Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education A report by the Global Campaign for Education & RESULTS Educational Fund abbreviations

ACRWC African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child IFI International Financial Institution ADB Asian Development Bank ILO International Labour Organisation ADI Adolescent Girls’ Initiative IMF International Monetary Fund ASPBAE Asia South Pacific Association for Basic INEE Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies and Adult Education IRC International Rescue Committee CAMPE Campaign for Popular Education LDG Local Donor Group CAS Country Assistance Strategy LEG Local Education Group CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All forms MDG Millennium Development Goal of Discrimination against Women MoE Ministry of Education CGA Country Gender Assessment MoEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child NER Net Enrollment Ratio CSO Civil Society Organisation NPEF Norwegian Post-Primary Education Fund for Africa DFID Department for International Development NIR Net Intake Ratio ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education NGO Non Governmental Organisation EDI Education Development Index ODA Overseas Development Assistance EFA Education for All PISA Programme for International Student Assessment EIT Equity and Inclusion Tool PPP Public-Private Partnership ESP Education Sector Plan P4R Programme for Results FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists QUEST Quality Education for Social Transformation FTI Fast Track Initiative SACMEQ Southern Africa Consortium for Monitoring GAP Gender Action Plan Educational Quality GCE Global Campaign for Education SAP Structural Adjustment Policy GDP Gross Domestic Product SMC School Management Committee GEEI Gender Equality in Education Index TEGINT Transforming Education for Girls in Tanzania GMR Global Monitoring Report UCEP Underprivileged Children’s Education Programme GNP Gross National Product UN United Nations GPI Gender Parity Index UNDP United Nations Development Programme GRB Gender Responsive Budgeting UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and ICCLE International Centre on Child Labour and Education Cultural Organisation ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social UNGEI United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative and Cultural Rights UNICEF United Nations Children Fund IDA International Development Association UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women IEG Independent Evaluation Group UPC Universal Primary Completion IFC International Finance Corporation VSO Voluntary Service Overseas

acknowledgments Research team: Sarah Beardmore, Lucia Fry, Amy Gray, George Harris, David Hollow, Sam Kelly, Stephanie Ostfeld, Will Smith We would like to thank all those who contributed their time and energy to the development of this report: Richard Adrien, Jakir Ahmed, Shafi Ahmed, Ruma Akter, Shima Akter, Tasmin Akter, Hafiz Mohammed Al Mamoon, Hosne Ara, Abebech Assefa, Tasneem Athar, Matarr Baldeh, Sandra Barton, Sharon Becker, Aoife Black, Kadiatou Baby, Sandra Barton, Bikash Chamdra Dey, Rasheda Choudhury, Prema Clarke, Maria Diarra Keita, Tapon Kumar Das, K. M. Elias, Rajasree Gain, Shyamal Kanti Ghosh, Maiťê Gauto, Salsabil Bilte Habib, Sheepa Hafiza, Abdul Waheed Hamidi, M. Nazmul Haq, Enamul Hoque, Tofazzal Hossain, Fadimata Walet Inorene, Ginason Jandwa, Jarved Roushan Jahan, Rokeya Kabir, Maouloud Ben Kattra, Sakeba Khatun, Steven Klees, Tanvir Muntasim, Karen Mundy, Parmita Nandy, Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, Kadrun Nesa, Theo Oltheten, Mahamadou Ongoiba, M. Habibur Rahman, Mahfuzur Rahman, Mostafizur Rahman, Imad Sabi, Shadya Sahanarca, Nari Progati Sangha, M. Sangaré, Purna Kumar Shrestha, Ilana Seff, Keita Assa Souko, Hamadoun Tolo, Korotoumou Konfe Traore, Haby Cy Toure, Jumiko Yamakawa, Elaine Zuckerman, everyone at Dafara Community School, Ouéléssébougou primary school and council, members of the Malian Association des Parents d’Eleves, UCEP Ismail School, Ambagicha Government Primary School, Shahid President Ziaur Rahman non-Government High School and Chunkutia Girls High School. We are grateful to our member, Global March on Child Labour, for contributing to the section on child labour and education. Advisors: Akanksha Marphatia, Angela Melchiorre, Elaine Unterhalter Partners: Global Campaign for Education, RESULTS Educational Fund This report is published with the support of Oxfam. It is written to contribute to public debate and to invite feedback on development and humanitarian policy issues. The views and recommendations in this paper do not necessarily reflect Oxfam's positions. make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 1 7 9 8 11 31 31 17 17 31 17 14 21 14 41 16 25 45 23 23 10 34 38 36 24 26 50 28 46 49 20 12–13 . tion a ...... nsform tion a a ...... tive ...... a nd economic tr a ...... l ...... niti I a ...... nce gender a nstitutions: ...... ck I a l dv ...... r a a T ...... mework a nci ...... st a ...... Fa in ...... F l ...... a ...... l will is key ...... a or All ...... tion is key to soci ...... F a tion ...... tion nd gender ch: the 4A fr a tion a tion a l community to a a tion a a ...... tion ba a duc ...... duc E duc E ntern ...... duc I E E duc E ...... lity in educ ...... a sed Appro he a T ility of ility of Girls dropping out of school in Malawi Girls dropping out of Uganda The impact of menstruation on girls’ attendance and attainment in Violence against girls in Ecuador Female teachers in Kenya Female Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic ility of b ility of ab ging the glo ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ab a

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ender equ onclusion: renewing the commitment to girls’ right to educ ccessi he role of the nforcing rights: politic ever equ list of figures Figure 1. The 4As Framework availability are countries at ensuring successful How Table: Figure 2. Availability girlsof education for and women? Figure 3. School enrollment in Malawi C economic orthodoxy L Ad E T a Accept A G Av introduction Figure 6. Out of school children, Mali Out Figure 6. Bangladesh education statistics, Key Figure 7. Beyond financing: global efforts supporting girls’ education financing: global efforts Beyond primaryFigure 4. Cost structure for and secondary education, Lesotho Mali enrollment rates, Figure 5. Net Room for improvement in development co-operation in development improvement for Room in secondary school, Bangladesh of girls Ratio to boys Figure 8. on girls’ macroeconomic policies and performance education of Focus Figure 9. In Focus In Focus In Focus and women (SAPs) Looking back: Structural adjustment policies Quality Educators Matter Educators Quality In Focus Mali: Case Study In Focus Bangladesh: Case Study

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Table of Contents Table “… in 47 out of 54 African countries, girls have a less than 50% chance of going to secondary school …” make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 3 It is scandalous to me that in 47 out 54 African It is scandalous to me 50% chance less than a girls have countries, to secondary school. And, it is tragicof going children champion for as a long-time to me, schooling and in conflict, that girls’ lives in violence sexual by continue to be ruined in schools. and even in the home, times of war, forward. to a clear way GCE’s report points current beyond to go It calls on governments enrollment, to increase efforts girls’ and boys’ across approach rights-based a integrating by every dimension of education. Pointing to policies and practices that make basic education more safer, appropriate and free of all costs and charges, it draws on examples of success to recommend specific laws and policies that must change. The critical role of international financing institutions is also examined, pointing out how to redress contradictions and shortcomings in their practices. The report goes on to analyze the partnership global only world’s the for potential Initiative Fast-Track EFA the — education for in equality gender for change of hub the be to — concrete the report calls for education. Finally, convening the EFA action and leadership by to put and UN Secretary-General agencies equality in education at the top of the gender year. coming the for agenda international It is years sixtynow over five since the right to education was first enshrined in The timeinternational forwarm words law. Women The time for actionis over. is now. and girls deserve and demand their rights, and I am committed toworking with GCE and fellow my advocates for gender equality in education to ensure that their rights are realized without delay or hesitation.

century. I was one of those urging a for I was century. st

In April of 2000, in the balmy haze of a Dakar in the balmy In April of 2000, from governments, spring, representatives and CSOs came international institutions progress being made to review together set a bold plan for in global education and of the the dawn a breakthrough at achieving 21 Foreword by Graça Machel Machel Graça by Foreword Trust Machel and the Graça FDC and Founder, President true global compact to achieve Education For For Education to achieve true global compact ambitious targets for and especially All (EFA) educational opportunity for on improving of with advocates Together, and girls. boys (GCE), we the Global Campaign Education for to a celebrated the securing of commitments Six and strategies. rights-based set of goals again, came together the world month later, and reaffirmed its commitments to these for education setting clear targets by goals of the Millennium through the framework Goals (MDG). Development the promise as this report shows, However, is still far from being days of those heady from the encouragement can take realized. We fact that the number of children out of school 67 has fallen from more than 100 million to girls and boys million. And, the gap between representing 53% of is closing, with girls now at children out of school as compared to 60% millions of girls Yet met in Dakar. the time we their right are still denied around the world education, as this to a full and empowering illustrates. report clearly equal the affirmed have treaties Numerous quality complete a to boys and girls of right community global the And education. basic perhaps as education girls’ recognized has development. for investment best single the failures highlights research GCE’s this, Despite implementationin policy, and financing in cracks the through fall to girls cause that world. the around systems education 4 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education Ex economic cost. a denial of girls’ rights and carries with it a serious social and stand at 56%, but only 46% for girls. This gaping inequality is primary school completion rates for boys in sub-Saharan Africa less than 50% chance of going to secondary school overall trends: A look at the aggregate picture also shows some worrying years. later in girls of experience the at looking when performance in drop dramatic a but school primary of 1 year into girls getting in improvement some showing results, have mixed Faso, Mali and Burkina Pakistan Zambia, as such countries chart, the of middle the across secondary. Scattered to transition and completion enrollment, primary girls’ of rates low their to due ‘Failing’ be to deemed are Republic African Central and Congo of Republic Democratic Nigeria, D’Ivoire, Côte as such countries scale, the of end other the Atbeyond. and school secondary to progress and primary complete to ability their improving in also but school, in girls enrolling in only not progress have they made because Performers’ ‘Strong of category the in appear Bangladesh Ecuador, as such and Tanzania level.Countries tertiary to up cycle educational the throughout education in presence girls’ of terms in performance their to according countries education of cycle full a making in countries income low 80 of efforts the examines first report the framework, rights-based a Using education. secondary attending, achieve learningoutcomes, andmake to progress numerous challenges andarefarlesslikely thanboys tokeep sunny picture, showing get thatoncegirls intoschoolthey face and girls. Thisreportreveals therealitybehindthisapparently lead tocomplacencyabouttheissue ofeducationfor women the Millennium.Yet thiswelcome development shouldnot of thechildrenoutschool,asopposedto60%atstart school isacausefor celebration.Girlsnow make upjust53% Recent ingetting progress girls toenrollinprimary more education girls’ in crisis hidden the ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ growth by 0.3%. education canincreaseannual percapitaeconomic A 1% increase in the number of women with secondary to survive pasttheage of5. Children borntoeducatedmothers aretwiceaslikely likely tocontractHIV. whoA girl completesbasiceducationisthreetimesless economically-secure families. to demandtheirrights, aswell ashaving healthier, more Educated women aremoreempowered andbetterable e available cutiv in 47 out of 54 African countries, girls have a to girls. Our Availability Table groups Availability Our Tablegroups girls. to e Summary ; average has madeagood startinopening upopportunitiestomake is notasfardown theroadtogender equalityineducation but particularneeds.both acceptableandadaptable togirls’ Mali innovative approachestoensuring thateducationbecomes school and thatitsgovernmentprimary isgoing ontopilot achieved gender parityinbothenrollment andcompletionof and accessibletogirls. Hardly asurprise then,thatithas made impressive gainsinensuring thateducation isavailable strong gender inequalitiesinsocietyatlarge. Bangladeshhas right toeducationall,inthefaceofscarceresourcesand further lightontheroleofpublicpolicyinextending the Two in-depthcasestudiesonMali,and Bangladesh,shed participation, accountabilityandempowerment. that shouldguideactionfor change: non-discrimination, through educationfor girls. They alsohighlight key principles the importanceofensuring rightsnotonly tobutalsoinand The rights-basedframework andthecasestudies underline these. overcome to used be can that practices and policies proposes and pregnancy teenage and labor, marriage bychild up child thrown obstacles the at boys. looks and It girls of needs diverse the to responsive and adaptable is it that so education structuring education of Adaptability and female literacy. for girls, thelinkbetween andrecognize abilitytolearn girls’ learning processesandspacesbemadeappropriatesafe given equalrights. They mustalsoensure thatteachingand to ensure thatwomen teachersarerecruited,supported and acceptable foraswell girls asboys. Statesmustconsiderways provide educationwhere theform, content andstructureare Acceptability ofeducationdiscussestheneedfor statesto physical barriers, sanitarily adequateandclosetohome. families, andthatschoolfacilitiesarechild-friendly, freefrom overcome includingthroughprovision ofincentives topoor that educationisfreefromallcost,financialobstaclesare location andeconomicorsocialstatus. States shouldensure environment inwhich allcanlearneffectively, regardlessof education accessiblefor every andboy, girl andproviding an Accessibility ofeducationlooks atwhat isentailedinmaking education, and having an enriching learning experience. barriers to staying in school, improving the quality of their and positive — in helping girls overcome the formidable are used to highlight experiences and practices — both negative governments. Three further dimensions of the right to education levels means digging deeper into the policies and practices of Understanding why education is not yet fully available at all Making rightsareality stresses the importance of of importance the stresses make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 5 must be consistent in considering gender gender considering in consistent be must World Bank World The The implies which instruments, lending and policy its of impacts thereof. monitoring and operations Bank all engendering strategies gender multiple research, gender strong Despite gender about rhetoric much and policies, operational and their translate to failing often is Bank World the equality, strategies and statements, policies into tangible reform made be must in theiroperations investments. Education abolition, fee promote to seek especially and gender-sensitive incentives demand-side and budgeting gender-responsive World new the for order In groups. marginalized target to educational the address to strategy All’ For ‘Learning Bank significantly include must it girls, marginalized of needs childhood early and literacy adult in investments increased while agenda, learning their of pillars key as development quality to transition and primary complete girls that ensuring of provision the through particularly education, post-primary be should learning of definition Its education. secondary free to lead that outcomes and processes inputs, include to expanded targets reductionist than rather norms gender of transformation Bank in prioritized currently mathematics and reading for frameworks. benchmarking The Education For All Fast-Track Initiative (EFA-FTI) has (EFA-FTI) Initiative Fast-Track For All Education The fostering for become the pre-eminent global mechanism in principles policy dialogue and promoting aid effectiveness to countries that basic education. It has also injected funding universal commitment to achieving demonstrated their have in education. EFA- primary equality completion and gender major replenishment effort a poised to undertake FTI is now that to ensure based on its commitment to upscale support girls in education throughout the school access and remain needs this commitment real, EFA-FTI to make However, cycle. tools and financial practices its frameworks, to overhaul gender and integrated attention to to require sustained in primary and secondary education by equity objectives and practices promoting policies By and donors. governments the potential to spearhead a breakthrough in girls’ that have each of its can galvanize partnership education, the EFA-FTI behind shared members to align their education investments and the demand for, to increase equality objectives gender donors On this basis, girls. quality education for of, supply and long-term commitments to FTI substantial should make operations are that their own ensuring replenishment, while gender-sensitive. comprehensively Righting the wrongs: towards a global a global towards Righting the wrongs: girls’partnership for education

