up hour it burst on and designed, and prepared, and fired fireworks shows showed the climactic moment of the Tchaikovsky that were witnessed by IlJore people in his life­ 1812 Overture as played outdoors by Arthur Fied­ time than any contemporary artist I can think of ler and the Boston Pops - the fireworks booming - including the great concert virtuosi, even the and echoing over the Esplanade. There was no most fashionable of the pop stars: over a million yawning and stretching in the Grucci household, people watch the annual Venetian Night show his brother, Felix, once told me, no wiping the sleep along the Chicago waterfront; over two million from one's eyes: at the first sound of that alarm watched the Brooklyn Bridge Centennial this past system, everyone was up! May; Fireworks Night at Shea Stadium has in­ What joy fireworks gave him, and what joy he variably filled every seat. Countless millions watch­ gave us with them. Perhaps the most remarkable ed this last Inauguration's fireworks on television. characteristic, I think of Jimmy, was not only his And Jimmy Grucci, of course, has been an integ­ enthusiastic nature but his attitude about fireworks ral part in making Fireworks by Grucci responsible and the public - his abhorrence of even the for these beautiful and mammoth displays. One thought of not giving the public their mon~y's of them, designed by him, won his family the worth. In a profession where it is easy to short­ championship of the world in Monte Carlo. change the populace, how often I have seen him But I don't think these honors and renown ­ put an extra four or five shells in a show to give the fact that Grucci has become a household word his audience just a bit more than what was neces­ - mattered to him as much as the simple and sary. It was as if he were saying, perhaps these wonderful art of fireworks themselves. Of his fam­ extra shells will ignite something in you which ily Jimmy was the one involved to the point truly of will make you understand what the sheer wonder passion. He worked in the fireworks assembly area of it is - to take an inanimate object, a canister, for as many as ten hours a day, six days a week. a thing of chemicals and minerals, and like a ma­ He loved making shells. He turned and admired gician, an alchemist at his astonishing best, illumi­ a fireworks shell in his hand as a collector might nate the skies with its performance. relish a statue of jade. His favorite was the split There is a famous early nineteenth century comet - perhaps the most famous American essay by William Hazlitt about the death of a great shell ever made ... in the sky tendrils of gold athlete of his time, John Cavanagh, in which Haz­ that split at their ends, and then once again, litt says that when a person dies, who does any until the entire night sky seems like lattice-work. one thing better than anyone else in the world, He also liked noise, of course. Big reports. He it leaves a gap in society. While this may be so, would be letting the tradition down, certainly the it is also true in reference to Jimmy (who made Italian tradition, if there weren't a loud report or fireworks so beautiful that I have seen people two, preferably nine or ten, to accompany things. brought to tears by what they see in the sky) that He understood that curious resthetic balance that fireworks are an on-going and perpetuating art. comes with the combination of beauty and harsh Jimmy is one of a great tradition. He is one with concussion. Claude Ruggieri, Martin Beckman, Peter the Great, In the evening, after work, after all those hours Vigarini, Brock - artists all. His family will con­ of making fireworks, Jimmy would reach home tinue in that tradition. They will not allow a gap and immediately telephone his brother just down to be left in our society. the street to talk ... fireworks. His recreation (Continued on Page 6) ...... PYROTECHNICA: OCCASIONAL PAPERS IN PYROTECHNICS was held responsible for results, accidents or injuries occurring from first published in October, 1977. It is an irregularly appearing any applications of directions or formula:: published herein. Nor serial dedicated specifically to the fireworks art, craft and science. can any guarantee be made that all information, hypotheses, Issues appear as soon as enough suitable articles are submitted theories published herein are correct, or have been verified. by authors for publication. Therefore, there can be no certainty Published information represents only the thinking of the authors as to when each issue will appear, but sustaining subscribers and does not necessarily reflect the opinions of the editorial are notified of each new issue as it is published. Since the pub­ staff or the publisher. lication has no control over the number of articles received in The material in PYROTECHNICA is copyrighted under the a given year, the number of issues published yearly will also vary. U.S. Copyright law in effect since 1 January 1978. The pub­ Articles submitted to PYROTECHNICA may be on any aspect lisher provides extra copies of PYROTECHNICA to authors whose of pyrotechnics: chemistry and mechanics of devices and effects, articles appear therein, but in all other cases this publication is design of devices or entire shows, background on chemicals not to be sold, reproduced, or generally distributed without used, economics, history, book reviews, literature reviews and written consent of the publisher, as under the new copyright the politics and law of pyrotechnics. Typewritten manuscripts statute. are given priority. Distribution of this publication is limited to paid sustaining Much of the information published in PYROTECHNICA is of subscribers, those who request to remain on the mailing list and a technical nature which could be dangerous if misapplied. The those who subscribe on a per issue basis. Inquiries should be editorial staff and the publisher of PYROTECHNICA cannot be addressed to the publisher. CONTENTS

TRIBUTE TO JIMMY GRUCCI George Plimpton ...... inside front cover

FROM THE PUBLISHER Robert G. Cardwell .... :...... 2

REACTIONS Readers' forum and feedback center 4

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION, Part I A. Fulcanelli In this first of two parts, the traditional !talo-American method of making single-break cylinder shells is covered. The first part begins with a discussion of materials employed in the manufac­ ture of cylinder shells and a step-by-step account of the method of making a single break shell follows ...... 7

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL- A CONCEPT WHOSE TIME HAD COME M. P. Vander Horck The founder of the Pyrotechnics Guild International recounts the events leading to the creation of the PGI in 1969, and then gives an account of the first 13 years of this organization, in which it grows from a small, rather structureless club to a large and highly structured organization 35

THE PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND PERCEPTION OF COLORED FLAMES, Part II K. L. Kosanke In the second part of this three part monograph, the chemistry of colored flames is discussed. Fundamental principles of chem­ istry are reviewed for the benefit of pyrotechnists without formal training in chemistry, followed by sections on pyrochemical flames for color production, the role of flame temperature, color production in flames, flame reactions, control of flame chem­ istry, and individual treatment of red, green, orange, blue, yel- low and purple flames 42

ROADSIDE STANDS TO STATE FAIRS: FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS Jim Wommack A nostalgic account of a Carolina "fugey" - his odyssey from a boyhood of bunting-draped stands and mail-order fireworks to manhood as a professional shooter and maker of fireworks for state fairs, carnivals and country clubs on the East Coast. 55

LITERATURE AND BOOKS IN REVIEW Dr. Takeo Shimizu reviews the most important titles of Jap­ anese pyrotechnic literature, and R. Cardwell reviews one of the most recently appearing American pyrotechnic books ...... 60

CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING Access to fireworks and pyrotechnic supplies...... 64

On the Covers: Front - Two 8" Grucci crossette (split comet) shells over Cambridge, MA. Back - A Ruggieri Tableaux courtesy of Fireworks by Grucci. Photographs courtesy of Ken Clark, Boston, Massachusetts. Copyright Ken Clark © 1980; © 1978. From the Publisher

""'il"======~======I"'" Pyrotechnists in the United States have been fortu­ public libraries nowadays is about as easy as locating nate enough to see the publication of much pyrotechnic a personal copy of Kentish or Brock in the rare book literature for about the past twenty years, consisting of trade! everything from pamphlets, "chap books" and amateur serials (many of them quite good, albeit reaching a Where possible, we try to make PYROTECHNICA a very limited audience), to the classic reference works vehicle for the innovations in pyrotechny, or at least such as Weingart (reprinted in 1968), Ellern and Lan­ new ways of looking at old problems. We are fully caster. Many of the former type of publication have aware that there are any number of texts and articles been advertised in the classified ad sections of science already published (and still in print) from which one and gun magazines and are to this day available as can get the "basics." We are also aware that we some­ pyrotechnic instruction to the interested general public. times publish articles on controversial or at least greatly debated topics, such as the use of potassium perchlorate It seems the appearance of Max Vander Horck's for color stars in lieu of potassium chlorate, the use of Pyronews in November 1966 was one of the earliest non-aqueous solvent systems for binding stars, etc. A examples in American pyrotechnic history of a much few readers sometimes may even write to say that some­ broader phenomenon then just getting underway in thing we have published is "ill-advised" or "impossible America, which contemporary "social forecasters" such to duplicate." These controversies bring to mind Alex­ as Alvin: Tomer and John Naisbitt have referred to as ander von Humboldt's remark about inventions, which the "information explosion" and "networking." Groups seems to apply equally well to pyrotechnic innovations, having a common special interest discovered the "small viz., an invention goes through three stages: doubt of press" and "co-op" in increasing numbers in the 1960s, its existence, denial of its importance, and, finally, and in a field as highly arcane and sparse of informa­ proper credit for its discovery going to the wrong person! tion as was amateur pyrotechny at that time, the mere discovery that there were many others "out there" with One criticism some have leveled at PYROTECHNICA the same interest enabled a great increase in activity, in the past has been that it contained too much theory communication and information exchange. Once amateur and not enough practice. I would respond that we do pyrotechnists discovered that there were others sharing try to cover new areas of the science where possible, their rather peculiar hobby, a communications network rather than simply "reinventing the whee1." If there has developed amongst them which continues to this day. indeed been a paucity of "how-to-do-it" articles, it is It was perhaps no coincidence that back in the very only because so few of them have been sent to us, or early days, so many of the subscribers to Pyronews and were sent elsewhere. I feel that a happy medium can be American Pyrotechnist were ham radio operators! reached between being the very dry reading of a college physics library and the chatty ebullience of the back­ Not only was there a certain psychological security yard amateur. If I am proven wrong, at least these nine in numbers, there was also a market. Since the 1960s, issues have been an experimental attempt to arrive at a veritable mini-industry has evolved to supply the this golden mean. With this in mind, we are pleased to pyrotechnist's need for information, chemicals and other publish in this issue Part I of A. Fulcanelli's "Tradi­ supplies, finished goods and even camaraderie. Cama­ tional Cylinder Shell Construction," which should warm raderie, of course, came to be supplied by the Pyrotech­ the heart of any pyrotechnist who could not read the nics Guild International, Inc. (PGII), conceived and accounts of Izzo, Di Maio or De Francesco (all in Ital­ begun by Vander Horck in 1969. Vander Horck, if not the father of American amateur pyrotechny, is the ian) on this subject, or were left (literally) "holding father of amateur pyrotechny's premier organization, the bag" by the short descriptions given in Davis, Wein­ the PGII, and so we are greatly pleased to publish his gart and more recent literature in English on cylinder own account of the PGII to its earliest days, which shells. It is ironic that the first published accounts of will intrigue those readers who don't know about the the traditional Italian methods covered in the Fulcanelli guild as well as those who joined the later, more mature work occurred almost a century before the eventual guild of recent years. The PGII has perhaps finally be­ decline of the technique in America. It is true that many gun to achieve recognition in the national media and fine shells using the techniques described by Fulcanelli in many ways is thus at a crossroads in its evolution. can be seen today in both Italy and America, but avail­ It seems to be an appropriate time therefore to examine able evidence indicates that this occurs much less fre­ its history, in order to get an idea of what it is becoming. quently than in the less complex and less industrialized period before World War II. Like many of the procedures in the assembly of any pyrotechnic device, much of the pyrotechnic literature Although an account and illustration is given of is also repetitive. Reading the pyrotechnic literature of rudimentary cylindrical shells in Alberti's La pirotech­ the past, there is always a certain amount of "reinvent­ nia 0 sia trattato dei fuochi d'artificio (Venice, 1749), ing the wheel," which is perpetuated each time a new the first published accounts of the methods approximat­ pyrotechnic text or article is published. Introductions of ing those in the present work are Di Maio's Pirotecnia new materials and procedures are few and far between, moderna (Milan, 1891) and Antoni's Trattato teorico­ yet this phenomenon of seeing essentially the same in­ pratico di pirotecnia civile (Trieste, 1893). Most of the structions published and republished is probably im­ now-basic technique for both single and multiple-break portant to the continued existence of the rank amateur, shells appears (taking into account changes and omis­ because most of these publications, whether books or sions) in these books and later Italian books; the section serials, have small press runs and are not long in print. on shells in Izzo's book of 1950 is a facsimile of the Di And as we all know, finding pyrotechnic references in Maio text and the figures are reproduced from the 2 PYROTECHNICA • IX earlier book as well! Antoni mentions that multiple­ Certainly many of the new generation preferred to break shells had been popular for "a few years." Thus go into a profession with a steadier, more secure income. most of the techniques known today were in use in Italy Some fireworks men forced their sons out of the fire­ before the mass migration of Italians to America from works business into what they considered more "re­ 1890 to 1910. spectable" professions. The old Italian-American fire­ The factors leading to the mass exodus of Italians worker would no doubt be bewildered by the contempo­ from their newly unified nation are numerous and com­ rary phenomenon ot younger people leaving occupations plex and are covered adequately in books on Italian affording job security and high incomes to make a "go" history. Extant immigration statistics show that the of it in the fireworks business! majority of Italians who came to America were from With the modern realities of the minimum wage, the impoverished southern part of the peninsula (from worker's compensation, OSHA regulations, etc., the Naples southward) and from Sicily. Most of the immi­ most beautiful and complex of the Italian shells are not grants leaving the more affluent northern parts of Italy profitable to produce; they are too time-consuming and went to Northern Africa or South America, especially labor-intensive. One does hear an occasional story of Brazil and Argentina. Such considerations become very the wealthy Italian-American fireworks man, but if there important to the pyrotechnic historian because (until is such a thing, it is more the result of shrewd market­ such time as Italian pyrotechnists become less secretive) ing, promotional and public relations efforts, and im­ these immigration statistics, variances in Italian jargon porting large quantities of cheaper Oriental goods, rather relating to shell nomenclature (paired with some aware­ than any role played by the popularity of a three-break ness of regional Italian dialects and linguistics), and crossette, a large rosette, timed report, or other fancy knowledge of the origins in Italy of the particular fire­ shell. Considering the waning of the fancy cylindrical works families who emigrated to America, are what shell, the Fulcanelli work is especially timely and im­ evidence we have to indicate that the current "Italo­ portant. American" techniques of making cylinder shells mostly Finally, readers will also find in this issue Part II originated in southern Italy'. of Dr. Ken Kosanke's three-part work, "The Physics, Newspaper records show that a few of these Italian Chemistry and Perception of Colored Flames." Part II immigrants went into the fireworks business sometime deals with chemistry and will be of great interest to between 1893 and 1895. Considering the economic de­ those who have recently purchased Part II of the Eng­ pression which began in 1893, one wonders if even then lish translation of Dr. Shimizu's Fireworks from a Phys­ fireworks were considered as an occupation only of the ical Standpoint, which we also recently published. last resort, when all else had failed. Most of the Italian­ I have received some comments about the long lead American firms began as small, family-run businesses time between Nos. VIII and IX, but would call atten­ and many to this day use a "cottage industry" approach. tion to the size of the present issue, which is almost As the Italian immigrant became more integrated into two issues in one! Preparation of the translation of Dr. American society and new opportunities arose for his Shimizu's Feuerwerk took up much time during 1983, educated children, many of these families were left there were other irons in the fire at all times, and some without anyone to carryon the business. Other firms on our staff chose to divert much of their attention and disappeared forever in the Great Depression. limited time to preparing the PGI Bulletin. Be that as it may, No. IX is now at hand, and I hope all our 1 The Italian immigrants who established companies in America seasoned readers will find it worthy of the rather long were mostly from the southern Italian regions of Campania, around Naples (e.g., Zambelli, Rozzi, Vitale, Presutti, Girone), wait. or Puglia around Bari (e.g., Lo Russo, Grucci). A few others were from Sicily or Sardinia (e.g., Porcheddu). The Italian ROBERT G. CARDWELL influx into America coincided with the decline of the manu­ 1 January 1984 facturers of English, German and American descent.

3 ) REACTIONS

REACTIONS is the readers' forum and feedback department in which amateur and professional fireworkers from all over the world exchange ideas, opinions and information on pyrotechnic theory and practice. They can also share descriptions and photographs of their more spectacular displays or devices with readers. Ideas and opinions expressed in REACTIONS receive no implied endorsement from the editorial staff, reflecting only the thought or opinions of the writer. Sufficient explanation or description should accompany all submitted photographs.

Part of the success in using strobe formulre depends The effect, as Weingart says, is quite surprising. When upon the manner in which the "stars" are made. Compo­ ignited on the ground, a small piece will 'spatter over an sitions which contain a water soluble binder such as dextrin area of 15 feet. Spreader stars made with potassium per­ may be moistened until quite wet and putty-like and then chlorate behaved similarly. However, when shotfrom shells, shredded through a grate onto a tarp or other flexible sur­ this effect was absent, much to my chagrin. In this respect, face which has been dusted with meal powder. Some of the they behave much like glitter stars, giving one effect on the particles or "stars" will appear to be wormlike extrusions ground and a quite different one when falling through the approximately 118 -inch in diameter and have a somewhat air. Each star resembled a sort of unique hummer, emitting scaly surface. Their lengths vary from 1;8 -inch to an inch greenish, spidery or spindly type sparks. The stars gave a or so. These are then dusted again with meal powder and very audible humming noise as well, similar to the Class C afterwards the tarp or flexible surface is folded back on device known as "jumping jacks." All the stars appeared itself gently several times to further distribute the meal to ignite, even though they were not primed. This is un­ powder and to allow the longer pieces to fall against them­ doubtedly because of the presence of the charcoal and the selves and break into smaller lengths. It is important that potassium dichromate, both of which enhance ignition one does not prepare too much material at one time on (Shimizu, 1982). one tarp so that the weight of the stars falling against them­ There is an interesting little book entitled Zinc Dust selves reduces the stars to fine particles. Three or four and Powder, which does not contain much specifically on pounds of composition may be prepared on a 3 x 3 foot pyrotechnics, but is well worth the price. It is available for tarp. The stars may be more or less evenly redistributed $3.00 from the International Lead Zinc Research Organi­ upon the tarp to allow drying. This requires a little finesse zation, Inc., 292 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017. as the little pieces are rather easily crushed. Drying occurs This book is a "must" for spreader star aficionados! rapidly at 70° to lOO°F. When dry the stars are ready for ALEX SCHUMAN use. They may be successfully added amongst other stars Latexo, Texas in starshells or to a centrally located bursting charge. They ignite easily and generally flash from three to seven times. This letter concerns ferro-aluminum and its potential Because of their size, they descend less rapidly, hence little use in glitter mixes. My first experiments with ferro-alumi­ problem is encountered with ignited material hitting the num (200 mesh, 50: 50 alloy) were conducted in black ground. powder type gerb mixtures, and it was with these that I I should add that when dry, the stars should be placed first noticed one of this material's unusual characteristics: on an 8-mesh screen and the fines sifted out. Do not how­ the sparks produced were orange-gold in color when they ever throw the fines away as these tiny particles may be initially left the case, but changed to a white color just added to fountains, gerbs, etc., or may even be used in the before burning out. same way as the larger pieces. The next logical step was to try the material in a star GARY Foss composition, and the first decent formula I arrived at was Foss Fireworks, Inc. one which is essentially a modified willow formula: Salmon, Idaho Pts % Meal powder (D) 8 38 Following Joel Baechle's suggestion (ELectric Spreader Charcoal (fine) 4 19 Stars, PYROTECHNICA III), I made up a batch of electric Potassium nitrate ...... 4 19 spreader stars using potassium perchlorate instead of po­ Ferro-aluminum 4 19 tassium chlorate. I used the same weights as in the chlor­ Dextrin 1 5 ate formula, merely substituting the perchlorate for chlor­ Water As required ate. This "pound for pound" substitution worked quite well I made this into cubical cut stars, 112 -inch on a side. They for me, both in pyrotechnics and in the chemical industry. burn quite fast, and could, perhaps, be made a little larger, All the chemicals were mixed as described by Baechle. but are quite handsome in a three inch or larger shell with The charcoal all passed 35-mesh and was all retained upon a fairly heavy break charge. The effect is a dense, fine­ a 20-mesh sieve, carefully sifted to remove any minus 40­ grained, blonde willow, the dual-colored sparks blending to mesh dust. The charcoal mesh size is an important para­ give the overall impression of blonde or "straw." Several meter - if air-floated charcoal is used, an entirely different persons have commented that it appears to be two colors effect is obtained. The mixture (one kilogram) was cut up simultaneously, which, indeed, seems to be the case. I have into rather large cubic stars, about % -inch on a side. heard that ferro-titanium can produce similar effects, though 4 PYROTECHNICA • IX I had none of this material with which to compare ferro­ left Pains-Wessex and fireworks were phased out of the aluminum alloy. Salisbury production. Shortly after I began using the mixture mentioned ... Regarding the Royal Wedding, one cannot be cer­ above, I had the opportunity to read your paper on glitter tain about the politics but when I heard that the man in (PYROTECHNICA II) and, naturally, began to wonder how charge of the display intended to re-create the original ferro-aluminum would perform in such compositions. I Royal Fireworks and build a giant facade, I realized that made up the same mixture you used to screen the various they were on a hiding to nothing. Anyone with real experi­ metals in your study. With this, my powder gave only a ence of the business could have made the point that you very sparse glitter with quite a long delay, not a usable simply cannot put fireworks against a wall. The smoke will effect. either come forwards and rise or go sideways. Whichever I subsequently tried substituting the ferro-aluminum way it would obscure many of the fireworks and there was directly for aluminum in the following glitter formula, no way in which we would have wished to be involved in which I had previously used successfully, as follows: such a doubtful enterprise. % I felt rather sorry for the man organizing the display Potassium nitrate 48 and it became increasingly obvious that two other people Barium nitrate ...... 10 were keen to do the show and we were keen to do our own Charcoal II type of display. In the meantime, the most tremendous Sulfur 16 claims were coming out in the media to the point of em­ Ferro-aluminum 10 barrassment - yet we knew that the money available for Dextrin 5 fireworks was not much more than, for example, the display in 1978 for the anniversary of the Coronation. I was asked This mixture produces a very interesting effect, if not en­ to go to Jersey to put on a show which was approaching tirely a full-fledged glitter. The dual-color effect is accen­ the same size as the one in Hyde Park and we did, even­ tuated and my impression is that the orange (iron) phase tually seeing the Hyde Park display on TV. of the sparks occurs as usual, while the white (aluminum) terminal phase is delayed, as would be straight aluminum. In the end, our fears were realized. The truth is that This results in the stars resembling tube inserts while they the Royal Wedding show in Hyde Park was not properly are falling through the air, with an orangish head trailing organized, there was a lack of the right kind of material back several feet before changing abruptly to a fine-grained and many of those involved simply did not have experience blonde or cream color. The "white" in this effect, as in the of the type needed. foregoing formula, is what one would call "soft," rather At the risk of being offensive to some, I do feel that than a brilliant "electric" white. we have too many people now who think that because they Doubling the amount of ferro-aluminum in the last have done a few firework displays that they are "experts." formula results in a dramatically different effect. In this Many call themselves "professionals" but the fact is that case, the effect is a true glitter, and the aluminum reaction they do not make fireworks. Anyone can go so far but they becomes coarser and brilliant white. get ideas which are too big and they overstretch them­ I think that ferro-aluminum, as evidenced by just these selves; motives vary, it may be egocentricity, the need to three randomly selected formulce, is an unusually versatile get to the top, or simply just money. However, I was an­ material. It can be used to produce a variety of effects, the noyed for two main reasons: range of which I have only begun to explore. No doubt (1) There were three of us in the old U.K. firework there are better ways of using it waiting to be discovered, industry with a hundred years of experience between us and other interesting effects to be had from powders with and not one of us was involved. various particle sizes and alloy metal ratios. It seems to (2) Few displays have had such publicity in recent tolerate water very well, and I have not had trouble with times and I feel that personal ambitions should not be corrosion or short shelf life. allowed to play a part in such great occasions. Some­ JOHN BERGMAN body did not do his homework properly, and in any Janesville, Wisconsin case, the show should not have been entrusted to just one man. Two recent comments in PYROTECHNICA VIII have im­ The second point I wanted to make concerns the review pelled me to hasten to the typewriter to reply. The first concerns the Royal Wedding. Until now I have kept rather of Dr. Shimizu's new book which appeared in PYROTECH­ quiet about this but now that an anonymous letter has NICA VIII. I suppose it is the duty of a reviewer to state appeared in your Reactions, and since it has come to my the facts as he sees them but it might be of interest to know ears that many people in the U.S. think that I was in charge why the English in the book is in the form it is. I have of the Royal Wedding display in London, I thought that a tremendous admiration for Dr. Shimizu who has gone to I ought to set the record straight. I did not do it, it was enormous lengths to learn both English and German and Pains. the fact that the book is in English is due to his efforts. In 1976 when preparations were being started for the When I agreed to correct the English for him I had to Jubilee celebrations, I was still doing consultant work for make a very clear decision. Either I completely re-wrote the large firm of Pains-Wessex Ltd. of Salisbury. The the book in a new style or I did the best I could with the London Celebrations Committee was formed at that time existing style. It took many weeks to correct the existing and I was invited to join it in order to advise them about style but at least the book is more or less as Dr. Shimizu the firework displays. This Committee was quite an inde­ wrote it. I thought the readers might like to know this. pendent body and five major displays were planned for REV. RONALD LANCASTER Jubilee day. About this time the young man who had been Kimbolton Fireworks trained and who made much of these displays and I both Kimbolton, England, U.K. 5 REACTIONS The report in the Reactions section of PYROTECHNICA asts and the POI are to do anything, they ought to join VIII of the death of Mr. Cost Mifsud which was attributed forces with the NRA, NMLRA, APA, and other organiza­ to his working with a potassium chlorate-antimony trisul­ tions to keep the pressure on. fide salute mixture raises questions as to the sensitivity of J. F. HELVETIUS various compositions to static ignition. New Cothen, PA There is little in the literature as to the spark sensitiv­ ity of pyrotechnic compositions other than those used by ... You are so kind to send your beautiful fireworks the military. Recently, however, information has been pub­ journal to this firecracker enthusiast. Warm good wishes. lished on two mixtures used in the production of fireworks: DR. JOHN ARCHIBALD WHEELER black powder, and the potassium chloride-antimony trisul­ Director, Center for Theoretical Physics fide salute mixture. The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas Work has been performed by Li and Wang, at the Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People's Republic of China, as reported in the Journal of Electrostatics, 1982, Tribute to Jimmy Grucci 11(3), 319-32, (also see Chemical Abstracts, 97:25936a). (continued from inside front cover) They found the minimum value for energy required to cause the ignition of black powder 50% of the time to be 26.4 mJ (millijoules). K. Lovold and T. Middleton, in their article "Ignition of Explosive Powders by Electric Sparks" (Foredrag vid Pyroteknikdagen, 1977, pp. 137-171) report that "of partic­ ular interest is the result obtained for the meal powder, which ignited at energies down to 45 mJ ... The results of these tests cannot be considered minimum ignition ener­ gies for the tested samples." It has been reported that the human body is capable of generating sparks with energy in the 20 mJ range with ease; therefore, one would be wise to exercise caution when Jimmy Grucci and Donna Gruber with his favorite shells. dealing with meal powder or with compositions containing 17 August 1983 meal powder ingredients, such as fountains, rockets, driv­ ers, etc. Potassium chlorate-antimony trisulfide mixtures have long been known to b..: dangerous. Faber (1919) points out that "... it is also of such susceptibility that extraordinary care is required in the handling of it, or a premature ex­ plosion may result." K. Lovold and T. Middleton in their article, "Characterization of the Sensitivity of Explosive Powders to Electric Sparks, a Proposed Testing Method" (Pyroteknikdagen, 1980, pp. 49-85) noted that "... two , of the compositions (2 and 5; 2 = Sb2Sg + KC10g 5 = Zr + Pb02 ) showed high frequencies of ignition for short duration (1-10 microseconds) sparks with energies in the range of 0.1 - 1.0 mJ ... Spark energies in this range Jimmy Grucci with W. R. Withrow at Bellport plant. would be barely noticeable as static electric discharges from 17 August 1983 a person." (Photo credits: W. R. Withrow) There would appear to be little excuse to use potas­ Artists are perhaps fortunate in that they leave sium chlorate-antimony trisulfide salute mixtures since good evidence after they have gone - books, concertos, substitutes are available. The use of meal powder and meal paintings, ballets, and who here in this church will not powder-type mixtures is another problem and is best han­ remember Jimmy Grucci and what he brought to this dled by making sure that all guards against the generation art when they see an especially lovely shell blossom of stray sparks are in place; i.e., non-sparking tools, elec­ in the night sky. trical grounds to all metal in the shop, cotton socks and In the ancient Greek scheme of things mortals were clothing, maintenance of high humidity, and not petting penalized by the Gods when they went beyond the the cat while working! bounds and became God-like themselves. In those times, DONALD J. HAARMANN the people would have said about the terrible tragedy Flushing, New York of last week that the Gods were taking exception, ven­ Regarding the editorial by Dr. Winokur in PYROTECH­ geance, because Jimmy Grucci was doing better with NICA VIII: I appreciate that the BATF has become a lot the heavens than they could ever dream of. easier to deal with, but we need to ask why. It is not be­ GEORGE PLIMPTON cause they are really nice guys, or that they would be so 30 November 1983 if left to their own devices. Rather, political pressure from Congress and the Reagan administration has forced them ED. NOTE: George Plimpton delivered this eulogy at Mary Im­ to behave more reasonably. Absent that pressure and there maculate Church, Bellport, New York, on the event of the funeral of Jimmy Grucci, who was killed along with family is every reason to believe they would conduct themselves member Donna Gruber 26 November 1983 in a tragic explosion just as they did in the bad old days. If fireworks enthusi- at the Grucci factory at Bellport. - RGC 6 PYROTECHNICA • IX

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION Part I

A. Fulcanelli

Siccome alla fucina in Mongibello Fabbrica tuono il demonio Vulcano Batte folgori e foco col martello ... - Berni, Orlando lnnamorato

INTRODUCTION mostly in small shops like the ones they had in Italy. The present work describes the construction of the Most of these Italian immigrants were very secretive Italian (or, more properly, Italo-American) style cylin­ about their methods of manufacture and passed this drical shell. The Italian style shell seems to have devel­ tradition on to their sons. Many of these descendants oped sometime shortly after the introduction of potassium would probably scoff at an attempt to put technique chlorate had greatly improved and expanded the range into print, feeling that not only would it be unwise, but of pyrotechnic colors about the mid-nineteenth century. also impossible. They point to the fact that two workers given the same instructions, tools and materials more The Italian pyrotechnists used empirical methods to often than not will produce two very different results, arrive at highly complex and sophisticated shell effects. proving that it is not so much the information which is Although most pyrotechnists were without a scientific important as it is that the worker have a "feel" for what approach and many were no doubt illiterate, it must be he is to do. There is some truth to this argument, which remembered that the human eye is an optical instrument the tyro will readily discover should he be lucky enough with incredible resolution which can perceive vast ranges to observe an old, Italian master craftsman build a com­ of light magnitude. The human ear can detect a WIde plicated shell. The tyro returns to his own workshop range of sounds, pitches, frequencies and intensities, confident that he will duplicate the work he has seen, and when these sense organs are combined with the and is often greatly disappointed with his first trials. brain's miraculous capacity for logic and memory, much can be accomplished without a knowledge of the scien­ Nevertheless, this argument against the publication tific method, a notebook, stopwatch, or formal study of of technique weakens with the passage of time because physics and chemistry. Thus there is often more to ac­ the technique is passed on to fewer and fewer family cumulated folk wisdom than would meet the analytical, members with each successive generation, and now risks scientific eye. being lost entirely. Many of the more complex shells are rarely (if ever) seen at displays by the general For most all of pyrotechny's recorded history, the American public. Thus it was felt that a detailed written rocket has been the predominant aerial firework. Before account should be made in English, before a time comes chlorate colors were introduced, shells were used much when these techniques are impossible to reconstruct. less frequently in recreative fireworks and were consid­ Materials change and memories fade, yet one must know ered mainly for military applications. Most all shells what came before in order to create what will follow. described in English, French and German pyrotechnic literature before the mid-nineteenth century were spher­ While it is the purpose of this work to preserve the ical. They were often constructed from wooden hemi­ high art of multi-function shell construction, one must spheres filled with cut stars and a small amount of start at the beginning. Therefore the assembly of single­ bursting charge. They usually broke -into a disorderly break shells will be treated in this first published in­ "heap" with no consistency in the results. Using less stallment. * The pyrotechnist should be familiar with the expensive and less sophisticated materials, the Italian materials and nomenclature which are used in shell pyrotechnists were able to obtain more beautiful effects, construction and this is discussed in the first section. The more symmetry in the breaks and more consistent results in the effects desired by relying on a cylindrically traditional procedure for assembling a single-break star formed shell design. In addition, by bringing the spolette shell then follows, with each step of the assembly des­ to its full potential as a timing device, they succeeded cribed in detail. Finally, reports or salutes are discussed in producing an almost infinite number of complex com­ as well, since they are an essential part of so many binations of color and sound. Italian style shell effects. The methods described, though The Italian style shell was well developed by the end Italian in origin, have evolved to become thoroughly of the nineteenth century. Unfortunately, economic and Halo-American in nature and the materials employed political upheavals in Italy came to a head at this time, can be readily obtained throughout the United States. forcing many Italians, especially those from southern Italy, to emigrate to the United States, bringing their *Multiple-break and more complex multi-function shells will be firework skills with them. They went into business, treated in Part II. 7 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATURE ing, dampened and granulated by rubbing through a The construction of traditional Italian style cylindri­ coarse screen. cal shells requires that the pyrotechnist be familiar with The mixtures in use approximate traditional gun­ many raw materials which have numerous other purposes powder proportions, often with a slight increase in the in industry. Such materials as black gunpowder, papers, percentages of charcoal and sulfur. The following re­ cordage and glue come in many different varieties and ceipts in Table 2 are typical. grades and the pyrotechnist must know which type to purchase for making shells, or run the risk of buying Table 2. Rough powder formulae large quantities of unusable supplies. Therefore, a sur­ 1 2 3 vey of the materials used in shell making and the nomen­ Parts % Parts % Parts % clature to be encountered follows. Potassium Burst and Lift Powders nitrate ... 18 68.6 20 65.6 24 65.8 The most common powder in use for shell burst Charcoal, and for shell lift in the United States is FFA Blasting, air-floated which is commercially manufactured and can be pur­ dust ..... 4 15.2 5 16.4 61/2 17.8 chased by the pyrotechnist through dealers in industrial Sulfur ...... 3 11.4 4 13.1 4 11.0 explosives. It should be pointed out that the standard Dextrine .... lY4 4.8 IVz 4.9 2 5.5 U.S. grades of black powder have varied widely in quality through the years, and formerly the granulation After breaking up any large lumps that may have of FFA powder was more uniform in size, with less of formed in the saltpeter, the ingredients are hand-mixed the finer-grained powder it is now often found to con­ and sieved two or three times through a 20-mesh screen tain. (common window screen is quite adequate)., The re­ FFFFA Blasting powder is occasionally used for sultant mixture is dampened with water' until it is wet lifting smaller shells and it is also used in making various enough to cohere in clumps when squeezed together in shell components. the hand; it must neither have a tendency to flake apart Meal D powder is used for charging the tubes for (not enough water) nor be muddy, like powder slurry spolettes. In some countries, manufactured black pow­ for priming (too wet). Because the moisture content der is too costly or difficult to obtain, and pyrotechnists of the charcoal, local atmospheric humidity, and such there have made a practice of making meal powder by conditions vary so greatly, it is almost impossible to ball-milling, later making the meal into grain powder specify moisture content to be added, but it will be by damping, pressing and screening it. found that from one-tenth up to one-fifth the weight Black powder grades also vary from country to of the dry mixture of water may be required. Some country. The U.S. system of grading has often confused shell makers add more or less water to the composition pyrotechnists in other countries. For the sake of clarity, depending upon the use to which the powder is to be the table below, from Lancaster (1972), describes the put. Less water makes a softer grain, more likely to mesh sizes of the powder granulations unique to the crumble to powder; more water makes a harder grain. American system, offered as a comparison with foreign Work the water into the composition with the hands powders. (rubber gloves are desirable in this dirty operation) until it is uniformly damp and can be worked into a Table 1. U.S. black powder grades large, coherent mass. It is necessary to have a granu­ (from Lancaster, 1972) lating screen at hand, made with 4 x 4 hardware cloth Type U.S. Sieve Numbers (wires form 1;4" squares) and I x 2 lumber for a rim. FFA 4/12 Star-drying screens are also required, of approximately FFFA 10/16 2 x 3 feet, and are to be lined with 30-lb. kraft paper. FFFFA , 12/50 Lay the granulating screen atop a paper-lined star­ FFFFFA ," 20/50 drying screen, so it is supported by the rims of the dry­ FFFFFFA 30/50 ing screen. Break off a chunk of the dampened compo­ FFFFFFFA 40/100 sition about the size of a softball, and rub it through Meal D ,...... + 50 the screen. When all the composition has passed through, Fine Meal ...... + 100 rub the screen with the hands, shake it, invert it, rub Extra fine meal ...... + 140 and shake again to clear as much of the damp compo­ sition that may be adhering. Some blasting powders are glazed with graphite pow­ Proceed to another screen and repeat the operations der during manufacture and this is usually destined for until all of the composition has been granulated. The sale to the black powder firearms market. Unglazed powder should not be much deeper than 1/2" on the powders are preferred for use in shell manufacture. bottom of each drying screen, as the granules have a "B" Blasting powders are not used for shell manu­ tendency to stick together under their own weight. About facture because they are too weak and slow-burning, 21/2 - 3 lbs. of composition (dry weight) per screen is as well as hygroscopic (being made with sodium nitrate a desirable amount. instead of potassium nitrate as used in "A" Blasting If dried in a well-ventilated, shady, warm location, powders). the rough powder should be dry in 2 - 3 days. Avoid Rough Powder placing it in the sun immediately after granulation, lest A rough, home-made powder is sometimes used in the saltpeter leach to the surface of the granules. When the manufacture of shells, often called polverone (liter­ dry, it should be taken up off the kraft sheets lining the ally, "large powder" or "coarse powder"). This is a screens, any large caked masses of granules broken up sieve-mixed composition of saltpeter, charcoal, sulfur, with the hands, and finally sieved through one of the and dextrine to bind it, made without milling or grind- granulating screens. 8 PYROTECHNICA • IX Some of the rough powder, all of which has passed parallel to this grain, than against or perpendicular to it. the 1,4" openings when wet, will not pass the screen The diagrams below illustrate this. when dry. This powder should be set aside and kept It should be mentioned that hand-made papers, separately from the powder which passed through the which are not made by a process that aligns the fibers screen. The coarser powder is used for filling the tops so markedly, have little or no grain direction; this is of shell casings until level after the stars and powder often an advantage in specialized applications, but the cores have been put in them. It is suitable for this pur­ expense is prohibitive. Japanese hand-made tissue paper pose because it does not all sift down between the inter­ ("Gampi") is thus prized for shell and rocket para­ stices amongst the stars, sitting instead on top of them chutes because it has little tendency to become set in and acting as an even "packing" material. its folds. The finer powder, which has passed the screen, is used for all other purposes: filling the interstices between In pyrotechnic case-rolling operations, it is impor­ the stars in multiple-break shells, where a solid fill is tant to roll with the grain, as in most situations, rolling indispensable to the shell's structural integrity; filling against it is more difficult. It is often difficult for per­ around serpents, whistles, and other tube-type garni­ sons unfamiliar with paper to detect grain direction. tures, and as a burst charge (either alone or in a mix­ Usually, paper folds or rolls with greater ease with ture with commercial FFA powder) where a gentler rather than against the grain, but the difference is subtle break is desired than that obtained with commercial in the lighter weights. An infallible test for grain is to powder alone. dampen one side with a sponge. The sheet will then curl so that the curvature is with the grain (see Figure 2). Garnitures It also ought to be mentioned that when paper comes The general term "garniture" refers to the contents in rolls, the grain runs with the circumference of the of a shell (e.g., cut stars, pumped comets, serpents, roll, and when it comes in sheets, it is usually (but not whistles, reports, tourbillions; essentially anything that always) with the longer of the two dimensions of the will fit in a shell). A method for making cut stars, the sheet. most commonly used shell-filler, is given in PYROTECH­ Paper is bought by the sheet or roll, and such char­ NICA I ("Cut Star Making -A System and Its Uses" acteristics as size, thickness (caliper), grade, color, and by Jim Stone, 1977, pp. 4 - 8). Most other compon­ the like, are meaningful to the customer in making his ents are well described in the existing literature. selection. However, it is long-established custom in the paper industry to sell paper by weight. The calculation Papers of the weight of a given number of sheets of a given Papers of several types are used in the construction size and thickness in a given grade requires some spe­ of shells, and all share common characteristics. Among cialized understanding. the most important of these is grain. Paper is in effect a thin web of cellulose fibers derived from various vege­ Various sheet sizes are available in each grade table sources, such as wood, cotton, flax, sugar-cane (grades being, e.g., book, bond, index bristol, tagboard, waste (bagasse), manila hemp, etc. These fibrous plants wrapping, etc.), but in each grade one size is designated are treated either mechanically or chemically (or by as the basis size for that grade. This is the size of which both means) to remove (more or less) the non-cellulose one ream (500 sheets for printing grades, 480 sheets components, leaving cellulose fibers in water suspension. for "coarse" grades) weighs the basis weight. The basis A paper machine consists essentially of an endless belt weight is that weight by which all paper of a given of wire cloth travelling at high speeds with a hopper weight, regardless of size, is described (e.g., 70-lb. full of this cellulose suspension ("pulp" or "furnish") wrapping, 20-lb. bond, 100-lb. tagboard). Thus, 500 at one end, and a series of hot steel rollers ("calender sheets of the basis size book papers (25 x 38 inches), stacks") on the other. It functions by feeding the pulp basis 50 (50-lb.), weighs 50 pounds; 480 sheets of the onto the screen, where most of the water is drained, basis size of wrapping papers (24 x 36 inches), basis leaving at the other end a web of fibers of uniform 70 (70-lb.), weighs 70 pounds. thickness, which is further dried, compressed, and reg­ It will be evident that a ream of paper of some ularized by passage between hot rolls. In this process, different size than the basis size will not weigh the basis the fibers are aligned in the direction of the travel of weight, although that basis weight continues to be used the wire cloth belt ("Fourdrinier screen"). The result to describe the paper. J

AL/GIV/1E;VT Or ngj(ES FOLiJ WIT/! C"f}!//11 rOLO AGA/AIST eM/IV

Figure 1. Property of grain in paper. 9 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

TOfJ SlOE iJAJl1PE/LIEfJ /

CtitfL /5 AT if/GilT (;lfA/1V OF /fOLL GA'A/IV OF SIIFET WIT/I A/I/GLE TO {iRA/IV C/lfCLlI'1FEREN7IAL LON6EA' .0//11£#.5/0#

Figure 2. Paper grain detection.

(1,000) sheets weigh 148 pounds, i.e., twice what one TAGBOARD - basis size 24 x 36, in 100-lb. and ream weighs. 125-lb. weights (basis ream 500 sheets) and index Although it may be in roll form, paper is still de­ bristol, basis size 25 1/2 x 301h, in 90-lb. and 1l0-lb. scribed by weight with reference to its basis sheet ream. weights (basis ream 500 sheets) are roughly compara­ This is particularly common with wrapping grades; e.g., ble types of paper, tagboard being made with a longer­ one might buy a roll of 70-lb. kraft wrapping, thickness fibered furnish and slightly stronger. (caliper) .007", and the weight reference would refer One hundred-pound tag and 90-lb. index bristol to the weight of 480 sheets of 24 x 36 inch paper. It both have a caliper of .007"; 125-lb. tag and 11 O-lb. should be pointed out that thickness (caliper) is not index bristol both have a caliper of .009/1. Other weights an infallible clue to the weight of paper, since paper are occasionally available but find little use in pyro­ may be made of relatively greater or lesser density, yet techny. The paper colors are white and manila, which have the same thickness. used to refer to the use of manila hemp in the furnish, The following types of paper are in wide use in but now refers to the light buff color of the unbleached pyrotechny: grade of this paper (which is cheapest and quite ade­ KRAFT WRAPPING-basis size 24 x 36 inches, avail­ quate for pyrotechnic purposes). Table 4 indicates the able in 30-, 40-, 50-, 60- and 70-lb. weights (basis standard paper sizes. ream is 480 sheets). It is available in sizes 24 x 36, 30 x 40, and occasionally 36 x 48 or 40 x 48; also com­ Table 4. Tag and index sizes. monly in rolls ranging from 12" - 72/1 wide. Generally Tagboard Index bristol the lighter weights come in narrower rolls and the 221/2 x 281/2 201/2 x 243,4 (rare) heavier weights in wider ones, but there is no standard 24 x 36 251/2 x 301/2 roll width. The caliper (thickness) of the respective 22V2 x 35 weights is in a neat correspondence as follows: These grades of paper are used where a thin, strong Table 3. Kraft paper weights and calipers. inner liner for small insert components or occasionally Caliper shell casings is needed. Formerly, tagboard or press­ Paper weight (thickness) board (an almost extinct grade) was used for hand­ 30 lb 003" rolling shell fuse tubes. 40-lb 004" CHIPBOARD is made from mechanically pulped news­ 50-lb 005" print scrap, wood chips, and other cheap and low 60-lb 006" quality fibers. It has completely supplanted strawboard, 70-lb 007" a thick yellow paperboard spoken of by Weingart and 90-lb 009" other earlier writers. Chipboard comes in calipers of .018/1, .022/1, .026/1, Kraft wrapping is normally brown (a wide variation .030/1, and .042/1, and occasionally in thinner and is found in shades), and is used for many purposes in thicker calipers. It is not sold by the ream, but by pyrotechny. The heavier weights, 60- and 70-lb., are the 50-lb. bundle, denominated by "count," i.e., the used for rolling shell cases and for pasting-in larger number of sheets in a bundle. Thus, "26 x 38-70 count shells; medium weights, 40-, 50- and occasionally 60-lb., chipboard" would be a chipboard of which 70 sheets for nosings and for pasting-in; and the light weights, made up a 50-lb bundle; in this case, the caliper is 30- and 40-lb., for match pipes, nosings, and pasting-in .030/1. It is ordinary to denominate chipboard by cali­ small shells. The light weights are also used for "lift per as well, so ordering is uncomplicated. Common wrap" in finishing shells, and often colored kraft paper sizes are 221h x 341/2, 23 x 35, 281/2 x 341/2, and 26 x is used as well as the natural brown kraft for this purpose. 38. Note well that in this grade (as opposed to those So-called "recycled kraft" papers (more appropri­ discussed previously), the lower the number following ately called "bogus kraft," since they are not kraft at the size designation (the count number as opposed to all) are sometimes encountered, and they should not be the weight), the greater the thickness of the sheet. used as they tend to fall apart when wet with paste. This grade of paper is used for inner liners for re­ It is wise to test the wet strength of paper, by wetting ports, occasionally shell case inner liners, and in the a sample thoroughly, crumpling it, then smoothing it heavier weights, for end discs. A thinner chipboard, out - if it survives this test, it will be suitable for shell .010/1 - .012/1, is sometimes available in rolls and is building. commonly used for various case liners or for case ro11- 10 PYROTECHNICA • IX ing. This supplants the groundwood "bogus bristol" and ability to be wet with paste must be carefully de­ spoken of in the past. termined. BINDER'S BOARD is a strong, heavy board, gray, and made of laminated thicknesses of a chipboard-like paper Nomenclature of a finished shell said to be made from pulped, industrial wiper rags, Detailed coverage of various phases of shell manu­ and is thus sometimes called rag board. It is available facture will treat this subject in greater depth later. in many calipers and sizes, for use primarily in the Figure 3 below illustrates the basic parts of a shell. bookbinding industry as cover boards. Its main use in SPOLETIES AND OTHER SHELL FUSES pyrotechny is for shell end discs. Popular thicknesses range between 1/16" and lis". End discs are usually Every aerial shell must contain a timing element not made by the pyrotechnist himself, but purchased that, having taken fire simultaneously with the lift from suppliers who die-cut the end discs. charge, provides adequate delay before passing fire to the burst powder and garniture, such that the shell Cordage bursts at or near the apex of its trajectory. There are Cordage is another important article in pyrotechnic several varieties of delay fuses that may be used, de­ practice, and is conveniently often available from the pending upon the size and character of the shell. same dealers handling coarse papers. Many types are used, and choice is largely at the taste of the individual Spolettes pyrotechnist, but the following are the most common. The spolette is the oldest and most versatile type UNSIZED COTTON STRING - Three- or 4-ply is com­ of shell fuse. It consists of a small-bored and relatively monly used for making black match, usually 6 - 8 strands thick-walled tube (usually but not always made from together. Eight-ply, lO-ply and 12-ply are used for paper) charged partially with pure commercial meal spiking (stringing) shells. These grades are normally powder. The powder charge is flush with one end of sold on cone-shaped spools and priced by weight. the tube and part, often half or more, of the tube is FLAX TWINES - Three-ply and 4-ply (the plies are left uncharged (see Figure 4). thicker than cotton string) are available from American and Belgian manufacturers. These twines are of a TUBE rougher finish than cotton (knots made with them hold more firmly than those made with the smoother cotton). They are a greenish-brown color with a characteristic, not unattractive odor. The fibers are longer, and the twine is exceedingly strong for its thickness. This twine is often used for tying nosings, lift- and leader-tying, and occasionally spiking large shells. It is more expensive Figure 4. Spolette, before matching and nosing. than cotton twine, and often comes in I-lb. cylindrical rolls. A 2-ply Italian flax twine, which was very thin and The open end of the tube is filled with as many stronger than 8-ply cotton, was much favored for spik­ short pieces of high-quality black match as can easily ing shells, but is now almost impossible to find; it came be put into it (without force); a nosing of strong, light­ in 5-lb. cone-shaped balls. weight paper is rolled around the end of the spo1ette POLYESTER, POLY/COTTON, and HARD LAID COTTON and tied snugly (but only enough to hold the match STRINGS -A variety of these are available and are firmly in place - not so tightly as to choke off or break often favored for spiking shells because of their relative its black powder coating). The pieces of match should thinness and strength, but there are many pitfalls in be carefully cut, with a very sharp knife or razor blade, selecting them. Breaking strength, tendency to stretch, because dull cutting tools crumble the powder from the match leaving cotton fibers exposed without a powder BA~E coating. The pieces of match should extend perhaps /"1ATCII ENO LEAf)ER (/1ATCf! 1 - 1V2" beyond the open end of the spolette, when OF LEA£JER ('0;<1/'1(//II/CA77#G fiRE r;fO/1 held firmly in contact with the powder charge in the / SIIOO7T,R'S r(/SEE1?JSIIELL tube. Figure 5 depicts a spolette that has been matched and nosed.

,PASSFIJfE !/1ATCII CO/'1/"1(/;1I/{'A T'I/liG RifE I"'lfoH 511£LL rLLlS# FL/SE To L/I"'T ENIJ AT i30TTO/"1 OF .5I1ELL

Figure 5. Spolette, matched and nosed.

Tubes for spolettes have in the past been hand­ rolled, but because spolettes are used in such great vol­ LIFT W,RAP ume and because their perfect manufacture is essential fTO COAl7AIN to the safe and successful functioning of shells, it is LIFT POW£JE-R) now usual to buy machine-rolled tubes. These tubes are wet-rolled, convolute-wound, and made of high­ Figure 3. Parts of a shell. quality, smooth finished paper which is rolled long and 11 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI Table 5. Specifications for spoletie tube dimensions and powder charges for single break shells. Inside Outside Powder diameter diameter Length charge

3" shells, single break ...... ~ ...... 5/16" .550" 2" 1"-11.14" 4" shells, single break ...... 5/16" - Va" 11/16" 3" Pis" 5" shells, single break ...... 5/16" - Va" 11/16" 3" Pia" -1V:z"

6" shells, single break ...... , 5/16" - %" 11116" 3" 1Vz " 8" shells, single break ...... 5/16" - %" 11/16" 4" 13,4 "

NOTE: It is impossible to give accurate equivalents in seconds for these timings as such factors as ramming pressure and increment size vary from one worker to the next. As a rough guide, one inch of powder rammed in a spolette burns approximately 3 seconds. Special timings appropriate to multiple break and other special shells will be treated later. later cut to length. It is the usual practice to age or and the ramming surface. Repeat the charging of powder "cure" the tubes after they are received from the manu­ and the ramming, maintaining the same number of facturer as they are often still slightly damp and must mallet blows with the same force, until sufficient in­ stabilize. Spiral-wound tubes are unsuitable for making crements have been charged to complete the powder spolettes, for obvious reasons. charge. It is wise to charge perhaps 1/16" - Va" more Formerly, a "red-rope" tube was available, made powder than is desired in view of the next step. with thin red pressboard, but recently these have been At this point a variety of methods may be used to supplanted by a manila-colored paper. The tubes should produce a groove, hole, or depression in the inside pow­ be hard, rigid and smooth. Dimensions of the tubes used der surface for purposes of assuring the passage of fire. vary according to the size of the shell and also accord­ A common problem with spolettes is a failure to trans­ ing to the purposes for which the spolettes are intended. fer fire from the powder train to the match, in what is Manufacturers have their own preferences in these mat­ often called the phenomenon of having the flame "sucked ters; Table 5 describes one such system. out."* It is thought that the presence of this groove or One should have appropriate tools for the size of depression in the powder surface increases the surface tube selected. These include a small scoop that will area of powder in contact with the match and lengthens deliver a charge of meal powder sufficient to form an the critical split second during which the match ends increment of 3/16" - 1;4" when very solidly rammed are exposed to flame. in the tube; a rammer or drift, of sufficient diameter Three methods are used: to fit snugly in the bore of the tube (yet not so tightly 1 1) After inverting the spolette to empty any loose meal as to bind) and perhaps 2 - 2 /2" longer than the tube; that may remain, with an awl, carefully scratch or and a solid, flat surface, preferably metal, stone, or pol­ score the powder surface on the hollow end of the ished wood, on which to ram. The ramming surface spolette. The groove produced by this scratching should be supported by a sturdy workbench, or pref­ should be about Va" deep. The awl may be used erably by a post sunk directly into the ground, to mini­ as a rough sort of depth gauge by holding the thumb­ mize vibration. It is also desirable to have the rammer nail to the awl and noting the difference in position marked with a circumscribed line at such a point on its with relation to the end of the tube when the tip of length that when the line is parallel with the top of the the awl is touching the bottom of the groove, as com­ case, it indicates the desired height of the powder charge pared to when it is touching the rammed surface. (thus, if ramming a 3" case with a 11/2" powder charge, the line should be circumscribed on the rammer 1V2" 2) A small drill, perhaps 1/16" diameter, may be used from its bottom end). to make a hole from Va" to 1;4" deep in the inside powder surface. The drilling may be done by hand, Holding the tube so that its bottom edges are firmly or (if volume of production warrants) by a drill press against the ramming surface, charge one scoopful of meal operating at very low RPM. If a drill press be used, powder into it and carefully insert the rammer, pressing great precision is possible, particularly where very it down to the powder. Ram with 8 - 10 firm blows of short timings are involved. a rawhide mallet. It is better to control the mallet and use more blows than to swing wildly and attempt ex­ *ED. NOTE: Practices and feelings about this problem vary tremely heavy blows. During all this time, the tube from country to country, and from pyrotechnist to pyro­ should be held solidly in place by one hand against the technist; Rev. Ronald Lancaster (private communication, 1983) claims that "the shaped rammer is essential and ramming surface. Especially with the first increment, should be 111" deep at least ... I have often met failure it is imp0l1ant to make certain that no powder is pushed in its absence." Lancaster reports that most Europeans now out of the tube between the bottom edge of the tube press fuses which include a recess in the powder charge.

Figure 6. Shaped-end rammer and cavity produced in powder charge. 12 PYROTECHNICA • IX 3) !'" rammer with a shaped end may be used, produc­ lllg a cone-shaped depression in the inside powder surface (see Figure 6). ----8IACI(/'tATC/! To nose spolettes, cut strips of paper from 1" - 2" CLot/E IIITe/lf,IiIO.5/#C wide (depending upon the size of the spo1ette) and 4" ­ 5" long (2 - 3 turns). Paper should be 20 - 40-lb. kraft 77EO .4PcJtI/l/lJ /1AiCII) with the grain running the shorter of the two directions: ~~4----?IE;f{,,0/GOr /1/0S//l/G ~atch should be cut to appropriate lengths for insertion mto the spolettes prior to nosing. Four to five pieces of #/TIIAN'L 8£/II£1T/I 77£ matc~ should suffice. Some pyrotechnists prefer to crimp th~ ~Ide wall of the spolette to hold match in place by drIvmg a narrow screwdriver or chisel blade between ~he turns of paper, prior to nosing. Lay a piece of nos- mg paper out, and smear with white glue all along the top edge and the pasting edge; roll the spolette up into the paper, with perhaps 1h" - %" protruding beyond t~e tube and over the match. This end ought then to be tied around the match with a clove hitch of flax twine or strong cotton (see Figure 7).

2.-:3 Tt/R/IIS \ Figure 8. Tying and piercing the spolette nosing.

less than 1;4" in diameter and has a colored paper outer w:ap held on by helical wrappings of thread rather WIdely spaced. Fuse manufactured in the United States is nor1?ally %" in diameter and has an outer wrapping of whIte cloth tape. The use of Bickford-type fuses is reserved mostly for one-break shells. Preparation of these fuses for use in shells is rela­ tively simple. Pieces of about 2" in length are cut from the rolls. The fuse must then be cross-matched. This may be accomplished either by punching the fuse with an awl (e.g.) Ih" from one of its ends, and threading a piece of thin black match through the resultant hole, or by making a lengthwise cut, splitting the fuse (again perhaps for Vz" of its length), inserting a piece of black match in the split, and tying the split end to­ gether above the match. Figure 10 shows these alter­ natives. Figure 7. Nosing spolette. When cutting or punching time fuse, it is most im­ pOltant to have a sharp and clean tool lest asphalt be It is advisable to pierce the nosing with an awl, smeared over the powder core in the process. Attempt­ beneath the tie. This relieves the gas pressure inside the ing to use a fine drill bit to make a hole for cross­ ~polette and permits the hot combustion gases to vent matching will almost always insure that asphalt gets mto the shell, thus aiding ignition even if the match smeared into the powder core. should be choked off by the tie (see Figure 8). An arbor press is almost essential for punching the la~ger If it is found impossible to master holding the spol­ sizes of fuse. Two types of punching tools are in e~te ~nnly against a flat surface while ramming, a useful WIdespread use; one type, having an ogival point (like aid IS. a ramming block in which to support the tube. an awl) simply pierces and spreads the cross-matching The SImplest and best form consists of a block of metal, hole; the other, often a hollow tube (like a leather perhaps 1" thick, with a hole slightly larger than the punch) actually removes a slug of fuse material, includ­ outside diameter of the spolette tube drilled clear through ing a portion of the powder core. it. This block may then be set or clamped onto the ram­ ming surface (see Figure 9). Other shell fuses SPUN FUSES - Other time fuses in common use are the Japanese and American Bickford style or "tape" fuses. These are spun fuses, made by complicated machinery, and most pyrotechnists must buy them from dealers, rather than making them. They consist of a modified black powder core, surrounded by spun textile fibers, asphalt water-proofing layers, and an outer wrap. A commonly-used fuse of Japanese manufacture is slightly Figure 9. Cross section of spolette in ramming block. 13 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

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10.1 10.2

Figure 10. Two methods for cross-matching Bickford-type fuses.