Global governance: the role of the international the role of the international Global governance: financing institutions Globalization and related paradigms and institutions have resources and priorities impact on national policies, a huge and needs are often values Education at national level. need to adhere to policies governments’ by superseded the International Monetarypromoted by Fund (IMF) Bank. and World multilateral ’go-to’ the as prominence achieved has IMF The such, As funding. and advice policy macroeconomic for agency policies macroeconomic formulating in role critical a plays it advised policies The loans. IMF to resorting countries those for spending. public on constraints severe require often IMF the by girls' in sufficiently invest to ability countries' limits turn in This educating of costs opportunity the increases and education girls from poor families. It is imperative that the role and policies policies and role the that imperative is It families. poor from girls law rights human international with reconciled be IMF the of to right the child, the of rights the enshrining those including Ministries national that vital is It rights. women's and education policies macroeconomic adopt to IMF the with work Finance of countries the for of flexibility that afford greatest amount ignores that approach one-size-fits-all a spending, avoiding fiscal The frameworks. policy economic of impact gendered the countries low-income to afforded IMF the which flexibility should crisis financial recent the of months worst the during ongoing an in address to term medium the over continued be situations, financial of range a from resulting impacts manner inflows and fuel and commodities food in speculation including money’. ‘hot of education available to girls, with a remarkable 97% increase 97% increase with a remarkable to girls, available education to needs now It years. 10 last the over in girls’ enrollment frameworks legal strong notably its translate to how consider of favour in change deeper deliver to practice and policy into being education to obstacles the removing by equality gender adaptable. and available accessible, gender-responsive and particularly Good governance, macroeconomic situated within wider budgeting equality, are paramount gender that favour frameworks The experiences equality in education. gender in achieving chart are availability and bottom of the of countries at the top in public investment pointing to a need extend examined, to credit opportunities and extend education, protect wages and girls. women 6 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. andboys.through educationfor girls institutions remainsvital.Theglobalcommunitymustactively engage inefforts tosecureequalrights to, inand While themainlocusofchange inthequesttoachieve gender equalityineducationistheState, theroleofinternational 3. 2. 1. fully funded.Allgovernment plansshouldaddressthefollowing: gender-responsive budgeting righttoeducation are toensure thatpoliciesandplanstopromotefoster girls’ All governments shouldconductagender auditofnationaleducationstrategies. Thismustbecomplemented by Strong government plans, backed by resources, mustbethecenterpieceofefforts toachieve gender equalityineducation. recommendations as well retention, completion and learning for girls and boys. The post-MDG framework should include comprehensive targets that address governance and implementation issues, policies that will ensure that girls can stay in school and acquire the learning they need to empower them throughout life. Pursuit of the goal of gender parity in enrollments has obscured the need for balanced attention to, and investment in, monitoring andlegalredressforliving girls withthetraumaorthreatofsexual violence. The internationalcommunityshouldcreateanInternational Commissionon Rape andSexual Violencetoprovide andcountrieswhere aredisadvantagedregions girls relative toboys. elimination ofallcost-barrierstoeducation.Bilateralsupport needs to bepredictableandshouldtargeted towards gender school,includingtheprogressivebilateral support withagreed inalignment targets andsecondary inprimary All educationdonorsshouldmake robust3-year commitmentstotheFTI replenishment,while scalinguptheir of education. and thatthenew Learningfor All strategyprioritizesgender parityinaccessandlearningthroughoutalllevels The World Bankshouldensure withandoperationsinclientcountriesare thatallagreements gender sensitive, sensitive andaccountfor thedisproportionateburdenonwomen of publicsectorspendingconstraints. The IMFandMinistriesofFinanceshouldensure thatmacroeconomicmodelling,advice andpolicymakingare gender which shouldreportbackin2012. The high-level event shouldestablishaprocess for elicitingnew commitmentstoachieve gender equalityineducation that concreteactionistaken toup-scaleinterventions toachieve gender equalityineducationatalllevels. political awareness oftheenduringchallenge ingender equalityineducation, andsetoutaglobalstrategytoensure The United Nations Secretary-General shouldconvene ahigh-level event attheUNGASSinSeptember2011toraise exclusion orchildmarriage. ofpregnancy ongrounds Governments mustalsotableandenactlaws practicesinschooladministration,such as toprohibitdiscriminatory and budget oversight. women’s aspartoftheircommitmenttobroad-basedcivil groups societyparticipationineducationsectorplanning Governments shouldbeopenandtransparentin their budgeting andplanningprocessesespecially engage ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ budgeting toensure thatpoliciesandplansinclude: Governments shouldconductagender auditofnationaleducation strategies, complementedby gender-responsive ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ disaggregates databydisaggregates gender, age, grade, wealth, andlocation,amongothers. Tracking againstequity-based ofprogress targets forandlearninginaway enrollment,progression that Laws andpracticestoeliminateproperly addressallforms ofgender violencewithinschools. representation ofwomen intextbooks, andtrainingingender-equitable classroompractice. Measures toeliminategender biasandstereotypes inteachingandlearning,such asensuring positive Recruitment policiesthatensure balancedrepresentationofmenandwomen intheteachingprofession. Improvements intheschoolinfrastructure, such asbuildingseparatelatrinesandensuring secureschoolpremises. stipends, schoolfeedingandsubsidized programs or freetransportationtoschool. andtertiary.secondary Thisshouldincludeabolitionof fees andothercharges anddemand-side measures such as Progressive eliminationofthecostbarrierspreventing to schoolandprogressing fromcompleting primary girls

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 7 United Nations Secretary-General, Secretary-General, Nations United Ban Ki-moon (2 July 2010) 1 “Equality for women women for “Equality is not only and girls right, a basic human it is a social and imperative.” economic —  an emancipating role in empowering and equipping girls girls equipping and empowering in role emancipating an discrimination systemic boys, as chances life same the with the of many keep to conspires girls and women against learning school, entering from females marginalized most In education. post-primary pursuing and skills fundamental the of terms in defined is women of role the countries, many households keep to do they work unremunerated domestic, Economic family. the in role reproductive their and running, such spheres public in participation of lack men, on dependence physical market, labor the and structures governance local as the of definitions socio-cultural and violence sexual and deny systematically to intersect all women of role ‘appropriate’ which right one the including — rights equal girls and women self- and power their transforming of chance most the has discrimination of basis gendered The education. other determination: by compounded further even is girls and women against ethno- of member a being as such marginalization living of descent, aspects African of being minorities, religious or income linguistic lowest the in living or disabled, being in areas, rural living in those between divides intra-national Stark can regions quintile. marginalized more in those and areas For accessible gender. easily of disadvantage cross-cutting the by many and exacerbated be Madagascar Tanzania, Honduras, Bolivia, in as twice example, than more spend will boys urban rich countries, other girls. rural poor as education in long

Marginalization due to location, ethnicity, and disability are not exclusive to women and girls, but ‘the deeply engrained gender roles and relations in society engrained gender but ‘the deeply and girls, to women and disability are not exclusive Marginalization due to location, ethnicity, marginalization of the factors that cause and discrimination against girls are Indeed, many girls’tend to intensify these barriers for (ASPBAE 2010 p.xxi). in school, choosing to as Brazil, there are indeed more girls than boys such in some countries, each other (UNGEI 2010a). While interdependent and exacerbate in all arenas (UNGEI 2010). excluded for the marginalized and socially to facilitate better educational opportunities which means by on girlsfocus is a powerful — and measures or mitigates discrimination and disadvantage which reinforces to assess marginalization due to its cross-cutting nature Gender is an entry-point 2009). that girls can access quality education often benefit other marginalizedto ensure (Dunne, groups

It is 2011, and 1 in 4 women cannot read this sentence. This is a tragedy and a denial of rights on a massive scale. In 2005 the world missed the first target agreed within the framework for the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by that Althoughyear. civil society organizations and educationalists protested, the omission passed with little comment or attention from the global community as a whole. Since that date, continued progress has been made at least in the sphere of primary education, with disparity in enrollments gradually shrinking such that girls now represent 53% of out of school children, a marked improvement against the position at the start of the decade when 60% of out of school children were girls (UNESCO 2000). the Similarly, global Gender Parity Index (GPI) in national enrollment rates (NER) which reflects the ratio of girls to boys in primary education now stands a significantat 0.98, shift 0.93from ofthe twelve years ago (UNESCO 2000). in complacency to lead however, not, should development This experience and status the about community international the Despite countries. poorer in especially education, in girls of girls of millions classroom, the in girls more of presence the violence, discrimination, face to continue world the around play can education Whereas abuse. and exploitation neglect, 1

1 introduction 8 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 2 and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of all of Elimination the on Convention the and (ICESCR), Rights Cultural and Social Economic, on Covenant International the (CRC), Child the of Rights the on Convention the significantly most treaties, rights human regional and international several in outlined is education to right The implement the right to education (UNGEI 2010b, Moser 2007). focuses on the responsibility and capacity of governments to in education and more generally, the rights-based approach been used to measure progress towards gender equality, both 2009). Although many different indicators and approaches have assessing education indicators (The Right to Education Project For All (Singh 2011) because it provides a normative basis for as the primary foundation for efforts to achieve Education that human rights law should be more explicitly recognized international and national law. The premise of this report is education for girls is that it is a human right, enshrined in education. However, the strongest justification for prioritizing economic growth: all are compelling reasons to prioritize girls’ and improving social development and contributing to Upholding human rights and dignity, fostering social justice, A (The Rightto Education Project2010, 2009)andprovides therightto,It disaggregates duringandthrougheducation aspects ofeducationthansimply lookingatenrollmentrates. categories and indicatorsthroughwhich toengage withwider well asboys. The4Aframework provides setof anintegrated ensure that therighttoeducationisguaranteedforas girls stepsthat identifies thenecessary governments must take to educationcorrespondstothe4As.of girls’ Insodoing,it the barriersandbestpracticestoensuring thatprovision needs andcircumstancesofallchildren.Thereportexamines is Available, Accessible, Acceptable, andAdaptable tothe in 1999, setsoutStateobligationsinensuring thateducation the UNCommittee for Economic, SocialandCulturalRights education, known asthe4As. The4Aframework, adopted by the conceptualframework developed toelaboratetheright educationin80developingstate ofgirls’ countries, basedon This reportaddressesthisstartlingreality by examining the education — and beyond — remains far from being achieved. be violated for millions of girls and true gender equality in secondary education. boys to keep attending, keep learning, and make progress to they face numerous challenges and are far less likely than enrollment figures are improving, once girls get into school discriminated-against at every level of education. Although and reveals that across the globe girls are still excluded and self-congratulation within the international community and discrimination in education. It shakes up any premature education by no means implies an end to girls’ marginalization The purpose of this report is to show that improved access to

R ight s The right to education continues to -Ba se d d A pproach: th pproach: of gender inequality, they arereductionist inessence, focus while thegoals arevaluable in identifyingcertainaspects fulfil thetargets inenrollmentand gender parity. However, a positive roleinhighlightingtheneedfor globalactionto The MillenniumDevelopment Goalsineducationhave played right. human a than rather goal development a principally considered been long has education that is this for reason 2010 p.1). Project Education to Right (The level’ international the at education to right the for indicators ‘effortsdevelop to limited with right, a as education recognize to slow been has community international the rights, human other with comparison this,in Despite 2009). Project Education to Right (The education that of content the to also and education tertiary and primary, to regard secondary in States of objective the articulates 13 Article where education, to right the regarding provisions explicit most the contains specifically ICESCR The 2003). (UNESCO equality’ gender to and education to rights both concerning commitments enforceable legally of set comprehensive most ‘the constitute Women against (CEDAW). these Discrimination them Between responsibility oftheglobalcommunity to support this goal. ensure genderequalityineducation mustend,anditis the The ongoingviolationbygovernments oftheirobligation to the past. Above all, the message in this report should be clear. and a clear commitment to ensure that lessons are learned from action in the coming period, based on a right-based analysis the issue of girls’ education. This report sets out priorities for donors, partner countries and international institutions in In 2011, signs have emerged of a renewed interest among equality ineducation. effectively target andscaleupinterventions toimprove gender community ofeducationstakeholders canandmustdonext to All Fast Track Initiative, toidentifywhat theinternational turns totheglobaleducationpartnership, theEducation For which domesticeducationpolicyisformed. Finally, thereport frameworks which have heavily influencedtheenvironment in andeducationdevelopmentthe globaleconomicparadigms enforcement ofhumanrights, thisreportalsoexamines Recognizing thatgovernance isacriticalcomponentofthe gender inequalitiesinsocietyatlarge. education toall,inthefaceofscarceresourcesandstrong light ontheroleofpublicpolicyinextending therightto in-depth casestudiesonMaliandBangladeshshedfurther and achievement oflearningoutcomes(Wilson2003).Two in educationaccess, sustained engagement ineducation Ratio (NER)providing aholisticapproachtogender equality an alternative tothenarrow focus ontheNet Enrollment e 4 A fram e work work One important important One make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 9 overarching framework for pursuing genuine equality in equality in genuine pursuing for framework overarching the that ensuring decade, the coming girls over for education from their cannot be isolated of States political commitments (Wilson 2003). legal obligations of girls’ this education, analysis a rights-based undertake To UN former the by developed the 4A Framework report utilizes the late Katarina to Education, on the Right Special Rapporteur used in the 4A categories four different There are Tomasevski. educational provision. to assess framework useful is and gender to related solely not is framework 4A The this of context the In education. of aspects all assessing for most are that sub-indicators those 4As the of each within report, facilitating analysis, for selected been have gender to relevant This performance. their of judgement and analysis country cross Right the and ActionAid of work strong the upon builds analysis in selected indicators the of many utilizing Project, Education to good for environment school ideal an defining of process their 2011). (ActionAid education quality about the importance of knowledge There is no shortage and girls; countless academic women of education for documented good have publications and project evaluations inequality are still and gender patriarchy However, practice. uneven have Governments embedded in society. structurally of political will and institutional capacity to enact and levels these factors and thus and policies to overcome laws enforce in cases where even enshrine the right to education. Moreover lack the finances and budget frequently policies exist they the right to education. necessary to achieve frameworks financial and political legal, what identifies therefore report This to right the of realization the support will practices and policies girls. for especially education, y y y t y t i t i t i l i l i l i l i i b

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a people? of categories different of needs the to adapted education is extent what To Are there geographic or economic obstacles to accessing education? or economic Are there geographic a What is the content of education? a available? Is education generally a

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By first analyzing the extent to which education is available, available, is education which to extent the analyzing first By level the measuring countries income low 80 from data on based completion, attendance, sustained enrollment, primary girls’ of the secondary, to transition and primary throughout learning reflecting performance, by grouped countries shows report implementation (and frameworks policy and legal their how available is school that guarantee to thereof)succeeding are further, developed then is assessment baseline This girls. for consideringby issues relating to the other three rights: a revealing — adaptability and acceptability accessibility, struggling are countries certain why of picture holistic more others and girls for environments learning quality ensure to the that note to important is it However, well. performing of form any indicate not does categories these of numbering inherently each are they as framework, the within hierarchy fees Tuition whole. a as viewed be should and interconnected child whilst governance, and accessibility both by affected are In 4As. all across cutting issue an considered be could labor available, is education the ensuring to barriers the addition, encountered be can acceptable and accessible adaptable, school from and to road the on and school, at home, at 2005). Eskander and (Muhammed Figure 1. The 4As Framework 1. The Figure on equal access rather than equal fulfilment of the right to of the right equal fulfilment rather than access on equal disparities intra-national with fail to engage and education, created a have they et al. 2010). Although (Unterhalter discourse this goals, education of accountability for discourse progressa rhetoric that hails adopted in aggregate has now to the oppression, eye turning a blind rates while enrollment that are the disempowerment and poverty discrimination, out of the in and girls around the world, many reality of lived to hand, a rights-based framework classroom. On the other a suitable the progress of girls in education provides analyze 10 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education — UNICEF(2007) for women and children.” flourish, reaping a double dividend them, children thrive and countries the opportunities that life affords healthy, educated and free to take the world today. When women are the paramount challenges facing and empowering women are among “Eliminating gender discrimination s Ge 3 —  itself.” for set has it targets development and social health, ambitious the of many achieving of chance no has world the education, in girls for equality gender achieving Without … girls of education the than effective more development for tool no “Thereis Kofi Annan,the former UNSecretary-General (2005) ocial and and ocial nd e r r e quality in in quality e themselves from abuse and exploitation and to make informed choices, protect and defend providing the knowledge, skills and capabilities worse, in commercial sexual exploitation. By children away to work in domestic contexts or, it less likely that they will send their girl of women’s oppression, for example by making home and public sphere in the lived experience relations which consistently play out in the Education can transform the unequal power making arenas and in formal power structures. life, increasing their participation in decision- women’s participation in countries’ democratic and domestic violence. It furthermore fosters from rights violations, including exploitation and judicial mechanisms to protect women rights. It can also increase awareness of legal that promote the fulfilment of all their other gender equity, and advances other policies policy frameworks that are in tune with families, promotes development of legal and their right to health for themselves and their Education enables girls and women to demand make more informed decisions (Sen 1999). her to claim all other human rights and awareness and critical thinking, enabling capabilities, empowering her, promoting Education is central to developing a girl’s conomic tran conomic

e ducation i ducation s

formation at healthy intervals (Abu-Ghaida andKlasen use contraceptiontospaceher pregnancies her reproductive life andismorelikely to who hasgone toschoolhasmorecontrolover likely tocontractHIV(CAMFED2010).Agirl basic educationmakes herthreetimesless Coalition 2004).For inAfricacompleting agirl and Delamonica2000, TheBasic Education her partnertouseacondom(Vandemoortele less vulnerable, andismorelikely torequire make moreinformed, empowered choices, is to becomesexually active atalaterage, can Health: who Agirl goes to school islikely growth. economic and development community health, child and mother improved ensuring key to the is girls Educating 2010). 2010,ASPBAE Effect Girl The 1995, UNDP 2004, Sperling and (Herz environment economic and social wider the on also but rights, human her of realization the and chances life own her on only not effect transformative a has it schooling quality good in remaining and byaccessing learn to opportunity the gets girl a When gender equality. — education is an important catalyst to realize achieve economic and social self-determination s k e y to to y

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 11 In Eritrea 2 out of 3 girls will never 2 out of 3 girls will never In Eritrea 3 girls every in school. For enroll that start only 1 school in Chad, 5. In in class will still be attending Mauritania only 1 in 10 girls will primary school. complete

2

Education enables girls and and girls enables Education

Economic empowerment: Economic year extra One employment. safer and better access to women 10–20% by wages eventual girl’s a boosts school primary of this of impact the and 2002) Patrinos and (Psacharaopoulos and women because multiplied is potential earning increased 90% reinvesting earn, they money the of use good make girls (Fortson men for 30–40% just to compared families their into as macro-scale a on felt also is impact economic The 2003). national increased to leads education women’s increasing with women of number the in increase 1% a only growth: capita per annual country’s a increase can education secondary PLAN level, global a On 2008). (PLAN 0.3% by growth income earnings annual billion $92 estimate: striking a provides (2008) transitional and income middle and low 65 by forfeited are level same the to girls educate to failing of result a as countries billion $128.7 the of short far not is loss annual This boys. as Assistance Development Official as donors by provided annually girls educating in made be to gains the that suggesting (ODA), donors. by ODA in investment the with par on are Statistics. Data has been converted simply simply converted been has Data Statistics. grouped be to countries enable to value a into categories four The performance. to according those performers’, ‘strong are that countries are are that those performers’, ‘middle are that ‘failing.’ are that those and performers’, ‘weak Countries with less than 50% of data have have data of 50% than less with Countries (‘Shadows’) category special a in placed been countries such that noted be should it and of cause the advancing of chance little stand of picture basic a without education girls’ freely through education of distribution the data. available on pages 12–13.) Table (See Availability for The first indicator is adjusted NER girls, NER, transition from GPI for by followed GPI school primary gender, to secondary by students in tertiary, % female expectancy, life girls’ survival to grade 5, % change in girls primary NER over the last decade, and % change in girls transition from primary completion to secondary enrollment.

ility of Education b aspect of the Right to to Right the of aspect Quite simply, the more educated the mother, the the mother, the educated more the simply, Quite

availability

vaila For a detailed explanation of the rationale for the scoring mechanism please view Annex A. the scoring mechanism please view a detailed explanation of the rationale for For