FUSE/END DISC ASSEMBLY - Whatever fuse is se­ CONSTRUCTION AND lected for use in shells must be fitted through an open­ FILLING OF SHELL CASES ing in the top end disc of the shell. Discs are usually purchased with holes of the proper diameter already Case rolling punched, although they may be punched with an arch The casing of a shell is constructed of an appro­ punch. Spolettes should be inserted so that only about priate number of turns of kraft paper rolled up dry Y

C,ROSS-/"1ATCflEO TI/'1E rOSE $ EAlL?t?ISC S,POLETTE IN EN/) f}ISC

tJT#ER E#.o OA/OvTS/L)£ o"cS#EZL.. /S S//'1/LARLY CA'OS5-#,ATCh"E.o AFTE/? SHELL IS /?4STEt? //1/ 1A??A'OX//"tAffLY 1/1 8E7WEEAI CIfOSS-/'1'ATC#IAlGS /;11$1..0£ ANi) Ob'73'hOE S#ELL rOlf'ALL SIZES3'!-6) 11.1 11.2

Figure 11. Fuse! end disc assemblies. 14 PYROTECHNICA • IX Table 7. Dimensions of paper strips makers to produce the cheapest article being the over­ for making shell cases. riding concern), the fill level is often less than the diam­ Size No. turns Length of eter, leading to short, squat "pancake" or "hockey­ of shell 70-1b. kraft paper paper strip puck" shells. The paper should in any event be cut 3" 3 1 - 24" strip wide enough to roll a cylinder that will fold down over the top and bottom to leave an appropriate height for 4" 4 2 - 24" strips the shell wall. or Having cut a sufficient amount of paper for the de­ 1 - 48" strip sired number of shells, roll up the appropriate number of turns on the former for the shell of whatever size 5" 5 3 - 24" strips may be desired. If more than one sheet is necessary, or roll up the first sheet almost completely: interleave the 2 - 36" strips next sheet with it, roll it up, add another sheet until all have been rolled on; then paste the last sheet down 6" 6 4 - 24" strips at the edge. The rolling should be done with enough or pressure that the resulting tube is snug, but not so tight 2 - 48" strips on the former that it cannot slip easily from it. Now the end of the case must be folded down to 8" 8 4 - 48" strips make the bottom of the shell. Two principal techniques are used to accomplish this. In one, the tube is slipped Lighter paper than 70-lb. is occasionally used. In a little less than half a diameter past the end of the these cases, more turns must be used than the above former, and a chipboard disc of appropriate size is table indicates. If the nominal diameter of the shell pushed down onto the end of the former. The protrud­ in inches be denominated by N, the formula N x .007" ing paper is then pleated in towards the center, leaving gives the thickness required for the wall of the shell in a little area of the chipboard disc exposed, as illustrated thousandths of an inch. For example, a 5" shell case in Figure 12.1. The other method is sometimes called must have a wall .035" in thickness. If 50-lb., which the "tongue fold" because of the "tongue" of paper calipers .005", were to be used in lieu of 70-lb. (cali­ that is formed by the last paper to be folded down. In pering .007"), seven turns of 5O-lb. would be required this technique, the paper width must be calculated to be to produce the required thickness as compared to only a little greater. The tube is slipped almost a full diam­ five turns of the usual 70-lb. paper. eter past the end of the former, the disc slipped in, and The grain of the paper should run parallel to the one side of the tube folded in over the center. Another axis of the shell former (i.e., the short dimension of the fold, or even two, is made to the side of the original strip). The width of the paper strips varies according fold until all that remains unfolded forms a large, pointed to the contents of the shells. Longer casings are neces­ "tongue" sticking up; this is last to be folded down. sary when tube-type garnitures (serpents, whistles, re­ Because excess paper will stick out to the sides of the ports, or the like) are to be used. These will be dis­ end, making a bottom to the shell that is not com­ cussed more specifically under the headings covering pletely circular, these excess folds are tucked under the those special shells. The present discussion is confined tongue, giving the appearance illustrated in Figure 12.2. to a general technique for making simple single-break On larger shells, where the bulk of many turns of shells of cut stars. For such a shell, the desired height paper may be difficult to fold all at once, several inner is usually the same as its diameter. Thus, a 3" shell, turns may be turned down and pleated individually. being rolled on a 2112" former, is to be filled to a height This may be done either with the tongue fold method or of 211z"; a 4" shell, rolled on a 311z" former, to the the method of pleating toward the center. Some makers height of 3112"; and so forth. In practice, especially do this with all shells and claim it is more "fireproof." with large shells (economy and keen competition among The choice of pleating toward the center or making the

,PA'pEIf 'pLEATELJ TOWAIfO CENTEIf !'cREASES AlfEE([:>VAL) &JT7CJ.H Or SA/ELL CAsE CLOSELJ ,h//T# "To/f/6'G/E ';cOLLJ "

Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2

Figure 12. Two methods of folding paper. 15 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI tongue fold is also largely a matter of individual pref­ powder; fill the rest of the stars, and likewise settle them. erence. Pleating toward the center is held to make a A word of caution is in order here. Great care neater bottom as each pleat subtends a much smaller should be taken when consolidating the stars, especially section of the circle and the corners of the pleats do not when chlorate color stars are being used. What one tend to stick out from the circumference. On the other maker considers to be "'tamping" stars may to another hand, tongue folds do not leave any of the bottom inside constitute "pounding"; the novice shell maker should disc exposed and on this ground it is claimed they are never apply pressure directly to the stars with anything more "fireproof." Tongue folds are also faster to make. other than the fingers. Sometimes it is better simply to Having folded the case in on one end, persuade the "bounce" the case being filled on the workbench peri­ folds to lie in place by pounding with a wood block odically during the operation. Grievous accidents have or a mallet, or by inverting the former and jolting it on occurred in the past during this critical step of assembly. the workbench. The case may then be removed from the former and is ready to be filled. Finally, the canulle is filled with FFA powder, then carefully withdrawn, so as not to disturb the stars around Case filling it. This is best done by rotating (Vs" turn or less) After the shell case is made, it is ready to be filled. back and forth with a slight jiggling motion, which will To make a simple shell of cut stars, one uses a brass cause the powder to mDve into the stars rather than the or copper pipe, called a "canulle," which is inserted stars moving into the space left by the canulle wall. A into the case, centered on the bottom disc; stars are little more powder than will equal the height of the filled around the tube and burst powder filled in the stars is used, so that it spills over the center just slightly tube. The tube is then withdrawn, leaving a core of when the tube is removed. Finally, coarse rough powder powder surrounded by stars. The diameters of the is filled over the stars and powder until the top of the canulles are shown in Table 8. break is level. This final addition of rough powder itself is often then tamped until the corners of stars just begin Table 8. Diameters of canulles. to appear through it. The FFA core in the center should Size Diameter still be a distinct entity, and it is tamped also. At this of shell of canulle point the shell should be filled such that an appropriate 3" 34" - 1" amount of paper (somewhat less than half the casing's 4" I" -11;4" inner diameter) extends beyond the fill level, to be 5" 1112"-134" pleated in toward the fuse at the center of the top in­ 6" 1:j,4" - 2" side disc. 8" 214" - 3" Top discs with spolette, made as described else­ where, should be readily available as shells are filled. Suitable thin-walled copper or brass pipe is stocked The disc is pushed down onto the powder and stars in by commercial plumbing supply firms, although it is less the shell casings, and settled firmly into place by tamp­ common at the smaller hardware stores than formerly ing with a wooden rod. This must never be done hard was the case. Canulles may also be rolled of two turns enough to break the stars. After the disc has been of pressboard or tagboard if desired. tamped down, it is held down with one hand while the When filling the stars around the canulle, some case is felt all around; it should be firm allover with makers shake some rough powder in among the stars no soft spots. to fill the interstices; other do not. Generally, the shell The paper extending beyond the disc is then folded casing is patted, tamped, or shaken to settle the stars down toward the center of the shell, i.e., toward the into the most compact configuration. Often the shell fuse. If everything has been well calculated, when this maker will half fill the case with stars, shake, pat, or paper is folded into place, it will fall just short of the even tamp the stars with a wooden stick to settle them, shell fuse, just barely touching it. Another disc, pierced sprinkle in a sparse handful of FFA powder or rough to receive the fuse, is pushed down over the fuse onto

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Figure 13. Cross-section of filled shell case. 16 FYROTECHNICA • IX the folds of paper, settled into place by tamping with a Table 9. Corresponding shell and. star sizes. wooden stick. If desired, some makers apply glue around Size Cut Cut the spolette between the two discs. Finally, the shell is of shell color stars tailed stars marked as to its contents and set aside. Figure 13 is a 3" Y.4 " or smaller Y.4 "- :jig" cross-sectional view of the filled shell casing. 4" Y.4 "- :jig" %" - V2 " When filling shells, attention must be paid that the 5" %"-lIz" V2"-%" proper size of star is chosen to fill a particular size of 6" %" - liz" liz" - o/g" or %" shell. Because stars differ so broadly in burning char­ 8"* V2" or larger %" or larger acteristics, it might seem that this question cannot be *8" not normally made with plain cut stars. addressed without reviewing every star composition indi­ vidually. In a sense this is true, and of course every to be blown blind, although this problem can be solved experienced shell maker becomes aware of, and adjusts usually by heavy priming. Problems associated with the for, these variations in making stars. However, smaller perchlorates can doubtless be overcome with careful for­ stars are usually used in smaller shells and larger stars mulation and experimentation, but they are not yet recti­ in larger shells. The reasons for this are two-fold: fied, which, along with the higher cost of the perchlor­ 1) Aesthetic considerations - The density and sym­ ates, accounts for the industry's continued dependence metry of effect produced are affected by the size of upon chlorate-based colors for the type of shells here stars used. Large shells obviously have more volume, being described. spread wider, and so the burning time of the stars The problem of sparse-appearing breaks may to can be proportionately longer than for small stars. some extent be solved by mixing tailed stars with the Thus the stars can be larger. On the other hand, a color. An inexpensive charcoal mixture of saltpeter, small shell filled with large stars seems sparse in its charcoal in excess, sulfur, sometimes lampblack, and burst, because so few stars fit into a smaller casing; dextrine can be cut to about the same size as the color and they normally bum too long, destroying the stars, and mixed with them in a ratio of about 3: 1 or symmetry of the burst and leaving a "hole" in the 4: 1, color:charcoal. The charcoal composition produces center. Stars too small for a large shell bum out be­ a low light output and the stars are not perceived as a fore the shell burst spreads to its ideal diameter, and separate effect when the shell bursts, being overpowered the effect of the shell is disappointingly short-lived. by the color, but they "fill in the space" and give the 2) Structural considerations - The ratio of interstitial impression of a fuller burst. Flitter and electric stars, spaces between stars to the space occupied by the cut to normal size and mixed with color stars in about stars themselves must be small and relatively con­ the same ratio as the charcoal stars, also have a "filling" stant from size to size. Large interstices damage the effect, but are perceived as an added effect, and gen­ shell's structural integrity; such a shell may collapse erally look most admirable. under the pressure of the lift charge. A shell derives Various types of tailed stars (charcoal, flitter, elec­ its rigidity from the contents of its casing, and one tric, etc.) may need to be cut larger than color stars must have the stars settle into a compact, stable because they usually burn faster, and also because they configuration. It is difficult to do this if the stars are leave a spark trail. Tailed stars make a full-looking too large for the size of the case. This quickly be­ burst when fired from a shell by themselves, and less comes apparent on trying to fill a 3" casing with 3;.4" attention to cutting them small (to preserve burst den­ cut stars! Table 9 provides a very general guide to sity) is required. Sometimes tailed stars are deliberately average star sizes for use in various sizes of shells. cut smaller to give a pseudo-double ring effect with the The color stars are here presumed to be made with larger color stars. potassium chlorate, which is still overwhelmingly used in the display fireworks industry. Potassium and am­ Variant methods of case construction and. filling monium perchlorate stars generally bum slower and Although the method described above is usual, two accordingly must be cut still smaller. Insofar as most variations in case rolling and filling techniques are worthy such stars have a smaller flame size than could be ob­ of mention. In rolling the case, some fireworkers find it tained with chlorate stars of comparable size, this results advantageous to begin with a turn or two of thin chip­ in a tendency for perchlorate shell bursts to look sparse. board or index, of a width equal to the height of the Furthermore, perchlorate stars have a greater tendency shell wall. The heavier paper is centered on the outer

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Figure 14. Case rolled with inner liner. 17 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI CA/l/t/L.LE /N "p051770#Of/E-R rOSEEAliJ CASE

SHELL FUSE

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Figure 15. Making shell case "upside-down." kraft, and the case rolled up; or, the case is rolled in shell fuse, two pieces of lumber may be laid parallel on the normal fashion, its end folded in, and then the chip­ the bench or table, supporting the shells while allowing board or index band is rolled up by hand and inserted room for the shell fuses between them. In this manner, into the casing (see Figure 14). many such cases may be set out for filling at one time. The claimed advantage of this technique is that it SPIKING (STRINGING) SHELLS adds rigidity to the shell wall, making it possible to use After the inner cases of shells are filled with stars, fewer turns of kraft for the outer casing; the overlapping or other garniture, and burst powder, they are reinforced ends on the top and bottom are thus easier to pleat by longitudinal and circumferential (vertical and hori­ down. Furthermore, the chipboard establishes a uniform zontal) windings of string, which produce a pattern "fill level," as the case is always filled so its contents resembling latticework on the ends and walls of the shell are just level with the top edge of the chipboard liner. (see Figure 16). This process, known as "spiking," Since having a level top is especially important with requires considerable attention, as the string latticework multiple-break shells, the liner is often used in making must be both regularly-spaced and evenly-tensioned in casings for breaks of such shells. order to produce the desired results. An inadequate The other variant in technique requires that a hole amount of string will result in the shell bursting through or recess be made in the end of the case former to ac­ the opposite sides ("side splitting") or, if the case is commodate a shell fuse. After the kraft tube is rolled, thick enough, blowing out the ends ("bow tie" break). the end disc with fuse in place is pushed into the end It is instead desired to cause all the side walls to blow of the former, the inside end of the fuse fitting in the out, this being the aim of the longitudinal windings. former recess; the extending paper is folded down onto String irregularly spaced will cause one side or the other this disc, and the outside disc fitted over the fuse and to blowout, causing stars to be ejected from a hole in folded-down paper. The casing with fused disc is re­ the side wall, like water squirting out of a hose. This is moved from the former, set over a hole in the work­ the so-called "hose break." bench that accommodates the shell fuse, and filled, in String may be taken directly from the ball or cone, effect, "upside down." The shell is then closed as usual, tied to the shell fuse, and tightly wound onto the shell except that the bottom disc is used to close it (see by hand, with tension being applied by pulling on the Figure 15). string with the hands. This procedure, however, is de­ This technique is particularly adapted for single­ fective in several respects: it generates an irritating fric­ break shells made with spolettes, as the matched and tion against the flesh, which can be remedied only by nosed end of the spolette fits up into the canulle, the wearing heavy and clumsy gloves; it is quickly fatiguing, powder settles around it without force; rather than being causing an irregularity of results if many shells are to forced into the powder core as it is in the usual method, be made at one time; and finally, it effectively precludes possibly breaking the match and causing its powder treatment of the string with tar or paste, which treat­ coating to flake away. Indeed, some < makers use this ment offers many advantages both in ease of manipu­ method in making shells with spun Bickford or "tape" lation and in the quality of the product. As a conse­ style fuses as well. quence, it is preferable to apply string to the shells by In order to prevent difficulty in removing the case one of several methods, in which string is fastened se­ from the former, the former is often "vented" with long curely to a stationary binding point, and tension is ap­ narrow holes as depicted in Figure 15. Also, in lieu of plied by pulling on the shell as it is turned in the hands, making a hole in the workbench to accommodate the winding the taut string upon it. 18 PYROTECHNICA • IX F"§:: stretched preparatory to winding it up onto the shell (see Figure 17).1 ..... - ~ ...... In use, the spiking horse is "loaded" with string, C"'".. .-tP beginning by tying at one of the pegs and looping in :::::::::-- J-" --.....:: back and around the opposite one, then looping in back of the other peg, and so forth until all the string has been I---l--' put on the horse, with the string crossing in the center - ("figure 8" fashion) so that tension may be applied --- against either of the two pegs. Loading starts low against ~ the bed of the horse and builds solidly upward and out­ - I--- ward to prevent the load from slipping or giving slack. It is recommended that the workbench on which the -- spiking horse is mounted be firmly secured to the floor ,/ or wall. ~ ..... --- It may be noted that a major difference in practice among pyrotechnists lies in whether or not to use paste on the string. It is, of course, faster to use dry string '---... ,/ as the step of applying the paste is eliminated; however, - pasted string adheres more closely to the shell walls, "bites" into the paper as it is wound on (if adequate Irt, .... ~~ pressure is applied), and thus is less likely to slip from its position. Pasted string dries very tightly adhering to the shell, which is especially important with multiple Figure 16. Spiked shell. break shells in which the breaks are held together with string. Perhaps the simplest and oldest device used in ap­ plying string to shells is called the spiking horse. It con­ Paste may be applied to string in two ways: (1) sists of two pegs (they may be bolts, spikes, dowels or make thick paste, take a handful and pull the string whatever is sturdy and convenient) fixed upright in a through the hand while putting it on the horse; (2) load board or bench. Between these rods the string is the horse with dry string and paint a thin paste liberally

Figure 17. Spiking horse.

A simple spiking horse may be made with: one piece of Clamp the two pieces, 1 x 6 and 2 x 4, together with the 2 x 4 (nominal; actual 11;2" x 31;2") lumber 32" long; one piece pair of C-clamps, one at each end. At this point, one should of 1x6 (nominal; actual %"x51h") lumber 32" long; two either drill and countersink holes for the half-dozen screws (bor­ 1;2" carriage bolts, 8" or 10" long, with approximately 2 112" ing through the 1 x 6 and into the 2 x 4), or nail the two pieces of thread or more; four 1;2" washers; and four 112" nuts to fit of wood together, making sure that the holes in each piece align the carriage bolts; in addition, one half-dozen 8d nails or better, with each other. Remove the clamps and give the resultant 2" x No.8 flat head wood screws. Tools needed are a 1/2 " and assembly two coats of polyurethane varnish (this will help to a 1\4" wood bit; a bit brace or power drill; a couple of C-c1amps; protect it against paste sticking to the wood). a hammer and screwdriver. Now, put one of the nuts onto each of the carriage bolts, Measure in 1%" from the edge of the 2 x 4 at two points, screwing it on about 2112", and over each bolt slip a washer. close to the ends. Draw a line, using a straight edge, between These bolts may then be seated through the 1;2" holes in the these two points; the line will then bisect the 31;2" width. Then 2 x 4, from the top. Underneath (where the bolt protrudes into measure in from the ends, along this line, four inches from either end. Mark these points, and at them, center the 1;2" bit the recess made by the 1\4" hole in the 1 x 6), slip another to drill a hole at each. The result will be a 2 x 4 with two 112" washer on over each bolt, and screw a nut onto each bolt just holes, centered on 24", and centered on the width of the 2 x 4. so that all of the threads are engaged. Tighten the top nuts Now, measure in 1%" from one edge of the 1 x6 at two down onto the 2 x 4 firmly. points, close to the ends; draw a line between these two points. The steps described are illustrated in Figure 18. If properly Measure in 4" from each end of the 1 x 6 along the line just followed, the result will be a compact and portable spiking horse drawn, mark these points, and at them center the 1\4" bit to that will sit flat on top of a workbench (as the ends of baIts drill a hole at each. The result will be a 1 x 6 with two 1\4 " holes, centered on 24", with the centers 1%" in from one edge. on the bottom, their nuts and washers, are accommodated by As is apparent, the centers of the 1\4" holes in the 1 x 6 will the 1~" holes in the I x 6); the two-inch "lip" made where the thus line up with the centers of the 1;2" holes in the 2 x 4, when 1 x 6 extends beyond the 2 x 4 can be clamped firmly to the the 2 x 4 is aligned flush with the edge of the 1 x 6 and flush workbench with C-clamps; and when not in use, the horse may with the ends. be removed and stored, freeing the workbench for other uses. 19 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

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Figure 18. Assembly of spiking horse. onto the string, making sure all is thoroughly wet. A Table 10. Typical spiking patterns. wallpaper paste brush is useful for this purpose. Size of shell No. side strings/No. strands each Material In order to begin spiking a shell, unloop a length 3" 12/2 8-ply cotton of string from the spiking horse. The string is tied with a clove hitch to the fuse of the shell, and longItudinal 4" 1612 8-ply or lO-ply winding is begun. With the first longitudinal wrap, the cotton bottom outside end disc is centered on the bottom of 5" 24/2 8-ply or 10-ply the shell, over the folds of paper, and spiked on. The cotton string passes around the bottom of the shell, up to the 6" 32/2 8-plyor 10-ply top, passing the fuse, and the shell is turned at right cotton angles and another longitudinal wrap wound on; the 8" 48/2 or 8-ply or lO-ply strings divide the circumference of the cylinder into 48/3 cotton quarters, forming a cross in the center of the bottom of the shell. The quarters are then subdivided according turned to eighths, and then to sixteenths, again with to the number of final strings desired. It is very impor­ superimposed right angle crosses, the string being placed tant that the operator keep the tension applied to the 90° away from the previous wrap to keep the tension string constant as it is laid on (either as much tension even. It is to be noted that the practice implied in some as the string will bear, or, barring that, as much as the books, in which the windings are said to be advanced operator can apply steadily). The table below lists typi­ "ten degrees with each winding" or the like, in what cal spiking patterns. It is to be understood that "side might be termed a "clockwise" fashion, will result in strings" here refers to the number of vertical passes on both uneven tension over the shell, and also unevenness the side walls of the shell, dividing the cylinder's circum­ of spacing of the strings. It is much less easy for the ference, regardless of whether one, two or three strands spiker to gauge what (e.g.) 1/24 or 1/32 of the shell's of string be used in each pass. circumference might be (unless end discs were actually It should be noted that in addition to the 8-ply and marked for string placement before spiking), than for 10-ply cotton string most often recommended, varieties him to see that he has formed a right angle as here of flax twines, polyester or polyester/cotton blends, and described. In any event, the patterns for longitudinal hard-laid cotton strings are frequently found; further, spiking of 5",6", and 8" shells follow the same scheme. that much less string is often found on cheaper shells When the operator has completed the longitudinal made with an eye to quick mass-production techniques. spiking, he is ready to begin spiking circumferentially. The table above is a guideline, based largely on tradi­ The last longitudinal or vertical string passes the fuse tional practice. and continues over the edge of the top disc as though Assuming a 3" shell with twelve strings, each quar­ an additional vertical string were to be added, but is ter (formed as described above) is further divided into instead run diagonally around the shell until it is run­ three sections; ideally, a third is taken out of the first ning at right angles to the vertical strings - i.e., cir­ pair of quarters, then a third is taken out of the other cumferentially around the shell at the bottom edge. The pair of quarters 90° away from the first, and finally the string should run in a circle around the bottom of the other thirds are taken - resulting in three right angle shell, crossing itself and pinioning all the vertical strings crosses being applied to the shell bottom. The string which were previously spiked. After making this ring passes the shell fuse on opposite sides with each wrap around the bottom of the shell, the string should start - i.e., the first time it passes on the right; the second, up the side in a spiral, spaced so as to form squares on the left; the third time on the right; and so on. For as it intersects the vertical strings. The spiral continues a 4" shell with sixteen strings, the quarters would be to the top, where another circle is formed to pinion the 20 PYROTECHNICA • IX vertical strings at the top of the shell. The string is then diameter of the shell in inches; save that, for large spe­ formed into a loop by the hand and a half-hitch thrown cial effect or multiple-break shells, the number of turns around the circumference of the shell and pulled tight is often more. Table 11 lists typical paste wrap for (if the string is pasted, it will hold tightly after the single-break shells. string has been cut; the loose end should be smoothed The width of the paper to be used of course varies down with the fingers, using a little paste). with the height of the shell, but in general should be A consequence of the crossing of all the longitudinal such that when the shell is wrapped up in it, the paper strings on the center of the bottom of the shell, particu­ overhangs by anywhere from a little more than one-half larly to be met with larger sizes of shells, is the forma­ the diameter of the spiked shell to almost a full diam­ tion of a "lump" of string which may make it difficult eter on each end. For example, suppose a 4" single­ to paste in solidly due to air pockets where the paste­ break shell measuring 3%" from bottom end disc to wrap bridges over the string. A solution to this problem top end disc, and having an outside· diameter a little sometimes adopted is a style of off-center longitudinal larger than 3Vl"; the sheets of paste wrap would meas­ spiking producing the sort of pattern illustrated in Fig­ ure anywhere from 7Vl" to 10" wide (depending upon ure 19, which shows the bottom of a 4" shell. preference) and 24" long, with the grain running the PASTING-IN short direction. Two such sheets would be required. After shells have been filled and spiked, they are Mix the wheat paste according to directions on the ready for pasting-in (pastewrapping), the process by container; the well-known brands such as "Golden which the walls and ends of the shell are covered with Harvest" usually call for something like nine pints of paper that has been thoroughly impregnated with wheat paste. This pasted paper wrap, when dry, becomes hard water for every pound of the dry powdered paste. (contributing some rigidity to the shell) and acts to Wheat paste which includes the gluten of the flour is seal the shell from the influx of hot powder gases given off by the burning of the lift charge, which might other­ Table 11. Paste wraps for single-break shells. wise cause the shell contents to ignite prematurely Size No.oftums/ ("flowerpot" or mortar burst). of shell Weight of paper Length of sheet Materials needed for pastewrapping include kraft 3" 3 turns/30- or 40-lb. 1 - 24" sheet paper, wheat paste (wallpaper paste), and a large, flat 4 turns/50-, 60- or 70-lb. 2 - 24" sheets surface that can easily be cleaned of residual paste when 4" the work is finished. A formica-topped table is ideal, as 5" 5 turns/60- or 70-lb. 3 - 24" sheets or it can be sponged off with liberal amounts of water, and 2 - 36" sheets if any paste should dry on the surface, it may be chip­ ped away cleanly with a metal straight edge. 6" 6 turns/60- or 70-lb. 4 - 24" sheets or 2 - 48" sheets Paper for pasting-in shells again follows the rule of thumb that the number of turns equals the nominal 8" 8 turnsI70-lb. 4 - 48" sheets

Figure 19. Off-center spiking pattern for 4" shell. 21 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI preferable to paste based solely on starch, as it has less halfway down the middle and rubbed down with the tendency to separate. Paste made according to package halves "forked" on either side of the spolette. Such a directions will usually suffice for all sizes of shells, technique is quite time consuming, but it produces a though we like to think the ideal consistency is a lIttle heavy and almost conical crown around the spolette. thicker than spaghetti sauce. Sometimes there is an ad­ Similarly, opinion differs on the proper amount of paper vantage in using thinner paste on heavier papers, and to overhang and smooth down on the shell bottom. thicker paste with lighter ones. When the paste is of a Some operators believe a sufficient seal is obtained by homogeneous consistency, the paper is "broken" or sat­ having the strips meet in the center of the bottom; urated thoroughly with it so that the paper is soaked others, particularly with heavy and large shells, make it through and through, and the grain is broken. A good the full diameter of the shell and in pasting-in cause it method for achieving this is to take a handful of paste to overlap. Particularly with very large shells having and smear it all over one side of the sheet; then double many turns of pasted paper, such a technique leads to the sheet on itself (so the pasted side is folded back on almost hemispherical shell bottoms. Whatever technique itself) and smear both sides of the doubled sheet with is chosen, when tearing the overhanging paper, one more paste; then crumple the doubled pasted sheet into stops just a tiny bit before reaching the body of the a ball. The purpose of this is to break the grain of the shell. This is done primarily to avoid "dog-ears" or paper (making it more pliable) and help the paste to rough corners on the top or bottom edges of the shell, soak into the paper. Set this crumpled ball of pasted but it is also claimed that "pin-holes" where hot gases paper aside and repeat the operation until several have from the exploding lift charge could permeate the paste been done. At this point, the first one should be thor­ wrap are thus avoided. Finally, rub the shell with the oughly soaked and ready to be used. hands to express excess paste and to smooth the paper Unfold and smooth out one of the paper "balls" and down firmly all over the top, bottom and sides. fold it over on itself lengthwise a couple of times. At Some pyrotechnists prefer, particularly on smaller this point any excess paste may be wrung out of the shells, to fold the pasted paper down on the bottom paper by pulling it through the hand while squeezing it. of the shell while rolling, at the same time pleating or Then it should be unfolded and laid out flat on the table twisting the overhanging paper at the top around the and smoothed out. Place the shell on one end of the shell fuse, one turn at a time, instead of tearing it into sheet, roughly centered on its width so that approxi­ strips. This is particularly feasible when lighter paper mately equal portions overhang the shell ends. It is an is used for paste wrap, as on 3" shells. Other makers aid in smoothing the paper down to the shell and mak­ merely fold the inner layers of overlapping paper in on ing it adhere if the body of the shell is smeared with a the shell, and tear the outer layer or two as usual. little paste before rolling up the shell. Roll the shell up These methods afford speedier production (when em­ in the pasted paper, rubbing it down very firmly onto the ployed by a practiced worker), and are also advocated shell body while rolling. The pattern of string on the as means of preventing "'pin-hole" formation. sides of the shell should show through clearly after the If more than three or four turns of heavy (60-, 70­ paper has been well rubbed down. If more than one sheet lb.) paper are to be put on the shell, it is wise to paste be required, they are rolled on successively. in with two or three turns, let dry, then add two or When the shell is rolled up in the paper, the over­ three more turns, until all the paper has been pasted on hanging edges are torn into strips (six or eight of them) that is required. In this way, the undesirable situation and thece are carefully smoothed down on the shell's of having heavy masses of soggy pasted paper on the ends, first on the bottom, then on the top. A "collar" shell all at once can be avoided. Shells should be set to on which to set the shell, fuse end down (with the fuse dry in a well-dehumidified, heated room with circulat­ inside the "collar") may be made of a piece of pipe ing air. Warm, breezy summer days are ideal for shell an inch or so smaller than the shell's diameter, and is drying out of doors. Air current is more important than a useful aid while smoothing the paper on the bottom heat in drying; shells will dry faster at 70°F with a of the shell. On the top of the shell, the paper should breeze than they will at 90°F when the air is stagnant. lap up onto the shell fuse and be pressed smoothly Wet shells should be dried on screens to assure air cir­ against it. culation above and below, or otherwise, turned fre­ The width to which the paper for paste wrap is cut quently to give all surfaces equal opportunity to dry. has much to do with the style of time fuse chosen for On shells with many turns of paper, particularly when the shell. Where a spun Bickford or "tape" style fuse time fuse is used and there is no desire for a heavy is in use, the paper may be cut to overhang a little more shell top or "crown," often a band of paper just cover­ than half-a-diameter so that when smoothed down to ing the side walls of the shell is used. For example, a the fuse it just touches it. This is necessary with such 6" shell might be pasted with a band (24" long, width fuses as the thickness of the shell's top or "crown" is equal to shell wall) and a sheet (24" long with 3" dictated by the distance between inside and outside cross­ overhang on either end torn into strips and smoothed matchings; if the crown is too thick, it interferes with down on the ends), set to dry, then pasted with another proper cross-matching. When a spolette is used, less band and another sheet. With a spolette, it is desirable attention to the thickness of the crown is required. Cer­ to have a crown that is heavy and supports and seals tain pyrotechnists, indeed, claim that a specially heavy around the tube. Thus all the paste wrap on such a shell crown is needed to seal and support the spolette in should overhang the top and be smoothed down around place. These workers will cut the paste wrap paper to the spolette, but it need not be built up with paper on overhang the shell's top by almost a full diameter. In the bottom; half the sheets can be cut to roll up flush tearing and smoothing down the strips of paper, the with the bottom edge only, and the balance to be torn strips are first torn as usual, then each strip is torn into strips and smoothed down (see Figure 20). 22 PYROTECHNICA • IX

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RIGflT.- BAiVO A;V.o 5/1EET 5CIIEI1E ;COl? .PAST£"- WI?APPING TO At/O/./) !3i//L./)t/P OrPAPER 0/11 TOP AIVO BoTTO/'1. .. • Figure 20. Pastewrapping procedures.

In some plants, where a need for econo:ny ?1akes and smoothed down on the shell ends, or folded and it desirable to accomplish all the pastewrappmg mane twisted, as preferred. operation, larger shells are pasted in with lighter paper The effect of the quality of the paste wrap and the than is advised in Table 11. The same number of turns amount and weight of the paper used on the appe~rance are used, but (e.g.) a 5" shell might be wrapped in five of the break is uncertain. 2 A heavy paste wrap wIll cer­ turns of 40-lb. or even 30-lb. kraft. This expedient tainly lead to higher pressures within the shell before method produces shells faster, but with an offsetting it breaks, and thus presumably to better ig.nition of the decline in appearance, and (to a lesser .extent~, less in'perfor~ance. poss1bl~ garniture, and to a harder, more symmetncal burst. It quality of the product It 1S to .writ~r's opinio~, get by with such cheapemng of smgle-break shells w~th­ is the present howeve:, .that. symmetr.y of burst is pnmanly a functlOn of sp1kmg m a tradi­ out too much decline in reliability, but a poor paste Job tional shell with black powder burst. The importance of will have considerably more telling effect on a multiple­ paste wrap is more in serving to seal the contents of the break shell. shell from hot powder gases, and as a reinforcement to It is easier to work paste into the lighter weights of hold the shell together as it is propelled violentl~ from paper, and when many small shells are to be pasted-in, the mortar. That this is so is proven by the eXistence it is usual to prepare many sheets of paper at once. To of an alternative traditional technique, called rinfascia­ 3 do so, using 30-lb. or 40-lb. paper, lay a sheet out on ture or dry pasting , in which paste wrap is dispensed the table and brush or smear one side, then the other, with entirely, but excellent, symmetrical breaks may yet with paste. On top of this sheet, lay another, with the be accomplished. edge staggered about 1/2" in from that of the first sheet. Brush the top of this sheet with paste and lay yet an­ When the paste wrap has dried on the shells, t~ey other sheet atop it, again 1/2" in from the ed~e of the will feel dry and rock-hard all over. Progress ?f drymg sheet below; brush with paste, and repeat untll a suffi­ may be checked by pressing with the fingernal1 around cient number of sheets have been laid out and pasted. the shell fuse (this is where drying takes longest). Once It will be understood that the sheets of paper lie on the dry, shells are ready to be equipped with lift and leader. table in a "lapped" pile, like shingles a? a. roof or the FINISHING (LIFT AND LEADER) slats of a Venetian blind. When the pile 1S complete, The shell, following pastewrapping, is essentially it is picked up as a unit and turned over, and brushed complete as a projectile, but (as opposed to some cur­ with paste on its bottom side. Then it may be broken rent Oriental practice, and much earlier Occident.a! pra.c­ by wringing it, rather as one wrings out a wet cloth, tice) is always equipped with its own self-contamed lift the narrow way (that is, against the grain); and after this, perhaps even crushed into a ball. When s~oothed out it is laid flat on the table so that shell pastmg can 2 No detailed published studies have been done on this pr~bl~m for traditional Italian-style cylindrical shells, although ShimiZU begin. The shells may be rolle~ up one. aft~r .the other (1976) investigates this problem with spherical shells in depth. right from the pile of paper. Th1~ operatlOn 1S .tllustra~ed -ED. in Figure 21. The paper may either be torn mto stnps 3 This technique will be described in Part II of this work. 23 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

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Figure 21. Procedure for pasti/'fg-in many small shells at once. charge (propellent) powder, and a long quickmatch with a strip of paste about Y2" Wide; lay the rod on the leader which will project from the mouth of the mortar paper about an inch in from the opposite edge. Bring after the shell has been loaded, and by which both shell that edge of the paper strip up over the rod and push fuse and lift powder may be ignited. The process of fin­ it down with the fingers as the rod is rolled forward. ishing a shell with lift and leader is more complicated The hands, with the fingers against the paper, are moved than it might seem, and is worthy of special attention outwards longitudinally to the rod. The edge of the because it is crucial to the success of every shell. paper strip is thus trapped between the rod and that Required for shell finishing are black match, FFA part of the paper which is yet unrolled, forming a loop. black powder (sometimes 4FA powder is used for The outward movement of the fingers draws the loop of smaller shells), various sizes of match pipes, 30- or paper taut; the advancing rod mashes the loop into a flat 40-lb. kraft paper, string and paste. Although the tech­ crease, which with a little practice is quite straight (see niques for making black match itself vary widely, and Figure 22). Finish rolling up the pipe and tighten it by continuing to roll for several revolutions, smoothing are outside the concern of this discussion, the match pipes to be used are of special concern. Two types of the pasted edge with the hands. Finally, remove the rod piped match are used in shells: leaders, i.e., the match, carefully and repeat the operations until sufficient pipes are rolled. Practiced workers usually fan out many strips typically two to three feet in length, by which the shell is fired, and passfires, the match that (as the name im­ (perhaps 100), paste all the edges at once, and roll up plies) passes fire from the top of the shell (where it is the pipes very quickly. tied in with the leader and the shell fuse) to the bottom If the technique described cannot be mastered, an (where the lift charge is located). alternative method is to fold over about an inch of paper along the length of each strip in advance, then Leaders turn the paper over so that the folded-over part lies Leader pipe should be 1,4" - %" in diameter, and facing the work surface, and paste the opposite edge with sized to fit the shell and the mortar for which it is a Y2 if strip of paste. Bringing the folded edge over and intended. A 24" or even 18" leader is ample for 3" around the rod, tuck the fold under the rod, and roll up single-break shells, while larger shells have 30", 36", the pipe. or longer leaders. However, on a long multiple-break Fuse caps are also necessary in assembling the shell, the top of which may stand only a foot from the heads (as leaders not yet attached to shells are called). mortar muzzle, a shorter leader may be used. Some Some pyrotechnists simply cut up ordinary leader pipes pyrotechnists use mass-produced bundled match for shell into pieces 6" - 8" long, folding, tying, or twisting one leaders, but this is not commended; such machine made end of each piece shut. Others prefer to roll special pipe match is expensive, and furthermore hand-rolled leader on a rod about 1/16" larger in diameter than that used pipes are stronger, better withstanding the abuse that for the leader pipe itself. Often, white or a bright colored shell leaders must take. paper is used for the fuse caps, to distinguish them in Many techniques are in use for making leader pipe; the dim light along the mortar line from the leader pipes a simple one is as follows. First, strips of 30-lb. kraft rolled of brown kraft. Some makers use lance tubes for paper should be cut the length of the finished match fuse caps. pipe, with the grain running the long way, and about Also roll on a 3,4" or 1" rod a large sort of pipe four to five inches wide. A straight rolling rod of the of 11/2 - 2 turns of light paper. This should be cut into desired diameter, preferably made of smoothly finished bands or rings of about Y2" width with which to bind up metal, is also necessary. Paste one edge of the paper the folded heads. 24 PYROTECHNICA • IX

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Figure 22. Match pipe rolling operations.

The black match should be cut perhaps 6" longer ?RE?AREIJ flEA/) than the leader pipe, and threaded through the pipes so that about 4" protrudes from one end, and 2" from ?A?Etf gAiV,o ,P/,PE the other. Place the fuse caps over the 4" ends (pinch­ ing the leader pipes to enable the caps to slip over them), and fold all but about a foot of the leaders up in bundles perhaps 6" wide, and slip the bands over the bundled match to bind the finished heads, as illus­ trated in Figure 23. / ruSE OJ? COI/Etf'//liG E,K?OSE.o Passfires and Buckets EX,PoSEIJ /'1ATCII I1A7l'1! Also necessary for shell-finishing are passfire pipes. Figure 23. Prepared head. Passfire pipes may be rolled on a %" or even 1/2" rod, since these big pipes usually carry two or even three longer than the passfire pipe (two pieces for small or lengths of match, usually 6- or 8-strands of cotton per short shells, three pieces for big or long ones) and length. These pipes are usually rolled in lengths of two thread it through the pipe so about %" extends from or more feet and cut to the size needed. the end that will be tied to the spolette, and about 1 Buckets must also be rolled for the spolettes of 1 /2" - 2" from the bottom end which will communicate shells. These should be about 3" long, of three to four fire to the lift charge. Some makers prefer to flatten the turns of 40- or 50-lb. kraft, and of a diameter to fit passfire pipe by rubbing it flat on the work surface prior over the spolette and the passfire (as will be shown to inserting the match. Be sure that the match lies flat, later); %" for small shells, and even I" for big shells side-by-side, and does not cross or twist in the pipe. with big spolettes. The resultant assembly is a complete passfire. Cut the passfire pipes to such a length that the pipe Bend the exposed ends of match on the top end of will run from the top of the spolette (with which it will the passfire over the top of the spolette, which has pre­ be flush), down the side of the spolette, over the top viously been prepared by scraping or scratching it to of the shell, and down its side to about 1" below the expose a fresh surface of powder, removing any paste bottom of the shell. Now, cut match about 2" - 3" that may have covered it during spiking or pasting-in. 25 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

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SliflL wiT// ?ASS­ S//EZi. A//T// fi/PE A77/!C/,/E.() &!C/f'ET

Figure 24. Attaching passfire and bucket to shell.

Tie the match in this position with a clove hitch around be set to dry and the paper will shrink down tightly on the spolette and the passfire down the side of the spol­ the shell walls and over the passfire. The overlapping ette. The presence of double or triple pieces of match ends of unpasted paper form the bag for the lift charge. usually suffices to insure that the tie will not choke off the passage of fire as it would if only one piece of match Lift charge were used; however, it is a matter of practice and ex­ When the pasted-on lift wrap is dry, the lift charge perience to learn the appropriate firmness with which of FFA blasting powder may be measured (see Table to tie - tightly enough to prevent slipping, but not so 12) and dumped into the lift bag, as the shell is held tightly as to strangle the passfire completely. Bend the in an inverted position. If the pasting has been done passfire down along the crown of the shell, then down well, the paper will adhere to the shell walls, and the side, securing on the side wall with a piece of pasted powder will not sift down between the paper and the paper or paper tape (see Figure 24). wall of the shell. The inner turn of paper may be folded Next, smear the sides of the spolette with white glue, down over the powder, making sure that the passfire end being careful not to get it on the exposed match on top is bent over into the powder first. The outer turn is of the spolette. Slide a bucket tube carefully over the then gathered, sack-style, into the center of the bottom, spolette and passfire - if the bucket tube is of the and firmly tied with a clove hitch of strong twine. The proper diameter, it will fit snugly without being forced. gathered paper may be trimmed close to the knot with Rotate the tube on the spolette to insure a good glue tinsnips or a knife. A well-sharpened, serrated knife contact, and tie firmly over the bucket tube at the base works well, as it has a sawing action. of the spolette, with a clove hitch of strong twine. Some workers are able, with a bit of dexterity, to eliminate entirely the step of tying the passfire to the spolette prior to fitting the bucket. The passfire is bent in place and the bucket slipped over it and the spolette, then the bucket is tied as usual.

Lift wrap The shell is now ready to receive its lift wrap. Cut 30-lb. kraft paper (heavier paper is often used for the larger shells) sufficient in length to go two turns around the shell, and about twice the diameter of the shell former (Le., 2Y2" X 2 = 5" strip for 3" shells; 31/z" X 2 = 7" strip for 4" shells, etc.). The grain should run the width of the paper, i.e., parallel to the direction t/#/'ASTEIJ AREA the shell will be oriented as it is rolled up. Paste half the width of a strip on one side with a paste brush. Lay the shell on the strip at one end, with the passfire down the side, such that the pasted portion is in line with the shell, with the unpasted portion over­ lapping (see Figure 25). Roll the shell up in the paper, making sure it goes on tightly. Shells so wrapped may Figure 25. Shell ready for lift wrapping. 26 PYROTECHNICA • IX Table 12. Typical lift charges for firing. Often the method described is further elaborated.

3" m 8" single break shells. Instead of gathering in and tying the lift bag at the Shell Weight of FFA bottom, it is sometimes folded over, and then covered size Description for lift with a sheet of pasted 30- or 40-lb. kraft to hold the 3" I-break color or salute 1 oz. folds shut and make a flat bottom. The walls of the Color and special garnitures IlJ,; - 1V2 oz. shell are then covered with a band of thin paper (com­ 1 (whistles, serpents, pletely pasted on both sides) ,perhaps 1 /2 turns of saettines, etc.) 30-lb. kraft, sometimes ordinary brown paper, but often colored kraft or even Christmas wrapping paper. Such a 4" I-break color or salute 2 oz. finish is ordinarily reserved for large and elaborate shells. Color and special garnitures 2V2 oz. A much more common finish for shells is for the 5" I-break color or salute 3 - 3V2 oz. shell to be handled as described, up to the point where Color and special garnitures 4 - 5 oz. the passfire is tied to the spolette. Instead of merely 6" I-break color or salute 4 - 5 oz. bending the match over the end of the spolette (as shown in Fi~ure 24.1), the match is cut somewhat longer, so Color and special garnitures 4 1/2 - 6 oz. that It can be bent down the opposite side of the spol­ 8" I-break color 8 - 12 oz. ette and tied as illustrated in Figure 26. NOTE TO TABLE: The above table indicates lift charges for the simpler shells described in this first part of the present work. Appropriate Sl'oLETTE I34RE/'fATe/'! 8E#TaYE/( ~harges for more elaborate and heavier shells will be suggested 7Of7 o~-SI'OLETTE AAll) III the second part, which will treat the manufacture of such shells. It is impossible to list the entire variety of shells that it TIEl) Q1I O,P/?:/Slff SIAE is possible to make, so ultimately it will be necessary for the pyrotechnist to arrive at lift charges for his large and special shells by experience. f?I?Ei/ /'A;f'T A rule of thumb often used is to allow I oz. of FFA for OrJ?ASSfiI?E each pound of shell weight up to 10 lbs., and ~ oz. for each Sf/ELL pound in excess of 10 lbs. Especially with very large shells, such factors as the fit of a shell in the mortar, the mortar length, and the length of the shell, assume importance which they do not have in the case of smaller and more routine shells.

The shell is turned upright, with the bucket on top; the head (previously prepared) should at this point Figure 26. Shell prepared for dry-wrap finish. have an extra piece of black match (perhaps 3" - 4" long) inserted into its open end, and that end then thrust The shell is then wrapped up in a sheet of dry paper, into the bucket (contacting the match from the passfire pasted onto the body of the shell only at its edge, long on the top of the spolette), and the bucket gathered enough for two or three turns around the shell body, around the pipe, and firmly tied with a clove hitch. At and extending several inches beyond either end of the this point, it is usual to smear a little white glue over shell. The wrap is then gathered in around the base of the knots at the bottom of the shell, at the bottom of the spolette and tied, the shell inverted and the lift pow­ the spolette where the bucket is tied on, and at the top der put into the "cup" formed by the paper extending where the bucket is choked onto the leader. As previ­ beyond its bottom. This paper is then tied off close, and ously mentioned, the doubling of the match (where it is the shell is completed by tying the leader in at the top, tied into the bucket) is insurance against failure, as a treating the extended gatherings of paper sticking up single length of match tied too firmly in its pipe may around the spolette (from the place where tied at its be delayed, or even choked off in burning. The shell base) as a sort of "bucket." In dealing with a shell is now complete and ready to fire. with a spun type fuse, this method is the only one suit­ able to use, because it is impossible to have a separate Table 13 describes the dimensions of mortars suit­ bucket for the timer fuse. able for firing cylindrical shells of usual dimensions and On 3" finale shells, it is possible to dispense en­ lift charges as prescribed in Table 12. tirely with the passfire pipe, making passfires with naked match. The confinement afforded by the tight turns of Table 13. Mortar lengths for cylindrical shells. lift wrap suffices in lieu of a pipe. Cut lengths of good Diameter Length match, perhaps three times the height of the shell. 3" 18" for single-break color Holding the shell in one hand, lay the match along the or salutes only side so that perhaps one inch protrudes beyond the 24" for all uses bottom. Bring the match up over the cross-matching of the time fuse, around it in back, under it on the 4" 30" other side, doubling back and crossing over the match 5" 30" where it runs along the top, and down the side paraIlel 6" 36" to the first strand. Secure with a square of paper tape; roll up the shell in a couple of turns of 30-lb. kraft, 8" 48" extending perhaps 3" - 4" beyond either end of the shell. Empty the lift charge into the bottom and close Variations in finishing the lift wrap with a clove hitch; invert the shell, insert The method described above is an old, traditional the head (with doubled match) and tie once above the one that makes shells which slide smoothly down the timer fuse. Figure 27 shows this expedient method of mortar and leave few glowing embers in the mortar after making a passfire. 27 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

Shell (ready for lift wrap) Figure 27. Finale shell with passfire of naked match. LIGATt/,fE5 to I'..fBlEIVT I"OJ1l'PEA' /'1IGRAnON It is usual to use a passfire pipe on larger shells made with timer fuse, with the match extending from Figure 29. Shell tied off with ligature. the end "forked" under the cross-matching, as shown in Figure 28. The outer lift wrap is essentially similar is more expeditious, and thus less costly; but burning to that described for the small shells. Sometimes, when detritus is blown into the air, posing a hazard to opera­ using a dry paper wrap, powder from the lift charge tors and materials in the area around the mortar. Fur­ will sift up between the wrap and the side walls of the thermore, remnants of these wrappings often remain, shell, particularly if the wrap has been put on loosely. glowing or burning, in the mortar, and m~st be removed Some shell makers tie a ligature around the bottom of periodIcally. This is why the dry wrap IS used .by .the the shell (or just below it) to prevent this. This in effect fastidious pyrotechnist only for finale shells or I.n SItu­ chokes the lift wrap and prevents powder migration (see ations (e.g., electric firing) where each mortar IS used Figure 29). only once during the display and will not need to be In summarizing the advantages and drawbacks of reloaded or repeatedly approached by the display op­ the dry lift wrap (as opposed to the pasted lift wrap as erator. previously discussed), it is obvious that the dry wrap SINGLE BREAK SHELLS WITH SPECIAL GARNITURES The successful achievement of consistently-perform­ ing single break shells of cut stars may logically be !tATell FORKEfJ followed with efforts including various special garnitures AA'OClIVO ,FUSE tW.oEfi' other than cut stars, or shells containing cut stars in C,fOSS-I'1ATCflIAIG combination with such garnitures. The list of these gar­ nitures is lengthy, and only some of the simpler types are described here (other, more complex garnitures will \ be described in Part II). Comets Comets are large pumped stars, usually ranging from %" to I ~" in diameter, but they may be even larger 'pIECE Or //ASTEO PAPER OR P,A,PER 7?/PE TO /TOL/J in large shells or where some special effect is sought. PASSRRE //V PLACE Generally they are of a tailed composition, .such as charcoal flitter, or electric types, but on occaSIOn they may be 'of a colored or fancy "colored electric" type. Large pumped stars such as these mu~t be pumped with heavier pressure than can be applIed by hand. Ordinarily, they are rammed by means of a heavy ?A5SF/RE mallet applied to the pump's plunger. In order t? assure ,PI?E that they are of uniform size, so that they WIll stack properly inside the shell, normally they are raI?med somewhat longer than usual and then the exce?s IS cut Figure 28. "Forked match" on large shells off with a small knife or spatula. If the pump IS of the using timer fuse. type equipped with a pin or stud on the side, and a slot 28 PYROTECHNICA • IX to accommodate this in the sleeve, the procedure is as Table 14. Patterns for comet rings in shells. follows: holding the pump with the pin perhaps 1;2" - 1" Size No. of comets Comet above the top of the sleeve, fill the pump with the damp of sheD. per ring diameter composition, and place the bottom of the pump on a 5" 10 1" smooth surface sturdily supported on the floor. With 5" 9 IVs" the mallet, ram until the composition is thoroughly com- 5" 8 lw" pacted. At this point the pin should stand maybe 1;4" above the top of the sleeve. The plunger is pushed until 6" 12 IVs" the pin contacts the top of the sleeve, and the excess 6" 10 lw" composition protruding from the sleeve is cut off, falling back into the tub of damp composition. Finally the 8" 14 (loose) lw" plunger is turned until the pin engages the slot, and the 8" 15 (tight) lw" comet is pumped out and set to dry. Pumps may be made without the pin and slot, and in this case an index The careful pyrotechnist may have pumps made to mark is made on the plunger to serve a similar purpose; make comets of special sizes to fit snugly in his shells, the composition is rammed, and the excess eiected by or may have case formers of slightly smaller or larger pushing the plunger into the sleeve until the index mark diameter than standard to make comets of standard registers with the top of the sleeve; finally, the excess sizes fit. If a slightly larger former than usual is used is cut off and the comet ejected. to make the shell casings, or if the technique of rolling Comets are laid in the shell casing so that they form on chipboard, then removing it after the case is rolled, a circle around the periphery of the case. The comets to achieve a slightly larger shell case, is employed, then touch the case on its inside wall, and touch each other; it should be ascertained that the resultant shell will still the circle or ring of comets should fit snugly in the fit in the mortar of appropriate size after it is finished. case. If the circle fits loosely, a chipboard liner rolled The table given above is for use with cornets and shell up and inserted inside the case may be used to reduce casings of standard size. its diameter to tighten the fit. On the other hand, if it A small, roughly triangular space is left between the should arise than an extra comet could be made to fit inside shell wall and each pair of comets (see Figure by slightly enlarging the inside diameter of the case, this 30.1). After each ring of comets is laid in place, the may be done by rolling a turn or two of chipboard on spaces must be filled with either rough powder or an the former prior to rolling the kraft on it. After finish­ inert filler such as sawdust, so that no empty air spaces ing the case in the usual fashion, the chipboard is re­ jeopardize the integrity of the shell wall. Whatever filler moved, leaving a case with a circumference just enough is chosen (rough powder and sawdust each have advo­ larger that the extra comet may be added, making a cates among experienced fireworkers), it must be sifted snugly fitting ring of comets. Each pyrotechnist has his down into these spaces and then rammed with a small own preferences, which depend upon the choice of com­ stick. Some makers have found it of advantage to carve positions and their burning properties, as well as on a special, roughly triangular, tool to fit on the end of the effect desired. However, the following schemes in the rod employed for this purpose. Lacking such, how­ Table 14 suggest typical patterns: ever, an ordinary dowel serves quite adequately.

Figure 30.1. Top view of comet shell.

Figure 30.2. Side view of comets as stacked in shell. Figure 30. Comet shell details. 29 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI Having laid the first ring of comets, and rammed made is of a large outer "ring" made by the comets, the spaces with rough powder or sawdust, the next ring with a contrasting dense center made by the small cut must be added. This ring is staggered by half the diam­ stars. Figure 31 depicts the cross-section of a double­ eter of the comets, so that when viewed from the side, ring shell. the stacked rings of comets have the appearance of a brick wall laid in "running bond." Normally at least Serpents, whistles, and other tubular garnitures three rings, and perhaps four or five (depending upon Serpents, whistles, and similar garnitures consisting the size of the comets and the size of the shell) are of composition rammed in paper tubes are well de­ used, and the height of the comets is so determined scribed elsewhere and detailed instructions for their that when the desired number of rings or layers are laid manufacture need not be given here. The possibilities in place, the shell is more or less the same height as for variation are almost endless and for purposes of its diameter. As each ring is laid in place, the empty shell-filling, all such garnitures are treated the same. spaces are rammed with rough powder or sawdust and Typically, they are rammed in %" to 112 " i.d. tubes the next ring added, and so forth until all have been and are anywhere from 2Yz" to 5" long depending upon put in place (see Figure 30.2). the effect. All must be carefully matched and nosed When all comets have been put in place, the entire prior to being put in shells. central space is filled with FFA powder until it is level The effect desired when such garnitures are used in with the top of the topmost ring of comets. The shell shells is that of a symmetrical break of color, like that is then closed with a fused end disc, the excess paper obtained from a normal shell of cut stars; the garnitures pleated down, and another disc added over the folds as appear to fall from the center of the color break. To usual. Spiking, pasting-in, and finishing with lift and begin, a long shell case must be rolled, to allow for the leader all follow as for a shell of cut stars. Variations height of the garnitures and above them, the usual sometimes observed are: (1) In the spiking, a closer amount of colored stars that would be used in a star­ pattern is occasionally used; typically, the number of shell of the given size. For example, presuming a 3" color side strings employed is increased to that normally used and whistle shell using whistles 2~" long, the paper on the next larger size of shell. For example, a 5" comet should be cut to allow a finished shell wall height of shell might be spiked with 32 side strings (the pattern approximately 5" (21/2" for the whistles, 2~" for the ordinarily used for a 6" shell) instead of 24. Circum­ color). The normal number of turns of paper used for ferential spiking is also closer, to match the closer any shell of the given size are used, as previously de­ vertical spiking, making small squares on the side walls. scribed. (2) Because comet shells are sometimes heavier than plain star shells, and also because the comets may be Having rolled the shell case, proceed to arrange the longer-burning than cut stars, the lift charge must often garnitures, matched end up, in a ring around the ?ottom be increased to account for these factors. Such altera­ of the shell case. They should fit snugly, touchmg the tion is a matter of experience with the effects in question. inside shell wall and each other. If for some reason they do not, an empty tube, flattened by laying it on the A double-ring effect may be procured by filling the floor and stepping on it, may be inserted in the ring shell case with comets as described, but rather than and this will generally tighten the fit. Now, rough pow­ filling the central space or core entirely with FFA pow­ der should be added to fill the entire central space or der, centering a canulle in this space and filling around core, and shaken down to fill the spaces between the it, between the comets and the canulle, with small cut garnitures and the shell wall. A small rod is useful to stars. The canulle should then be filled with powder as consolidate the rough powder in these interstices. The in making a cut-star shell, and withdrawn. The top of rough powder must be filled to a level just above the the shell is made level with rough powder, and it is mouths of the cases. closed, spiked, pasted-in, and finished as usual. The success of such effects is greatly dependent upon the Place the canulle of the appropriate size for the compositions chosen for the comets and the cut stars, shell in the normal central position, its bottom resting both in terms of color contrast and relative burning on the rough powder already filled. As for a regular speed. Ideally, the comets, being larger, are thrown star shell, fill cut stars around the canulle to the proper out the farthest by the shell burst, while the small stars depth, then fill the canulle with FFA powder. and rem~)Ve stay closer to the center of the burst; the appearance it; consolidate the stars as usual by shakmg, pattmg,

Figure 31. Double-ring shell. 30 PYROTECHNICA • IX n

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Figure 32.1. Cross-section Figure 32.2. Spiking pattern of shell. of shell. Figure 32. Shells with tubular garnitures. and so forth. Level the top of the case off with coarse typically made only for shells (although they may be rough powder and close as usual with a fused disc, shot from small mortars by themselves qr used as ground pleat the overhanging paper down on the top of the reports). Their identifying characteristic is that they are shell, and add another disc over the folds. fused with black match, around which bran or sawdust When spiking the filled and closed shells, a varia­ is rammed to provide a delay. The explosive effect is tion from the normal practice is observed. The longi­ furnished by a flash powder or dark report composition, tudinal or vertical strings are put on as usual, spiking the case being very light in construction. The sizes may the outside bottom disc on in ordinary fashion with vary widely, but the most common sizes are %" and the first wrap; the number of strings is that prescribed 1" diameters by 1liz " or 2" long. Described here is the for a normal shell of the size in question. However, manufacture of the 1" size. when all vertical spiking is finished, the string is run Paper to roll cases for saettines is cut from sheets of diagonally not to the bottom of the break (as in a plain 22l1z x 34l1z chipboard, .018", .022", or .026" in cali­ star shell), but only to the bottom of that area where per (depending upon preference), and 24 x 36 30- or the color stars are filled; i.e., just above the mouths of 40-lb. kraft. Cut the chipboard into pieces 7Y2" long the garniture tubes. Circumferential spiking proceeds by 2" wide, cutting the 7Y2" into the 22liz " and the upward from this zone in the usual fashion, making a 2" into the 34liz " dimensions. This results in 51 pieces pattern of squares with the vertical strings, and finally from each sheet. Cut the brown kraft into pieces 12" the vertical strings are pinioned at the top of the shell long by 4" wide, cutting the 12" into the 24" dimen­ and the usual half-hitch loop thrown around the top to sion, and the 4" into the 36" dimension, giving 18 tie off the string. pieces from each sheet. Thus, to make (for example) The spiked shells are then ready to be pasted-in 1000 saettines, 20 sheets of chipboard and 56 sheets of with the normal number of turns and weight of paper brown kraft are needed. The grain of the paper is cus­ for a shell of the given size. Finally, they should be tomarily in the long dimension, thus cutting in accord­ finished with the lift charge and leader as usual. Figure ance with the above instructions will result in the grain 32 depicts a sectional view of the shell alongside a view running parallel to the short dimension of the pieces, showing the spiking pattern on the shell walls. or parallel with the former during rolling. Saettines (siatenes, dteens) or lambetti Using an inch dowel as a former, first lay the 2" A favorite shell is a break of color and saettines or wide strip of chipboard on the 4" width of the kraft lambetti. These are a variety of small insert reports sheet, centered on its width and flush with one of its

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5tep 1 Step 2 step -3

Figure 33. Saettine case rolling and closing. 31 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI ends; roll the two up together, pasting only the edge adding the flash powder. The reasoning behind this is of the kraft (see Figure 33). Slip the tube thus formed that while the triangle fold, if properly made, should be up over the end of the former so that the edge of the gas-tight, the layer of filler protects against premature chipboard is flush with the end of the former, with only explosion of the saettine if a hastily, imperfectly formed the I" width of kraft overhanging. Fold this down with fold allows fire to penetrate. the "triangle fold," i.e., beginning by folding one side After the cases have been filled with flash and filler in with the thumb or fingers, then the other side so as material, matched, tamped, and the overlapping paper to form a sort of triangular tongue which is folded down closed with the triangle fold, they must be tied. Using last. The folds are secured by beating with a mallet or a spiking horse to hold and dispense the string, paste by jolting the former, folded end of the case down, on the string well and unloop a length of it. Some makers the work surface. The complete case may then be slip­ prefer to lay a length of string underneath the top tri­ ped off of the former, and another rolled and closed angle flap, then cast a half-hitch over the flap around (see Figure 33). the length of the casing, then another half-hitch, finally In order to fill the cases thus formed, first select a tying the ends with an overhand knot (actually, this scoop of sufficient capacity that when charged into the procedure results in a clove hitch secured by an over­ case, the flash powder fills it about half full. Any "hot" hand knot). Others simply tie a clove hitch around the flash powder, generally made without filler (i.e., bran length of the saettine, and secure by tying on the side, or sawdust) may be used. 4 Having filled the cases half rather than the end, of the case. In either instance, the full with flash or other report composition, introduce result must be a knot that holds the flaps shut on both the pieces of match. One or two pieces are normally ends of the case and that does not slip off. Figure 34 used, according to the preference of the pyrotechnist. illustrates the general appearance of the finished and Two pieces will result in a shorter delay, insuring ignition tied saettine. in any event. It is desirable that the position of the apices of the In one technique, the pieces of match lie close to triangles be opposed on the top and bottom of the saet­ the side wall of the case. Enough bran or sawdust is tine, so that viewed, as it were, from the top or bottom next introduced, so that it fills the case to almost over­ of the case, they would, if superimposed, form the Star flowing the top edge of the kraft. A dowel, or even the of David. This configuration makes the casing assume forefinger, is then used to ram the bran or sawdust down a shape from which it is less easy for the string to slip to the level of the chipboard liner; the cases are then than if the points of the triangles were aligned. closed by folding the overlapping kraft paper down, making the triangle fold with the pieces of match pro­ Suitable string for tying saettines must be strong, truding from the points of the triangles (see Figure 34). not too thick, and able to take paste easily. The Belgian flax twine works well, as also do 8- or lO-ply cotton. In another technique, the match is centered in the A single strand is sufficient, although some like to use casing as it is filled with bran or sawdust. A rod with two strands running together for extra strength. When a central hollow to accommodate the match, or even a the paste is dry on the string, the saettines are ready sturdy paper tube (such as a wheel pusher case), may to be loaded into shells. then be used to compact the filler material down to the level of the chipboard liner. Finally, the match is bent Saettines are filled in shells in a manner much like over to the side of the case, and the triangle fold formed other tubular shaped garnitures. They are arranged in with the match sticking out the point of the triangle as a ring around the shell wall at the bottom of the case. before. Figure 34 illustrates this alternative method. In a 3" shell, only three I" diameter saettines fit and these leave no central space to speak of. In a 4" shell, It is important to note that the pressure necessary six I" saettines fit in a more usual sort of ring. The to ram down the bran or sawdust is one of the factors match is pointed inward toward the center of the case. in establishing the delay - the more pressure used, the Rough powder may be used to fill around the saettines longer the delay. Some workers prefer bran, others in the spaces between them and the shell wall; often, sawdust; and the wide variance in grades of either ma­ sawdust is used. In the 4" and larger sizes, the central terial makes some trial and error necessary to procure space or core is filled with rough powder. Three inch just the desired delay. Some makers forgo ramming the shells do not allow this, but it does not seem important filler material entirely, merely filling the bran or saw­ with saettines to have a central burst core in the saettine dust slightly higher than the chipboard inner liner, and section. When the shell opens with color, the bottom of relying on the pressure of folding the ends in to compact the case "peels" open like a banana, and the saettines it. This very light compaction results in very short delays. drop out of the center of the break. The desired effect A final variant in the filling of saettines is worth not­ is for the saettines to explode just as the color has reached ing. This is the practice of filling a small amount of its full spread. If they explode just as the shell is open­ bran or sawdust on the bottom of the casing, before ing, or if they hang fire for a prolonged period, the saettines are not functioning correctly. Before aluminum powder was available, "dark" report compo­ Whether sawdust or rough powder is chosen to be sition was used (consisting of potassium chlorate, antimony rammed in the interstices, after the saettines and rough sulphide, sulfur, and sometimes other ingredients) to give noise powder core (if any) are in place, a little more rough only, leading to the name of saettine ("little shot"). After alu­ minum flash powders were introduced, these articles began to powder is added just to cover over the saettine match, be described as lambetti ("little lightning") because they gave the canulle lowered into its central place, cut stars filled both flash and sound. Today there is no real distinction, since around it to their customary depth, the canulle filled the method of manufacture is the same, and "dark" report with FFA powder and withdrawn; the stars and powder composition is rarely used. Some manufacturers call the item saettine, and others call it lambetti, depending upon their pri­ consolidated as usual during the filling process, topped vate custom. off with coarse rough powder and the shell closed with 32 PYROTECHNICA • IX

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ALTER/lATIt/E /'1ATC#I#C 7FC#M'~E FOR S4ET77A1E8

TO? FOLOEtJ SAETT/Iv'E CLasEf) WITH TIEOC'LosEfJ /'1A7Z'1I ?,Rol/f't/O,WG

Figure 34. ~aettine charging and finishing. the fused disc, top folded down, and extra disc over Table 15. Salute casing dimensions. the folds. Size of Inside diameter Outside diameter Case Spiking follows the usual procedure for tubular gar­ salute of casing of casing wall height nitures illustrated in Figure 32. Pasting-in, lift, and 3" 1%" 2V2" 2V2" 1 leader follow the standard procedures for any shell. 4" 2 /2" 3Y2" 3" 5" 3V2" 4 1h" 3Y2 " SALUTES (REPORTS) The salute, or report, is an important object of the Heavy chipboard end discs, perhaps twice the thickness shell-builder's work, both for use as an effect by itself, employed for ordinary star shells, are also required. If and as a component in multiple-break shells. In con­ such heavy end discs cannot be procured, two or more struction, the salute is a special type of shell in which thinner discs may be glued together to form one thick a heavy-walled case is used to contribute both rigidity disc. The discs are equal in diameter to the outside to the projectile and confinement to the flash powder, diameter of the salute casing, thus being the same in which it contains in place of the usual shell contents of diameter as the discs called for in ordinary star shells of stars and powder. The cases may be either hand-rolled the given size. Two such thick discs, one solid for the or machine-wound by the spiral-winding process. Hand­ bottom, the other pierced (in the usual manner for any made salutes are almost exclusively used as components shell) to receive a shell fuse, are required for each salute. ("bottom shots") in multiple-break shells, and will be discussed in Part II of this work. Single-fire salutes in The casing may be loaded either from the top or the smaller sizes are used in such quantities that they are bottom, depending upon preference. If it is to be loaded most economically and speedily made with machine­ from the top, the bottom (solid) disc should be ce­ wound cases. Techniques for using these are discussed mented onto one end of the casing, using liberal amounts here. of white glue; if to be loaded from the bottom, the shell Spiral-wound casings may be purchased from a vari­ fuse.is first well cemented into the top (pierced) disc, ety of manufacturers who furnish paper tubes for all then the fused disc cemented onto the casing. A con­ uses. Dimensions typically called for are summarized venient way is to pour the glue into a shallow tray, and in Table 15. dip the ends of the casings into it; then to apply the discs. 33 TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

SPOLET7Z: ,.------

...... SP/ML-wot//VLJ ...... SALt/TE C4S//ilG

CA"4SS-OEC770/l/AL WEN C)C SALt/7E Y/EIV OFSALt//'C AS S/'//fELJ Figure 35. Single-fire salute construction with machine-wound casings.