The The human, that premise the on based is Education be should resources budgetary and material Education ensure to adequate and sufficient All.For It requires the existence of staffed primary pre-primary, — schools equipped and and post-primary — and is premised on the notion that there should be freedom of choice regarding schooling with standards that meet the minimum set by the state. income low 80 for Table Availability The indicators eight with here included is countries for education of availability the reflect which cycle. school the throughout boys and girls of illustration powerful a constitutes table The initial girls’ between disconnect shocking the enjoy to ability their and education to access groups table The education. of cycle full a of basis the on categories four into countries girls’ making in made progress relative their submitted data using available, education of Institute UNESCO to government the by ensuring that the resources are in place so that a good quality education is available theensuring resources a isthat aregood education inavailable soplace quality that for every girl and boy A 4 2004). She is also likely to have a smaller family: women with with women family: a smaller have to likely She is also 2004). four to two between have of schooling years or more seven not been to school have who than women children fewer 1994). 1993, Summers and Lewin 1993, Colclough Bank (World generation girls’Prioritizing also protects the next education in for example Genital Mutilation/Cutting, against Female and in the girls likely, and a half times less are three Tanzania Female to undergo times less likely, girls five are Côte D’Ivoire, gone to if their mothers have Genital Mutilation/Cutting school (UNICEF 2005a). survival: Child healthier she and her child are likely to be. Since 1970, half of the the of half 1970, Since be. to likely are child her and she healthier due was countries 175 in 5 age under mortality child in reduction age reproductive of women of education the in improvements to whose Children 2010). Murray, and Lozano Cowling, die to (Gakidou, likely less 40% are education basic completed have to mothers been not have mothers whose those to compared childhood past in survive to likely as twice also are They 2001). (Watkins school be to likely as half and 1996) Ahmad and (Bicego five of age the the twice have will They 2005). Children The (Save malnourished as twice are 2005),and (UNICEF immunized fully being of chance 2005). (UNICEF themselves school to go to likely 2 12 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education Figure 2.Availability Table: How successful are countries atensuringavailability ofeducation for girlsandwomen? table availability Zambia Ukraine Tunisia Swaziland West Bank and Gaza Philippines Tanzania Senegal The Gambia Thailand Sri Lanka Uzbekistan Uganda Paraguay Mongolia Madagascar Rwanda Mozambique Lesotho Morocco Moldova Kyrgyz Republic Jordan Honduras Mauritania Mali Malawi Georgia Ghana El Salvador Congo, Rep. Indonesia Guatemala Burundi Bolivia Bangladesh Armenia performers strong Country Ecuador Cameroon Cambodia performers weak Burkina Faso performers middle Adjusted NER for girls(%) 88.8 94.4 94.4 60.5 94.9 98.3 88.5 89.8 99.8 89.4 99.4 99.8 96.5 89.6 69.8 85.6 78.8 93.8 95.6 99.9 86.7 89.5 93.2 92.9 92.3 93.3 76.6 83.7 76.3 93.7 93.7 75.5 97.3 77.5 61.6 71.9 100 91.1 88 97 — NER (ratio) GPI for 0.88 0.89 0.94 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.83 0.93 0.97 0.97 0.97 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.05 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.07 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 from primary to Girls transition secondary (%) 88.8 66.4 30.8 98.2 86.2 68.2 88.9 98.9 98.9 85.8 98.3 99.6 99.6 45.5 83.2 78.6 50.7 54.7 22.6 89.7 55.3 76.9 32.3 92.7 97.4 67.4 97.7 91.8 91.6 94.1 98.1 99.1 78.1 100 97.1 57.1 62 55 74 — — GPI schoollife expectancy (ratio) 0.84 0.84 0.88 0.88 0.99 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.85 0.87 0.95 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.76 1.04 1.04 1.09 1.06 1.06 1.08 1.05 1.05 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.07 1.07 1.12 1.11 — — — 1 1 (% oftotal in tertiary in tertiary students) students Female 44.3 40.5 60.6 46.9 50.8 54.4 54.4 54.6 49.8 58.8 34.4 54.9 54.3 56.4 43.9 28.2 43.5 30.5 28.9 55.6 55.2 56.7 52.9 33.6 32.3 47.4 47.5 57.3 37.3 51.3 56.1 32.1 35.1 33.1 17.3 60 45 37 — — — Girls survival to G5(%of enrollers) 64.8 84.6 80.3 84.5 50.2 70.8 70.4 96.3 50.5 69.8 42.5 95.4 89.2 95.4 69.2 89.3 82.5 59.4 83.5 79.2 79.3 53.3 75.9 87.9 77.6 77.6 81.6 98.1 66.1 85.1 83.1 72.1 85 — — — — — — — — over last decade Change in girls primary NER (% change) 203.2 109.8 87.7t 49.4 36.4 93.8 36.9 23.8 93.9 –0.4 29.7 –2.8 –3.6 –3.3 10.6 16.9 52.1 –4.1 –22 27.1 19.1 0.6 0.3 0.5 2.2 9.2 3.5 5.7 7.8 27 –9 — — — — — — — — — — primary completion transition from Change ingirls enrollment (% to secondary change) –16.7 40.7 20.9 22.4 25.9 35.2 23.9 –0.3 –0.7 –2.8 –2.6 10.4 27.2 14.9 16.4 16.8 44.1 10.5 31.4 –6.1 11.6 31.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 2.4 4.7 5.2 9.5 1.9 –4 18 — — — — — 0 1

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 13

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 33 1.9 7.8 0.7 51.9 –7.6 10.8 15.5 –2.8 18.5 –4.3 10.5 27.8 –33.9 change) to secondary secondary to enrollment (% enrollment Change in girls Change transition from from transition primary completion primary completion — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1.3 3.7 7.9 7.2 8.9 16.1 147 14.1 11.2 31.5 10.2 18.2 32.6 90.6 58.9 169.9 (% change) (% primary NER NER primary Change in girls girls in Change over last decade decade last over — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 72 70 66 100 67.7 59.5 55.2 79.4 63.6 96.5 66.3 76.7 64.3 33.6 48.8 50.5 48.5 enrollers) to G5 (% of to Girls survival Girls survival — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 18 25 29 29 40 49 39.1 41.2 26.1 14.7 39.7 57.9 23.8 24.4 43.2 33.3 39.5 44.5 28.7 36.2 30.5 49.2 40.7 Female Female students students students) in tertiary (% of total (% of total — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.9 0.6 0.71 1.05 0.75 0.72 0.77 0.82 0.82 0.85 0.94 0.86 0.73 0.67 0.53 0.62 0.62 0.83 0.82 0.96 (ratio) expectancy expectancy GPI school life GPI school life — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 81 98 81.1 62.1 71.9 81.4 97.7 87.5 87.3 45.1 95.7 76.9 44.1 57.8 75.7 40.2 72.8 95.6 65.4 44.7 60.2 secondary (%) secondary Girls transition transition Girls from primary to to primary from — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.9 1.01 1.01 0.81 0.91 0.91 0.97 0.87 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.98 0.94 0.74 0.88 0.84 0.78 0.87 0.83 0.83 0.88 GPI for GPI for NER (ratio) 0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 81 52 88 82 66 89 51.3 81.8 67.8 93.4 93.8 95.6 80.7 34.4 84.2 60.2 59.6 86.5 56.8 for girls (%) for Adjusted NER Adjusted Turkmenistan Iraq Papua New Guinea New Papua Yemen, Rep. Yemen, Syrian Arab Arab Syrian Republic Congo, Congo, Dem. Rep Eritrea weak performers (cont.) Rep. Arab Egypt, Country Ethiopia Vietnam Zimbabwe Sudan Sierra Leone Sierra Somalia Liberia Myanmar Haiti Dem Rep. Korea, Kosovo Benin China Guinea-Bissau shadows Afghanistan Angola Togo Côte d'Ivoire Côte Nigeria Chad failing African Central Republic Guinea India Lao PDR Nepal Kenya Nicaragua Niger Pakistan Pakistan Tajikistan Timor-Leste Figure 2. Availability Table: How successful are countries at ensuring availability of education for girls and women? for of education at ensuring availability countries are successful How Table: 2. Availability Figure availability table (cont.) 14 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education performer’ Malawi Focus In as quickly. InTanzania only make 32%ofgirls thetransition an enrollmentrateof97.3% —they aredroppingoutalmost as Tanzania where inschooldoubledto thenumberofgirls that even when areenrollinginhighnumbers—such girls in thefirstcolumnoftable. However, acloserlookshows has beenlinked to rapidincreasesininitialenrollment,shown Much of the progress in achieving gender equality in education they leave (Unterhalter, North and Exley 2010). school and what they are able to do with their education once whether they stay attending, what they learn whilst they are in it fails to provide insight regarding which girls are enrolled, because the data is widely available and easily calculated, but 2010, Wilson 2003). It remains a useful comparative indicator genuine progress in this regard (Unterhalter, North and Exley equality, it constitutes a poor proxy on its own for assessing Although achieving gender parity is a prerequisite for gender paints a misleading picture Necessary but insufficient: parity in enrollments Figure 3:School enrollment inMalawi For enrolling inStandard 1andthenumberstillenrolled inStandard 8. the dropout crisis,withahuge decrease inthenumberofstudents only measure officialenrollments onthefirst day ofschoolobscure with anadjusted NERfor girlsat93.7%. However, thesefigures which moving towards universal access andinimproving gender equality positive progress for girls.Itisanationheralded asasuccess inboth 7% the national 50%, The education girls. their to to that in reality This illustrates thedisparity between theofficialstatisticsand Number Enrolled Standard malawi in school 2008—golgota january from figures enrollment school to Class 1 % survival compared Gender

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7 F of make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 15 Mr. Habibur Rahman, Director Habibur Rahman, Director Mr. the Children Save Sector, Education Ms. Roushan Jahan, former President President Jahan, former Ms. Roushan in Bangladesh Women for of Women —  "The reason that ECCE is so ECCE that reason "The important the most of is that and school to did not go parents are so they and educated get their children coach not able to compensates ECCE read. to how where family the lack in the for that cannot provide the parents the first early initial education in is so important, This years. few in the poor families especially for Bangladesh." —  and introduce need to "We and this will help popularise ECCE of all those the challenge address at primary: that dropout children the reduces significantly ECCE Indeed, primary. from rate dropout ECCE proper can introduce If we that this will be the then I believe rate the dropout reducing to key the nation." across romoting women’s women’s romoting P Literacy and all underpins for girls’enhances education the of reflections starkest the of One women against discrimination widespread illiteracy: adult of rates the is world the across read, cannot who adults million 796 the of thirds two of themnearly are women. catered Educationhistorically systemshave purpose the with developed often males, to male- other and servants civil training of the of legacy The vocations. dominated women and girls of exclusion widespread high the in seen today is education from a provide which illiteracy, female of rates acceptability of level the of view corresponding maps national on out marking — education of training literacy and learning adult where many in And women. for provided not are Ethiopia, In shocking. are figures the countries of 25% than less Niger and Mali Faso, Burkina Bangladesh, In read. to able are women adult less Mauritania and Yemen Morocco, Pakistan, read. to able are women adult of 50% than huge a have can literacy women’s However, level the relations, power household on impact school primary in participation children’s her of women’s school, in performance their and structures governance local in participation and committees management school as such income- mothers’ and associations, mothers’ potential. earning girls’ enhance to which by means a as literacy school primary in participation sustained intervention looking forward strong, a is parental of role vital the recognizes which process learning the within assistance girls’ in family the of engagement the and learning. for environment the improving literacy programs access to effective Yet remains a sincere and daunting challenge, Literacy has been women. for especially goal in the described as the forgotten by confirmed All Framework, For Education of adult literacy programs which reviews picture of sustained point to an overall 2011). Report neglect (Global Monitoring regional assessment One comprehensive detailed strategies concluded and few found that approaches to literacy instruction are unspecified and underfunded (Global 2011). The same social Report Monitoring from attending women barriers that keep school also hinder their ability to access literacy programs. relations gender transforming Fundamentally ensure to efforts major require only not will also but learning, and school in are girls that Both domestic laws and and laws domestic Both The availability of educational opportunities of educational availability The to the future school is critical age at an early Yet girls. children, but especially of all success 18% of children only countries in low-income with a pre-primary education are provided Care and Childhood (UNESCO 2011). Early the cornerstone (ECCE) provides Education future learning, and adopting a gender- for from this initial stage approach responsive a significant positive of education can have future schooling that impact in ensuring girls (UNESCO 2011). remains accessible for in ECCE programsGirls that participate are primarybetter prepared to start school, for enrolled and attend cope better and stay do not access ECCE than girls who longer of ECCE Bank 2006). The provision (World also helps to mitigate the disproportionate burden of childcare and healthcare on women care, the ECCE can supplement and girls. poor by nutrition and stimulation provided overburdened are often already mothers who and other activities with household tasks freeing up — while in the care economy their daughters might school which time for otherwise spend helping them to care for ECCE is also the and sick relatives. siblings initial gender- phase of education where of children are shaped, based assumptions with the opportunity to intervene providing social practices to counter the wider positive discrimination. phenomenon of gender dependent is ECCE of benefits the Realizing educators, which to extent the upon space, aids, facilitation guidelines, curriculum, integrate all management and support location, environment ECCE the into concerns gender of availability the such, As 2007a). (UNESCO an considered being from shift should ECCE core a as recognized being to extra optional essential an and process education the of stage and values gender-sensitive for entry-point comprehensive implementing By practice. traditional of part as programs pre-primary ensuring and strategies education national programs, ECCE in integration gender full nutritional, the mitigate can governments which discrimination social and educational which and years early the in face may girls while — chances life their impact hugely of mothers on burden the supplementing nutrition. and care to amended be should laws international in ECCE of status ambiguous the clarify ensure to frameworks rights educational equitable. and free compulsory, is it that Getting the right start: Early Early right start: the Getting Care and Education Childhood 16 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education girls living in resource-scarce environments. mean that secondary school is not available to the majority of other myriad factors create a complex matrix of problems which onset of adolescence and the role of women in the family, and inappropriate curricula, socio-cultural barriers related to the teachers, the increase in school costs at secondary level, education. The lack of secondary schools, absence of qualified smaller chance of transitioning to and completing secondary school and even pass their graduation exams, they stand a much levels of education. Although girls may make it through primary rate of dropout for girls between the primary and secondary As demonstrated in the Availability table, there is a disturbing education of post-primary haveA distanthorizon:girls scantchance employment trainingfor adultgraduates. inliteracy which generate programs ‘training thetrainers’literacy budgets, targeted towomen, andmaximizetheimpactof programs. Investments mustbeincreasedtoatleast3%of coming closetocommitting sufficient resourcestoliteracy countries developing few a only with — budgets education national of 3% of target recommended the below far fall it a national priority. National expenditures on adult education Despite this, adult literacy is not a global priority, and rarely is they have historically been denied educational opportunities. that women have access to basic education, especially where — UNICEF(2005) of 1.8millionchildren every year. education would save thelives sub-Saharan Africa withsecondary Providing every motherin programs and full availability of primary and post-primary formal schooling and adult literacy programs. Governments should pursue integrated education policies that include early childhood care and education and adult literacy availability education regarding of recommendations ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ all, underpinnedby sufficient resourcesand goodpoliciestoensure accessibility, acceptabilityandadaptability. Governments must urgently expandavailability schoolingplacestoensure availability andsecondary ofprimary to active government responsibilityfor adultliteracyplanningandco-ordination. budgets, ensuring adequatepay, professional statusandtraining opportunitiesfor literacyeducatorsandtaking Governments by must scaleupadultliteracyprograms increasingbudgetaryallocationstoatleast 3%ofeducation increased andbetter-targeted funding for thesector, ofstafftrainingandsalaries. andupgrading Governments aleadagency mustdesignate for policyonyoung childrenandearly childhoodcareand education, dropouts anddisparitiesbetween andboys girls aswell andregions, asgroups especially ruralareas. Governments indicatorstoassessqualitative shoulduserights-baseddisaggregated aspectsandidentifyreasonsfor to ensure accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. teachers and secure infrastructure, to ensure availability to all, underpinned by sufficient resources and good policies Governments must urgently expand availability of primary and secondary schooling places, with properly qualified Figure 4.Cost structure for primaryandsecondary education,Lesotho Teacher cost perstudent:$86 Teaching hours: fullschoolday Pupil/Teacher ratio of50:1 Average teacher pay: $4322 perannum education primary through the framework of the remaining 3As. adopt can support or undermine the availability of education report goes on to show how the laws and policies that countries stay in school and fully benefit from quality education. This is also accessible, acceptable, and adaptable to girls so that they the extent to which policies and practices ensure that education in participating in different levels of schooling, it does not reveal While the Availability Table shows how girls fare relative to boys performance categories intheAvailability table. are female; little surprise thenthatthey languishinthelower Afghanistan andCongo, lessthan20%ofuniversity students and Malawi fewer go than1in200girls touniversity, while in level.at tertiary IntheCentralAfricanRepublic, Niger, Chad the only countries inAfricawhere women arenotaminority university studentsarewomen andLesothoTunisiaare In themajorityofcountriesinAfrica,lessthanonethird consequences ofyears ineducation. ofgirls ofmarginalization The data for university level enrollments shows the educational cost structure in Lesotho exemplifies this above. better qualified more highly paid teachers (NPEF 2007). The more subjects, greater investments in infrastructure and because of a combination of factors: a more diverse curriculum, at secondary is often 3 to 5 times greater than at primary access to secondary education is financial. The cost per student in many countries, a significant barrier to the expansion of nature and will require major structural reform to overcome While the key challenges at secondary level are systemic in Teacher cost perstudent:$335 Expected teaching load:30periodsperweek of45 Pupil/Teacher ratio of40:1 Average teacher pay: $8860perannum education secondary make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 17 2009 2008 (by gender) 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 Children out of school, primary, female Children out of school, primary, male 2002 0 OUT OF SCHOOL CHILDREN IN MALI 100,000 300,000 500,000 200,000 600,000 400,000 this consistent progress in increasing school availability and and availability school increasing in progress consistent this shows also graph the However, rates. enrollment improving persisted, has females and males between disparity the that girls and boys between inequality the reduce to efforts and gender The gap. gender the eliminate to failed far thus have by education: of levels higher at evident more even is gap with compared enrolled, are girls of 23% only school secondary in be still will girls of three% just university, by And boys. of 37% growth exponential This boys. of nine% to compared education only that means cycle school the throughout disparity gender in literacy the and female, are teachers school secondary of 10% The men. for 35% with compared 18% only is women for rate 39% just with noticeable, is workforce the in women of absence almost while force labor formal the in participating females of labor the in participate — 68% — men of number the twice from benefits economy informal the time, same the At force. poorest the from children of 80.6% with labor, child widespread Politically 2006). (DNSI work of sort some in involved quintile the in seats of 10% just with barriers, substantial face also women legislation pass to efforts and women by held parliament national in defeat suffered have women of protection the strengthening In VII). part in Famille la de Code the of example (see years recent Malian in women by faced exclusion of forms multiple the short, system. education its in reflected are society over efforts has made various the government Nevertheless, education the reform to half a and decade past the of course the the expand schooling opportunities and improve system, and government participation of girls in education. The Figure 6. Out of school children, Mali 6. Out of school children, Figure tudy 2010 S 2009 2008 2007 Case 2006