After the glue has dried, flash powder is charged 3: 1 or 4: 1, flash powder:filler. This not only cheapens into the casings. If they are being filled from the bot­ the mixture, but prevents it from becoming caked or tom, it is convenient to set two pieces of lumber on the packed, thus serving the valuable purpose of propagat­ workbench a short distance apart, inverting the casings ing the explosion faster. so that the fused disc is supported on the pieces of lumber, while the fuse is accommodated between them. The filled casings are at last closed with an end Flash powder is dirty and has a tendency to become disc. Plenty of white glue to cement it in place should "airborne," so the charging must be managed so as to be applied to the edge of the casing. After the glue has avoid spilling or getting the flash powder where it should dried, some workers prefer to seal around the joints of not be - particularly avoiding getting it on the edge the discs to casing, top and bottom, with a band of of the casing to which the remaining end disc is to be pasted paper; others proceed directly to spiking. glued after filling. A wide-mouthed funnel, such as housewives use in canning preserves, is a useful tool in Salutes are spiked with the same number of vertical this operation - it is ideal if the mouth is just wide strings as for any shell of the given size, i.e., 12 strings enough to fit neatly inside the casing. Flash powder for a 3" salute, 16 for a 4", 24 for a 5", and so forth. should be filled into the casing until it is almost level The purpose of spiking is not, as it is with a star shell, with the edge; contrary to some published information, to apply equal reinforcement over the entire shell wall, salutes are completely filled with flash powder. but is simply to hold the end discs on and afford greater confinement to the explosion (making it louder). Ac­ Compositions for flash powder are many and varied, cordingly, the string may be tied off on the fuse after each maker having his own preferences for his own all vertical spiking is in place; or a couple of turns may reasons. Several are shown in Table 16. be taken round the side walls merely to pinion the ver­ tical spiking, and the string tied off with the customary The first composition listed is of a variety much half-hitch loop. Figure 35 illustrates salute construction used with good effect in the past. Although thousands steps through spiking, using the machine-wound casings of pounds of such composition have been mixed annu­ as discussed here. ally without incident, mixtures of this kind are needlessly sensitive and their use has resulted in loss of life and The spiked reports are finally pasted-in with the property. The perchlorate compositions, nos. 2, 3, and appropriate number of turns of paper of the proper 4, are capable of making quite loud reports and are weight, as for any shell of the given size. Finishing with recommended. For a silver cloud effect in conjunction lift and leader follows the procedure for any shell. Great with the loud report,S - 10% additional coarse titani­ attention must be paid to sound and precise construc­ um sponge or turnings may be added to any of the tion of salutes, as malfunctions lead to serious accidents. above compositions. Flash powder for salutes is generally diluted with bran, sawdust, or other bulking filler, in volume ratios END OF PART I

Table 16. Flash powder compositions. 1 2 3 4 Parts % Parts % Parts % Parts % Potassium chlorate ...... 8 61.5 Potassium perchlorate ...... 4 66.7 8 66.7 7 70.0 Dark pyro aluminum ...... 3 23.1 1 16.6 3 25.0 3 30.0 Sulphur ...... ' ...... 2 15.4 1 16.6 1 8.3 34 PYROTECHNICA • IX

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL­ A CONCEPT WHOSE TIME HAD COME

Max P. Vander Horck, Founder

Every year toward the end of summer a most peculiar From early afternoon until long after dark on most phenomenon occurs somewhere in the United States­ convention days the members gather at a designated a happening that even the most avid fireworks buff would site, usually within a few miles of a hotel which serves have found unbelievable as recently as the late 1960s. as a headquarters facility, for what has become known From every quarter of the nation, people of all ages as the Class-C Shoot. As the name implies, here PGI and in the most diverse walks of life assemble to spend members fire and compare various brands of the smaller an entire week discussing, learning about and shooting retail fireworks ("shop goods"), from firecrackers to fireworks of every conceivable variety from the lowly small skyrockets and aerial shells, which are classified firecracker to spectacular aerial shells, many of which by federal law as safe enough for sale to the general they themselves have designed and constructed during public. Most of these items are provided, at near­ the preceding months. All this happens at the annual wholesale cost, by members regularly engaged in selling conventions of the Pyrotechnics Guild International fireworks. Although the laws of most states prohibit (PGI), and the amazing thing is that most of the mem­ retail sales of many of these items, and all fireworks bers are not professional pyrotechnists who earn their sales are usually restricted to specific times of the year living in the firework trade but rather, spend the rest where they are permitted at all, a special blanket permit of the year engaged in occupations having nothing to covering the entire convention period allows them to do with fireworks. As soon as the time and place of be legally sold to bona-fide Guild members. the next convention is officially announced, those who Other events that have become traditional at the can see any possibility of attending begin planning and PGI conventions are the "Flea Market," where mem­ trying to schedule their vacations or other activities bers offer for sale everything from usable pyrotechnic accordingly. supplies and implements to rare antique firecracker and What is the fascination that draws hundreds of indi­ fireworks labels, posters, catalogs and books; the annual viduals of widely varying backgrounds and pursuits in PGI Auction, at which donated items of every imagi­ their everyday lives to PGI conventions each year? nable description, including those mentioned above but That question can probably be answered best by exam­ not necessarily all of a pyrotechnic nature, are sold to ining a typical convention schedule of events. Lectures, the highest bidder, with the proceeds going into the seminars and demonstrations by members who have Guild treasury; slide and motion-picture presentations of through their own experience and research developed notable firework displays and events as well as pictures expertise in some particular facet of pyrotechny are a taken at past conventions and, most recently, giant­ major attraction at conventions. Such topics as planning screen videotaped "instant replays" from the convention and shooting safe and effective displays, shell construc­ in progress, and the annual PGI Awards Banquet. tion, color production and general safety precautions Without doubt one of the strongest incentives for are commonly scheduled. In some cases, dramatic dem­ members to attend conventions is the annual fireworks onstrations have been used to illustrate what can hap­ competition. From rather hit-or-miss beginnings, this pen if certain safety precautions are not observed. The has developed into a carefully scheduled and program­ pyro-hobbyist quickly learns that certain mixtures have med exhibition of what talented pyrotechnic hobbyists been responsible for most of the fires, explosions and can do when given a chance to pit their skills against casualties in the long history of fireworks, but once he those of other innovative members. At the earliest con­ has actually seen and heard the violent flashes, crack­ ventions, the entire competition used to be confined to lings, and bangs that result when a lecturer grinds a one night, following the public display, which was gen­ minute amount of potassium chlorate and sulfur or erally staged on the last or next-to-Iast evening; but as finely-powdered metal with a mortar and pestle, he will the number of contestants grew, the word "planned" be convinced that such mixtures and manipulation would have been more appropriate than "confined" be­ should be avoided at all costs. cause, with the order of shooting dependent upon which During and at the end of these presentations, the contestants were ready to shoot first and no strict time attendees have an opportunity to pose questions on any limits enforced, it was not unusual for some contestants facet of the subject covered by the lecturer that may to be lighting their pieces in the early hours of the not be clear to them. These sessions enhance understand­ following morning. ing of both the theoretical and practical aspects of that As a result of these problems, it became necessary lecturer's particular specialty. Fascinating, instructive to establish various competition categories, namely: and edifying though these seminars may be, they cannot ground pieces, aerial shells, rockets and special effects substitute for the actual "hands on" experience with such as comets, fountains, candles, etc. and further to live fireworks that characterizes most of the scheduled subdivide the entries. in each category according to the events and makes the PGI conventions unique. professed or known experience and skill of the contes- 35 THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL MAX P. VANDER HORCK tant: novice, intennediate or advanced. These sub­ PGI and continues to be printed on the Guild member­ divisions were of course made to avoid matching less ship cards. experienced members against seasoned entrants in the The full realization of events foreshadowed by that competition for awards which include nearly two dozen dedication, however, did not begin to materialize until trophies and plaques, with an additional Grand Master after 14 issues had been mailed, and even then only as trophy going to the contestant earning the highest over­ the germ of an idea expressed on paper. I am tempted all score. Professional members and guests are invited to call it an inspiration, as it seemed to come spontan­ to participate but are not eligible for awards. eously like a bolt out of the blue - typically about two Because of the ever-growing interest and increasing o'clock one morning as I was outlining the March 1969 number of competition entrants in recent years, a com­ issue - but thinking back to that time, I now realize mittee was appointed to establish and publish guidelines that it must have been germinating for some time pre­ for the event, which include rather specific rilles as to viously. Until then, the only fireworks organizations in maximum size, components and construction of devices the country were the American Pyrotechnics Associa­ to be fired in a particular category and the amount of tion and a couple of related groups whose primary aim time allowed each contestant. These guidelines are pub­ was the preservation and advancement of the fireworks lished well in advance of the convention because, as trade and most of whose members were in the fireworks previously mentioned, many of the competitors construct business, with proportionately stiff annual dues to sup­ their own shells, rockets and other entries, starting port such activities. Not only were the dues prohibitive months before the announced time. Others who have for the average firework hobbyist, but the very idea of not yet attained enough ,skill and know-how to do this an amateur pyrotechnist was anathema to the APA ­ but still want to enter the competition, may assemble having the same ring, as somebody once remarked, as their entries from commercially available components "amateur brain surgeon"! and rely on their own imagination, ingenuity and show­ By the same token, state and federal fireworks laws manship to make an impressive display, since there is - a good part of them drawn up by members of the in­ a category for such entries. There has also been one dustry itself - did not recognize and made no provi­ established for daylight effects in the past couple of sions for the making of fireworks as a hobby; to be years, so that now it has been found advisable to sched­ legal, one must be engaged, employed or apprenticed ule the numerous competition events over several con­ in the business, with the appropriate state and federal vention days, with the more spectacular entries being licenses and permits, and woe to the unlicensed person fired just before the public display. whose experimentation drew the unwelcome attention of the authorities! Nonetheless, as I had learned from In order to trace the origins of the PGI, I must correspondence with our readers, many single-minded backtrack to the first monthly issue of the publication devotees and students of the firework art and craft, far Pyronews, dated November 1966, a modest, mimeo­ from being discouraged by their unrecognized amateur graphed newsletter written by myself and published by status, continued to experiment, even at the risk of being a mail-order dealer in northern California, in which issue (ridiculously) called "basement bombers" when in fact I expressed the hope that the little publication woilld they may have been trying to work out a new formula­ "become a clearing-home for the ideas, experiences, new tiOI~ for a cheaper, safer but still effective blue or purple formulas, and questions of its readers," adding "our stat composition. field of interest is so poorly covered in books and other Then as now, the basic "standard" fonnulas and publications that many heads are scratched in search of fabrication methods were available to anyone with access fairly simple answers." to a large library, and one had only to scan the classi­ To further this aim, I initiated a Question-&-Answer fied advertisements in such widely-read magazines as department in that issue, at my wife Ruth's suggestion Popular Science, Popular Mechanics and Science & titling it "Fire Away!" It was through this first venture Mechanics, among others, to find numerous offerings of at writing for publication about fireworks that I devel­ infonnation on how to make everything from crude fire­ oped a corresponding acquaintance with ¢any other crackers and rockets to nitroglycerine, as well as many pyro-hobbyists across the nation. I became convinced for fuse, casings, chemicals and other pyrotechnic mate­ that there was a need for a medium of regular and con­ rials. These vendors had virtually no control over the tinuing exchange of infonnation and ideas among them. age or knowledgeability of the purchaser. Finally, one Unfortunately, after preparing eleven issues by the end Science & Mechanics staff writer, probably seeking ma­ of 1967, I also became painfully aware that my pub­ terial for a sensational article, had his teenage son write lisher was adding several pages of his own advertisements to a number of the vendors running such advertisements to the material I sent him for each issue, for informa­ - including those carried by his own magazine. When tion on how to make pipe-bombs, improvised explo­ the boy's orders were filled with no questions asked, sives, gun-silencers and other horrible things not even this man wrote a hair-raising expose published in the remotely related to fireworks. For this reason, I severed May 1968 issue and titled: "Any 12-Year-Old With $3 my connections with him and in January of 1968, began Can Build This Bomb!" - with that heading featured publishing monthly issues of American Pyrotechnist. on the cover beside a most inappropriate photo of a Much of the material in each issue, then as in following bundle of sticks of dynamite! The writer noted, very years, was contributed by the readers themselves, mak­ appropriately, that when "the brass" of the staff saw his ing it the vehicle for exchange of information, ideas notes for the story, they hurriedly sent down word to and experience in pyrotechny that was so badly needed. decline all future ads for fireworks or explosives, a policy On the covers of the October 1968 and succeeding adopted not long thereafter by other major circulation issues I added the legend: Dedicated to the Advancement magazines. of Safety, Skill and Artistry in pyrotechnics through In a further attempt to stem the flow of firework Communication, which later became the motto of the ingredients and supplies in interstate commerce, the 36 PYROTECHNICA • IX

Photo by Ben Harriman Photo by Ben Harriman

Jerry Taylor's 5" Tremalon Crossette shell at the 1974 PGI Competition. PGI Founder Max Vander Horck (l) looks on as Jerry Photo by Ben Harriman Taylor (r) humbly receives the Grand Master Trophy jor best competition entry at the 1974 convention held in Grand Haven, Michigan.

Photo by Ben Harriman

Jerry Taylor's finale at the 1974 PGI Competition. Ben Harriman (1) and Jack Leonard (r), two oj est activists in the Guild, coordinated Guild activities on Photo by Ben Harriman the East Coast and organized thf; 1971 and 1972 "mini­ conventions."

Photo by Ben Harriman

Chuck Tenge (l), Mike Beyer (center) and Roger Presutti (r), hold an impromptu "seminar" on shell construction at the 1973 convention. Information exchange was more Snowball Comet shell by Bill Withrow, entered in 1974 spontaneous and less formalized than at later conventions. PGI Competition. 37 THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL MAx P. VANDER HORCK

Photo by R. Cardwell Photo by Greg Gerstner

The late great Bill Hoyt (I) and Rob Berk (r) preside over Attendees of the 1972 "mini-convention" in Maryland a lively PG1 auction at the 1982 convention in Albu­ pose with the very first "Super String" containing only querque, N.M. 2,000 firecrackers. Photo by Alex Schumall

Photo by Greg Gerstner

Fireworks enthusiast-celebrity-writer-raconteur George Plimpton at the 1982 PGl convention.

Photo by Greg Gerstner

Hanging the "Super String" at the 1979 convention near Oreat Lakes Pyrotechnic Association members Richard Grand Junction, Colo. Its size increases by geometric Sheard (l) and Al Colantino (r) with a 16" shell later proportions each year. fired at the 1982 convention. 38 Photo by Dave Penshorn

~ ~ ttl

I.J,) \0 I S<

Group Photo of attendees at the 1981 PGl convention at Rochester, Minn. THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL MAX P. VANDER HORCK U.S. Food and Drug Administration, at that time charged involving fires, injuries and deaths to "fireworks" when with enforcing the provisions of the Federal Hazardous in fact they were caused by everything from children Substances Act, intensified its efforts to close down the playing with matches to home-made explosive devices. operations of known dealers in· such materials, particu­ Most of this irresponsible and erroneous reporting was larly "fireworks kits" intended for making fireworks and dutifully repeated by the news media, so that the gulli­ mailable only because the oxidizers and fuels were pack­ ble general public eventually became convinced that all aged separately. (The "banger" kit offered by one mail­ "fireworks" must be too dangerous for anyone but the order dealer, for example, contained one plastic bag of "experts" to handle. It was thought that anyone advo­ powdered potassium nitrate and another of mixed char­ cating their enjoyment by the average person must be coal and sulfur in the corresponding proportions for either crazy or immoral. It was in this unreceptive cli­ making black powder when mixed by the customer.) mate that I launched the PGI by printing a Charter The FDA's involvement in these actions elicited some Membership certificate in our March 1969 issue and rather sarcastic queries as to whether fireworks came inviting all interested readers to join the Guild. under the heading of food or drugs, but the classification From the perspective of years it's hard to say ex­ was really not too far-fetched, since all three black actly what impelled me to put out this "feeler" at that powder ingredients could be purchased at one's local particular time; it was probably something akin to the pharmacy for medicinal purpo£es! hunch that nudges a fisherman to throw out his line at Thus, while our "benevolent bureaucrats" succeeded a certain time and place, who is then rewarded by in forcing a few suppliers of pyrotechnic materials out almost more bites than he can handle. It was definitely of business - at the taxpayers' expense - they would not that I felt myself better qualified by knowledge and have been unimaginative indeed to think they had experience of pyrotechny than the next fellow, to origi­ thereby put an end to do-it-yourself firework making. nate and head up such a guild. Nevertheless, I could Moreover, this attempt to cut off sources of supply co­ still hear that inner voice saying something like, "There's incided with proposed federal legislation to ban most, a job to be done, and you are in the best position to if not all, commercially-produced fireworks for sale to do it." The truth of this was certainly borne out by the the public. While such a drastic version of Prohibition number of people becoming interested within the next in the supposed interest of protecting us from ourselves few months; most of our 200-plus subscribers and some did not actually materialize, the very threat of it had non-subscribers who had learned of the new "brother­ predictable effects. hood" (it could hardly be called an "organization" for Just as in 1919, when passage of the Volstead Act several years to come) had asked me to enroll them as banning the sale of alcoholic beverages to the American members and had received the wallet-sized identification public became imminent, bootleggers began tooling up cards which I had had printed not long after announc­ to provide illicit fireworks for our citizens. Fireworks ing the existence of the PGI. bootleggers already knew from their experience in the Although I hoped and believed that the cause of numerous states that had banned all fireworks, that some amateur pyrotechny would be advanced by communi­ people were willing to pay excessive prices for "black cation and sharing of experience and knowledge among market" commodities - in short, that an unpopular the members, never in my wildest imagination did I law cannot be enforced. They also knew that it was envision such communication taking place in the form more profitable to make and sell large salutes consist­ of yearly conventions. I did know, and reported in our ing of a heavy flashpowder charge in a tubular casing pages, that small groups of firework enthusiasts in vari­ than it was to deal in the more skillfully made and con­ ous parts of the country were getting together from sequently safer firework items like tho£e made in the time to time for discussions and, given·a hospitable Orient to produce a wide variety of color and motion environment, to stage small displays to compare their effects, rather than just an ear-splitting blast. As I wrote handiwork. metaphorically in one of our issues: "When you pull all One of these groups, headed by a school teacher the flowers out of your fireworks garden, the weeds named Jack Leonard, should in fact be credited with proliferate." staging the first unofficial PGI convention at a farm in I would like to think it was the realization that a northern Maryland in 1971, and it was thus appropriate nationwide fireworks ban would indeed encourage the that Jack became the Guild's first elected president three proliferation of bootleg traffic in the more dangerous years later. Until then it had po organizational structure, big-bang devices, causing more headaches than the dues, or requirements for membership. This rather "bathtub gin" of the roaring twenties, that led to the free-wheeling and indiscriminate recruitment phase of defeat of that proposed legislation. There still existed, PGI history had its amusing aspects, as for example however, a ready and remunerative market in the many when I discovered that I had enrolled not only the State states having total or quite restrictive fireworks prohibi­ Fire Marshal of California, but an entire family ranging tions, for those individuals willing to risk discovery and in age from 9 to 35 years, with membership cards issued possible fines and/or jail sentences in pursuit of the fast in all their names, including that of Mike, their pet if illegal buck. By this time, the Bureau of Alcohol, To­ bulldog! bacco & Firearms (BATF) had become involved in The Maryland group staged another mini-conven­ identifying and prosecuting such individuals, again tion in 1972, this one featuring many Class-B display raising the question as to which of those three categories fireworks in addition to Class-C items. The event was qualified as "fireworks"! duly covered by the required permit through the friendly Further confusion was generated by the creation of cooperation of the local authorities and guidance of a other governmental agencies and commissions, all of highly-placed state fire-prevention officer (himself a whom seemed to consider it their duty to enforce the PGI member) who had also helped Jack to obtain his existing anti-firework laws, and by the fact that some state pyrotechnic operator's license. While such things of them attributed many completely unrelated incidents as exhibition-type aerial shells up to six inches in diam- 40 PYROTECHNICA • IX eter and lancework featuring the green letters "P G I" tax-exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service, an were fired at this meet, one of the most enthusiastically important consideration now that the Guild would be received events was the shooting of a string of about opening a corporate bank account, collecting dues and 2,000 inch-and-a-half firecrackers suspended from the disbursing funds as required for future conventions and top of a telephone pole. The string was reported to other activities. have gone on popping and banging for about eight We were fortunate in having Chicago attorney Rich­ minutes. The utilization of small as well as large fire­ ard Sikes as a member, who provided his services at works became a traditional feature of conventions to no charge to draw up and file the incorporation docu­ follow. The firecrackers were dubbed the "Super String" ments and act as the Guild's resident agent in the state and in later years put this first use of this name to shame. of Illinois. Because of misaddressed mail and other Another first, and one which was to become a most communications breakdowns, however, the tax-exempt popular feature of the annual meets that followed, was status was not realized until late 1981, seven years after the Amateur Firework Competition staged at the 1973 incorporation! With "Inc." tacked on after Pyrotechnics convention in a suburb of Grand Haven, Michigan. Guild International, redesigned membership certificates Also there was a presentation of the first Grand Master and cards were issued proclaiming, among other PGI Award to the competitor judged to have demonstrated tenets, the Guild's aim: to channel the creative energies the most ingenuity, skill and showmanship with his entry. of talented people into the design, production and dis­ This coveted award went to Dave Penshorn, owner and play of high-quality pyrotechnics by example of the operator of an electronics service shop in St. Paul, Min­ membership and through the sharing of knowledge. nesota, for his IS-minute entry consisting of five "Pic­ I left the 1974 convention with the feeling that the tures in Coloured Fyres.'" This was artistically assem­ PGI was headed in the right direction and now able bled display containing lancework, gerbs and roman to stand on its own feet. The brilliance, beauty and candles and synchronized with appropriate taped music. variety of fireworks displayed at PGI conventions has An amusing sidelight of that convention was related far outclassed those to be seen at the usual profes­ to me by attendee Robert Cardwell (whose founding of sionally-fired public display. I was totally dazzled by PYROTECHNICA was still a few years in the offing). During the almost interminable succession of aerial and ground the public display, attended by almost the entire popu­ effects set off at the 1974 competition! lation of this Grand Haven suburb, so brilliant were I could fill many pages describing the eight annual some of the aerial shell effects that the nearby photocell­ conventions that followed: North Royalton, Ohio, 1975; controlled street lights kept going out as they would Grand Junction, Colorado, 1976; St. Croix Falls, Wis­ have at sunrise; during one such blackout the spectators consin, 1977 and 1978; Grand Junction again in 1979; were treated to a brilliant meteor shower, leading one Jamestown, North Dakota, 1980; Rochester, Minnesota, of them to shout: "Let's hear it for GOD!" This was 1981, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1982, but I shall only the first of several conventions to be enlivened by confine my closing remarks to brief mention of what "celestial pyrotechnics." I consider the highlights of PGI history not already The 1974 convention, also held in the Grand Haven mentioned. area, proved memorable in many respects. First, thanks to advance publicity, it drew a record attendance of The 1977 meet was distinguished, first, by the pres­ over 100 members, families and guests, both amateurs ence of BATF agent Bob Dexter who, at our invitation, and professionals like Jimmy Grucci of New York had flown in from Washington, D.C. to explain the Pyrotechnic Products on the East Coast and a goodly Bureau's regulations affecting both professional and number of West Coast residents, including myself. Pete amateur making and use of fireworks. Secondly, we Colonnese also attended that convention and surprised elected a Lutheran minister as 1977-78 Guild president, the members by passing around a copy of his latest Rev. Brian Bergin, already president of the convention effort: the 1974 edition of his Fireworks Buyer's Guide. host group called the Northern Lighters and himself This was a directory of more than 200 domestic manu­ affectionately referred to as the "Blaster Pastor." No facturers, importers, wholesalers, distributors, retailers sooner had the public display begun than we were and jobbers of both commercial (Class-C) and display treated to a display of the real northern lights. This was fireworks. It listed firms alphabetically by states and followed by a colossal thunderstorm - those other "cel­ company names, with descriptions of their services and estial pyrotechnics" mentioned earlier - despite which products and included names, addresses and telephone the members continued shooting in true "The Show numbers of each firm's principals, organizational affili­ Must Go On" tradition. ations, etc., certainly the most complete and detailed Certainly another notable convention had to be that such directory then available. Unfortunately, it has long of 1980, if for no other reason than that Mark Demp­ been out of print and no new edition has ever been sey of Astra Fireworks Ltd. in England became our first published. attendee from overseas, who presented a talk on the The most significant development at the 1974 con­ firework situation in his country. The 1981 Convention vention, however, was the decision, unanimously ap­ saw the fruition of a concept long advocated by myself proved by the members present, to name a board of and numerous other members: a shooter's training pro­ directors, draw up definitive bylaws to govern future gram followed by a written test and the issuing of a Guild activities, and to elect officers. It was further PGI Certificate to members who made a passing grade. suggested and approved that the Guild incorporate itself Over the years, it has been most gratifying to be as a not-for-profit organization, not only to obtain rec­ told: "Van, if it hadn't been for you, there wouldn't have ognition as a legal entity, but also to provide a "protec­ been a Pyrotechnics Guild International." Well, maybe tive umbrella" so that the membership as a whole could our fellowship would have had a different name, but not be held legally responsible for the actions of any I remain convinced that if I had not originated such individual member. It also presupposed the granting of a Guild. someone else would have. The time was ripe! 41 THE PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND PERCEPTION OF COLORED FLAMES

FartH

Ken L. Kosanke

(Part I appeared in PYROTECHNICA.VII, 1981)

4.0 The chemistry of colored flames Table 1. Element names and atomic symbols commonly used in pyrotechnics. 4.1 A summary of general chemistry for Element name Atomic symbol colored flame production Aluminum...... Al This paper is intended to benefit readers who do not Antimony Sb enjoy a thorough understanding of chemistry. Thus, be­ Arsenic As fore dealing with more advanced topics, a discussion Barium...... Ba of some aspects of general chemistry may be of benefit. Calcium...... Ca Any reader with an understanding of chemical symbols Chlorine CI and the Periodic Table, chemical formulas and IUPAC Copper Cu nomenclature, chemical equations, the idea of reversi­ Hydrogen H bility and Le Chatelier's Principle, stoichiometry and Iron '" " Fe mole weights should skip ahead to section 4.2. Lead Pb Magnesium Mg 4.1.1 Chemical symbols and the periodic table Mercury Hg The ancient Greeks believed that all material sub­ Nitrogen N stances were composed of four basic elements: water, Oxygen 0 air, earth and fire. This idea, however wrong, showed Phosphorus P profound insight. Their theory of basic elements recog­ Potassium K nized the fact that there are not millions of different Silicon...... Si fundamental substances, rather these millions of sub­ Sodium...... Na stances are just different combinations of a few basic Strontium Sr elements. This concept, basic elements in different com­ Sulfur S binations, is what got the whole idea of chemistry Titanium Ti started; if you knew the basic elements and how to Zinc...... Zn combine them, you could make anything you wanted. Eventually, when the scientific method replaced chloride. You can also be reasonably certain that both philosophic rationalizing as the manner of conducting lithium chloride and potassium chloride will have prop­ research, it became apparent that the Greeks' four ele­ erties similar to sodium cWoride, i.e., all will taste salty, ments didn't suffice, and the search was on for the real all will be soluble in water and all will form crystals chemical elements. By the mid-nineteenth century, most with similar appearance, hardness, and melting points, of the elements had been discovered, named and given etc. a shorthand chemical symbol. The name and chemical Chlorine, too, is a member of a chemical group, symbol for those elements most often encountered in called halogens, consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, pyrotechnics are listed in Table 1. (The utility of these iodine and astatine. With this information and your chemical symbols will become increasingly clear as we knowledge of sodium cWoride, you can be rather con­ continue working through this chemistry section.) fident about the existence of sodium fluoride, sodium bromide, potassium fluoride, etc., and you will know Early on, it was observed that there were groups something about the properties of these compounds. of chemical elements that had similar physical and chemical properties. For example, one group of elements A knowledge of chemical groups combined with were all soft metals, another group were all gases. Also only a little other chemical knowledge gives you great all members of a group combined with elements of other predictive powers. A knowledge of sodium and chlorine, groups in the same proportion, making compounds that and the way they combine allows you to speculate on again had similar properties. One of the groups, called the existence, manner of combining and properties of alkali metals, consists of lithium, sodium, potassium, a large number of compounds, in this case 30 (six alkali rubidium, cesium and francium. If you know something metals times five halogens). about the chemistry of ONE of these elements, you also It was realized very early in the systematic study know a little about the chemistry of ALL the others. of chemistry that the organization of chemical elements For example, you probably know that sodium combines into relatively few groups would allow a great simplifi­ readily with chlorine to make common table salt, sodi­ cation of the subject. If all chemical elements could be um chloride. Because lithium and potassium are mem­ organized in this fashion, and you learned the way the bers of the same group of elements, you can be reason­ groups interact with one another, then you could specu­ ably certain that both lithium and potassium combine late about tens of thousands of possible reactions. This with chlorine to make lithium chloride and potassium would be a very great simplification indeed. 42 PYROTECHNICA • IX In 1869 Mende1eev successfully organized all the 4.1.2 Chemical formulas and IUPAC nomenclature chemical elements known at the time into a table (in Using the chemical symbols from the Periodic Table, order of increasing mass of the elements), in which a systematic chemical shorthand has been developed to the elements fell into the known groups. In fact, he was describe combinations of chemical elements forming so successful that he was able to predict the existence molecules. Use of that shorthand will simplify our dis­ of several then unknown elements because of unfilled cussions as well as shorten this paper significantly. For positions in his table of elements. With only slight modi­ chemical elements in their natural atomic state, the fication, Mendeleev's arrangement of chemical elements shorthand notation is just to use the chemical symbol, has become known as the Periodic Table of Elements. instead of writing out the full chemical name. Thus, the It is called "Periodic" Table because, in a listing of symbol Na is used in place of the name sodium; CI is of chemical elements in order of increasing mass, chemi­ used for chlorine, etc. cal and physical properties repeat periodically. In es­ In the case of chlorine, the symbol CI means chlorine sence what Mendeleev did was to layout the elements atoms; however, chlorine is a diatomic gas under normal from left to right, as they increased in mass. Each time conditions. Diatomic means that chlorine molecules elements seemed to be repeating properties of earlier consist of pairs of chlorine atoms bound to each other. elements, he started a new row. Thus the elements Instead of writing this as ClCI, it is writen CI". The lithium, sodium and potassium all came to fall in the subscript 2 means that two atoms of chlorine have com­ same column, because they all behaved similarly. bined to form a diatomic molecule. All gaseous elements, Today we understand the underlying reason why the except those in group VIllA, normally exist as diatomic Periodic Table appears as it does and why the proper­ molecules. Some examples are hydrogen (Hz), oxygen ties of the elements repeat themselves. The reason is (OJ, nitrogen (N2 ). related to the way electrons arrange themselves about In general, numeric subscripts are used to indicate the nucleus of the different chemical elements. A dis­ when a molecule is composed of more than one atom cussion of these different electron arrangements and why of the same element. Another familiar molecule is water, they exist might be interesting to a few readers, but is H 20. Here two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of beyond the scope of this paper. oxygen are bound together to form a single molecule. Before leaving the subject of the Periodic Table, it A chemical formula is the shorthand method of is appropriate to spend a little more time to make it describing the type and number of atoms in a compound a useful tool. Below is a summary of what has already (molecule). Above, H"0, C1 2 , O2 , etc., are all chemical been said about the Periodic Table, and some of the formulas. additional information contained in it. (A copy of the Periodic Table is included as an insert.) In order to avoid possible confusion, let me point out that sometimes when people talk about chemical (A) Each vertical column is representative of a chemi­ formulas, they are really talking about something qu~te cal group of elements, with generally similar prop­ different. Sometimes "formulations" (recipes) are mIS­ erties. This includes "physical" properties like melt­ takenly called formulas. When someone tells you to mix ing points, metallic or non-metallic character, crystal one part water and one part dirt to make mud, they structure, etc., as well as "chemical" properties are giving the formulation for making mud; they ha~e such as tendency to combine with other elements, not given you the chemical formula for mud. There IS the relative proportions in which they combine, etc. quite a difference, the former is a recipe and the latter (B) Molecules formed by combining different elements is the EXACT way in which atoms combine to form of the same two groups will generally have similar compounds. physical properties. Thus, sodium chloride, lithium bromide and potassium fluoride, etc., all are crys­ At the beginning of this section, I said. that eleme!1ts in their "normal" atomic state are descnbed by usmg talline in nature, all are water soluble and all have their chemical symbol. This is true, but I should have rather high melting points. been more specific and said "in their normal atomic state (C) Some of the information contained in the Periodic under standard thermodynamic conditions." Standard Table of Elements is: thermodynamic conditions are 25°C and one (1) ~t­ (1) Group number: The number of each chemical mosphere pressure. (This should not be con~use~ w~th group, IA to VIllA, is printed above the top standard temperature and pressure (STP) WhICh IS a C chemical element in each vertical column. and one atmosphere pressure.) The reason to be more (2) Chemical symbol: The shorthand symbol for specific is that by changing temperature and pressure, each of the first 103 chemical elements is printed the normal state of elements and molecules changes. At in the center of the square for that element. 25°C copper is a solid, above 1l00°C, it is ~ liqui?, Also in each square is the name of the element. and above 2600°C, it is a gas. When somethmg IS m (3) Atomic number: In the upper left hand corner some state other than its standard state, it is indicated of each square the element's atomic num.ber is by the use of (g), (1) and (s) as subscripts. The paren­ printed. This is the number of protons m the theses are normally used and g, I and s indicate gases, nucleus of each atom of that particular chemi­ liquids and solids, respectively. Thus CU w indicates we cal element. It also equals the number of elec­ mean liquid copper and Cueg ) in~icates gaseo~s cOPl?er. trons orbiting each neutral atom of that chemical Sometimes, in order to make a pomt or to aVOId pOSSIble element. confusion even an element in its natural room tem­ (4) Atomic weight: The atomic weight for each perature ;tate will have its state designated using these element is printed in the upper right hand cor­ same symbols. It is not necessary to write CUes), but ner of each box. Atomic weights are propor­ it is OK. tional to the weight of one atom of that chemi­ Another thing it is necessary to indicate in a chemi­ cal element. cal formula is whether something is electrically charged, 43 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE Le., whether it is a neutral atom or molecule, or an ion Table 2. Names and formulas of functional (charged). This is accomplished using a superscript ionic groups frequently found in pyrotechnics. plus or minus after the chemical symbol or formula. Group name Chemical formula For example, Cl- indicates a chlorine ion with a charge Ammonium ...... NH + of minus one; Na+ indicates a sodium ion with a plus 4 Carbonate COa-2 one charge. If the charge of the ion is more than plus Chlorate CIO - or minus one, a numeral is added after the sign. Thus a Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) HCOa- Ca+ 2 indicates a calcium ion with two units of positive Nitrate...... NOa- charge. Remember from the brief discussion of ioniza­ Oxalate C 0 -2 tion (in Part I of this paper) that positive ions result Z 4 Perchlorate CI04- when atoms or molecules LOSE one or more of the elec­ Sulfate...... S04-2 trons that orbit them. Similarly, negative ions result when atoms or molecules GAIN one or more orbiting Table 3. Names and formulas of chemicals electrons. When writing formulas for ions, it is neces­ commonly used to produce colored flames. sary to use the superscript plus or minus. Atoms don't normally exist as ions, so when writing about neutral Oxidizers Ammonium perchlorate NH,CIO. atoms or molecules, it is not necessary to indicate their X Ba(C10~). neutrality; however, sometimes to avoid possible confu­ Barium chlorate •••••••••••••••••••••••• Barium nitrate Ba(NOs). sion, a superscript 0 is used. For example, the chemical symbol Cuo indicates neutral copper atoms. Potassium chlorate KCIOs Potassium nitrate KNOs Sometimes neutral atoms or molecules have an Potassium perchlorate KC10. electronic structure that makes them unusually reactive. Sodium nitrate NaNOs When this happens, they are usually called "free radi­ Strontium nitratex Sr(NOs). cals" and are indicated using a superscript dot (in place Fuels of the zero), e.g., Cl" or OH". Because free radicals Aluminum Al are so reactive, they usually are not found at room tem­ Carbon* C perature, where they quickly combine with other atoms Magnesium Mg or molecules. However, in pyrotechnic flames, free radi­ Magnaliumxx Mg/Al cals abound. Red gum (accroides) Complex Shellac Complex The final topic in this section is IUPAC nomencla­ Color agents** ture. When the International Union of Pure and Applied Barium sulfate BaSO. Chemistry (IUPAC) was formed, the first task under­ Calcium carbonate CaCOs taken was to standardize the method of naming chemi­ Calcium sulfate CaSO, cal compounds. Below is a short discussion of some Copper acetoarsenite (CuO)sAs,OsoCu(C,H,O,) 2 rules of nomenclature. Copper(II) carbonate, basic CuCO,oCu(OH). (A) Molecules composed of a metal and a non-metal, Copper(lI) chloride CuC]' have the metal named first followed by a slightly Copper metal Cu modified non-metal name. The metal name is pro­ Copper(lI) oxide CuO nounced just as it would be for a metal powder. Copper sulfate CuSO. For example, Na in NaF is "sodium," Cu in CuCI Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHC03 is "copper." The non-metal name has its ending Sodium oxalate Na.C,O. changed to "ide." Thus fluorine in NaF is "fluoride," Strontium carbonate SrCOa chlorine in CuCI is "chloride" and oxygen in FeO Strontium sulfate SrSO. is "oxide." NOTES: xThese oxidizers also act as color agents. When a metal, like copper, is capable of com­ *Charcoal has the composition 82% C, 13% 0, 3% H, and bining in different proportions with the same non­ 2% Ash (from Shimizu, 1981). metal elements, like chlorine, it is necessary to be **Under high temperature conditions such as in strobe star burning, many of these color agents can also act as mild able to distinguish between the different chemical oxidizers. forms. This is accomplished by adding a Roman xxMagnalium is an alloy of magnesium and aluminum, most numeral in parentheses between the metal and non­ often in near equal proportions. metal name. The Roman numeral indicates the "valence state" of the metal. (The concept of va­ a single element when forming compounds. These lence is beyond the scope of this paper; suffice it functional groups have each been given their own to say that a metal's valence state determines the names. Some of these encountered in pyrotechnics

ratio in which it will combine with other elements.) are: (N03 ) -, nitrate; (ClOJ -, perchlorate; and

Gone are the frequently confusing names for copper (NH4 ) +, ammonium (see Table 2 for a more com­ such as "cuprous" and "cupric" in the names of plete list). Some compounds containing these func­ CuCI and CuCI2 , respectively. In the new naming tional groupings are: NaNOa, sodium nitrate; system, CuCI is copper(I)chloride, CuClz is cop­ KClOa, potassium chlorate; CuS04 , copper(II)sul­ per(II)chloride. When a metal has only a single fate; and NH4Cl04 , ammonium perchlorate. valence state possible, it is not necessary to include (C) Complex natural organic molecules continue to be the Roman numeral. Thus NaF is just sodium called by their historical names. Sometimes this is fluoride. because the IUPAC name is very long and compli­ (B) There are several groups of atoms that stick to­ cated; other times, this is because the natural sub­ gether rather well and often act as if they were just stance is not a single compound, but several com- 44 PYROTECHNICA • IX pounds in a variable mixture. Thus names like let light if it has been vaporized. The chemical equation shellac, red (accroides) gum, and gum arabic are showing this vaporization is proper to use. CuCI(s) + Heat ~ CuCI(g). (5) Occasionally in this paper the prefix "mono" will Another thing that can be shown in a chemical be used in a chemical name, to indicate that the single equation, to aid in clarity, is when an atom or molecule atom is present in the compound. This is done to avoid is in an excited electronic state, capable of emitting a possible confusion. For example, at normal tempera- light photon upon de-excitation. This is usually indi- tures, strontium always combines with chlorine in the cated using a superscript asterisk. Decay from an ex- ratio of 1 to 2 to form the solid SrCI 2 (s). Thus the proper cited state with the emission of a photon can be indi- name for the compound is simply strontium chloride. cated by listing the light photon as one of the reaction

However, when SrCl 2 is vaporized, the stable molecule products. Equations 6 and 7 are examples using CuCI: is SrCI(g). To avoid confusion, SrCI(g) will be called CuCI(g) + Heat ~ CuCl(g) *, (6) strontium monochloride. CuCI(g) * ~ CuCI(g) + photon (450 nm). The rules of nomenclature given thus far are a long (7) way from being complete; however, they should help Equation 7 also indicates the wavelength of the emitted avoid confusion. As a further aid, you can refer to photon in nanometers (nm). Table 3, which lists a number of the more common As an example of how chemical equations are a use- chemical names and formulas which are important in ful shorthand, consider the set of equations given above. a discussion of the chemistry of colored light production. They represent one possibility for generating violet light. 4.1.3 Chemical equations In longhand, the process would be described as: "One molecule of potassium perchlorate reacts with two atoms Chemical equations describe chemical reactions, i.e., of carbon to generate one molecule of potassium chlor- the way chemicals react to form new chemicals. Instead ide, two molecules of carbon dioxide and heat. Copper of telling you that hydrogen and oxygen can combine (I)chloride, which is also present in the composition, to form water, it can be done using a chemical equation: consumes heat energy and is vaporized; it then con- 2H2 + O 2 ~ 2R,0. (1) sumes additional heat energy and becomes electronically In addition to being shorter and easier to use, it also excited. Finally, the excited molecule of copper(I)chlor- gives more information. It tells the relative numbers of ide de-excites generating a violet light photon of wave- atoms and/or molecules involved in the reaction, i.e., length 450 nm." In the more explicit shorthand of two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule chemical equations this becomes, simply: of oxygen to form two molecules of water. The numeral KCI0 + 2C ~ KCl +2C0 + Heat, 2 in front of H., and HoO indicates that 2 molecules are 4 2 (4) involved in the-reactiOIl. The arrow in a chemical equa- ~ (5), tion should be read as "reacts to form." The starting CuCI(s) + Heat CuCI(g) chemicals are called the REACTANTS, and the chemicals CuCI(g) + Heat ~ CuCI,g) * (6), produced are called the PRODUCTS. In the water equa- CuCl"n * ~ CuCI(g) + photon (450 nm). tion, H 2 and O 2 are the reactants and H 20 is the product. (7) To be a proper chemical equation, it must be bal- 4.1.4 Chemical reversibility and anced, just as a mathematical equation must be balanced. Le Chatelier's principle In chemical reactions, elements are immutable; they All chemical reactions are reversible to some extent. are neither created nor destroyed. Thus there must be Thus, if two elements combine to make a compound, an equal number of each type of atom on both sides this compound has some tendency to decompose back of the arrow. If I had written the equation into the two original elements. For reactions involving

H 2 + O 2 ~ H 20, (2) only change of state, the idea of reversibility seems it would be incorrect, since it is not balanced. There natural. For example, are two atoms of hydrogen on each side of the equa- H.,O(S) + Heat ~ Hc0(l)' (8) tion, but the left side has two atoms of oxygen while It is an everyday observation that the reverse reaction the right side only has one. Note that Equation 1 is also takes place, i.e.: balanced. H H (9) He0(l) ~ 2 °(S) + eat. Sometimes, for emphasis, chemical equations will A convenient way to point out that this reaction is re- indicate whether heat energy is consumed or generated versible, is to use a double arrow in the equations during a chemical reaction. This could have been indi- ° HH ° (10) b r' h f th d H 2 (s) + eat ~ " (1). cated in Equation 1 y Istmg eat as one 0 e pro - For most other reactions, the idea of reversibility ucts, (3) may be hard to accept. Remember the example of po- 2H2 + O 2 ~ 2H2 0 + Heat. tassium perchlorate reacting with carbon, An example from pyrotechnics, complete combus- KCl0 + 2C ~ KCl + 2C0 + Heat. tion, where an oxidizer (potassium perchlorate) and a 4 2 (4) fuel (carbon, i.e., charcoal) combine completely to It seems inconsistent with common experience to generate reaction products plus heat, is suggest there is a tendency for the reaction products to KCI04 + 2C ~ KCI + 2CO" + Heat. recombine again to make potassium perchlorate and (4) charcoal. In fact there IS a tendency to do just that, In order for molecules in a pyrotechnic flame to emit even if the tendency is very slight at room temperature their characteristic band spectra, they must 'first be and atmospheric pressure. At high temperatures and vaporized; this requires heat energy. Copper(I)chloride, pressures, the tendency for the reverse action to occur CuCI, has the potential to be a powerful emitter of vio- is increased, though still not great. 45 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE As a consequence of chemical reactions always hav­ action to proceed, it would be a relatively simple matter ing some tendency to go in both directions, they never to design pyro-reactions on paper that worked perfectly go 100% to completion. Some of the reactants are al­ in practice. Knowing that two atoms of carbon were ways left over at the end, because some of the products consumed for each molecule of potassium perchlorate, have reacted in a reverse direction to remake some of you could (knowing about mole weights) calculate the the reactants. The final amount of reactants and prod­ exact weight of potassium perchlorate and carbon to use ucts depends on the relative tendencies for the forward in a pyro-formulation. Unfortunately, Equation 4 is and reverse reactions to occur. If the tendency for the only one of the possible ways for the reaction to pro­ forward reaction to occur is much greater, then almost ceed. Two more equally legitimate possibilities are: all the reactants will be consumed. On the other hand, KCl04 + 4C --? KCI + 4CO + Heat, if the reverse reaction has a much greater tendency to (11 ) occur, then very little of the starting material will be KCIO. + C --?Ko + CIO" + CO2 + Heat. consumed. (12) Later in this paper when discussing colored flame Equation 11 suggests that the proper ratio is four car­ production, it will be important to understand the con­ bon atoms to one potassium perchlorate molecule, not cept of chemical reversibility and something closely two to one as in Equation 4. Equation 12 suggests that related called Le Cbatelier's Principle. Le Cbatelier's Principle states that when stress is applied to a reacting carbon and potassium perchlorate will react one to one. In practice, when formulating, how can you be certain chemical system, the system will react in such a manner which of the three ratios to use? In fact, none of the as to relieve that stress. In Equation 4, I said there was a very slight tendency for the reverse reaction to occur, ratios are exactly correct. EACH of the reactions occurs but when the pressure was raised, the tendency of the and is correct in a stoichiometric sense. The problem is that ALL THREE equations (and others) take place reverse reaction to occur became greater. This is an example of Le Cbatelier's Principle in action. Note that to some extent at the same time in the flame reaction. It's not that stoichiometry doesn't work; it's just that the only gas involved is CO , one of the products. If we 2 flame reactions are too complex to be represented com­ increase the pressure, the only way to relieve the stress pletely by a single chemical equation. To add to the of added pressure is for some of the gaseous product to recombine to form the more compact KCl0 and complexity, the extent to which the various flame re­ 4 actions occur depend on such additional things as: grain carbon, and this is just what happens. Another way to size of the chemicals, degree of compaction of the mate­ apply stress to a chemical reaction is to increase the rial, type and amount of color agents and other chemi­ amount of one of the reactants or products. If more of cals added to the formulation, pressure, velocity at one of the reactants is added, the reaction progresses which the composition is moving through air (i.e., flame to the right, using up more of the other reactants and temperature). It is just not possible to write a single making more of the products. If more charcoal is added, equation, no matter how long and complex, that will some of the left over KClO. will react with it to gener­ precisely describe chemical reactions in a typical pyro­ ate more of the reaction products. If you add some of technic flame under all conditions. one of the reaction products the reaction is pushed to the left, using up some of the other products to remake In spite of this, stoichiometry can be a great help more of the reactants. Note in Equation 4 that heat in developing pyro-chemical formulations. It can pro­ energy is one of the products of the reaction. Thus if vide very good, although only approximate, starting we apply stress to the reaction, by raising the tempera­ points for amounts of chemicals to use. In addition, ture (by adding heat), we would expect that stress stoichiometry can tell you almost exactly how to make would be relieved by some of the reaction products re­ substitutions in your formulations. combining, consuming heat energy, and remaking more Stoichiometry (balanced chemical equations) tells in of the reactants. This is just what does happen. what proportions atoms and molecules react. However, The reason it is important to understand Le Cha­ in your pyro-lab, you don't work with individual atoms, telier's Principle when attempting to generate good col­ you work with grams, ounces or pounds. What is needed ored flames is that it gives us a way to shift chemical to know is how many ounces of this combines with how reactions so that they produce more desirable light many ounces of that. The concept of "mole weights" generating species in colored flames, or so that they will let you work with amounts by weight instead of produce less undesirable light generating species. numbers of atoms. To explain mole weights, it is neces­ sary to define a new unit, a "mole." A mole is a num­ 4.1.5 Stoichiometry and mole weights ber, a very big number; it is equal to 602 thousand Stoichiometry (pronounced sto-i-key-om'-a-tree) is billion billion atoms (6.02 x 10 23 atoms). This large the detailed study of the exact manner in which atoms number is the number of hydrogen atoms in a single and molecules combine to form other molecules. When­ gram of atomic hydrogen. Instead of talking about 2 ever we write a chemical equation that is properly bal­ 6.02 x 10 :3 atoms of hydrogen, one can simply call it anced (and expresses reality), it is an exercise in sto­ a mole of hydrogen. The unit "mole" is used in just the ichiometry. Equation 4 for the complete combustion of same way as the unit "dozen;" just think of a mole as carbon using potassium perchlorate, a "super dozen." In your kitchen you make recipes using individual eggs, but an army cook works in dozens of KCI04 + 2C --? KCl + 2C02 + Heat, (4) eggs. Similarly in your pyro-Iab, you need to think in is an exact description of one of the ways in which po­ terms of moles (super dozens) of atoms. tassium perchlorate and carbon react in a pyrotechnic Equation 1, 2Hz + O2 --? 2H2 0, (1) flame to produce heat. It tells you exactly how many gave the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen molecules that atoms of carbon combine with one molecule of potas­ combine to make water. It told you that two molecules sium perchlorate. If this were the only way for the re- of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to 46 PYROTECHNICA • IX make two molecules of water. However, it is also true that two dozen hydrogen molecules combine with one dozen oxygen molecules, or that two moles of hydrogen molecules combine with one mole of oxygen molecules. If you want to make water, and want to use precisely the right amount of hydrogen and oxygen, you still need to know how much a mole of hydrogen and a mole of oxygen weigh. Remember from the discussion of the Periodic Table, that one type of information contained on it are atomic weights (the number in the upper right corner of the box for each element). An atomic weight is the weight of one mole of that element in grams. Thus one mole of atomic hydrogen (H) very nearly weighs one gram. However, because hydrogen

is a diatomic gas (H2 ), the molecular weight of a mole will be twice its atomic weight, or 2 grams per mole of molecules. Similarly for oxygen, with an atomic weight

of 16, one mole of molecular oxygen (02 ) weighs 32 grams. From Equation 1 you know that 2 moles of Hz Figure 42. Typical pyrotechnic flame. combines with one mole of 02' Thus 4 grams of hydro- gen gas (2 moles x 2 grams/mole) combine with 32 are not. Remember that energy is required for excita­ grams of oxygen gas (1 mole x 32 grams/mole). tion of electrons from their ground states to excited Since the metric system is not in general use in the states, and that light is given off when those electrons U.S., many people don't formulate using grams as a fall back to lower energy states. If the temperature at unit of mass. Well, the above information is still useful some point is high enough to cause electron excitations, and it's not necessary to convert units of weight. The then the molecules at that point can give off light. At above information indicates that 4 parts by weight hy­ the same point, if the temperature falls lower, such drogen combine with 32 parts by weight oxygen to make that there is no longer sufficient energy for electronic water. The unit of weight can be anything convenient: excitation, no light is given off. Figure 43 is a graph grams, grains, ounces, pounds, kilos, tons, etc. of expected temperatures along the line in Figure 42 As a more relevant example demonstrating mole on which points A, Band C fall. Included in Figure 43 weights, consider a problem from pyrotechnics. Suppose is a line meant to correspond to the approximate flame you wished to substitute metallic copper powder for temperature necessary for the production of light from copper(II)oxide in a blue star formulation. It is rela­ the molecules present. At point A, the temperature is tively safe to assume that it is only the amount of cop­ well above that value, at point B the temperature is per that is important and that the presence of oxide slightly above that value, and at point C, slightly below. ions have only minor effect on flame color. The first The molecular species that are present at point Bare thing needed to be established is how much copper is also present at point C. As far as light generation is in copper(II) oxide, CuO. The molecular weight of CuO concerned, the only important difference is tempera­ is 79 grams/mole (63 grams/mole for copper + 16 ture and that difference is not great. grams/mole for oxygen). The fraction of copper in Thus an appropriate definition of a flame is that copper(II)oxide is 63/79 or about 4/5. Thus every five region surrounding a source of chemically generated grams of copper(II)oxide contributes four grams of heat energy where the temperature is sufficient for the copper. If the blue formulation called for ten parts emission of visible light. copper(II)oxide, you should begin by using eight parts of copper metal (10 parts x 4/5). 4.2 Pyrocbemical flames for color production A 4.2.1 Definition and function of flames g in color production - - - The most important characteristic one uses to de- C termine whether something is a flame is the emission ~- of light. Other characteristics such as flickering, giving off heat and apparent chemical nature are far less im­ TE/"1.PEMTURE portant. The emission of light is in fact the best criterion REc:;?tI/R.& FoA' to use. It is important to point out that in Figure 42 E.FrE~T7J/E ELECTRo/1/ (a drawing of a typical flame) the principal difference between point B (just inside the flame envelope) and SC/TAT70H point C (just outside the flame) is that the molecules at point B are emitting visible light and those at point C are not. For the most part, the same kinds of mole­ cules are present at both points, and the temperature £)/S7/4/v'CE rA'on at point C is only a little lower than at point B. 8t1A'/WAiG StlA'rAC£ Even though the temperature difference between B and C is small, it is sufficient to account for the mole­ Figure 43. Flame temperature as a function of distance cules at point B emitting light while those at point C from burning surface. 47 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE In the generation of color in pyrotechnics, the flame Table 4. Energy released by some common oxidizers. serves two functions. The first is to supply the heat Energy released energy necessary to vaporize the chemical color agent. Oxidizer kcallmole kcal/gram (Remember only vaporized atoms and molecules can KCIO, . 189 1.4 be sources of useful flame color. Solid particles and KCIO, . 146 1.2 liquid droplets emit undesirable continuous spectra.) Sr(NO,), . 146 0.7 The second function is to supply the heat energy neces­ Ba(N03)' . 131 0.5 sary to excite electrons in the color agent in preparation KNO, . 42 0.4 for their decay and consequent emission of light. Using chemical equations for a strontium red flame, the proc­ NOTE: In each case the fuel is charcoal and it is oxidized to CO,. The results were calculated using data published in Shid­ ess can be represented as: lovskii (1964, p. 24) and Douda (1964, p. 46).

SrC1 2 (s) + Heat --'? SrCI(g) + Cl·, (13)

SrCI(g) + Heat --'? SrCl(g) *, (14) 1981, p. 23) but are not the result of KC10 3 being the SrCl(g) * --'? SrCI(g) + photon (630 nm). better heat producer. This will be discussed below. (15) Even though a formulation has the ability to gener­ 4.2.2 The source of energy in a flame ate heat energy, it usually requires an input of energy The energy for colored light production is the result to begin the process. For example, before a star gives of combustion. The general formula for combustion is: off energy in the combustion process, it is necessary to add heat energy (i.e., to light it). Chemical reactions Oxidizer + Fuel --'? Combustion can usually be broken into these two parts with respect Products + Heat. ( 16) to energy production. It is possible to think of the first As a starting point in this discussion, it is worth step as when old chemical bonds are being broken. This considering how the heat energy of combustion is gen­ requires energy, called activation energy in Figure 44. erated and why different fuels and oxidizers generate In a very real sense, this is an energy barrier that must differing amounts. When atoms come together to form be surmounted before the reaction can begin. Similarly, molecules, chemical bonds form between the atoms. the second step can be thought of as when new chemical These chemical bonds hold the atoms together as a bonds are being formed. This liberates energy. In terms molecule, and are the result of electronic forces caused of the amounts of energy involved, the two steps are by either a transfer or a sharing of electrons between mostly unrelated. The activation energy can be large or atoms. It requires energy to break chemical bonds and small and has little effect on the amount of energy pro­ energy is given off when new chemical bonds form. duced by the reaction. In Figure 44 the difference be­ The stronger the bonds, the more energy is required to tween the activation energy (energy in) and the reaction break them and the more energy is given off upon their energy (energy out) is the net energy generated by the formation. The strength of the chemical bond depends reaction. The energies in Table 4 correspond to the net on the type and number of atoms forming the molecule. energy generated in Figure 44. During a chemical reaction, chemical bonds are Activation energy is a measure of how difficult it broken and new ones are formed. If heat is to be pro­ is to initiate a reaction. If the activation energy is large, duced during a chemical reaction, then, on the average, the reaction is difficult to get started, and is also diffi­ the chemical bonds formed must be stronger than those cult to keep going. If the activation energy is small, the broken. This is the case with combustion, oxidizers and fuels have chemical bonds that are weak when com­ reaction is easily started and kept going. If the activation pared with chemical bonds of the reaction products. energy is zero, the reaction will start spontaneously. When various fuels and oxidizers are used, different Formulations containing potassium chlorate have rather numbers of bonds will be broken and formed between low activation energy barriers to surmount. This has the different kinds of atoms. Thus it should be expected desirable effect of making these formulations easy to that varying amounts of energy will be produced in these light and they tend to stay lit when moving at high different combustion reactions. The energy released by velocities. However, this low energy barrier is also the some common oxidizers reacting with carbon (charcoal) reason KC10 3 formulations are rather friction and shock to produce carbon dioxide (C02 ) is listed in Table 4. sensitive. Similar formulations containing potassium per­ Here, the unit kcal (kilocalorie) is used as a measure chlorate have a higher activation energy barrier, but of the heat produced in the reaction. also produce more energy during the reaction. Figure 45 In Table 4, note that potassium perchlorate and not shows chemical energy level diagrams for typical formu­ potassium chlorate produces the greater amount of heat lations containing KC10" and KC10•. energy. This is typically true for KC104 and is not an isolated result caused by using carbon as the fuel. For 4.2.3 Flame temperature in color production the most part, it is the result of KC104 containing one For the most part, the flame temperatures produced additional oxygen atom per molecule in comparison are a function of the amount of energy released in a with KCI03 • The additional oxygen atom is available to chemical reaction. The more energy released during a form a strong bond with a carbon atom, thereby re­ fixed period of time, the higher the flame temperature. leasing more energy. The result is that KC10. is the Thus, in Table 5, which is a compilation of flame tem­ more potent generator of heat energy. This may seem to contradict your experience. You may have observed peratures taken from Shimizu (1976, p. 74), the order of flame temperatures produced by the different oxidiz­ that formulations using KC10 3 are often easier to ignite and more resistant to being extinguished when moving ers should and generally does follow the same order as at high velocities through the air than are formulations the amounts of energy produced when reacted with using KC104 • These observations are accurate (Shimizu, carbon (listed in Table 4). 48 PYROTECHNICA • IX ------f------ACT/I/AT/ON I EAlE.tfGY (Ed) I ------t----- ___ 1 _ I I I I j I I I /9;fST STE? I SECOIVL? STEP < >t< ) EIVE"f6'Y //11 E/vERGY OOT ,..fEACTIO/V PROG/?ES'.s

;VET EI1IE,fGY /,,,fOL?tlC£.t? fEn} = Er - Ea.

Figure 44. Generalized chemical energy level diagram.

The amount of energy produced in combustion, and perature is still high enough for visible light production therefore flame temperature, also depends on the fuel and outside, it is not. For the most part, at temperatures chosen. Table 6 is a listing of flame temperatures ob­ above that which is required for colored light produc­ served for some non-metal fuels reacting with KCl04 , tion, the higher the temperature, the greater the amount

NH4Cl04 and Ba(Cl03 )2' of light produced. In addition, the relationship between Flame temperature has important ramifications in temperature and light production is non-linear; a small change in temperature causes a large change in light the production of intensely colored flames. Recall that production. Thus one of the criteria for intensely col­ the characteristic most different between points just in­ ored flames is high flame temperature. Another criterion side and just outside a flame was that molecules at one is to have a high concentration of the color generating point emit light and those at the other point do not. molecules (atoms) in the flame. Unfortunately, as more The type and number of molecules at both points are color agent is added to a colored flame formulation, similar; the difference is that inside the flame the tem- more energy must be used to vaporize it. The consump-

P.1'OGA'ESS :> ,PROGRESS

;(C/0,J ;f"c/o~

Figure 45. Comparison of KClO. and KClO. formulations. 49 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE Table 5. Maximum flame temperatures Table 6. Flame temperatures, in degrees Celsius, of oxidizers with shellac of oxidizers with various fuels (data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 74). (data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 74).