2005 School enrollment, primary, female (% net) School enrollment, primary, male (% net) NET ENROLLMENT RATES BY GENDER 2004

0

10 70 30 50 20 60 90 80 40

% of children enrolled in primary in enrolled children of %

Figure 5. Net enrollment rates, Mali rates, 5. Net enrollment Figure 31% of Mali’s 14.1 million people live below the poverty line line poverty the below live people million 14.1 Mali’s of 31% (DHS), Survey Household Demographic the to according and, (CIA 15 of age the under children are population its of 54% are population the of 80% 2009). Pereznieto 2011, sheet Fact living people of 64% with fishing, and agriculture in involved UNDP 2007, Mundy and (Cherry line poverty national the below system education Mali’s 2007–2011). GPRSP Mali de Republique with years, 15 past the over growth rapid experienced has and enrollment school primary average in increases dramatic of availability the increase to efforts Generalized completion. number the in increases 15–20% between to led have education has There 2004. since just school primary in enrolled children of the through system education the of expansion dramatic a been and built initiated, are which schools, community in increase contributions some (with level community the at maintained seventeen- than more increased which and state) the from While year. school 2007–08 the in 3120 to 1995 in 176 from fold (providing education of provider largest the still is state the have schools community pupils), of 60% some to education areas rural in particularly dramatically, supply school expanded ongoing the Nevertheless, 2009). Kovach and Fourmy, (Pearce, the within schools community the bring to remains challenge framework. state led indeed have enrollment increase to efforts broader These is Mali and school primary in girls of numbers increasing to the achieve to track on being of points percentage 10 within primary in parity gender on Goal Development Millennium demonstrates graph The 2011). GMR Bank (World enrollments From Policy to Practice to Policy From mali: 18 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education the draftlaw remains tobeadopted. has metwithresistanceamongst certainsectors ofsocietyand through thedraftCodedelaFamille (Family Code)however this to increasetheminimummarriage age forto18years girls major reasonsforleaving girls’ school.Therehave beenefforts the widespreadpracticeofearly marriage which isoneofthe iftheparentsconsent(18yearsgirls for boys). Thisreflects example isthelegalmarriage age which issetat15years for education.One remain impedimentstotherealizationofgirls’ implemented and,withinthewiderlegalframework, there However, theseprovisions arefarfrombeingeffectively sur l’Education, passedin1999, furtherdefinesthisright. right tofreeandpubliceducationtheLoid’Orientation which itratifiedin1990. The1992 Constitutionoutlinesthe totheUNConventionis asignatory onthe Rights oftheChild A seriesoflaws righttoeducation inMali.Mali enshrinegirls’ Legal frameworks new Technical Advisor for GirlsEducation. was mainstreamedwithdiverse activities overseen by the In PISEIandIIwhich ranfrom2001to2010, education girls educationinnationalpolicy.the centralityofgirls’ et del’Education (PRODEC),which have successively increased education strategy, theProgramme Decennel deDeveloppement orPISE)wereProgram, implementedunderthegovernment’s d’Investissement pourleSecteur deL’Education (Education Sector the of phases parity, three gender on Goal on Education For AllandthethirdMillenniumDevelopment alongside theadoptionofDakarFramework for Action Genre (nationalgender advisor) was established.After2000, mainstreaming efforts andapostofConseillerTechnique de Education was gender createdtocoordinatelocalandregional des Filles(Girls’Educationfor Unit)withintheMinistry Between 1990 and 2000, the Education sectorprogram education. girls’ andschool-basedapproachesineffortsprograms toimprove education system reforms, legalframeworks, girl-specific development partnershave alsoimplementedaseriesof Cellule Nationale de Scolarisation Programme Programme albeit in a fragmented manner, by civil society organizations. esteem, empowerment and resilience have also been scaled up, and gender sensitive practices. Programs to reinforce self- learning programs for girls, teacher training in active teaching with equal participation of boys and girls, second chance ration distributions, girls clubs and school sanitation clubs such as bags and books, school feeding programs and dry donors): cash transfers, scholarships and material rewards through the impetus of national and international NGOs and interventions at the school level were expanded (largely Alongside the efforts of the Ministry of Education, several School level interventions undertaken to change popular perceptions of girls’ education. sex-disaggregated and broad sensitization campaigns were removed from all textbooks, all indicators under PRODEC were negative stereotypes of women and girls were directed to be attendance and conduct parent outreach. At the same time, in place, such as Mother’s Associations who monitor girls school sub-committees on the promotion of girls’ education were put CGS were mandated a minimum quota for female members and devolved entirely to school management committees (CGS). The Pédagogique devolved to enrollments. Institutional responsibility for girls education was state became linked to levels of overall enrollment and girls financing to local level involves transferring authority for education provision and Under the ongoing process of decentralization in Mali which Education system reforms on university scholarship programs. scholarship university on point additional an of allotment the through girls for action affirmative providing 2000) August 11 (ME-MEF 00-2223 No. Order and diploma education basic a with 19 age at girls of enrollment secondary for funding state guaranteeing 1613/MEN-SG) 2003 25, July ( 03 No. Order pregnancy, after girls of school to return the allowed 1993) February 1 DNEF 00-34/ (No. letter Circular example, for education, to access girls’ facilitate to measures specific introducing passed were laws administrative of series a 1990s the Throughout (CAP), with responsibility for school management Académies d’Enseignement communes , resource provision by the (AE), Centres d’Animation make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 19

Yet of those recurrent of those Yet 3 : The lack of human resources, financial financial resources, human of lack The : : The lack of female teachers is compoundedby poor education expenditures, as of 2008, only 35.6% was spent was 35.6% only as of 2008, education expenditures, primaryon primary completion despite the low education, Bank County Status A recent World Bank 2010). rate (World that “intra-sector distribution of resources found Report and the of primary education” favor in is not sufficiently from poor families (19% of total costs financial contribution costs out-of-pocket to the lower per child) is unfair due in upper children with families privileged more from levied 2010). Bank secondary and tertiary education (10%) (World of resources to primaryBoth the under-allocation education costs to burden of out-of-pocket and the disproportionate right to education, poorer families must be redressed if the to reach all going is truly that of accessibility, particularly Mali limitations, children in Mali. In addition to the resource ongoing address to interventions up scale proactively also must categories: barriers to girls’ under the following education Decentralization responsibilities of division coherent a for support and resources that means authority education of levels sub-national among of provision the in constraints major faces itself system the amongst capacity of lack and appointments Political education. personnel management unqualified to lead have officials some of lack Furthermore,the levels. local and regional national, at different between arrangements contractual enforced and clear teacher resources, of transfer for including stakeholders, education fragmented a to lead has training, and management quality. poor of system Teachers completion of secondary girlsby and limited options for teacher training, promotion of female teachers and salary and housing options. Gender-sensitive teacher training is not systematically managed, with some teachers reported to have undergone the training three times and others having no training in gender issues. Many classrooms lack sufficient teachers with as many as 100 students per teacher and many teachers taking double-shift classes to reduce class size. In addition, the low salaries and status, lack of professional scarcity under-qualified community teachers, for development teachers many that mean morale poor and supports, teaching of are not incentivized complyto improve teachingwith quality, codes of conduct or reduce absenteeism. value of girls’ education is still not widely : The Socio-cultural girls to keep families still preferring appreciated, with many as soon as to enter girls into marriage domestic work, home for in the hit adolescence and to maintain the role of women they Wider sensitization campaigns will be unpaid care economy. girls’ for education needed to mobilize greater public support rights more generally. women’s and for Remaining challenges Remaining of the portion spends a large government Financing: The and Mali’s recurrent on education (33%) national budget 24% of the total represents expenditure now education of GDP), (or 3.06% recurrent expenditures government 2011). debt (EFA-FTI excluding (PASCOFI) sets sets (PASCOFI) Plan d’Action Pour la Scolarisation des Filles des Scolarisation la Pour d’Action Plan http://www.educationfasttrack.org/media/Misc./CF%20WB%20Progress%20report%20April%202011.pdf

3 Under the third phase of the PISE, from 2010 to 2012, the Under the third phase and concrete has outlined a more ambitious government gaps in education. First, gender strategy to reduce the gender mainstreamed throughout all programs (which is no longer objectives) gender-specific for accountability lead to weak of but has been constituted as one of six sub-components and plan, budget the basic education program (with its own The aims of the girls education strategy are to evaluation). gap from 18% to 15%, 2) increase the 1) reduce the gender teachers from 35% to 45%, 3) build capacity number of female monitoring and 4) ensure of girls’ stakeholders, education in decentralized supervision of girls education activities these objectives In order to achieve education structures. to achieve strategies and activities out several PISE III lays implementing demand-side incentives objectives: the above sensitization schemes, as stipends and reward girlsfor such the promotion of women campaigns to improve including building 1000 in school administration and in communities, poor reducing the costs of education for separate latrines, especially and teacher training reform curriculum families, capacity building programs for in equitable class practice, women’s committees including increasing school management needs of girlsparticipation and addressing the educational in roles. domestic work The PISE III out a clear framework of activities to implement the PISE PISE the implement to activities of framework clear a out pre- in targets including subcomponent, education girls’ III well as education, tertiary and secondary primary, primary, commission education girls’ hoc ad An performance. girls’ as in now is society civil and government together brings which implementation accelerated and effective the ensure to place Education Girls’ the in official ministry one Yet PASCOFI. the of available was $919,173 only that 2011 early in estimated division the all implement to required $112,153,805 estimated the of policy allow to resources of lack gross a signifying activities, committed has government the Although practice. become to total the of percentage a as budget education the increase to continues there 2012, in 35% to 2009 in 33% from budget national girls’ up scale to resources financial the in shortfall major a be to 2010). Mali du (République strategies education For example, the Forum for African Women Educationalists Educationalists Women African for Forum the example, For Mali. across schools partner 545 in programs these supports the change to helped also have programs literacy Women’s to women allowing villages, in men and women of relationships Multi-purpose work. and money manage businesses, small run women’s of creation the and girls and women for centers of ability the improved areas) rural in (especially cooperatives daughters. of help domestic the forgo to women school increase to continue to needed are efforts further Yet for opportunities schooling providing example for availability, the improving also while communities, nomadic in children especially school, of adaptability and accessibility acceptability, girls. for 20 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education —  etc.” uniforms lunches, books, for pay to have They withdrawn. be to first the are girls and scholarships the despite costs other meet to have still Parents secondary. at girls’ for rates completion to regard in is Gambia The in education for challenge big next the because us 7–12. helps It grades in girls for pay helping on focused specifically is it because us helped really has it government, the by initiated fund trust scholarship the been has Gambia The in education girls’ improving in factor significant most “The status effectively, social learn can or all which location economic of and regardless boy and in providing and girl environment an every for education accessible making acc 5 of EFANET inThe Gambia Matarr Baldeh,Co-ordinator ess i b ility of Education of ility when pressure to engage in sexual activity, to in the education system, especially for girls, Caillods 2001, Lewin 2007). It is a crucial stage education is also widely recognized (Lewin and The importance of free access to secondary be inplacetocopewithdemand (Brown 2011). school. At the sametime, infrastructuremust into 6 and14,canhelptoensure entry girls education for every childbetween theages of to Education Act in2009guaranteeingfree free, asdidIndiawhen itpassedtheRight and other hand,makingschoolcompulsory 46% to82%(Herz andSperling2004).Onthe girlsincreasedfrom among thepoorestfifthof 63% to83%and,moststrikingly, enrollment enrollmentstorisefrom — causedtotalgirls’ Uganda —amiddleperformer onavailability educationin the introductionoffreeprimary abounds ofthegendered impactofschoolfees: they willprovide (UNICEF2004).Evidence futureeconomicsecurity (and real)greater send theirsonsbecauseoftheperceived daughters toschool,poorfamilieswillusually driven choicebetween sendingsonsor context, when facedwithaneconomically education.Inafee payingand compulsory in educationmustbetheprovision offree national strategy to eliminate gender disparity to thecostsofschool.Thecornerstonea inaccessible tothelowest due incomegroups Even ifeducationisavailable, itwillremain way togo isthe fee-free andcompulsory Overcoming financialbarriers: interventions. demand-side other and stipends teachers, women school, from distance sanitation, fees, school girls: for education of accessibility the on impact greatest the having as selected were following the indicators, of range this Within school. accessing to barriers economic and physical both overcome to taken be should measures proactive that and grounds, any on discriminate not should systems education that premise the on based is Accessibility (Lewin and Caillods 2001). students receive initial foundational training are trained and it is where future university which most future primary school teachers onset of puberty. It is also the context in and social vulnerability associated with the and support to mitigate the increased physical girls and women, while providing resources education can challenge the gendered roles of school education. On the other hand, secondary primary school and low demand for secondary market may lead to high drop out at the end of marry and have children or to join the labor resources tomeet theessentialtasks ofthe overburdened, they turntotheir available participate inanendeavour. Aswomen feel givenare thebenefitsthat upinorderto associated withwomen. Opportunitycosts costs opportunity the counteracting to given been also should Attention market (ILO2002). children outofschoolandintothelabor education unaffordable andtherefore push abolished, othercostsmay continue tomake while schoolfees may have beenofficially (Herzto teachgirls andSperling2004).So female teachers tostay inruralcommunities salaries orfinding suitable securehousing for togetgirls toschool,supplementing teacher committees (SMCs),uniforms, escorts for such things ascharges for schoolmanagement (ActionAid 2011).Theseindirect fees include indirect coststhatoftenremaininplace charge therecan beawiderange ofassociated Even when educationistheoretically without burden onfamilies Demand matters:easingthe income quintile. the costs of school do not exclude the lowest families may experience and to ensure that to reduce the barriers to demand that girls’ school and post-primary education — both in the past decade be extended to secondary for primary education which was launched critical that the movement to eliminate fees I t is therefore make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 21 use them correctly to how know they but that designed facilities An example of a long-term, effective demand-side intervention intervention demand-side effective of a long-term, An example girlsfor is that of the girls’ stipend scheme in Bangladesh, country further in an a high-performing that is examined of The stipend scheme is an example in-depth case study. education is free for girls:while discrimination for positive girls that also it is only at the primary level, both girls and boys free secondary education (ASPBAE 2010). The clear receive drop-out the fact that overall impact can be seen by positive non-awardee and for girls is 1.3% stipend awardee rates for scheme has also helped (ASPBAE 2010). The girls is 50.3% girls pass rate for in the secondary instigate an improved since increased dramatically rates have Pass education exams. 65.5% were they when to 2009, 33.7%, were they 2001, when (BANBEIS 2011). The Bangladesh secondary stipend scheme in 1992, and demonstrates the first introduced girlsfor was girls, for interventions of widespread and long-term value adapting By decades. two considerable impact over having demand-side and replicating appropriate and well-targeted programs through cash transfer stipend and incentives the direct, indirect and opportunity costs of schemes, girlseducation for can be offset. 94% be improved, the situation could how asked were When the girls ‘teach needed, a dual approach was that there saying by responded It is clear no date). (QUEST the boys’ educate and facts us correct of girls in and sustained engagement the attendance that improving sanitation of adequate construction than the more school requires and education, communication of combination Indeed, ‘a facilities. not only do girls have in ensuring that is necessary construction’ ­ well- 2006 p.3). (IRC Raising awareness appropriately taught and are task menstruation is a complex around boys and educating girls and and (Challender joined up approach a multi-sector, that requires is FAWE of this, where example provides North again Uganda 2005). girls pads to sanitary free provide to the government campaigning for their sustained participation and learning, and facilitate at school to help bring to in order alongside this is holding sensitisation workshops open conversation. the subject into mproving sanitation: safe, private and clean private sanitation: safe, Improving girls for environments that sanitation in schools is a vital part of ensuring Effective The poor facilities in education remains accessible to girls. and privacy soap, including lack of water, schools, many of to reduce girls’ enjoyment all serve toilets, insufficient World of attainment (IRC 2006, school, attendance and levels Bank 2005, UNICEF 2004). Indeed, it is estimated that up to not attend school during African girls ‘do 1 in 10 school-age menstruation, or drop out at puberty because of the lack of sanitation facilities in schools’ (Kirk and clean and private a negative sanitary facilities also have Sommer 2006). Poor 2010). Where there are no teachers (VSO impact on women the impact of menstruation on girls’ attendance and attainment in uganda