Flame Fuel KCIO, NILCIO. Ba(CI03), Oxidizer % Fuel % temperature Pine c pitch . 2465 2238 2177 KCIO, 74 Shellac 16 2247 C Colophony . 2322 2092 2237 NH,CIO, 76 Shellac 14 220rC Shellac . 2245 2198 2032 KCIO, 77 Shellac 13 2177'C Woodmeal . 2057 2025 1688 KNOJ 72 Shellac 18 1697'C NOTE: All mixtures contained 10% Na,C,O" necessary to meas­ NOTE: All mixtures contained 10% Na,C,O,. ure flame temperature. tion of this energy lowers flame temperature, lowering Table 7 demonstrates the ability of magnesium to sig­ light output. Thus a compromise must be struck, as nificantly increase flame temperature. In terms of main­ shown in Figure 46, between too little color agent and taining color purity, magnesium is the best choice, fol­ too Iowa flame temperature. Obviously fuel/oxidizer lowed next by magnalium, and then by aluminum. This combinations that produce high flame temperatures have is because when aluminum is burned, aluminum oxide, the advantage of being able to accommodate greater a source of white light, is formed. This reduces the amounts of color agents and are thus capable of pro­ purity of the colored flame produced. ducing more vividly colored flames. Some fuel/oxidizer combinations produce flame tem­ Table 7. Metal fuel flame temperatures peratures so low as to be virtually useless for the pro­ (data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 76). duction of colored flames. For example, the only color Flame Percent Oxidizer temperature magnesium that can be produced using KNOs and non-metal fuels is yellow. KCIO, 298rC 45 KN03 2552'C 60 One way to partially overcome the loss of energy Sr(NO,), 2902 c C 45 taken to vaporize the color agent is to use a color Ba(NOJ)2 2717°C 45 agent that is itself an oxidizer. For example, using NOTE: All mixtures contained either 10% PVC or 10% shellac. KCI04 and red gum as the primary source of thermal energy, considerably more strontium can be added to Fuel and oxidizer combinations capable of produc­ the formulation, without seriously lowering flame tem­ ing high temperatures are important for producing in­ perature, in the form of Sr(NOs ) 2 than SrCOg • This tensely colored flames. However, the very highest flame is because Sr(NOS)2 can itself react with red gum to temperatures are not usually the best. The chemical produce additional heat energy. species responsible for generating intensely colored py­ Another way to increase the amount of color agent rotechnic flames are almost always molecules. At very in a formulation without lowering flame temperature to high temperatures, these desirable light producing mole­ a point too low for good color production, is to start cules decompose. This is a double-barreled problem; with a fuel/oxidizer combination that is capable of pro­ not only does decomposition result in a loss of desirable ducing very high flame temperatures. This can be accom­ light emitters, but the products of decomposition are plished using a metal fuel: aluminum, magnalium or almost always undesirable light sources. This can result magnesium. A comparison of Tables 5 and 6 with in a serious loss of color purity in the flame.

I I COLOR TOO /"A/A/T I I ,FLA~E TOt? £)/~

<: I )

roo L/TTLE RA~E TE/'1?E-f'AToRE COLoR AG'E/o/T 7(::)0 LOW' I I I I I I

&-- --L..-__J'- ~>

A/'10t/A/T or- COLoR AGE/VT Figure 46. Optimum amount of color agent. 50 PYROTECHNICA , IX

4.3 Color production in flames For example, the source of strontium is usually SrCOs or Sr(NOs ) 2' Thus it is usually necessary to form the 4.3.1 Desirable color generating chemical species color generating molecules in the flame itself. In general, Table 8 is a list of the metals commonly used to the mechanism is first to break apart the color agent. produce colored pyrotechnic flames. Also included are Then, by providing a source of the proper non-metal the chemical species actually responsible for the color. atoms or atom groups, allow the desired chemical spe­ Nate that in all cases except sodium, it is molecular cies to form. For strontium this can be represented as: compounds (not atoms) that are the color generating ~ species. For example, the red color generating species SrCOs Sr(g) +C02 + 0', (17) are SrOH and srCl. Strontium atoms not only don't Sr(g) + CI' ~SrCI(g), (18) produce red light, they interfere with the production of Sr(g) + OH' ~SrOH(g). (19) intensely colored red flames; strontium atoms emit a NOTE: CI' and OH' are not stable chemical species at room mixture of blue and violet light. temperature; however, they can be formed and are stable at flame temperatures. Table 8. List of metals commonly used Unfortunately, these reactions are not the only pos­ to generate colored pyrotechnic flames sibilities in a strontium flame. Figure 47 is an attempt (basic data from Douda, 1964). to summarize the most important flame reactions for Color Approximate generating (equivalent) strontium. To some extent all of the reactions in Fig­ Metal Color species wave length (nm) ure 47 take place. The problem is that strontium mono­ Strontium Red SrCI 630 chloride (SrCI) and strontium monohydroxide (SrOH) Red orange SrOH 610 are the only chemical species that generate good quality Barium Green BaCl 520 red light. The light generating properties of all the others Green BaOH weak emitter are more or less detrimental (see Table 10). Copper Violet blue CuCl 450 Green CuOH 540 Table 10. Partial listing of chemical species, Calcium Orange CaOH 600 present in strontium red flames, that have Red orange CaCl 610 undesirable light generating properties. Sodium Yellow Nao (atoms) 589 Chemical species Detrimental effect

NOTE: In general, any of the halogens (group VIlA) can be SrCI2 (l) or (s) strong continuous spectrum substituted for chlorine in the metal monochlorides. Sro blue-violet color Table 9. List of metals rarely used Sr+ violet color and continuous spectrum to produce colored pyrotechnic flames from ion recombinations (basic data from Douda, 1964). SrO(S) or2.nge color Color Approximate generating (equivalent) Because of the production of chemical species that Metal Color species wave length (nm) seriously reduce color quality, and in order to optimize Lithium Red Li" 650 o the production of useful species, it is necessary to con­ Rubidium Red Rb 630 trol the reactions taking place in flames. Cesium Blue Cso 460 Boron Green BO, 530 4.3.3 Control of flame chemistry o Thallium Green Tl 530 As discussed earlier, all chemical reactions are re­ versible; none go 100% to completion. Thus to some Table 9 is a listing of some other, rarely used, metals extent all those chemical species shown in Figure 47 that can be used to produce colored pyrotechnic flames. will be present in a strontium red flame. However, -it is The reason these metals are not used is their generally possible to preferentially form more of the desirable high cost and technical limitations. color emitting species if Le Chatelier's Principle is clev­ 4.3.2 Typical flame reactions and detrimental erly used, i.e., when the proper stresses are applied to color generating species the chemical system. It rarely occurs that color agents added to a formu­ In Figure 47, each step moving to the right requires lation are the color generating species listed in Table 8. the input of energy. It is as though heat energy was one SrO(9) 1~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 5r el2. (5) SrC1 2(1) SrCl(B) Sr· 5r +2. -t- 2e- -It SrOHcf?;) Figure 47. A representation of some of the possible reactions for strontium in a flame (taken from Douda, 1964). NOTE: In order to simplify the figure, some reactants and products are not explicitly shown. 51 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE of the chemical reactants. This is shown in Equations Table 11. Percent chlorine of common 20 to 23: chlorine donors. Percent SrCI2 (s) + Heat s::::; SrCI2 (1) (20) Name Formula chlorine SrCI2 (1) + Heat s::::; SrCI(g) + CI·, (21) Hexachlorobenzene . C,Cl, 74 SrCI(g) + Heat s::::; Sr(g) + CI·, (22) Benzene hexachloride . CoHeCl, 73 Sr(g) + Heats::::;Sr(g) +2 + 2e-. (23) Parlon (poly, 2-methyl 1,3 butidiene) . 68 Flame temperature is an approximate measure of Calomel (mercury(l) heat energy available in a flame, thus you can appreci­ chloride) . Hg2Cl2 15 ate the importance of flame temperature. It is SrCI(g) Chlorowax . variable 40-70 that we wish to have present in the flame, not SrCl (8) 2 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) .. C2H3Cl 57 or SrCI2 (1)' If flame temperature falls too low, this is equivalent to removing heat (one of the reactants). This is a stress on the reacting system. The stress is relieved breaks down into H· and OH' radicals. The process is by some of the SrCI(g) combining with CI·, condensing shown in Equations 24 and 25 for the simplest hydro­ carbon, methane (CH.). as liquid SrCl2 droplets. With the loss of SrCl(g), the red color generating molecule, the purity of the red flame CH. + 202 s::::; CO2 + 2R,o(g) + Heat, is reduced. On the other hand, if the temperature rises (24) too high, more of the SrCI(g) decomposes into Sr(g) ° and H 2 0 (g) + Heat s::::; H· +OH". (25) CI·, again reducing color purity. This high temperature It is worth noting that B. Douda (private communica­ problem is unfortunate because the brightness of a col­ tion) reports only having observed SrOH in relatively ored flame increases significantly with relatively minor low temperature flames, never when metal fuels were increases in temperature. Thus it would be desirable to used. He conjectures that SrOH is unstable at high tem­ have the flame temperature as high as possible. perature. One way to allow a higher flame temperature, with­ Chlorine donors and hydrocarbons aid in the pro­ out a loss of SrCI(g) by decomposition, is to balance the duction of useful red color emitters based on strontium. stress caused by adding heat, by adding more of one of As such it is appropriate to consider both of them the products, CI· for example. One benefit of using "color enhancers" for strontium reds. Much of the same

KCI03 or KCIO. as the oxidizer in this type of colored is true for barium greens, copper blues and calcium flame production is their ability to contribute some CI· oranges. This is true because in each case the useful to the flame. Substantially greater amounts of CI· (or color emitters are monochlorides and monohydroxides HCI which is equivalent) can be added using most any (see Table 8). chlorine-rich compound that does not interfere in some In cases such as sodium yellows or lithium reds, way with other aspects of flame chemistry. Among the chlorine donors and hydrocarbons do not act as color important properties of these chlorine donors are: a enhancers. In these cases, it is neutral metal atoms high percentage of chlorine, a low heat of decomposi­ (NaO and Lio) that are the desirable color generating tion, and the ability to decompose under conditions species. Sodium and lithium monochlorides and mono­ present in flames. Table 11 lists a number of chlorine hydroxides are undesirable light emitting species. Thus donors commonly used in fireworks and their percentage the addition of chlorine donors or unnecessary hydro­ of chlorine. Other properties to take into consideration carbons do not enhance the color, they weaken it by when selecting a chlorine donor are toxicity, cost, the consuming desirable species and generating undesirable ability to act as a fuel, and the ability to consume species. This is not much of a problem for sodium yel­ excess oxygen in a flame. low, because sodium is an unusually powerful color emitter and the weakening will not be noticeable. How­ It is worth mentioning that any halogen (i.e., group ever, for the weaker lithium reds, these so-called color VIlA element) can be used in place of chlorine. Stron­ enhancers must be avoided. tium fluoride, SrBr and SrI are all useful emitters of I still need to discuss what can be done to further red light. However, shifts of dominant wave lengths limit production of the undesirable species, Sr+ 2 and occur, compared to SrCI, as the result of differing SrO(g)' I intentionally said "further limit" because those atomic weights and bond strengths. things mentioned above that foster increased produc­ tion of SrCI and SrOH also help limit production of Sr+ 2 Another chemical species responsible for strontium and SrO. This is because all four are competitors for Sro red light production is SrOH(g). Strontium monohydrox­ in the flame. The more SrCI and SrOH made, the less ide is not as desirable a color emitter as SrCI(g) be­ Sro is available to form strontium ions or oxide. cause it emits orangish-red light. However, if conditions One way to limit strontium ionization, in the flame are such as to favor SrOH formation, this Sro + Heat S::::; Sr+ 2 + 2e-, (26) too would be good. The best way to achieve production of SrOR is to provide a generous supply of hydroxyl is to stress the reaction in the reverse direction. This radicals (OH·). This happens automatically whenever could be done by removing heat energy from the flame, but remember this has the undesirable effect of lowering hydrocarbons are present in a color formulation, which flame temperature, thereby reducing light output. A is most of the time. Organic resin fuels, most organic better way is to provide a source of free el~ctrons, one chlorine donors and dextrin are all hydrocarbons. When of the reaction products. Although this may sound diffi­ a hydrocarbon reacts with a source of oxygen, water cult, it is not. In fact you normally provide for this, vapor is one of the reaction products. At the tempera­ without realizing it. The introduction of any easily ion­ ture of a pyrotechnic flame, some of the water vapor izable metal into the flame will supply electrons to the 52 PYROTECHNICA • IX flame. If the metal ionizes more easily than strontium, 4.4.2 Blue flames the electrons thus generated will act to suppress stron­ The standard blue flame is produced using copper. tium ionization. One such metal is potassium, which In general, everything that has been said about stron­ may already be present in the flame, if for example tium red flames also applies to copper blue flames. KCl04 or KClOs is used as oxidizer in the color formu­ Only a couple of additional points are worth discussing. lation. Because of their ability to suppress other unde­ For strontium reds, both the monochloride and the sirable ionization in flames, metals such as potassium monohydroxide emit useful colored light. This is not are sometimes referred to as "ionization buffers." See the case for copper blues. The principal emission bands Table 12 for a listing of ionization energies for po­ for CuCI fall in the purplish-blue portion of the spec­ tassium and metals commonly used for colored light trum. However, those of CuOH fall mostly in the green generation. portion of the spectrum. Thus for effective blue flames, it is even more important to include a generous source Table 12. First ionization energies of chlorine. However, the presence of a small amount of metals usable for light generation of CuOH in the flame is useful because its green emis­ (from data presented in Sargent-Weich's sions add to the purplish-blue emissions of CuCI to Periodic table catalog #S18806). produce a high purity blue light. This color addition is First ionization shown on a chromaticity diagram in Figure 8. (For Metal energy (kcal/mole) information on scales, wave lengths and colors for the Copper . 178 chromaticity diagram, see Figure 31 from Part I of this Calcium . 141 paper.) Strontium . 131 Barium . 120 Sodium . 119 Potassium . 100

Probably the best way to limit formation of SrO in flames is to limit, as much as practical, the presence of oxygen radicals in the flame. Obviously the first thing to do to accomplish this is not to use an excess of oxidizer in the formulation. (Another good reason to do this is that slightly fuel rich flames tend to have larger flame envelopes.) However, even fuel rich flames will pick up additional oxygen from the air, leading to the formation of oxides in the flame tips. For strontium this is not that noticeable, because the formation of SrO produces orange flame tips. On the other hand, in barium greens, this produces yellow flame tips and in copper blues produces pink flame tips. The objection­ CIIROI1AT/C/7/ /)/ACRAI1 able production of oxides in flame tips can sometimes be reduced by the me of secondary, slow-reacting fuels Figure 48. The addition oj CuOH and CuCI emissions in that consume the excess oxygen. T. Fish (Fish, 1981) the proper proportion to produce high purity blue light. recently discussed this for formulations in which mag­ nesium was the primary (more active) fuel. In that Because of the loss of CuCI by decomposition at work Fish coined the descriptive term "flame deoxidiz­ relatively low temperatures, it is certainly true that ing agent" for hexamine (hexamethylenetetramine), his temperatures of blue flames cannot be allowed to range choice as the secondary fuel. as high as strontium reds. However, some of the notions about low flame temperatures have been improperly 4.4 Colored pyrochemical flames stated. For example, a reason often expressed for using 4.4.1 Red, green and orange flames stearin in blue formulations is that it lowers flame tem­ peratures. This does not make much sense; a more ef­ In the production of intensely colored flames, using fective way to lower flame temperature would be to add strontium for red and barium for green, exactly the same more copper color agent and/or chlorine donor. Perhaps chemical principles apply. In the discussion above, the beneficial effect of stearin results more from its where strontium was used as the example, barium can acting as a flame deoxidizing agent. be substituted in nearly every sentence and chemical equation where strontium appears. The same is almost 4.4.3 Yellow flames true for calcium used to produce orange flames, except Yellow is generally thought to be the easiest flame that CaOH is the preferred orange color emitting species color to produce. The addition of almost any source and not CaCl (see Table 8). of sodium will suffice. This is because essentially no A look at the Periodic Table of elements suggests attention has to be given to flame temperature, color why the interchangeability of Sr, Ba and Ca in the enhancers, or flame deoxidizing agents, etc. Flame tem­ above discussion should not be a surprise. Calcium, peratures too low to allow production of any of the strontium and barium are all group IIA elements, and other colors can still produce good yellow color. On the should be expected to follow the same general chem­ other hand, very high flame temperature is not really istry. a problem either. For other color flames, high flame 53 COLORED FLAMES - PART II K. L. KOSANKE temperatures can result in the loss of desirable color generating species by decomposition. For sodium yel­ lows, it is sodium atoms that are the color generating species; thus there are no molecules to decompose. Ionization will still occur at high flame temperatures, but sodium is so powerful a color source, that this is not much of a problem. Again because it is sodium atoms that emit yellow light, color enhancers are not necessary. Even the formation of oxides at flame tips does not weaken the strong yellow flame color. There are two factors, however, that make the pro­ duction of good yellow flames less than trivial. The first is the tendency for double decomposition reactions to occur between water soluble sodium color agents and the oxidizer, when water soluble binders are used. An example of such a double decomposition reaction is: ~ C/I/(O/lfATICITY LJ/AGIfA/'1 KN03 + NaHC03 NaN03 + KHC03 • (27) Figure 49. Why a good purple is still tough, but not impossible. The problem here is production of NaN03 which is hygroscopic, i.e., tends to pick up moisture from the air. This can result in drying problems, ignition prob­ SrCI respectively) would have resulted. When these col­ lems and possibly additional decomposition problems ors are added in the approximate ratio of 4: 1, a rela­ with other ingredients because of the retained moisture. tively high purity purple flame results (color point F). Thus the key to production of high purity purple flames The other area for concern with sodium yellow is to foster the production of CuCI and SrCl and limit flames is the use of magnesium or magnalium in the the production of CuOH and SrOH. This can be accom­ formulation. Again, if the sodium color agent is water plished by using fuels and chlorine donors that do not soluble and the composition is dampened with water, contain hydrogen atoms. Metal powders and carbon are there is a high probability that undesirable reactions possible fuels. Hexachlorobenzene (CuCl ) and mercury will occur, producing potentially dangerous amounts o (I)chloride (Hg2ClJ are possible chlorine donors. Or­ of heat in the mixture. The solution is the same for ganic binders (hydrocarbons), like dextrin and red gum, both problems; either eliminate the use of water soluble should be avoided. For a binder, it might be possible binders or me water insoluble sodium color agents. Two to use hexachlorobenzene, which is soluble in benzene. such insoluble substances are sodium aluminum fluor­ (Note that benzene vapor can be toxic.) B. Douda ide (cryolite) and sodium disilicate (ultramarine), the (private communication) has suggested that high flame latter of which requires rather high flame temperatures temperatures may also aid in the production of good to be effective. quality purple flame. This is because he believes CuCl 4.4.4 Purple flames and SrCl (the desired color sources) are more stable In Part I of this paper, the difficulty of producing than the hydroxides at high temperatures. intensely purple colored flames was discussed. The Acknowledgements reason is restated again in the chromaticity diagram in I wish to gratefully acknowledge the comments and Figure 49. Intensely purple colored flames are those suggestions of R. M. Winokur and other members of whose additive spectral colors produce color points in the PYROTECHNICA staff, and especially the technical the shaded region of the chromaticity diagram. The comments of B. E. Douda and his colleagues at the lower the color point falls in the shaded region, the U.S. Naval Weapons Support Center (Crane, IN). more intensely colored the flame appears. The only way to produce colors in this region is to combine References cited in Part II spectral colors from opposite ends of the spectrum (i.e., Douda, B. E. 1964. Theory of Colored Flame Produc­ purple itself is not a "spectral" color). It is commonly tion. RDTN No. 71. U.S. Naval Ammunition Depot, believed that high purity purple can result from com­ Crane, Indiana, AD-A9518l5. bining red and blue light. This is not really true, red and violet (purplish-blue) light are the necessary in­ Fish, T. 1981. "Green and Other Colored Flame Metal gredients. Remember from the discussion above that Fuel Compositions Using Parlon." Issue VII, PYRO­ the formation of a small amount of CuOH (green) is TECHNICA: Occasional Papers in Pyrotechnics, Aus­ useful, tempering the purplish-blue light of CuCl and tin, Texas. producing a high purity blue flame (color point A in Shidlovskii A. A. 1965. Fundamentals of Pyrotechnics. Figure 49). Similarly, the production of both SrOH Transl~ted from Osnovy Pirotekhniki (1964). Pic­ (red-orange) along with the preferred SrCI (red) still atinny Arsenal, AD-462474. produces an effective red flame (but with its color point shifted from color point B to C). When these colors Shimizu, T. 1976. Feuerwerk von physikalischem Stand­ (points A and C) are added in the approximate ratio punkt aus. Hower Verlag, Hamburg. of 4: 1, a relatively low purity purple flame results Shimizu, T. 1982. Fireworks from a Physical Stand­ (color point D). point. Part 1. Pyrotechnica Publications, Austin, Texas. If the formation of CuOH and SrOH had not occur­ red, color points E and B (corresponding to CuCI and END OF PART II 54 PYROTECHNICA • IX

ROADSIDE STANDS TO STATE FAIRS: FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS

Jim Wommack

I think every young boy back in the twenties and Carolina, Georgia and into Florida, there was ONE thirties down South, and particularly in my hometown NAME known to fair fireworks for many years ­ of Wilmington, North Carolina, lived and longed for A. T. ("Tony") Vitale of New Castle, Pennsylvania. Christmas for two big reasons: Fireworks and Santa, My own experience with his shows at fairs began in and in that order. Fireworks were the BIG THING for 1938 as previously mentioned. That 1938 display was me at Christmas. A whole dollar's worth of crackers and of very moderate size and content, the 3" shell finale candles from a roadside stand was a BIG DEAL. As a having a count of only 36. In all modesty, my photos child, I bought fireworks from a retail stand from a family and story of the "fireworks men" created a demand for of Taylors. He owned a dairy at the time but later went a much more ambitious and not at all disappointing "big time fireworks jobber" in South Carolina and South show the following year. Dakota. The period of my local purchasing must have Mr. Vitale was always a fine showman. He, along been from 1927 until 1932. with George A. Hamid, the mogul of outdoor enter­ It was about 1932 that we kids got wise and started tainment at fairs, piers, etc., worked hand in hand. sending in mail orders to Spencer Fireworks of Polk, The displays at fairs of any size were fired very rapidly, Ohio. In 1932, I had the honor of having my letter set pieces and shells being fired at the same time. At printed in Spencer's catalog, and I got a free "Young smaller fairs, the "presentation" was usually one set American Assortment" for that letter. After I became piece, then three shells, and so on. From 1939 to 1941 a staff photographer on the Winston-Salem, N.C. Jour­ the Winston-Salem Fair always had a "special" in the nal-Sentinel, C. H. Spencer and I developed a long last­ display. A short chronology of these follows: ing friendship until his death in 1952. I made some 1939: At this fair, as well as the State Fair (State testimonial photos of folks with his fireworks for his Fair always had the same display) there was the fea­ catalogs. He was a jobber, did not manufacture anything ture of "Men from Mars" - due to Orson Welles' - but was the largest mail-order jobber ever! famous radio panic program of 1938. After a very fine display of set pieces, wheels, falls, etc., with shells being C. H. Spencer entered the fireworks business in fired at the same time, a lance work of the skyline of Polk, Ohio as a boy, selling fireworks from a pull wagon New York was lighted. This lance work employed behind him. In 1936 he had a large barn and a couple thousands of lances, the skyline being a background of other "garage type" storehouses behind his home in for fast and furious action in front of it. From one side "uptown Polk" - Polk was, and probably still is, just of the infield came an aluminum girandola "spaceship" a crossroads. sliding down a rope from a very high standard, onto On New Year's Day 1936, the whole works blew, three huge lance works of "Men from Mars." Upon because a boy helper had started a fire in the large barn. impact, three 4" flitter star mines erupted and then the The explosions blew out numerous windowpanes in the men lit up, with candles firing as their weapons. village, blew the steeple off the church across the road, Only a few moments afterwards, 4" ground bombs and in fact the young fellow living next door had just (Vitale called them "petards") began going off behind come in from a New Year's Eve party (this was about the skyline with terrific noise. Then came the finale of 8 a.m.) and it blew a 3 x 4 plumb through the house 100, 3" shells, spiderwebs, 4" thunder shells ("fusil­ next door, pinning this partygoer into his bed! lade") and salutes. End of show to a THUNDEROUS APPLAUSE FROM THE GRANDSTAND. When he heard the first blast, Spencer's father went to the back kitchen door, and it blew the entire kitchen 1940: Here came the "specs" - for spectaculars ­ away, except for the small portion his dad was peeping really canvas paintings resembling in a minor way out from. At that time, Spencer moved into the country the "machines" of older European pyrotechny. These some few miles from the village. depicted some village and were in sections of about 20 feet and the whole thing some 200 feet long. Each I began my "display career" in 1938 when, while section, except the center, was raised by steel rings and working for the Winston-Salem, N.C. newspaper, I went kept up with heavy ropes, on the end of which was to the W-S fair to take photos and do a story on the a sash cord. On the cord was a 2" ground report, timed "fireworks men" - Mr. Floyd Simione and Joe Cialleia. with star mines and ground firecrackers of the old 3" From then on, I was "hooked" -I shot my first dis­ and 4" black powder type. The entire scene was illumi­ play of any size in December 1939 at Wilmington, N.C. nated by huge electric bulbs in reflectors spaced along the "spec." I was mostly involved with fireworks displays at state and county fairs during the next 20 years. From Read­ When the center section "erupted" - gerbs and ing, Pa., Trenton, N.J., through the Virginias, North candles atop it - the action began and it was simply 55 FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS JIM WOMMACK

Mr. C. H. Spencer of Spencer Fireworks Co. in Polk, Ohio. Floyd Simione, of Vitale Fireworks Co., New Castle, Penn., One of the first, if not THE first, in mail order commercial with some of the shells fired at the Winston-Salem, N.C. fireworks to fill the hearts oj thousands oj boys from ca. Fair in 1939 for the "Shell Scale" as explained in the arti­ 1930 until his death in 1952. This photo was made in 1940 cle. On extreme right is a 4" ten break shell. (despite the 1936 wall calendar) while I was on a week's visit with him.

Floyd Simione, another view of shells fired in the presentation. Some shells in this photo are not part of the scale.

56 PYROTECHNICA • IX

Skippy Hoover, Sam Orrico and Felix Audino load pipes with shells for Winston-Salem, N.C. Fair in 1940. Behind is a good view of the rear of a "spec" - canvas painting that was "blown down" as part of a truly great fireworks display "finale." These large shells in later years gave way to smaller shells being fired three or four at a time - a very bad "imitation."

A "spec" (canvas painting some 200 feet long), Winston­ Jim Wommack (left) and A. T. ("Tony") Vitale, "Mr. Fire­ Salem, N.C. Fair, 1941 - showing 4" star mines going off works" in county and state fair fireworks shows for many along with ground bombs to "blow down" the village. The years. This photo was made in Burlington, N.C., where scene depicted is the eruption of Mount PeIee, with the Mr. Vitale presented a Halloween show for many years. subsequent destruction of Fort de France, Martinique. Photo was taken about 1967, not long before Mr. Vitale passed away. 57 FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS JIM WOMMACK

Finale of Wommack's shells over the U.S.S. North Caro­ lina, Wilmington, N.C., about 1962.

Wilbur Lizza (right) of Keystone Fireworks Co. of Dunbar, Penn. and Jim Wommack (left) with shells, taken in 1959. Shells are a Japanese ball shell and one of Lizza's 5", three break shell-of-shells.

My July 4, 1974 show in Greensboro at a local country Typical shell show which I shot for a country club near club. The "streak" at left oj photo is a Keystone 4" para­ Greensboro, N.C. Stars placed on top of my shells created chute flare shell. The straight white line running across the a rising, "Japanese type" effect. (This photo courtesy of photo is a passing jetliner. (This photo courtesy oj John John Page.) Page.)

58 PYROTECHNICA • IX terrifying, as section by section fell to the ground as trade from the Vitale men, but later mostly through star mines, noise effects, etc., caused same. Truly a the kind and wonderful help of Mr. Wilbur Lizza of terrific show. This was the "finale" of the display, Keystone Fireworks, and Mr. Bob Beachler of United AFTER all the sets, fast-firing LARGE shells were Fireworks. fired. What a grand show, plus shell finale! We started using Japanese shells iil displays here 1941: Once again, a "spec" was done, but, and a about 1955 or 1956. I know I was the first to use them big BUT, a real feature was added during the sets. in the North Carolina area. I was using the larger shells A "shell scale" was fired, being of very unusual and from Japan (up to 8") in my shows in the fifties. In very amusing dimensions. At first a one break shell was 1957 Mr. Toshio Ogatsu came to this country to give fired, then a two break, then a three break - one at some shows including the Trade Fair show in New York a time - then this worked up to a ten break 4" shell. and he paid me a nice visit, bearing me all sorts of After the third or fourth break, you could hear the gifts from Japan. crowd in and out of the grandstand counting aloud the breaks: MOST IMPRESSIVE. Now, at age 65, the factors of my health, that no common carrier will deliver Class B fireworks here, the I must point out that these displays never lasted, price of fireworks now being so high that many of the with all the goods fired, more than twenty minutes. clients of my former display agency can no longer afford The idea was to get the grandstand crowd and others a decent show, and other handwriting on the wall, have gathered around the fences - the "freebies" - onto caused me to give up the business. But I still go out the midway to spend their money. I would also explain back, light a piece of raw match to get the smell ­ that the large fair displays were always fired within the there is NOTHING LIKE IT IN THIS WORLD. race track in front of the grandstand where horse, sulky and even car races were held during the day - and There is absolutely NO FORM of entertainment day and night were the auto "thrill shows." The "High that will bring crowds like a fast-fired fireworks show. Acts" - trapeze acts of all kinds - were the last items It is simply showmanship that calls for a fast show. on the grandstand show before the fireworks. "Lucky The crowd cares very little about the artistic effects, Teeter and his Hell Drivers" was a fine favorite until deep colors, etc. They want a rollicking, fiery, noisy his death in the 1940s. Imagine these fellows driving and FAST show, and it is THAT SIMPLE. To the 1937 Plymouths through walls of fire, jumping Grey­ people who are dedicated to loving fireworks, there is hound buses, etc. NO OTHER hobby or profession that I know of that 1942: With the war, this was an all shell show ­ will satisfy like this one. When that finale is over and but fired by one of Mr. Vitale's men and yours truly, that stadium crowd, or whatever crowd, stands up and shells fired at two places in the infield, but "pits" firing roars their approval, there is NOTHING to compare to at the same time very fast. A finale of 3" and 4" (about the feeling: "WELL, I SURE SHOWED THEM!" 200) ended it. At this fair we had the terrible experi­ ence of a child and friends finding a dud 3" salute ­ ED. NOTE: If you weren't lucky enough to see one of "Fugey Jim" Wommack's highly acclaimed East Coast displays at a one killed and several burned. This was the only such state fair, carnival, or country club some time between ]938 accident on the fairgrounds ever. and 1976, you'll probably remember seeing the "Cracker Lady," Jim's first wife Rose, made famous on page 220 of Weingart's That year ended the fair fireworks at Winston-Salem Pyrotechnics (1947 edition). Wommack also contributed mate­ until 1946 when I must say shows of lower magnitude rial and photos for Lancaster's book. Wommack has now retired began. With Tony Vitale's death years later, the fair from both the "newspaper game" and his display agency and shows certainly declined - not only due to his passing, lives quietly in Greensboro, N.C. with many loud and fiery but also to houses being built near the fairgrounds, the memories. effects of integration, etc. Since then, I have helped fire Wommack was chief photographer for the Greensboro Daily some very fine displays, and have produced hundreds News and Record and his photographs of pyrotechnic events span a fifty year period. PYROTECHNICA will proudly publish of shows of my own, making my own shells in later more of Wommack's photography from a bygone golden age oj years from 3" to 8" in diameter. I began to learn the American pyrotechny in upcoming issues.