⇒

unpaid care economy. In these cases, the opportunity cost of In these cases, unpaid care economy. outweighs the family schooling is high as the present need in a small-scale For example, the future benefit of schooling. Studies Integrated Development the Institute for by study can at primary studying level that a child found (IIDS) in Nepal ($122) ($64) and Rs.8792 Rs.4607 do household chores of worth (UNESCO 2006a). With at secondary a child studying level for cost and the opportunity school costing as much as $25 a year, can weigh family direct costs of education to a poor Nepalese real sacrifices that In light of the very on their means. heavily benefits in the short-term, the long-term families must make outside require immediate investments of education may to cultural norms and available Due of household means. girls tend to be the first ones removed economic opportunities, in or to engage from school to help with domestic duties activities. income-generating been have additional demand-side incentives In this context, well-designed, appropriately are if they to be effective proven Economic incentives targeted. structured and sufficiently and stipends that are conditional as cash transfers such meeting minimum attendance marriage, on girls delaying and remaining in education have criteria and performance 2009). These (Schurmann also demonstrated some success the cannot challenge are not a panacea as they interventions men and of inequality between and political context normative is guarantee that the education received nor can they women, hold significantfor making potential they but quality, of good Still, stipend programs girls. education more accessible for in been employed programs and conditional cash transfer have Tanzania, Malawi, Nepal, Yemen, as Brazil, as diverse settings as — with outcomes such Gambia and Kenya Madagascar, improved reduced drop-out, increased teacher attendance, reductions in risky marriage, delayed performance, exam children. and fewer behavior sexual well scoring Table, on the Availability performer’ is a ‘middle Uganda Lack secondary. to transition but poorly on girls’ on GPI at primary menstruation needs due to girls’ sanitary regarding of awareness at the on school accessibility effect has a significant negative African for the Forum by conducted Research level. secondary that when these found Uganda in (FAWE) Educationalists Women girls by option taken lacking, the most common were provisions home and stay return at school is to menstrual accidents who suffer girls are that affected means lasts. This the cycle the days for there the per month, in addition to days four about school for absent from fulfil. (FAWE to required are that they other household obligations ensure to required are that changes infrastructural 2004) The by must be accompanied within this context accessibility improved in with girls In research and boys. both girls for awareness raising and at school during menstruation problems reported 94% Uganda, that the lack of confirming school, from away staying reported 61% is a major cause of school dropout. provision appropriate In Focus 22 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education vulnerable toabusewhilst ontheirlongdaily walk andmany conditions, affects bothboysgirls. and Girlsareparticularly of walking many miles each day, regardless of extreme weather simply one of distance between home and school. The necessity issuethe mostsignificant preventinggirls fromattendingis countries where thedataisavailable). Inmany ruralregions of just1.9 years (average schoollife expectancyinthe29 and live inruralareashave anaverage schoollife expectancy Across 20%of who girls arepoor(bottom theregion, wealth) situation isparticularly severe for thoseliving inruralareas. for boys is9.0 years. Girlsareclearly disadvantaged, butthe for is7.6 girls years andtheaverage schoollife expectancy Across sub-Saharan Africatheaverage schoollife expectancy Close tohome:why schoollocationcounts Adenya 2009). progressively toincludethem(Harvey and upgraded are constructedinallnew schools, with olderschools facilities measures toensure toiletsandothersanitary Government infrastructureplansneedtoinclude are stillbeingconstructedwithoutsanitationfacilities. schoolshaveprimary permanenttoiletsandnew schools neglected issue. For example, inZambia, only onethirdof Despite theurgency ofthissituation,itoftenremainsa Sperling 2004). educational rightratherthananadditionalbenefit(Herz and asabasic facilities inschoolsiscriticalandmustberecognized school (Okwirry 2006).Itisclearthathaving private latrine rape andharassment,duetoalackofseparatelatrinesat Girls alsofaceanincreasedvulnerabilitytoviolence, including personal hygiene (IRC2006, World Bank2005,UNICEF2004). because thefacilitiesarenotinplacefor themtotake careof and even female teacherswillnotattendduringmenstruation private toiletfacilitiesavailable atschool,themajorityofgirls recommendations regarding accessibility of education education of accessibility regarding recommendations ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ community accompanimentor provision ofbicycles. Governments should ensure have thatgirls safe transporttoschools, via publictransportation,parentalor especially inremoteandruralareas. Governments shouldincreasethenumberofschools—includingboardingandsatellitewhere appropriate complemented by community awareness onhealthandsanitation. programs No schoolshouldbewithoutseparatetoiletfacilitiesfor girls. Efforts toupscaleschool infrastructureshouldbe and donotwork. and transitiontosecondary. Theseshouldspecifically stipulatethat payment ismadeonly ifchildren go toschool as stipendsandcashtransfers tocounteractindirectandopportunitycostsensure completeprimary thatgirls Governments mustprovide well-designed, targeted andappropriately structureddemand-sideincentives such legal accountfor theirviolations. for andboys. girls Violence andsexual mustnotbetoleratedandperpetratorsheldto abuseagainstgirls Governments mustimmediately level abolishfees atprimary andprogressively remove level fees atpost-primary schools (UNESCO 2005). risk prevents parents from sending adolescent girls to boarding pregnant and then dropping out of schools. In this context, the girls in boarding schools face an increased risk of becoming Conversely, research in Zimbabwe and Nigeria indicates that an easy day commute of every community (UNESCO 2005). very small schools that would be needed to site a school within where it would be too expensive to maintain the number of educating children, such as in the high mountain area of Nepal, communities, providing boarding schools can reduce the cost of (UNESCO2005).Similarly,protection togirls invery isolated and security provide schools boarding that demonstrates and has encountered mixed results for girls. In Malawi, research boarding schools (UNESCO 2005). This approach is contentious school is too great is the provision of state-funded, accessible equality and improving accessibility where the distance to A potential alternative route forward in promoting gender become a ‘Middle Performer’ in the Availability Table. stunning 109% in girls’ enrollment at primary level, helping it 2004). Policies like these have helped Burkina Faso achieve a schools that are further away once they are older (UNICEF to their villages and then make the transition into established schools allow the youngest children to receive education close schools’ for the first three grades of primary school. These has adopted this approach, establishing a network of ‘satellite education is accessible to girls in rural regions. Alongside this, providing additional schools helps ensure more accessible for girls (Muhammed and Eskander 2005). make enrollment and sustained participation in education (adult accompaniment, bicycles, bussing etc.) is a key way to Ensuring that there is safe transport to and from school their safety (UNICEF1999). parents prevent fromgoing girls toschoolbecauseoffears for Burkina Faso make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 23

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as well as boys The acceptability dimension of the Right that the on ensuring focuses to Education and teaching methods content of education of appropriate, culturally are relevant, and uphold the human rights quality, good Within the context of all those involved. of girls’ the acceptability of education, of violence levels education is impacted by literacy rates by and abuse against girls, rules to expel girls administrative gender, equity in the due to pregnancyand gender curriculum and school personnel. A where education theproviding form, content and forstructure girls are acceptable to initially assist International of teachers the training. profession, response increased the Many Quality Educators Matter 6 In Focus ⇒ female teachers in kenya

Kenya is a ‘weak performer’ in the Availability Table, as a result of missed (Chisikwa 2010). The low numbers of women in school its poor record on girls’ NER and tertiary representation, combined management can be attributed to a variety of factors. First is the fact with poor data submission. However, the Kenyan government has a that local politicians favour men when recruiting head teachers. Second specific policy that states the need to ‘pay special attention [in policy is the influence of tradition, where the status quo is maintained because planning] to factors that enhance gender parity, for example, gender the schools had never previously had a female head teacher. Third is balance at school management level’ (MoEST 2004). This exists in the widespread reluctance of husbands to allow their wives to take up conjunction with a Presidential Directive issued in 2006 which sets a positions of authority within schools (Chisikwa 2010). These trends are 30% quota for women in public sector managerial positions, including confirmed by additional research demonstrating that cultural beliefs head teachers, across the country. and domestic responsibilities are significant factors in hindering rural Despite the existence of appropriate policies, there is a lack of female teachers from engaging in the kind of professional development implementation strategy and this means that the targets are routinely activities and training courses that would enable them to make progress into management roles within schools (Omukaga et al. 2007).

The disparity continues through into tertiary education: in cognitive skills to live healthy, productive lives. The global Ethiopia, fewer than 1 in 10 tertiary level teachers are female learning crisis is magnified for girls in low-income countries, and in Bangladesh less than 1 in 5. The absence of women with many leaving school even after four or five years unable teachers from the tertiary level is perpetuated and exacerbated to read a simple sentence. Educational attainment for girls is by the systemic lack of opportunities for girls and women to compounded not only by barriers which keep girls out of the access required skills and training (UNESCO 2006). classroom, but also by gender inequities in the classroom. Although ensuring that there are sufficient female teachers is Efforts to make education increasingly acceptable to girls a strong strategy for improving the acceptability of education are enhanced by eliminating gender bias from textbooks for girls, it should not be pursued without due attention and learning materials (UNICEF 2004), ensuring that the to wider issues of gender equality within the teaching curriculum is relevant to girls (ActionAid 2011) and training profession. In other parts of the world, notably Latin America, teachers to enable them to eliminate gender bias in classroom North America and Europe, women teachers pre-dominate practice. Alongside issues of participation and access, ensuring especially in pre-primary and primary education. One reason that there is a girl-friendly curriculum and that textbooks for this phenomenon is that taking care of younger children portray positive images of women and girls are vital aspects is traditionally seen as an extension of motherhood and within promoting girl-friendly schools (UNGEI 2010b). One therefore a ‘natural’ job for women. As research shows, the simple measure to ensure that any new curriculum and more feminized an occupation is, the more likely it is that its teaching and learning materials are more gender equitable employees will be paid poorly (Drudy, 2008). Correspondingly, is to include equal numbers of pictures of women and men, in these contexts higher-status jobs in teaching such as head engaging in similar tasks, including examples of women teachers and school managers are held disproportionately being role models or ‘heroes’ for girls and boys in every area by men, even though they are under-represented in the of society — not restricted to traditional gender stereotypes. profession as a whole in these regions. In countries where the role of women is to be subservient, unquestioning, quiet and therefore ‘respectful’ the very act of It is clear that a strategy to promote equality in training, being a student requires challenging powerful socialization recruitment and staffing is vital at all levels of education, into gendered roles. It is crucial that efforts be made to but promoting gender equality amongst teachers must ensure that girls are proactively encouraged to participate also include recognition of the lived experiences of women in learning processes, from the teaching practices to the teachers in schools, equality in potential for career learning supports. In order to track these, sex-disaggregated progression and women’s access to training and professional data on student performance should be systematically development. But the challenge of ensuring that women can be collected to provide data which will allow teachers and school inspiring teachers for both girls and boys requires “addressing administrators to increase focus on gendered disparities in policy and practice to ensure that a feminised education sector learning and correct course. can be a high status, respected one in which adequate resources are allocated to ensure the highest professional performance of In considering curriculum development, it is also important all teachers, whether they be women or men” (UNESCO 2006 p.1). to take into account the needs and expectations of working children and their parents. Quite often, parents will not send Engendering pedagogy: helping girls to learn their girls and boys to school because they do not see the relevance of what they learn measured against what they can Poor quality education disproportionately affects girls, who earn outside of school. This implies a process of educating will struggle to leave school with the cognitive and non- parents on the value of education and relevance of education make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 25 and is

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Shadya Sahanarca, teacher in teacher Sahanarca, Shadya Primary Ambagicha Government School, Bangladesh of

to "Education for girls is very important important very is girls for "Education grows girl educated an when — she as family her build can she up educated not was I If to. wants my of out cheated be would I then inherited my to rights my rights, I educated being but property, empowered. am I rights, my know important an is curriculum The Bangladesh in here — this of part more focus should curriculum the regarding women for rights on and women for skills life property, lessons” life realistic girls, — 

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Gender-based violence permeates societies, societies, permeates violence Gender-based report this In women. and girls undermining gender- of implications the on is focus the be should it but education, for violence based from freedom to right girl’s a that recognized abuse violent and power of imposition the aspects all into and education beyond extends are abuse and violence Gender-based life. of systemic deeper of manifestation outward patriarchal to relating women against injustice unequal and representation unequal power, Girls must be protected from violence and abuse to make it more responsive to gender. New New gender. to responsive more it make to challenge the but produced being are materials classroom into fully them integrate to is training upon dependent is This practice. gender-sensitive to regard in both trainers, design, and gender sensitive curriculum classroom practices, so that teachers can learn how to make the transition and make practical use of the new approaches . students of placement sizes, class Large to attention teacher and classroom the in whether on impacts major have students able are education accessed have who girls for Bangladesh, In learning. in participate to organization non-governmental the example, classroom that recommended has CAMPE students the that so altered regularly be layout engaged stay them of more and seats move process. learning the in help can practice teaching gender-sensitive techniques employ teachers that ensure to boys with time interactive equal ensure to students’ female encourage girls, and gender address class, in participation nurture and students among discrimination for environment learning positive and safe a boys. as well as girls Conflict

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Congo sexual

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‘Failing’ attacks interrelated, 2011). only War have Democratic violence There In Focus to the realities of the community. In some some In community. the of realities the to called is what involved has this projects, ILO are children where training’, ’pre-vocational the of part as training vocational to introduced consider skills, learn them help to curriculum and school, after do to like would they what they what on based decisions informed make 2002). (ILO school in learn provision that emerged has consensus Broad health has and reproductive of sexual and empowering the potential to provide for learning experiences transformative provision girls (WHO 2002). Nevertheless, health services and reproductive of sexual within the school system is largely rare, very to be likely undocumented and sensitivities parental and community given 2008). Global Development (Center for that skills-based — as suggests Evidence — programs opposed to knowledge-based has OxfamNovib the most impact. have aiming to a number of initiatives supported health and reproductive introduce sexual into the curriculum and classroom issues through its support example for practice, Sexuality for Network to UNESEM (Uganda Mainstreaming), a partnership Education organizations. of six Ugandan Bangladesh In affected by poor quality education, there are are there education, quality poor by affected affected. particularly are girls that ways certain they that fact the is these amongst Foremost are classroom, the in treatment unequal receive victims are and curriculum biased using taught pushed being — streaming subject sexist of Poor 2010). (ADB humanities the towards significant a as recognized is curriculum quality Bank (World addressing needs that weakness in details (see plan III PEDP new the In 2008). major a is there study) case Bangladesh the order in planned curriculum the of revision 26 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education Ecuador Focus In onavailability,performing country itspracticeinthisregard 16, 27, CEDAW, CRCart.19, 34).AlthoughTanzania isahigh- obligations underseveral internationaltreaties(ACRWC art. (art. 9, 29particularly). Itisfurthermorefailingtofulfil and protectrightsestablishedintheNational Constitution the Tanzanian government isfailingtoupholdnationallaw irrespective ofage inschools, (s138A).Infailingtoprotectgirls schoolisacriminaloffence orsecondary pupil inprimary Act (1998),any indecency’between actof‘gross ateacherand According totheTanzanian Sexual Offences Special Provisions 1998). al. et (Matasha it prevent to powerless are they that and inevitable is violence such feeling girls many leaves and violence sexual condones often patriarchy of culture A unreported. go violence sexual of cases of majority The forced. been had sex the that reported those of 40% and teachers, including adults, with intercourse sexual had having reported girls school primary survey,of half one of sample country. However,the the within within girls against violence sexual of levels actual on research limited is There in Tanzania. school attend to not girls for reason important an is violence, of fear the and Violence, reluctant to attend (Hayward 2003, Jones and Espey 2008). will be reluctant to send children to school, and students will be is thought to be a site of physical or sexual violence then parents tragically schools can be a site of abuse against girls. If a school although education protects girls, this is not always the case and and be vulnerable to exploitation (UNICEF 2005). However, have higher self-esteem and are less likely to suffer violence to resist violence and abuse (Sen 1999). Girls who go to school effective means by which to protect them and enables them There is clear evidence that giving girls an education is the most than making them susceptible to abuse. entails ensuring that education functions to protect girls rather and beyond (Mudekunye 2011). The right to acceptable education the rights of women and girls are fully realized — in education distribution of wealth. All of these must be tackled in order that GPI However, The issue allegedly identified their aggressor among the teaching staff.’ concerned about the information on cases in which the victims have prefer not to report instances of abuse … The Committee is particularly by the State party, and that this is one reason why victims frequently Ecuador ... there has not yet been an adequate institutional response and sexual violence against minors in educational establishments in consistent reports received describing the scale of the problem of abuse ‘The Committee expresses its deepest concern about the numerous and

for UN

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NER,

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participate inavariety ofactivities andinformation sessions come together andsocializeinpositive ways. Club members clubs, toprovide asafe environment where andboys girls can UNICEF andcivil societyorganizationstolaunch‘Kishori’ Department ofWomen andChildrenAffairshas worked with their honourandsafety. To combatthisphenomenon,the they offatanearly girls age marry inanattempttoprotect their daughtersathomeratherthansendthemtoschool,or acid-throwing andrape. Inresponse, parentschoosetokeep fromverbalranging abuseandsexual innuendotoabduction, life.a girl’s Theharassmentmanifests itself indifferent ways, and psychological damage andprofoundly alterthecourseof of sexual harassmentthatcanresult inpermanentphysical a vitalpart.InBangladesh,‘eve teasing’isanoftenbrutal form Community awareness have programs alsobeenshown toplay perpetrators are punished. the legal infrastructure surrounding education: ensuring that be challenged. This requires sustained campaigning to enforce practice of impunity for many who sexually abuse students to acceptable education requires the prevalent culture and counselors) (Global A and based sexuality education and sex health rights content), Curriculum Reform peer to peer education and parent committee training), training, increased school transport and accompaniment, more schools), (safe latrines, recreational spaces, lighting and fences, and reporting andcodesofconduct),Infrastructure Reform monitoringandenforcement, legalaccessfor legislation, under the broad areas of:Awareness ofViolence (national from school can be reduced by investing in interventions I it. A that safety is enjoyed at school, and on the journey to and from Making education acceptable is therefore dependent on ensuring leaves itfallingshortofdesiredstandardsacceptability. There take appropriate action. cases whenvictimsdoreport fail abuse,schoolauthoritiesoften to with a‘culture ofsilence’ surrounding theissue —andintherare worrying reluctance to report instances ofsexual violence inschools, numerous casesbrought against teachers. This iscombined witha that sexual violence iswidespread ineducationalestablishments,with pervasive nature ofsexual violence inschools.Newspapers report There isalsoahighlevel ofanecdotal evidence regarding the to taken 2009 lack Torture nternational found that gender-based violence in, to and

protect

review of best practices by UN of School Personnel

steps — is

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2010).

urgent however

girls

to

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implementation Stakeholder Involvement

these

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make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 27 the young people surveyed had spoken about a key issue to issue about a key had spoken people surveyed the young — up from 70% just their parents and/or community leaders (UNICEF 2009). previously years two Teachers must be trained and supported to use new approaches, and learning assessments must be sensitive to and learning assessments must be sensitive approaches, to use new and supported must be trained Teachers outcomes. engendered There must be no impunity for perpetrators of violence and sexual abuse against girls, whether in conflict or abuse against girls, for perpetrators of violence and sexual There must be no impunity for their violations. non-conflict situations; perpetrators must be held to legal account that girls programs school staff and communities and ensure for should initiate awareness-raising Governments in and around school. to report violations of their right to safety to go where know creating new towards stereotypes and be geared Curricula and teaching and learning processes must reject gender in all aspects girls’ in education and eventually full participation norms and social practices that encourage gender life. of cultural, political and professional Governments should adopt recruitment, training and postings policies to ensure that women teachers are equally teachers are equally that women policies to ensure should adopt recruitment, training and postings Governments as urban areas. of education and in rural as well represented at all levels addressing discrimination within the teaching teachers’ rights by must respect and protect women Governments jobs and postings. lower-status teachers to lower-paid, pushes women which profession, ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ recommendations regarding acceptability of education and are empowered to become agents of change. There are now are now There of change. to become agents and are empowered 30 districts nearly Kishori Clubs operating in close to 3,000 all of of the clubs, across Bangladesh, and in a UNICEF study 28 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education of girls and boys and girls of thateducation needs so adaptable is diverse it the to structuring responsive and 7 —  education adaptable.” girls intheclass. We needto make about beingolderthantheother the girlswillnotfeel sosensitive sector isthekey because here needs to change. The nonformal to going backto school—that but thesocialstigmaattached girls willcome back.Itisnotillegal second thenmarried opportunities back to school,ifwe give them are inearlymarriages cancome can beadaptable,thatgirlswho “We want to ensure thateducation A Deputy Director, CAMPE Tasneem Athar, daptability chores such ascookingand cleaning,working in thecaseofgirls, can involve domestic form ofpaidemployment, but,particularly school. Theirlaborsmightnot always beinthe send theirchildrentowork ratherthanto Ensuring family survival pushesparentsto is household poverty.the mostsignificant free publiceducationisoneofthem,while and lackofaccesstogood quality, compulsory, There aremany reasons why children work 2005). Eskander and (Muhammed activity income-generating in engage or home at assistance domestic give to them for need less is there that being reason primary the — school in staying girl a of chance the increases household wealthier a from coming Unsurprisingly, school. at than greater as perceived be may home at value girl’s a shoulders, mother’s the on falls care family of burden the where households poor In siblings. younger for caring and food preparing as such responsibilities on take and early school of out drop to have girls, particularly children, many result, a As children. on falls work family of burden the HIV/AIDS, of because example for work, to unable and sick become parents When animals. after looking or fields in working domestic chores such as cooking and cleaning, — especially girls — to work. This can involve poverty drives families to put their children household incentives, demand-side and As highlighted in the section above on stipends to education Child laborasanobstacle early pregnancy. implications of child labor, child marriage and the purpose of this report, the focus is on the to reflect the adaptability of schooling. For are multiple indicators that can be utilized and meet the best interests of the child. There abilities of students, adapt to different contexts educational system to respond to the needs and education applies to the ability of the The

of adaptability E du aspect of the right to c ation have little alternative but to enter the labor labor the enter to but alternative little have education to access no with labor.Children child preventing in tool key a is education hand, one the On linked. inextricably are labor child of elimination progressive the and All For Education achieve to efforts Therefore, risk. at children to responsive more systems and policies education make to alliances national building and system education formal the into laborers child former mainstreaming opportunities, education non-formal as such activities of range broad a include labor.Interventions child addressing of means principal a as education using in experience significant acquired has (ILO) Organization Labour International The rights. human and justice social of principles the on based development promoting and workforce skilled a labor, establishing child eliminate to efforts global in pivotal is Education (Muhammed andEskander2005). or engage inincome generating activity for themtogive domesticassistanceathome reasonbeingthatthereislessneed primary stayingthe chanceofagirl inschool—the coming fromawealthier householdincreases thanatschool.Unsurprisingly,as greater valuea girl’s athomemay beperceived of family carefalls onthemother’sshoulders, siblings. Inpoorhouseholdswhere theburden responsibilities such ascaringfor younger have todropoutofschoolearly andtake on a result, many children,particularly girls, burden ofbeingthefamily breadwinner. As HIV/AIDS, childrenareforced toassume the and unabletowork, for example becauseof In othersituations, when parentsbecomesick out towork. their own children,preferring tosendthem themselves may notseethevalue initfor parents who were deniedaneducation experiences, orlackofthem.For example, work isrelatedtoparents’own educational factor pushingchildrenoutofschoolandinto in fieldsorlookingafteranimals. Another

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 29 Ginason Jandwa, Aide et Action Aide et Action Ginason Jandwa, in Tanzania Mr. Elias, Head teacher, Head teacher, Elias, Mr. Girls’ High School Chunkutia —  “If we hear about plans for early plans for about hear we “If to the house to go we marriage do not to the parents pressure sometimes it still it. Although discuss We happens in secret. at the parent-teacher these things educate try to we meetings and the the older girls regarding of early marriage. effects adverse of the community involvement The to must protest they is key: it!” prevent —  improving in challenge big next “The is country our in education girls’ mechanisms poor the with dealing cases are there when up follow of the with combined pregnancy, of for policy re-entry effective of lack pregnant.” become have that girls

Overcoming child marriage Overcoming that a girl has the opportunity to Ensuring access and remain in school, and enlisting to parents and the community broadly to preventing is the key protect this access, sense, the focus remains on advocating for the the for on advocating remains focus the sense, international of relevant full implementation ILO Convention in particular instruments, of Employment Age 138 on the Minimum No. ILO work’, definitions of ’light and its clear of Forms the Worst 182 on No. Convention on the and the UN Convention Child Labour the reality of Rights of the Child. However, of some and the inability widespread poverty legislation to enforce means governments be applied in to have may that some flexibility worst the against fighting — situations certain the progressive of child labor and for forms whilst of child labor, elimination of all forms adaptable to the making education provision survival whose circumstances of families generation income of level some on depends by their children. It is important that these their by flexible approaches are used as bridging and are time-bound with solutions only, that and deadlines to ensure established goals of child labor elimination the ultimate goal go and all children are able to is achieved to school. In addition, in situations where adaptable approaches are applied, it is is of monitoring important that some level included to protect children from exploitation of forms and abuse that could lead to worst child labor. the approach to overcoming A creative in rural and educational challenges marginalized has been introduced in areas is to create parts of Bangladesh. The objective seasonal to schools that are more adaptive constraints in rural and marginalized recognizing that both the communities, dictate the ability and the weather harvest of children to attend school. In these areas, the ‘Flexible School Calendar’ policy means the freedom to decide that schools are given their school the most appropriate times for fact that This accommodates the holidays. children are required to help their parents that the season. Ensuring during the harvest to falls at this time serves long school holiday attendance and reduce dropout rates improve — making school adaptable to the realities of policy this Similarly, communities. rural many also enables schools in remote areas to adjust their school calendar around the monsoon children rainfall prevents heavy season when to and from school. from walking market where they are often forced towork in dangerous and exploitative conditions. On the other hand, child labor is a major obstacle to the achievement of Education All,For since children who are working full time cannot go to school. thoseFor who combine work and school, their educational achievement will suffer and there is a strong tendency for them to drop out of school to go into full-time employment. more in education need to focus Investments and girls, on children at risk, particularly to offset the opportunity cost need initiatives education for Clearly, poor families. very for in the elimination of child its part to play need to problems in education systems labor, 4A focusing on the means be addressed. This the quality of education improving categories, and directing resources to increasing access ensuring all children while to schooling for particularly that the school environment, is inclusive the learning environment, children to and strong enough to persuade remain in school. The learning environment itself requires significant attention and it is vital that the parents of out-of-school of the are convinced girls, children, especially their of education in improving advantages of situation and helping them to break out therefore, Interventions, cycle. the poverty to measures must be accompanied by and offset the loss of income poverty alleviate to school children going by engendered instead of to work. establishment the and children all for Education and public accessible, resourced, properly a of country every in system education quality international the which to ideal an is worldwide and years many for aspired has community initiative. EFA global the into coalesced which be could EFA of objectives and aims the If work to need not would children then achieved, Girls families. their and themselves support to opportunities educational same the enjoy would grow would opportunities work Decent boys. as and people, young Children, exponentially. would communities uneducated previously in rights their of understanding better a have this However, workplace. the in and society the of impact the and reached be to yet has ideal prices food soaring and crisis economic global to children of vulnerability the increased has labor. child of situations The true sense of the right to education children to learn the opportunity for involves obstacles that to overcome without having In this as child labor. such this, prevent may 30 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education over theirreproductive activities, sexual violenceand fromcompletingtheirstudies.girls Thelackofcontrol practices meanthatteenage frequently pregnancy prevents Early marriage, anddiscriminatory violenceagainstgirls Y . vital is practice the discouraging and awareness creating in schools of role the and challenge a lawremains the of Implementation marriage. of postponement to stipends of provision the links and 18 of age the under marriage outlawed has hand, other the on Bangladesh, women. and girls of protection legal the in key gaps to pointing — inheritances to and family women’s the in strengthen rights and cases most in 18 to marriage of age the raise would which — bill the to opposition widespread after review for parliament to the send to forced was law. family of president the Mali, enforcement In and strengthening broader and campaigns sensitization with coupled delayedmarriage, on conditioned schemes stipend the as such incentives, demand-side of introduction the altogether. marriage child against dissuade that schemes introduce to is ideal the options, learning flexible including married, already are that girls of context and needs specific the for adaptable education make to made be should efforts Whilst them against child marriage. remaining in education acts as the best means for protecting marriage pushes girls out of education and, at the same time, before she is 18 from 45% down to 16% (ICRW 2007). Child where going to school reduces the chance of girl being married to 10% (Summers 1994). The situation is similar in Nicaragua, chance of a girl being married before she is 18 from 60% down Summers 1994). In Mozambique, attending school reduces the with noschooling(World Bank1993,Colclough and Lewin 1993, delay marriage for anaverage offive years comparedto women conclude thatwomen withseven ormoreyears ofschooling education (Wilson2003).Studiesacrossthedeveloping world the principalreasonsfor female dropoutorexclusion from child marriage, asmarriage isrepeatedly found tobeoneof oung mothershave educationrights recommendations regarding regarding recommendations ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ for children. for demeaning or hazardous not is aswork long as patterns working with fit to education adaptable provide to made be should Efforts school. attending from girls boys and preclude not should provision education in Standardization education withtheminimum ages for employment andmarriage. Governments should promulgateandenforce new andoldlaws theminimumage aligning for theendofcompulsory provisions preventing toattendschool orreturningtoschoolafterchildbirth. girls while pregnant education regardlessofmaritalorparentalstatus. Thisincludestheabolitionorreform oflegalandadministrative Law andpracticeregardingteenage andchildmarriage pregnancy tocontinuetheir shouldrespecttherightofgirls andaffirmativeplace appropriatelegislation actionpoliciestotackletheproblem. thatchildmarriageStates mustrecognize andchildlaborareviolationsofhumanrightsmusttherefore putin Code de la Famille la de Code This can be effectively facilitated by facilitated effectively be can This (Family Law bill) back back (FamilyLaw bill) adaptability tackled insideandoutsideofschool. responsibilities ofschoolandchildcare mustbe and stigma school, schedulesneedto beflexible to accommodate thedual ispregnancy notgrounds for expulsion ortransfer from Administrative laws needto bereformed to ensure that the system andcommunitylevel. needs tobeacomprehensive toraiseawareness program at upheld andincountrieswhere thisisasystemic issue there andmothers are the righttoeducationforgirls pregnant Governments mustensure thatpre-existinglaws thatprotect school; this must be comprehensively addressed (Bernard 2002). bullying from pregnancy also prevents girls from coming back to associated and stigma the circumstances, certain In childcare. alternative of lack to due attend to unable are or location givingschool after birth are often forced to attend at a different due topregnancy. Inaddition,thosewho areabletoreturn areforcedthousands ofgirls todropoutschooleachyear made torevise thelaw, thepracticeisstillwidespreadand fromschool.Althoughattemptshave girls of pregnant been (GN295 of2002Cap. 66)implicitly sanctionstheexpulsion For example, a 2002 regulation from the Tanzanian government education assoonthey becomemothers. law andpracticemeansthatmany aredeniedaccessto girls Despite thisoft-articulatedright,thedisconnectionbetween the ChildandUNCRCACHWR [art.11.6] (Wilson2003). inTheAfricanCharterontheRightsand recognized Welfare of toanacceptableeducationisexplicitly girl of thepregnant or returningtoschoolafterchildbirth. However, theright schools prevent fromattendingschool girls while pregnant In many countries, theadministrative legalregulationsfor average birthrateisseven childrenperwoman (GenderStats). prevalence amongwomen aged 15to49isjust8%while the unwanted pregnancies. For example, inMalithecontraceptive mean thatmany willlack theknowledge girls toprevent sexual healtheducationanddearthofcontraceptive options school.Thelackof orsecondary duringprimary pregnant child marriage meanthatmany school-aged become girls of education education of make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 31

7.2 9.7 8.6 15.1 10.1 10.1 13.9 20.3 23.25 2008 school level 2005 tudy 2000 S % of female teachers at secondary 1990 — — — 2.2 6.2 41.8 36.3 33.8 20.9 1980 school level Percentage of secondary students who are boys Percentage of secondary students who are girls 1970 0% Case 10% 70% 30% 50% 20% 60% 90% 80% 40% PROPORTION OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL

% of female teachers at primary remaining challenges to gender equality throughout the equality throughout to gender remaining challenges discrimination continues mean that gender educational cycle development. to Bangladesh’s to pose serious challenges girls has reached 89%, Although the net enrollment rate for Whilst within the classroom are still prevalent. challenges and both boys for secondary drop-out is a major challenge it is girls those that that are most at risk (ADB 2010). Of girls, and 17% for boys enrol, completion rates are around 23% for girls outperform at secondary girls (UNDP 2008). Indeed, boys type of school (Education and in every subject in every level teachers; is the lack of female Another challenge 2007). Watch to be a factor in been shown have teachers although female Figure 8. Ratio of girls to boys in secondary school, Bangladesh in secondary boys 8. Ratio of girls to Figure — 26.1 18.4 52.3 33.9 32.6 25.0 52.6 47.0