59 Literature and Books In Review

i "",,",,======IS\f A SURVEY OF 11 cms. 12 full-page and 34 smaller illustrations, mostly JAPANESE FIREWORKS LITERATURE hand-colored. THROUGH THE YEAR 1982 This is a rare old Japanese book, reproduced from a There are very few fireworks books in Japan that have manuscript made with a camel hair brush, in block print. been made available to the general public. Fireworks tech­ It is fairly difficult to decipher. Divided into two parts, the nique has been handed down in each family, and each first part describes the manufacturing processes for 25 types family in the trade has various secret formula:. My recent of fireworks compositions for gardr.n variety fireworks; the research at the Tokyo Central Library shows that there are second part describes 11 types of shooting or moving com­ twenty books in the catalog, and they are widely dispersed positions. The size, details of construction, and the exact throughout Japan - some in libraries, some in university composition used are given for each pyrotechnic device collections, and others in personal collections. It seems to described. The formula: of the compositions, in weight per­ me that most of these books are written for the hobbyists. centages, are set forth in the table below. From my research and from my own small library, I have From these formula:, we know that potassium nitrate, listed the following fireworks books, which are considered sulfur, hemp charcoal, iron dust and camphor were the only relatively important to us. chemical components of Japanese fireworks in 1825. Cam­ (l) RrSHO. Hanabi hiden-shu. (The Compilation of Secret phor was used to produce a beautiful gold flame. For a long Fireworks Techniques), Osaka, 1825. 39 leaves, 15 x time, Risho's book has played a leading role in the produc-

Various Firework Compositions Reported by Risho (1825) Potassium Hemp Iron Garden fireworks nitrate Sulfur charcoal dust Rat . 70.4% 9.9% 19.7% Hand peony . 85.5 5.1 6.8 2.6% Giant peony . 82.0 6.6 5.7 5.7 Sky wheel ,. 69.5 9.7 20.8 Wisteria blossom in Noda . 100 Wind . 100 Dragonfly . 71.5 7.1 21.4 Butterfly fi re .. . 72.0 23.0 5.0 Willow composition . 63.7 8.9 25.5 1.9 Wood pink (type of flower) . 67.5 9.5 20.3 2.7 Large pear blossom . 65.0 9.1 22.7 3.2 Thunder ' . 70.4 9.9 19.7 Deep snow . 66.2 9.3 19.9 4.6 Miyakowasure (a type of aster) . 66.3 8.6 23.8 1.3 Lotus flower . 64.1 4.5 26.9 4.5 Gold orchid flower . 45.4 36.4 15.0 3.2 Peony . 61.8 14.8 18.5 4.9 Hedge bush in the M usashi plain . 48.2 33.6 13.9 4.3 White chrysanthemum in autumn . 58.1 11.6 22.7 7.6 Sangoku-ichi (the biggest effect in A combination of willow composition, three countries - Japan, China butterfly fire, and and India) . white chrysanthemum in autumn. Insects . 63.3 9.5 19.0 8.2 1000 glowing small worms . 63.3 8.9 24.0 3.8 Mouse from a hole . 78.2 10.9 7.8 3.1 Flower candle . 63.2 8.9 24.7 3.2 Magnificent beetle . 62.9 8.8 24.5 3.8

Potassium Hemp Iron Shooting or moving compositions nitrate Sulfur charcoal dust Camphor Ball of fire . 66.9% 23.4% 5.0% 4.7% Tiger tail . 67.1 9.4 23.5 Bees (buzzing) . 70.9 9.9 19.2 Line fire (rope railway) . 73.0 10.2 16.8 Round flowers . 67.1 9.4 23.5 Water ball ". 65.8 9.2 25.0 Collection of fireballs . Collection of tiger tails . Collection of bees . Shooting star (rocket) . 71.9 8.6 19.5 Gunpowder . 76.9 10.0 13.1 60 PYROTECHNICA • IX tion of fireworks in Japan. It is still practical today, with and many corpses were left on the street. The valuable information on the application of black powder Tokugawa government (Yoshimune, 8th Shogun­ type compositions. ate) then arranged a festival for the water god on (2) YUSHICHI NISHIZAWA (1883-1943). Nippon kajutsu­ the Ryogoku river as a ceremony for the dead and ko. (Examination of Japanese Pyrotechnics), Shuho­ a prayer gathering for the elimination of the epi­ kaku, Tokyo, 1927; 384 pp., 20cm. demic. Thus a ceremony for the dead was held on the river bank on May 28. May 28 of the next (3) - Nippon kajutsu yakuho no maki. (Pyrotechnic year (1733), there was a fireworks show by Ka­ Compositions in Japan), Togaku-sha, Tokyo, 1935; wabiraki for entertainment, signifying the opening 619 pp., 22cm. of the summer night season on the river, in asso­ (4) - Hanabi no kenkyu. (Investigative Study of Fire­ ciation with the memory of the previous year's works), Uchida Rokakuho, Tokyo, 1938; 710 pp., events. These fireworks shows became the annual 23cm. Ryogoku festival. The summer season occurs from 28 May until 28 August (using the old calendar) After Risho's book appeared in 1825, over a century and shelters for the sale of food or booths are elapsed without further publication of fireworks books, until permitted there then. Dr. Y. Nishizawa published the three books listed above. (7) KYOSUKE OGATSU (1919- ). Unfortunately, these books are now out of print and diffi­ Nippon hanabi-ko, (Investigation of Japanese Fireworks), Mainichi Shim­ cult to obtain. I do not have them in my library, but I have bun-sha (Address: 100 Tokyo-to, Chiyoda-ku, Hitot­ read them. They are similar in content: the various types subashi 1-1-1), Tokyo, 1979, Y 1300. 206 pp., 20cm. of pyrotechnic items, history, technique, customs, etc., are collected in a disorderly fashion. These books are of more This is a book for everyone. Unfortunately, it is already value to the hobbyist than to the practical manufacturer, out of print. The contents are as follows: the old produc­ although they are very long. Dr. Nishizawa was an assist­ tion of fire; fire and life in trust; the fire festival; the origin ant professor at Tokyo University who had no experience of powder and powder weapons; the origin of muskets; fire­ in the manufacture or the practical investigation of fire­ works makers and gunners in the Edo-period (1603-1868); works. the old manufacture of potassium nitrate; the beginning of fireworks; the old city of Edo (Tokyo), fireworks makers (5) TAKEo SHIMIZU (1912- ). Hanabi. Hitotsubashi­ Kagiya and Tamaya, fireworks on the Ryogoku river as an Shobo, Tokyo, 1957; 341 pp., 19cm. annual celebration in the Edo-period; modernization in the This book is the first systematic fireworks handbook in Meiji era (1868-1911) and the introduction of potassium Japan. Later an important part of it was translated and chlorate, which completely renovated the colors of fireworks formed a chapter in R. Lancaster's book, Fireworks: Prin­ lights; the development of fireworks in Europe and Amer­ ciples and Practice, published in 1972. The compositions ica; the reference to nomenclature for fireworks shells; the given are traditional formulre, but this is the first time that annual Ryogoku celebration after World War II and the the manufacturing process for Japanese shells has been end of the annual celebration in 1961; the construction of published, especially with the Japanese star manufacturing typical shells and the firing process; frame fireworks (lance­ process. The author is technical director of the firm Koa work); fireworks materials; fireworks for film or theater; Fireworks. He has five years experience in the manufacture firing in foreign countries; directions for the use of toy fire­ of propellants and explosives and 28 years as a manufac­ works; the resurrection of the annual Ryogoku celebration turer and investigator of fireworks in Tokyo and Saitama­ on 29 July 1978 on a smaller scale with the name changed ken. He took a doctorate from Tokyo University with a to "Sumida Fireworks Festival;" the prospect for large fire­ report on the hypothesis of the planning of fireworks shells works and fire festivals in Japan in 1978. (chrysanthemum design). This book is widely read by many amateurs. The author, (6) - Hanabi no hanashi. (The Story of Fireworks), K. Ogatsu, is the director of the firm, Marutamaya Ogatsu Kawade-Shobo Shin-Sha (Address: 151 Tokyo-to, Fireworks. He has 47 years of experience as a manufac­ Shibuya-ku, Sendagaya 2-23-2), Tokyo, 1976, Y 980. turer of fireworks in Tokyo. 219 pp., 19cm. (8) MAsAo HosoYA (1911- ). Hanabi no kagaku. (The Science of Fireworks), Tokai University Press (Ad­ The second book by Shimizu to be published in Japan, dress: Tokai-Daigaku Shuppan-kai, 160 Tokyo-to, this is not a technical book, but rather a popular science Shinjuku-ku, Shinjuku 3-27-4), Tokyo, 1980, Y 1200. type of book. The contents are as follows: the fireworks 173 pp., 18cm. maker and climate; the history of fireworks and the fire­ works on the Ryogoku river; foreign fireworks; the types Hosoya's book is directed to the scholars and students and names of fireworks compositions; fireworks notation; of fireworks. It consists of five chapters: (1) The History the shooting of fireworks shells; fireworks and explosives; of Fireworks; (2) The Development of Fireworks; (3) fireworks and color; fireworks and smoke; fireworks and The Types of Fireworks Compositions; (4) The Science sound; fireworks music; swimming items in the sky; Wari­ of Fireworks; (5) Miscellaneous. Chapters 1-3 of this book mono, Poka, Kyokudo; frame fireworks (lancework); fire; are similar to Ogatsu's book reviewed above, but the writ­ senko-hanabi (Japanese sparklers); a laboratory for fire­ ing is more scientific. In Chapter 4, important items for the works; the prevention of fireworks accidents. manufacture and handling of fireworks items are carefully examined. On pages 113-114 there are eight photos which The origin of the Ryogoku fireworks festival is de- allow us to see the firing of a shell in a transparent plastic scribed as follows: mortar. Pages 130-134 describe a machine for stringing a It was on 28 May 1733 that the first fireworks shell which was invented by M. Hosoya. Pages 135-141 festival was held on the Ryogoku river. In the explain the manufacture and firing of a 90cm shell. The previous year there was a huge famine through­ author, M. Hosoya, is the owner of the firm Hosoya Fire­ out Japan, and about 900,000 people starved. Be­ works AG and has 60 years of experience in manufactur­ sides this, in Edo (Tokyo) cholera was spreading ing fireworks in Tokyo. 61 LITERATURE AND BOOKS IN REVIEW (9) TAKEo SHIMIZU. Fireworks: The Art, Science and books have appeared. Perhaps these books will increase Technique. Maruzen Co., Tokyo, 1981. 336 pp., 27cm. the interest of people in fireworks. But the manufacturers This is a new handbook for manufacturers. Although in Japan are more excited about the publication of a fire­ it was published in Japan, it is written in English. A review works handbook in Japanese. The commercial world in of this book has already appeared in PYROTECHNICA VIII, Japan always hinders this challenge. pp. 36-39 (June 1982), so a description here will be omitted. TAKEO SHIMIZU (10) KYOSUKE OGATSU. Hanabi 0 ageru. (The Firing of Kawagoe-shi, Japan Fireworks), Popura-sha (Address: 160 Tokyo-to, 23 March 1983 Shinjuku-ku, Suga-cho 5), Tokyo, 1981, Y 980. 221 (Translated from the German by Alex Schuman, 1 June 1983) pp., 20cm. Fireworks! Pyrotechnics on Display. By Norman D. This was published primarily as a children's book. The Anderson and Walter R. Brown. 79 pp., crown content is almost the same as the previous book by this quarto, ill. with photographs and prints. New York, author (7), but this one is very easy for children and 1983: Dodd, Mead & Company. $9.95. young people to read. It contains a photo of the effect of This book is catalogued by the Library of Congress as a 90cm chrysanthemum shell. "juvenile literature" and is an introduction to fireworks for (11) HARUTARO EOUCHI (1924- ). Hanabi monogatari. students in secondary schools. The authors both received (The Story of Fireworks), Chunichi Shimbun-sha their Ph.D.'s in science education at Ohio State University (Address: 460 Nagoya-shi, Nakaku Sannomaru and "have been writing books together ever since their grad­ 1-6-1), Nagoya, 1982, Y 1400. 229 pp., 18cm. uate student days." This is a beautiful book for everyone. It has ten very Although the book's treatment of fireworks is very beautiful illustrations from color photographs. The contents superficial, it may be of interest to the pyrotechnist because are as follows: the origins of fireworks in China (1127­ Chapter 6, "How Fireworks Are Made and Displays 1279); signal fires in Japan; rockets in the Sekigahara Staged," features a visit to the Grucci family's fireworks battle (1600); the origin of muskets (1543); fire arrows; plant at Bellport, Long Island, New York. There are five the production of potassium nitrate in Gokasan (the high­ photographs of members of the Grucci family occupied est production for one year was 4725 kg in 1736); the at various tasks (which previously appeared in a Grucci ancestor of Mikawa Fireworks (Aichi-ken, 1600); fire­ catalogue). The late fireworks artist and manufacturer works for shooting (1817); fireworks festivals in Suzaka Jimmy Grucci (1940-1983) can be seen in some of these (Nagano-ken, 1818); Kagiya the fireworks maker in Edo - an emotional experience so close to the events of No­ (1655); the beginning of the annual Ryogoku fireworks vember 1983. celebrations (1733); Tamaya the fireworks maker (1810); Also of value to the pyrotechnist is a chapter on the the exile of Tamaya from Edo because of his accidental photography of fireworks (Chapter 8, "Photographing and fire (1843); annual Ryogoku fireworks celebration (1733­ Enjoying Fireworks Displays") and an appendix (pp. 1961; 1978- ); the development of fireworks from the 75-76), "Laws Governing the Sale and Use of Fireworks." examination of style painting (Ukiyoes, 1740-1890); the This list was supplied by the American Pyrotechnics Asso­ beginnings of fireworks for shooting (1830); the painters, ciation in early 1982, yet even then reflects the trend in Toyokuni, Hiroshige, Kunichika, etc.; modern fireworks the liberalization of Class C fireworks laws was well under­ (1867- ); modern fireworks: the review of fireworks by way. For example, Alabama is listed as a "Class C" state, Emperor Meiji (1878), the introduction of European for­ and Indiana is listed as allowing "Class C fireworks ap­ mulre, Yaeshin chrysanthemum for Gisaku Aoki, the proved by state and local enforcing authorities." Both of introduction of titanium metal (1967); the history of Mi­ these states previously banned most all Class C fireworks. kawa Fireworks (Aichi-ken); fireworks on the water (gold­ Oregon, the most recent state to liberalize its law (effec­ fish) in Okazaki, the highpoint of Mikawa Fireworks from tive 1984) is still listed as allowing only sparklers and snakes. Taisho to Showa (1912- ), the manufacture of toy fire­ works in Aichi-ken (80% of all of these items which are Perhaps the most disturbing aspect of the book is that made in Japan); fireworks festivals in mid-Japan: Gion our armchair authors lack any grasp of the pyrotechnic festival in Toyohashi (1560- ), Susanoo festival in Toyo­ innovations made in even the past 100 years, e.g., hashi with a line fire (120m); the large handspring foun­ Fireworks have changed a great deal since their tain at the Suwa festival in Shizuoka-ken, Araimachi (25­ invention 1,000 or so years ago. They have be­ 26 July), frame fireworks (lancework) with sulfur and come more powerful and in many ways more aluminum without powder in Shiga-ken, Shinoda, the firing dangerous. of a 90cm shell at the festival in Nagaoka and Katakai, ... The chemicals in sparklers burn at a tem­ etc.; foreign fireworks; directions for contemplating fire­ perature of about 1650° F. Because of this, they works; directions for arranging fireworks festivals; haikus are dangerous to use without close supervision. (the Japanese 17 syllable poems) with fireworks themes; As you will read later, it was a sparkler that Appendix: fireworks festivals in mid-Japan; a chronological caused one of the worst fireworks disasters in table of fireworks. the United States. This book will no doubt be read by many amateurs. What we actually read later is that a schoolboy foolishly In particular, it has many articles on fireworks in mid­ lights a sparkler in the basement of Bjornstad's drugstore Japan, which are not mentioned in other books. The author, in Spencer, Iowa (June 1931), in a room full of fireworks H. Eguchi, is a department manager for the firm of Chu­ for sale, to see "whether the object was a punk or not." nichi Shimbun-sha in Aichi-ken. He has 25 years of experi­ After most of Spencer, Iowa is burned to the ground from ence in the arrangement of firework shows. this idiotic and illegal act of arson, theft and juvenile de­ From the list given above, it can be seen that for a linquency, we learn that the boy, "who was never blamed for long time we had almost no fireworks books published in his part in the fire, grew up and became a captain in the Japan, but in a short time from 1976-1982, the above six Air Force during World War II." The General Assembly 62 PYROTECHNICA • IX of Iowa acte.d on a bill to forbid the sale of fireworks in U.S. in 1930, because after three years at 35°F it would not the state, and "since that time, several other states have detonate. Lead azide took its place. used the Iowa law as a pattern for laws of their own." Various types of detonating cord are discussed in Chap­ Apart from Chapter 6, with its "stars," the Grucci ter 4. Det cord is the quickmatch of aerospace pyrotech­ family, and Chapter 8, on photography, I was unimpressed nics. An example is given where det cord cuts a hatch in with this book as a young reader's introduction to fire­ the space shuttle orbiter, 14 inches from the heads of the works. Nowhere in the book is there an attempt to outline astronauts. This is accompanied by a series of photographs. common-sense procedures for the safe use of family-type This presentation of a problem followed by its engineered fireworks. The authors evidently prefer to frighten with solution occurs frequently throughout the book, and makes dire recountings of fireworks catastrophes (most of which, it very readable. like the Spencer, Iowa event, were attributable to acts of Chapter 5 contains the most lucid explanation of the incredible folly, rather than to anything inherently unsafe Munroe effect (shaped charges) that this reviewer has seen. or malfunctioning about the pyrotechnic product). It would The variables in a shaped charge (liner density, standoff seem almost negligent in a book specifically directed to distance) are discussed at length. Perforation of oil wells juvenile readers to omit these basic safety instructions. and digging underwater trenches are two of the examples Moreover, there is very little of value to the youngster in­ of uses for shaped charges. Linear shaped charges and terested in the science of fireworks; surely some further flexible versions are described in detail. These materials information about the chemistry involved would have been resemble angle iron. The demolition of the Central Ferry well within the ability of a high school science student to Bridge across the Snake River in southeastern Washington understand. demonstrates the utility of these devices. This bridge was When my son is a few years older, I shall plan to pre­ of steel girder construction, 1450 feet long, and weighed sent him with a copy of Weingart instead of this book as almost 200 tons. A new bridge was erected within 50 feet his "introduction." of the old one, so engineers were justifiably worried when ROBERT G. CARDWELL original estimates of 1800 pounds of TNT for the demo­ lition were received. A new estimate, which was actually accepted, used 24 pounds of linear shaped charges! Excel­ Pyrotechnics in Industry. By Richard T. Barbour. viij, lent photographic sequences of this demolition and another 190 pp., medium octavo, cloth. New York, 1981: bridge demolition are presented. Jet-Axe for firemen and McGraw-Hill, Inc. $19.95. other aerospace uses for shaped charges are also given. Richard T. Barbour is a pyrotechnics design engineer Chapter 6 covers cartridge-actuated devices. Among with the Space Shuttle program. This is evident in paging these are included frangible nuts, frangible bolts, etc. Much through the book - aerospace applications appear fre­ of this is covered by Brauer, although the space shuttle quently. This is only fair, however, as Barbour explains in examples serve to keep your interest. Nail guns are gone the first chapter. The aerospace industry has spent huge over extensively, with graphs of holding power, etc. Piston sums of money on pyrotechnical research, and it is only type devices, switches, valves, as well as specialized electric logical that the commercial aspects of pyrotechnics be utility tools are described. mainly aerospace-related. This book is similar to Brauer's Chapter 7 is entitled "Specialized Pyrotechnic Devices book (Handbook of Pyrotechnics, by Karl O. Brauer, 1974, and Systems." Safe and Arm devices (with space shuttle Chemical Publishing Co., New York), and in many cases examples) are detailed. The pyrotechnic photoflash bulb may be considered as a second volume. Some material is (Magicube) is mentioned briefly. A crew escape system repeated, but many new examples from the space shuttle for a space shuttle sled test is detailed, accompanied by a are given. fascinating series of photographs. A rocket drives a sled The only mention of fireworks in this book occurs in along a track - at 525 miles per hour, the system initiates: the preface: "It is the author's wish that this book will help two, two panel hatches are cut in the fuselage and ejected. accelerate public awareness and understanding of pyrotech­ Next the pilot and seat are ejected via rocket. A drogue nics as a technology working for them every day rather chute is deployed to prevent tumbling. When the rocket than just entertaining them with midsummer fireworks spec­ has burned up and the time delay expired, the seat is cut taculars." Barbour praises pyrotechnics, stressing their effi­ loose. When the seat is clear, the pilot's chute is deployed. ciency, reliability, instantaneous operation, and long term This pyrotechnical sequence is repeated for the other crew storage capability. Pyrotechnics offer a high work potential member 0.5 second later. From initiation to landing is less in a small volume with minimal weight. The author shows than 15 seconds, a tribute to the system's precision. Fric­ the importance attached to pyrotechnics by comparing the tion initiated devices (matches, fusees, hot patches for number of pyrotechnic devices per mission in the Mercury inner tubes) are briefly discussed in this chapter. Air bags (46 ), Gemini (139) and Apollo (more than 310) mis­ for automobiles are discussed at length. The oxygen gener­ sion. Reliability is verified by the fact that "no failure of ators in airplanes (the little orange mask that drops out of any pyrotechnic device was detected during any of the the ceiling) are mentioned. Did you know that they are Apollo missions." based on the reaction of iron with sodium chlorate? Chapter 2 is concerned with pyrotechnic materials. A Chapter 8 deals with quality assurance and quality con­ short history of black powder is given, along with the in­ trol. Testing procedures and specifications are enumerated teresting fact that the Russians used black powder in the in detail. From this one can better appreciate the cost of retro-rockets of their planetary surface probes sent to Mars. the space program. Statistical procedures as well as physical Here the terms explosion and detonation are defined and tests are described. differentiated. A general classification of explosives is also This book is very readable and informative. Although given. it does not concern itself with fireworks, it is well worth Initiators, detonators and primers are the subject of having on your shelf, alongside of Brauer - especially Chapter 3. Blasting caps and like are discussed here. It is if one is interested in the space shuttle. mentioned that mercury fulminate was discontinued in the ALEX SCHUMAN 63 CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING Classified Advertising returns to PYROTECHNICA for one final issues, per column inch up to one page, assuming there is some run, by popular demand. However, this is (EMPHATICALLY) the demand. The publisher appreciates Editor Ken Kosanke's offer last time! We still hope to offer display advertising in future to spearhead the display advertising campaign.

Japanese Round Shell Casings - Write for prices and For Sale information. FOR SALE: State licensed (legal) fireworks factory in north­ DAN HYMAN east Ohio. Small shop suitable for 1 or 2 people. Includes Box 367 1 work building, 16' x 24'; 1 storage building; small maga­ MADERA, CA 93637 zine; 12' x 16' magazine under construction; 44 acres with TRIPLE G PAPER TUBE SUPPLY all mineral rights, including oil and gas rights; fronts on good road. One stainless steel trailer (40') available. Prop­ Offering an extensive line of spiral and convolute tubes, erty includes large lake. Reply to: plastics, end caps, discs, fuses, and supplies. Free catalog JERRY G. TAYLOR - send two (2) 20¢ stamps please. Quality materials 1830 Parkway Blvd. fast service! Box 525, Lawton, OK 73502. Alliance, OH 44601 AMERICAN FIREWORKS NEWS MEGA'S GREEN NOTES PUBLICATION IS ONLY Now combining the best of American Pyrotechnist and AVAILABLE to those on our customer mailing list - trial Fireworks News. Club News - PGIl News - Big Bruce issues available to new customers. Subscription rate only - Safety Fax - Collector's Corner - How To Do It $2/year, including latest lists. "An independent voice in ~ Art by Nitro - Trade and Hobby News. Issued 11 pyrotechnics." times annually. $12.00 per year domestic; $20.00 foreign. SOME OF OUR REGULAR PRICES INCLUDE: Subscriptions run July through June. P-50 Potassium Perchlorate, most minus Jack Drewes, American Fireworks News, 200-mesh $48.00/20 Ibs. Star Route, Box 30, Dingmans Ferry, PA 18328 M-85 MEGA BOND TERRIFIC ADHESIVE for many uses. Trial size $3.50/1 lb. A-75 REALGAR/ORPIMENT, minus-40 mesh Miscellaneous Announcements powder. While it lasts $6.7511 lb. XP-15 Yellow spiral wound tube, 1" bore, What will eventually happen to your collection of rare 2lh"L, 0.1" wall $14.751250ct. pyrobooks? Pyro-ephemera? Other historic pyro-memora­ Note: All orders must be on MTS order form, available bilia? That unique manuscript you wrote during the by wtiting us. Sales to 18 or older. heyday of your pyrotechnic career - but which you never MEGATECH SUPPLIES (MTS) got around to publishing? I think I have a solution which P.O. Box 453 can save these priceless treasures for posterity. If you are Myrtle Beach, S.C. 29578·0453 interested in my proposal for a PERMANENT pyrotech­ nic library, please write me. FIREWORKS supplies, DISCOUNT LOW! LOW! prices. RAY H. ANDERSON Rockets, reports, candle tubes, and plugs, aerial shells and 8 Lee Road casings, mortars, tooling for all, much more. BARRINGTON, RI 02806 SAMPLE KIT $3.98 or SASE for price list. NORMICO INDUSTRIES 8 MM Movie of 1983 Assumption Festa in Hal-Mqabba, 1025 Jefferson St., Suite 100 Malta has been received from Director1Producer Anthony SANTA CLARA, CA 95050 Micallef. Three reels long with sound track and running approx. 68 minutes and made with permission of the King E. D. CHEMCO George V Band Club of Mqabba. I have received per­ E. L. MOORE mission from Mr. Micallef and the Band Club to offer 64 Cottonwood Lane videotapes of this film at a reasonable price to interested WESTBURY, NY 11590 parties. The Band Club, Mr. Micallef and Pyrotechnica Are we your house of Pyrotechnic Supplies??? All the Publications wish to thank Ken Clark, Don Rowe, Art chemicals we stock have been selected for excellence in Rozzi, Tom Schroeder, Mike Swisher, Joe Barkley, Bill quality and manufactured by major companies. Withrow and "Anonymous" for aid in underwriting this We maintain our prices at a low figure for your savings. project and making it possible. Funds remaining after PLUS DISCOUNTS!! Most chemicals packaged in shelf I meet the costs on making copies of the film will go to storing, first class plastic containers. Mr. Micallef and the Band Club to finance next year's Literature and other supplies available. Our many years film. Serious parties may enquire at the address below: in the supply business speaks for itself. 45 years in Pyro­ PYROTECHNICA PUBLICATIONS technics. Try us, you will like us. 20¢ stamp brings our list. Dept. MFP 2302 Tower Drive KOSANKE SERVICES, INC. AUSTIN, TX 78703 3331 DS Road WHITEWATER, CO 81527 COMING IN PYROTECHNICA. X (303) 246-0692, Evenings Our 1983 Chemical and Paper Products Catalog is avail­ Dr. Takeo Shimizu's Studies on Microstars able to Pyrotechnics Guild International members, estab­ Dr. A. A. Shidlovskii on the history of Russian pyrotechny lished customers, and any BATF licensed user or manu­ facturer. Please send a SASE to the above address to receive Jerry G. Taylor on determining height of shell explosion your FREE catalog. ... and MORE. 64 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE FROM PYROTECHNICA PUBLICATIONS

It is with some sadness that we see the earlier issues of Pyrotechnica become collector's items because they are out-of-print. Because of continuing demand for back issues, the supply of some earlier numbers has been exhausted. Until we re­ vise and reprint these particular numbers, issues which are asterisked (*) are cur­ rently available only as photocopies. We have been forced to raise prices on some back issues to adjust for in­ creased costs of production, postage, etc. Because of the highly specialized subject matter and the correspondingly small press runs, Pyrotechnica cannot benefit from "economies of scale" like other magazines with larger circulations. Prices are postpaid in the U.S.A. and Canada. We must reluctantly request that overseas customers desiring airmail shipment add 30% to the total amount being remitted for back issues.

Pyrotechnica Back Issues

No. 1* (October 1977). Articles on cut star No. V* (October 1979). Strobe light pyrotech­ making, zinc stars, the use of lead diox­ nic compositions, book reviews, biogra­ ide in pyrotechny, flash powders, Reac­ phy of James Cutbush, making a rocket tions. 20 pp., $2.00 wheel, aluminum flash powders, Reac­ tions. 44 pp., $7.00 No. 11* (February 1978). Full text of Dr. R. M. No. VI (July 1980). Full text of Dr. T. Shimizu's Winokur's "The Pyrotechnic Phenomenon "Studies on Blue and Purple Flame Com­ of Glitter." vi + 46 pp. + 4 plL, $7.00 positions Made with Potassium Perchlor­ ate," R. Winokur's "Purple Fire," Reac­ No. 111* (May 1978). Articles on electric tions, Pyrographs. 32 pp., $7.00 spreader stars, mixing pyrotechnic in­ gredients in a ball mill, chemical ab­ No. VII (May 1981). Part I of Dr. K. Kosanke's stracts, book review, flash powder, Re­ "The Physics, Chemistry and Perception actions. 26 pp., $4.00 of Colored Flames," Troy Fish's "Green and Other Colored Flame Metal Fuel Com­ No. IV* (October 1978). Review of Dr. Shimi­ positions Using Parlon," Maltese pyrotech­ zu's Feuerwerk, use of lead nitrate in ny, book reviews, Reactions. 44 pp., $14.00 pyrotechny, ammonium perchlorate red No. VIII (June 1982). Dr. Shimizu's "Studies stars, titanium sparklers, designing the on Strobe Light Pyrotechnic Composi­ "ideal" firecracker, chemical abstracts, tions," how to read triangle diagrams, Reactions. 30 pp., $7.00 book reviews, Reactions. 44 pp., $15.00

Other Publications

Fireworks from a Physical Standpoint, Part I Fireworks from a Physical Standpoint, Part II by Dr. Takeo Shimizu. Translated from the by Dr. Takeo Shimizu. Translated from the German Feuerwerk von physikalischem German Feuerwerk von physikalischem Standpunkt aus (1976) by Alex Schuman. Standpunkt aus by Alex Schuman. 1983, 1981, 29cm, front. + vi + 67 pp., $15.00 29cm, 73 pp., $17.00 postpaid in U.S.A. postpaid in U.S.A. and Canada. Contains and Canada. Contains Chapters 7-10 of Chapters 1~6 of original German edition. original German edition.

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