secondary total (of students) % of girls students enrolled in

— — — — 94 90.10 50.76 73.86 85.83 in primary

Girls NER %

angladesh: 1970 2000 Date 1975 1995 2005 2010 1980 1985 1990 Figure 7. Key education statistics, Bangladesh statistics, education Key 7. Figure Education progress in Bangladesh is occurring within a Education strongly that continues to discriminate socio-cultural context gender discrimination of The severity and girls. against women the fact that Bangladesh scores extremely is demonstrated by ranking 108 out Measure, on the Gender Empowerment poorly 2010). and Exley North of 109 assessed countries (Unterhalter, embedded within women is deeply of inferiority The perceived Bangladesh society and discrimination on the basis of gender and Subrahmanian Hossain, 2008, Rabbi begins at birth (Fazle while et al. 2005). So, Hopkins 2002, Ardt, Hastings, Kabeer in greater been able to participate in school numbers girls have and accessibility of school, due to increasing availability is not yet achieved not yet is of provision the in progress significant made has Bangladesh Availability the in and decades two last the over education girls’ been has Bangladesh performer’. ‘Strong a as recorded is it Table in success achieving for community international the by lauded primary the at boys and girls for rates enrollment its increasing in strides great made also has Bangladesh level. secondary and The level. secondary and primary the at parity gender its closing same the in while 2009, in 82.9% was boys for enrollment net countries few of one is Bangladesh girls. for 89.8% was it year for enrollment at parity gender achieved has that region the in completion for parity gender and secondary and primary both to attributed be can success This 2008). (BANBEIS primary at also but education, of availability improve to only not efforts its that — below outlined — practices and policies of adoption its adaptable. and acceptable accessible, education make to help An overview of the progress made in girls’ education is the to 1970 from figures with below table the in demonstrated 2011). BANBEIS 2008, (BANBEIS day present Success is in sight, but gender equality in education equality in education in sight, but gender is Success B 32 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education —  old practices against girlswillchange everywhere.” provide good quality education thentheseoldattitudesand life skillsandbecome economically independent.Ifwe can question things.Education for girlsmeansthey candevelop because itisthemaintool to bringinanalyticalthinking,to “Without fixingeducationitis very difficult tochange anything Rokeya Kabir, Executive Director, BangladeshNariPrograti Sangha,BNPS (Government ofBangladesh2003). quality ofstudentlearningandachievement educationandtoimproverates ofprimary the increase access, participationandcompletion thekeyPEDP program, objectives were to now information. For therecently-completed PEDP-II ranfrom2004-2009andPEDP-III is (PEDP-I) from1997-2002,extended to2004. EducationPrimary Development Program from 1990-1995,following thiswas thefirst Education Project (GEP)was implemented (Nasmeer and Tate 2007). TheGeneral a succession ofsectorwideapproaches to educationinBangladeshhasbeenthrough 2007 p.1). approach Thedominant strategic spending inbasiceducation’ (Al-Samarrai in ‘substantial increasesinperstudent education spendingsince1999, resulting has therefore beena50%increaseinpublic spending oneducationhasincreased.There in realtermstheeconomicgrowth means terms ofproportionnationalincome, in spending oneducationhasstagnated Action. However, althoughgovernment the OECDandDakarFramework for well below the6%level recommended by education spendingremainsat2.3% ofGDP, 5% peryear for thepasttwo decades, Despiteeconomicgrowthprogram. averaging in the1990swithamajorschoolexpansion dramatically improved acrossthenation The provision ofbasiceducation was Education sectorprogram account for 41%ofthelaborforce. nearly 50%ofthepopulation,women only Furthermore, despitebeingcomprisedof substantially lower thanthatofmales(60%). the literacyratefor adultfemales (51%)is that figure was at10% for boys. Inaddition, educationwasfor intertiary 5.6% girls while substantial. In2009, enrollmentrate thegross gender educationare disparitiesintertiary 12.6% in1998to19.5% in2008. Inaddition,the teachers hasonly slightly increased from database, thepercentagefemale ofsecondary According todatafromtheGenderStats teachers relative tomenisstillvery small. in Bangladeshthepercentage offemale increasing female enrollmentandretention, enrolled inschool (ASPBAE2010).Avibrant Asia thathasseen millionsmoregirls education revolution acrosspartsofSouth the lasttwo decadesforms partofthewider girls’ education seenin The progress over and politicalwill Civil societyadvocacy make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 33 ASPBAE (2010 p. 28) p. ASPBAE (2010 Rokeya Kabir, Executive Executive Kabir, Rokeya Bangladesh Nari Director, Sangha, BNPS Prograti —  “Girls are the lowest priority, if priority, the lowest “Girls are in a family 5 children 4 or are there girls’ education in then investing of a waste will be considered will because they — resources a and become be married off The family. member of another a are is that women mentality or husband of on the father burden also don’t and women the family, In capacity. in their own believe books text the curriculum and the need to need a major shift, we we taking models of women see role income providing responsibility, in working women their family, for government.” —  political Bangladesh, consistent “In successive across commitment especially with governments, political competition democratic in the nineties, has been crucial school enrollments increasing for especially of girls.” — K.M. Elias, Head teacher, Chunkutia Girls' High School High Girls' Chunkutia teacher, Head Elias, K.M. — ‘The keysto an effective girls’ schoolare first of all having goodteachers thattake a proactive role, teacher training, good quality curriculum, a strong school management committee, and effective gendertraining for both male and female teachers. The first challenge facing girls in secondary school is harassment menfrom when the girls are walking the long distance to and school.from Thenis there thefact that parentsfeel that it is wise for the girls to get married early so that they can be secure,more and when they get married the vast majority do not stay in school.is There a government rule against early marriage but we do not have the birth certificatesto theirprove age. The dowry that parents have to pay when their daughter gets married is especiallyan important for factor, poor parents. If their daughter gets married younger then in many cases they can avoid paying this a is dowry, because men want a younger wife: it is glamorous.more If we hear about plans for an early marriage we go to the house theto pressure parents not to do it. Although sometimes it still happens in secret. discuss theseWe things at the parent teacher meetings and we try to educate the older girls theregarding adverse effects of early marriage. The involvement of the communityis key: they must protest to prevent it!’ Secondary and if exams School Certificate to are less likely they are put forward they dependence systemic 2010). The pass (ADB with preferential tuition combines on private girls cause to to continue in boys investment secondary in regard to discrimination suffer 2005). (Mansoor and Chowdhury completion is system In addition, the education and widespread wastage characterized by 2008). The Watch poor quality (Education include the low most significant challenges weak management qualification of teachers, and poor and accountability systems Bank 2008). For quality curriculum (World treatment in the classroom, unequal girls, streaming subject biased curricula, sexist less humanities, that pushes girls towards access to additional tutoring, lack of toilets, insecurity and harassment all reduce the Until quality of their learning experience. decreasing accessible by school is made truly and school the hidden costs to girls’ families, that school is to ensure quality is improved both adaptable and acceptable to the special circumstances of girls Bangladesh will true gender continue to struggle to achieve equality in education. Challenges Although expanding school access through secondary stipend scheme the comprehensive the hidden school accessibility, has improved costs of education continue to pose problems accessible that education is truly in ensuring Significant amongst the poorest girls. for these additional costs are the cost of uniform, pens transport costs, fees, examination books, and Asad 2010). In addition and paper (Basu the single most significant hidden to these, cost of secondary private education is that of enrolled stay tuition. Although girls may within poor especially throughout secondary, girls marginalized become gradually families, of not being able to access sufficient as a result girls are tuition. Subsequently, private for put forward to be than boys less likely Demand-side incentives The decision of the government to implement a stipend scheme that provides free secondary education for every girl in the country has proved very effective at facilitating increased access and sustained engagement in education (BANBEIS 2008). Female enrollment rates more than doubled from 442,000 in 1994 to over one million in 2001 due to stipends, increased female teachers, expanding training for teachers and school management committees, providing performance incentives to schools and students and investing in water and sanitation facilities as part of a broader Bank-supportedWorld project to improve secondary school. civil society gender equality movement movement equality gender society civil time to ensure a long has campaigned for for to education is realized that the right such as the The role of organizations girls. (CAMPE) Education Popular Campaign for Progress for of Women and the Association hundreds been vital, networking (BNPS) has a and providing of education charities that instigates change national voice donors, government, through influencing The non- itself. society the media, and civil the sector has also assisted with governmental curriculum, of gender-sensitive development workers, government training teachers and budgeting responsive promoting gender are that existing laws and implementing the designed to protect girls in education. In the high commitment combination with this, to girls’ that exists across all the education the parties has provided government different continuity necessary to embark on systemic of the system. reform 34 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 8 provides valuable information about the extent to which and marginalization, and budget monitoring by civil society are tailored to address multiple factors of discrimination Civil society participation can ensure that policy objectives education — is a necessary condition for successful GRB. women’s groups and other advocates of gender equality in UNESCO 2010). Engagement of civil society — especially education for girls (Sharp 2003, Sharp 2007, UNESCO 2003, have a significant impact on the governance that can improve It is widely recognized that effective engagement with GRB can equality objectives and associated public resource distribution. national policies by ensuring alignment between gender responsive budgeting (GRB) is a practice which can engender invest their limited resources in. At the national level, gender- what governments prioritize — and what they are willing to trade-offs in budget allocation provide a concrete marker for political will is the decisions linked to national budgets. The enforcement, from rhetoric to reality, one clear indicator of In order to move from policy to practice, from law to law education. girls’ in progress impact which decisions local and national global, governing in involved those identify to need clear a and — practice and policy between gap significant a is there education, to right girls’ of aspects enshrine and protect may law national p.8)?While 2010b (UNGEI collaborations’ community and support parental curriculum, teaching, and learning of quality access, ‘participation, including education of aspects different all in prioritized is equality gender that ensuring for responsible is Who education? girls' promote to law rights human international and domestic under obligations their are what and making, decision- national-level in participates Who rights? civil and political cultural, social, economic, of implementation the for accountable is who approach: rights-based the of focus central a be must governance that implies attitudes Addressing thesekindsofdeeply-entrenched values and instead focuspictureofNERs. onthemoreencouraging tendency tooverlook gender inequalitiesineducationand overwhelmingly male-dominated,perhapsexplainingtheir international institutionsanddevelopment forums arealso rather thanundo, thoseinsocietyatlarge. Governments, encounterthereinoftenservepractices thatgirls toreproduce, gendered institutionamongmany, andtheattitudes which existeverywhere intheworld. Schoolisbutone discrimination andpatriarchalsocialculturalstructures, Gender inequalitiesineducationareafunctionofgender girls womenand of education rights the realize to budgeting and governance of basis the be must society wider in discrimination gender of recognition right Enforcing s : political will i will political : environments for gender equality. macroeconomic policieswhich areassociated withimproved in theAvailability Table toidentifypatternsintheir The following sectionreviews thebestand worst performers proactively improve towards progress gender equality. dimension ofmacroeconomicdecisions, governments can andparliament,addressing thegendered groups andaccountabilitytocivilincluding transparency society employing bothgender-responsive budgeting practices, to enableiffamiliessendtheirdaughtersschool.By addressed throughtheallocationofresourcesfor strategies school, anditistheburdenofthesetrade-offs which mustbe that oftenrationaldecisionsaremadeto girls outof keep The opportunitycostsofeducation for poorfamiliesmean which prevent women fromaccessingeducation. and girls budget practiceswhich canmitigatetheresourcebarriers extends beyond theschoolsystem andpointstowards national must beexplicitly Thiswidereconomiccontext recognized. the economicenvironment inwhich familiesmake decisions 1, above. education, Inorderfortobemadeingirls’ progress and otherdemand-sideincentives have beenexamined inPart impact theopportunitycosts. Theroleof fee abolition,stipends education, considerationmustbegiven tohow specificpolicies When attemptingtoimprovegirls’ theaccessandquality of 2007, 2010). (Sharp UNESCO priority government a rarely is equality gender integrating and priorities political and byeconomic dictated are budgets that is difficulty inherent The 2007, 2009). (Sharp Budlender achieve to change sustained and substantive of degree greatest the requires that GRB integrating and allocations budgetary relevant the improving of goal third the is It further. no going but understanding and awareness raising — goals three these of first beyondthe progress to fail initiatives manyGRB that is repeatedly encountered constraint key The equality. gender promote to allocations budgetary government refine and increase to is equality. goal third education The ensuring and commitments policy the for account to held increasingly are governments that ensure to is Second issues. havegender on policies and budgets that impact the regarding understanding and awareness increase to is goal first The 2003). (Sharp education in budgeting gender-responsive introducing of goals interrelated main three are There gender-equitable outcomes (Ichii 2010). spending reaches target groups and actually delivers s k e y

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 35

can impact the economic instability Haiti has long suffered from what policy makers refer refer what policy makers from Haiti has long suffered governance), good deficit‘ (absence of to as ‘democratic in fiscal and institutional responsibility results which general population. being shifted to the Afghanistan is failing to deliver education to its girls, education to its girls, Afghanistan is failing to deliver social by both conflict and strong negative afflicted females. attitudes towards accounts which on its oil sector, Chad is over-dependent 1260% increase a While this generated 83% of exports. for since 2004, the increase in education is in revenues elsewhere. flowed the oil wealth Clearly 4.7%. solely Tanzania established a Land Act in 2003 which allows allows in 2003 which established a Land Act Tanzania use of land as collateral. Bangladesh implemented a program of collateral-free loans. capping financial passed a national law Ecuador loan fees. intermediation spreads and eliminating ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ for women provides them with an additional additional with an them provides women for availability Credit the increases and the family that strengthens resource financial Women obtaining of girls attending school. likelihood well-being, in family them to invest are more likely resources to school. sending their children including include of women credit availability that impact the Policies of lending practice the loosening initiatives, microfinance Land rights of collateral. multiple forms and the acceptance of a strong impact on credit can also have laws and succession which proof of land ownership obtain as women availability have uniformly Top performers for collateral. is often needed availability: policies easing credit Finally the level of opportunity costs of education indirectly through the unpaid Economic instabilitycare economy. makes a country more susceptible to economic shocks — during times of economic turmoil, responsibility is shifted from the state to the unpaid As cuts to publiccare the spendingeconomy. unpaid occur, care economy is overburdened and girls are used as a resource to meet the needs of the community. or floating rate that is either freely an exchange Having without a monetary policy pegged intervention strongly eliminates a country’s detrimental ability to smooth sudden In addition, in the international economy. changes a country more an export sector makes on overreliance This risk can be compounded vulnerable to price shocks. an intrinsically the export is a natural resource that has when on cotton is reliance example, For diminishing value. the spread of cotton production will concerning. Eventually, on As reliance its cultivation. reach land that is not ideal for the industry production to stretch into this land, the forces return per unit diminishes. This broad problem can help to explain the poor standing in girls’ performers education, each of some of the weaker one or more aspects of strong is characterized by of which economic instability: have the largest influence influence largest the have women for opportunities job future and Current Among the weak and failing performers, only Haiti only and failing performers, Among the weak wage although the year, first 8.1% (by increased wages or wages bill is capped at 5% of GDP); the rest are cutting bills. descending wage have It is telling that all top and medium performers are It is telling that all top and medium performers bills. ascending wage and/or have increasing wages Ecuador increased overall expenditure by 3.1% in the first the in 3.1% by expenditure overall increased Ecuador increased capital expenditure by cycle, of its budget year 4%. by and increased teacher wages 13.6% Tanzania increased development expenditure by 8% expenditure by increased development Tanzania year of its 16% in the first and education expenditure by cycle. budget by expenditure Bangladesh increased development of achieving with the goal 86.6%, and education by 28.8% 5% of GDP. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ direct and indirect costs of schooling of costs indirect and direct ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ The The on initial decisions to enroll in school. As highlighted above, above, highlighted As school. in enroll to decisions initial on materials, fees, school include schooling of costs direct the increase all these meals; school and uniforms transportation, economic wider the by limited is expenditure public when forgone include costs indirect of Examples environment. policy family, the for assistance domestic of loss labor, from wages school appropriate to access and school, to travel of safety the to related closely is economy care unpaid The sanitation. similar by affected is therefore and schooling of costs indirect expenditure development and education in Increases policies. opportunity these decreasing to path direct most the provide increased by for compensated are costs These costs. direct and for countries performing top the with expenditures, public girls' of costs indirect and direct the mitigating education girls’ policies: following the of adoption through education In addition to development expenditure, policies that improve policies that improve expenditure, In addition to development increase access of water, the availability improve health care, social safety a larger and efficiency of energy and provide of girls likelihood net all reduce this burden and increase the attending school. to disincentives create also can policy economic Wider girls. educating speak to the state of the unpaid care economy and the rewards rewards the and economy care unpaid the of state the to speak or minimal are opportunities current When education. of reduced, is women by dominated sectors in employment economy care unpaid the of outside value generate to options to participatepressure and contract in it elevate. Once again, girls are often chosen as the resource for this domestic assistance. If the long-term reward is not enough to outweigh the current benefit of assisting at home or getting a job, girls will be less likely to initiate and advance their education. The public sectorwage bill and constraints on deficit spending are the policies having greatest impact on opportunity costs of who thisparticipate nature. Women in the formal economy tend to be clustered in public bills positions. that Wage freeze or reduce wages of public employees and policies reducing deficit spending resulting in resources fewer for the public decrease sector, current and future job opportunities for women disproportionately. 36 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education its formal ofcountries’ right conditionality inrecognition their approach,withtheWorld Banksignificantly reducing Whilst bothinstitutionshave made recentstepsinreforming agendas are discounted. which cutpublicsectorservices invisible costswomen pay tocompensatefor economicgrowth largely absentfromthebalancesheetsofIFIs—and uncompensated labor, careandhouseholdmanagement is and unaddressed.Theroleof women asproviders of of differential distributionsofpower goes unrecognized growth domesticproduct.Inthismodel,theinfluence ingross in humancapitalandastronglaborforce which willleadto valued becauseofits rateofeconomicreturnasaninvestment providers willprevail throughcompetition.Education is market ofeducationaloptionsandthebestservice individuals’ selective choices:educationisacommodity ina education, wherein qualityisdriven by (gender-neutral) terms. provider/client Theservice conceptisapplied to to view both‘education’ and‘women’ inliberaleconomic As aresult ofthis, theBretton Woods institutions have tended unconstrained capital flows. growth can be stimulated through free trade, privatization and at its core the belief that economic prosperity, efficiency and adopted a neoliberal economic approach to development has finance. The Bretton Woods institutions have traditionally assistance, and importantly, conditionality attached to external the provision of macroeconomic policy advice, technical strategies of many countries, especially low-income, through (WB) — influence the economic standards and development — the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank of national budgets, the international ‘Bretton Woods’ agencies Although domestic actors negotiate the allocation and objectives domestic budget priorities and policies. economic and financial environments in which they craft their heavily influenced not only by country-level factors, but by the implement education systems and deliver education services is financial institutions (IFIs). The context in which governments are promulgated enthusiastically by the international development frameworks. Policies that support these interests from wider global economic paradigms and international decisions are embedded within a structure of interests derived impact on national policies, resources and priorities. National paradigms and institutions has a huge — often decisive — budget decisions. However, the role of globalization and related and practice in legislation, education system management, and The first part of this report has focused on national-level policy I T 9 n h s e titution rol e of th of s : : e e conomic orthodoxy and g and orthodoxy conomic

I nt e rnational rnational policies. Innegotiating with centralministries, includingthe considerable weight totheirdevelopment approachandfiscal to Bankloans, andtheperceived expertiseofitsstaff lend ofBank finance,but themagnitude theconditionsattached the Bank’s directorsvaries tocountry, country fromcountry and otherdevelopment policyframeworks. Theinfluenceof (theBank’sStrategies 3to5year business planfor acountry) (the projected3to5year budget),Assistance Country Reduction Strategies, Medium-Term ExpenditureFrameworks government partnersthetermsandcontentoftheirPoverty and education.At thenationallevel theBanknegotiates with sectors such ashealth,agriculture, energyandinfrastructure implementation ofdevelopment operationsinarange of the world eachyear. World Bankfinancing supports the loans andtechnicalassistancetoclientgovernments around international creditors, providing over $100billioninfinancial to theIMF, theWorld Bankisoneofthemostsignificant et al.2010, UNICEF2010, Weisbrot etal.2009).Inaddition since2009(Oxfam2010,IMF programs Van Waeyenberge reverting tobusinessasusual withasharptighteningof wage ceilings), growing evidence suggests thattheIMFis andadramaticreductionintheuseofsector-specific program through socialspendingfloorsintheirLow IncomeCountry through increasedtrackingof’prioritysocialexpenditures’ spending onsocialsectorsduringthefinancialcrisis(e.g. short termflexibilityinitsfiscaltargets toallow forincreased evidence inallowing thattheIMFhas madeprogress greater which countriesaredeemedstableandcredit-worthy. Despite advice. Thisaffords theIMFnear-unilateralauthoritytodecide expertise with donors often basing their financing on the IMF’s the World Bank,tendtoupholdtheIMF’smacroeconomic IFI Executive Boards—andothermultilateralsincluding Donor governments —which retainmajoritypower atthe domestic interestratesandhighforeignreserve requirements. composed oflow inflation,no-to-low deficit spending,high adheres toaspecifictypeofmonetaristorthodoxy primarily policies for thosecountriesresortingtoIMFloans. TheIMF such, itplays acriticalroleinformulating macroeconomic agency for macroeconomicpolicyadvice andfunding.As The IMFhasachieved prominenceasthe’go-to’ multilateral tackle poverty andinequality. provide anenablingenvironment for developing countriesto the financialcrisis, bothstillhave along way to go before to temporarily allowing flexibilityonfiscaltargets greater during to determinetheirown development paths, andtheIMF F inancial inancial

e nd e r make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 37 (and usually lower lower usually (and than 5%) requires reducing the number of government government of number the reducing requires 5%) than wages. lower earners wage paying and/or earners wage biggest the far by up make usually teachers Since strong a has this payroll, government the of proportion on and hired be can teachers many how on both effect keep to used are which rates, interest high The levels. pay to borrowers local for expensive it make low, inflation credit local any impact will This credit. to access gain investment, sector education in interested seeker education and construction building school including access equity, gender of area the in Especially materials. in invest to parents for incentive important an is credit to credit get cannot farmer a If education. daughters’ their pulled be may children production, expand or support to local a If labor. manual with compensate to school from production expand to credit get cannot owner business and current of lack this labor, skilled local more hire and sending from parents dissuade can opportunity future school. to children, girl especially children, their deficit spending limits the amount the No-to-low to finance the economy can put into government No-to-low and public sector salaries. public goods Keeping inflation lower than 10% than lower inflation Keeping ■ ■ ■ ■ goal of reducing debt are the following: reducing debt are the following: of goal

MF orthodoxy puts the squeeze on women and girls and women on squeeze the puts orthodoxy MF I gender-responsive and governance Macroeconomic monetary and fiscal policy fiscal and monetary Analysis of the interaction between macroeconomic policies, gender and education reveals that education availability, accessibility and acceptability — especially for girls — are all affectedby the economic policy options pursued at country level. set of macroeconomic policies that The IMF has a preferred focus on which countries influence the degree to particularly in education and other public reducing debt, or on investing fortunes of poor people, the economic also affect They services. increasing the real and opportunity costs of sending girls and to school. boys of the IMF in pursuit by the advised The policies frequently Ministers of Finance and Education, policy outcomes are the Ministers of Finance and Education, multiple national agreements involving product of negotiated policy- The Bank’s and international actors including the IMF. labor and trade based loans often require economic, financial, and are aimed at stimulating economic growth which reforms Annual Bank (World opportunities market private developing 2010). Report 38 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 1. success educationwere ingirls’ upon acountry’s identified: countries. Inreviewing IMFdocuments two aspectsthatbear countries (fromtheAvailability Table) were reviewed in11 surveillance documents for high,middleandlow performing and/or ArticleIV education,thelendingprograms on girls’ To assesstheimpact ofIMF-advised macroeconomicpolicies 5 4 Figure 9. Focus ofmacroeconomic policiesandperformance ongirls’education.

Haiti Afghanistan Chad Kenya Pakistan Mali Nicaragua Lanka Sri Ecuador Bangladesh Tanzania Country ceiling andcalculating itspercentage. Flexibility (amount ofspendingallowed before reachingadebtceiling)was calculatedby subtracting debttoGDP ratiofromtheimposed thepre-IMFagreement Debt toexport ratiowas usedwhen Debtto GDP was unavailable. in key development areas. on revenue producing policiesandexpandtheirspending their reserve holdings. Countriesthat focus on GDPwork debt tendtohaltexpenditure, capwage billsandincrease public sectorspending:countriesthatfocus onreducing Whether countriesfocus onreducingdebtorincreasing ■ ■ ■ ■ Bank vaults (IMF2007). funds targeted for social spendingendedupinCentral reserve ratesandasmuch85%ofeachdollarODA IMF’s 5%inflationtarget were disciplinedwithhigher Evaluation Office foundthatcountriesfailingtomeetthe in allsystems, includingeducation.TheIMF’sInternal loans. Thisreducestheamount available for investment IMF —thatthestatehasonhandmoney topay back Bank inordertoreassure creditors—includingthe governments tostoreforeigncurrencyintheCentral requirementforces reserves The highforeign sector especially hard. and low deficittargets hitteachersandtheeducation percentage ofpublic sectorworkers, wage billceilings public sectorworkers. Asteachersmake upthelargest in fewer orlesswell and financedpublicservices The inflationanddeficitpoliciescombinedresult the entirepublicbudget envelope. deficit targets alonehave thebroadereffect ofreducing on allocationsfor wages for publicemployees, butlow by wage billceilings, which imposelimitsspecifically and health.Low deficittargets aresometimesreinforced benefit ofrunningasmalldeficitto invest ineducation governments donottypically measure thelongterm deficit spendingtendstoreducesocialinvestments as Performance Level Performance Medium Medium Medium Failing Failing Failing Weak Weak High High High Debt to GDP Ceiling (Y/N) Ceiling GDP to Debt Yes on G A clear pattern emerges showing that those countries focused Clear conclusionscanbedrawn fromtheanalysis undertaken: while those focused on debt tend to stagnate. among those which are most improving in girls’ education 2.

(Observed) and the flexibility they have to pursue them. increasing GDP) inform the differing policies they pursue making and allocation range) and focus (reducing debt or a specific debt-to-GDP ratio target, their flexibility (choice countries in the sample (except Bangladesh) operate with highly correlated with better performance. Although all and public sector wages and should therefore be more to increase their expenditure on education, development ceiling. Countries with greater the freedom of countries to increase spending above the debt putting a limit on the amount of debt allowed, the IMF limits ■ ■ for development, including education sector budgets. the IMF adds a further constraint to government spending debt to GDP ratio: The degree of flexibility countries exercise in regard to their DP ■ ■ medium and high performing countries had an average to target its national priorities. In the present study, development. Greater flexibility is essential for national investments in health, social and psychological services. the value to the stability of the economy as a whole of indicators more nuanced than GDP which account for horizon used in macroeconomic planning and develop psychological poverty. The IMF should extend the time that economic poverty may not include health, social or poverty reduction. For example, Bangladesh recognizes recognize that economic growth is not synonymous with Countries can also broaden their definition of poverty and measure social programs that have a longer rate of return. year plan, which provided more time to implement and traditional three year IMF agreement and insisted on a five its effect. The rhetoric and framework of an agreement impact and increasing necessary investment in education are Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No High performing Tanzania dismissed the Flexibility in spending allows a country 4 when insisting on a low debt to GDP ratio, % Flexibility to Ceiling to Flexibility % flexibility 25.0% 69.5% 37.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 8.8% 6.7% — have more room 5 By Mixed Focus Debt Debt Debt GDP GDP GDP GDP GDP GDP GDP make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 39 countries all implemented policies that increased access access increased that policies implemented all countries and fees loan eliminated Ecuador women. for credit to Bangladesh spread. lending to deposit their reduced Tanzania and loans collateral-free implemented priority in borrowers risk’ ‘higher to lending encouraged Guarantee Finance Development the through sectors the of 50% to up of repayment guaranteed that Facility aware made are countries ensure should IMF The loan. to models macroeconomic provide and benefits these of governments with consulting when them accommodate Social and political contextSocial and political are important It is important to determinants to performance. vacuum. a in operate not does economy the that recognize context the by influenced largely is effectiveness Policy situations national Unstable implemented. is it which in reduce the correlation that can be drawn between the policy and the outcome. The context of numerous countries in the given sample reminds us that economy may not be the sole factor driving the results. The 2005 the Pakistan, in earthquake 2005 the Lanka, Sri in tsunami Haiti in unrest political the and Nicaragua in election 2006 and Afghanistan alla powerful have impact on national economies. The IMF should dynamicdevelop models that enable rapid spring-back in cases in which either aggregate supply or demand is suddenly devastated by governments train should and events, natural or political a in models these implement to prepare and understand to strike. disasters before i.e. manner, preventative ■ ■

The three high performing performing high three The The IMF and Ministries of Finance should ensure the opportunity costs impacting upon — the direct girls education The IMF and Ministries of Finance should ensure in times of instability), current (especially unpaid care economy and indirect costs of schooling, the overburdened macroeconomic in included all are — women to availability credit and women for opportunities livelihood future and and policy making. modelling, advice The IMF and Ministries of Finance should generate and implement macroeconomic models which increase credit generate and implement macroeconomic models The IMF and Ministries of Finance should women. opportunities for which models macroeconomic dynamic measure, preventative a as develop, should Finance of Ministries and IMF The events. natural or political by devastated suddenly are economies national which in cases in spring-back rapid enable The IMF and Ministries of Finance should adopt macroeconomic advice and policies which afford countries the which afford and policies The IMF and Ministries of Finance should adopt macroeconomic advice rates and capital exchange for spending, including through adjusting greatest amount of flexibility (‘fiscal space’) variation, emphasizing situation-specific shocks, controls to shore up social protection services in cases of external a template approach. policies and avoiding reality-responsive The IMF and Ministries of Finance shouldavoid placing arbitrary ceilings onwage bills and ensure that their assessment of teacher need and overall expenditure on education takes into consideration current levels of female education and measures required to ensure girls attend and succeed in school. The IMF and Ministries of Finance should provide greater flexibility in macroeconomic planning by allowing the use the allowing by planning macroeconomic in flexibility greater provide should Finance of Ministries and IMF The implement to allowed be should Countries measures. monetary and fiscal flexible more and horizons time extended of recognizing and sectors, social the in investments long-term make to governments enable which scenarios alternative ‘stability’. economic to contribute services psychological and social education, health, in investments increased that ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Creative policy innovations increase credit credit increase innovations policy Creative opportunities for women. for opportunities Stringent wage bill ceilings should be avoided. Wage bill ceilings disproportionately reduce the job opportunities available to women and increase the opportunity cost of education. All observable wage bills in medium and high performing countries increased while three of the four observed in weak or failing countries were either maintained or decreased. In 2007, the IMF pledged to cease the widespread application of wage bill ceilings in its agreements and to date, attributes their implementation to client governments’ choices. In the case that a client government requests to reduce a wage bill, the IMF should ensure current and future impacts on the female population are well understood by that government when dispensing macroeconomic policy advice, especially by employing gender-responsive budgeting practices. flexibility to their Debt to GDP ceiling of 28.2%. In In 28.2%. of ceiling GDP to Debt their to flexibility no had countries failing or weak six of out five contrast, in manoeuvre to government the of ability The flexibility. For stability. economic for important also is space policy themselves protect to able be to need countries example, exchange their adjusting by shock economic large from should IMF The controls. capital implementing and rate accordingly, policies and advice macroeconomic adapt reality- variation, situation-specific on emphasis with approach. template a avoid and policies responsive ■ ■ This analysis shows that the countries with the greatest improvement in girls’ education have implementedof similar a reforms.series Based on this, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and national Ministriesimplement of Finance the followingshould macroeconomic reforms: imf recommendations ■ ■ 40 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education education projects appears to have been limited by four factors: strategy of the Bank, its impact on the operational design of Independent Evaluation Group on the Gender and Development However, according to a 2010 review by the World Bank’s gender was integration weak. including throughtheidentificationofprioritysectors where genderintegrated concernsintoitsdevelopment — strategies three-year AssistanceStrategyorCAS) businessplan(Country every clientcountry. Italsoaimedtoensure thattheBank’s gender GenderAssessment(CGA)for auditusing aCountry procedures, which stipulatedthattheBankshouldsupport a operationalise gender mainstreamingthroughouttheBank’s In 2001,theBanklauncheditsGenderStrategyforAction to ensure protection oftheirrightsineducation. world unlesstheBanktakes concretestepstosystematically benefits tangible for thepoorest girls aroundthe women and gender policyand educationoperationsmay nottranslateinto Bank 2011c).Thecontinuing weaknesses intheBank’s current decidedly away fromtheEducation For Allagenda(World of education(Lincove 2006)andwhich iscurrently moving to rely onquasi-market toexpandtheprovision strategies engender theBank’s educationdevelopment, which continues for concernstemsfromthelackofconsistentmeasures to 2010a, Zuckerman 2009, World Bank2005a).Further cause investments andpolicyconditions(Weaver 2008, World Bank statements, reform andpoliciesintotangible intheir strategies Bank hasbeenwidely criticizedfor failingtotranslatetheir policies, andmuchrhetoricaboutgender equality—theWorld gender research,multiplegender andoperational strategies consideration ofwomen indevelopment. Yet —despitestrong advocates, therehasbeensubstantial inimproving progress its in large parttotheeffortsgroupof ofadedicated gender targeted theBanktoimprove itsapproachtogender. Due on women inclientcountries, gender advocates have long to stimulatedevelopment andtheimpactofthesepolicies Given theinfluenceof World Bankonnationalpolicies making equitycentral World andpractice: Bankpolicy ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (World Bank 2010a). areas of the Bank (finance, infrastructure, agriculture) to a decision to focus gender auditing on 'core' economic success in ‘soft’ sectors such as health and education lead The assumption that gender norms were already enjoying impact ofWBoperationsongender equality. gender strategyandtherefore couldnotdeterminethe The Bankfailedtoimplementaresults framework for the not consistently orstrongly linktoCASs. worst ratesofgender inequalityand when conducted did (only in49outof93), especially withthe inthe regions Gender auditing was not conducted by all client countries subject tothedirectives ofthegender policy. lending. Currently, over halfofallBanklending isnot operational policiesdonotapply toitspolicy-based uniformly toallclient countriesbecausetheBank’s The requirementtoconducta gender auditdidnotapply left behindbetween 2010and2020. ensure fromthemostdeprived thatgirls backgrounds arenot supported projects, andwillfurthercomplicateefforts to poses new challenges ofgender totheintegration inBank- remain severe. Finally, theBank’s new educationstrategy for educationincountrieswhere girls’ gender disparities equity objectives andinsufficient useofdemand-side support gender safeguards, decreasingnumberofprojectswithgender education islow. Secondly, theinconsistentapplication of education insituationswhere expresseddemandfor girls’ the Bankrisks exacerbating gender inequities inaccessing toexpandeducation, and decentralizationascorestrategies from educationinvestments. By promotingprivatization ensure that vulnerablegroups, includinggirls, arebenefiting educational efficiency, whicharenotconsistently to designed Bank reliesheavily onmarket-based approachestoimprove improving gender equalityinandthrougheducation.First,the However, theeducationsectorcontinuestofacechallenges to positive results for(World girls Bank2011b). several educationhave ingirls’ programs and hadtangible the Banksetsequityobjectives, itislikely toachieve themand supporting schoolmanagement (World Bank2008).Where and improvement, providing stipendsandtuitionfor girls teacher training,incentive awards for schoolperformance strides inimproving schoolthrough accesstosecondary girls’ Assistance projectinBangladesh(2002–2008)madelarge issues, andprojectssuch astheSecondFemale Secondary projects hadsignificantly moreconsiderationof gender 2011a). ComparedwithBank-wide operations, education educationbetweento secondary 1993and2009(World Bank million for several access toenhancegirls’ projectsdesigned education outcomes, withtheBankhaving invested $185 included interventions specifically aimedatimprovinggirls’ the Bank’s website, between 1990and2009, 100operations the Bank’s gender strategyandrelatedpolicies. According to andhasthereforeinto itsprograms featured very littlein population sectors, tohave highlevels ofgender integration long beenconsidered,alongside thehumannutritionand implementation ofitsgender policy, theeducationsector has Although several weaknesses were found intheBank’s be overlooked despitethenew policiesandactionplans. (Alexander, 2011)meansthatgender gapsmay continueto Results for Program new the to nor operations policy that theBank’s gender policydoesnotapply todevelopment safeguards totheireducationoperations, particularly given gender of application inconsistent Bank’s The 2010a). 2007, World(World Bank women of instrumentality which gender isembeddedandfocus overly ontheeconomic Gender’ similarly failtoaddressthewiderpower relationsin Equality asSmartEconomics’ strategyandnew ‘Roadmap for Bank’s operations, throughthe‘Gender Action Plan:Gender the in integration gender promote to attempts Further make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 41

6 of drop-out, rates with increasing correlated also were which SAPs, burden and domestic subsistence increased girls. The particularly for services, public prices, in income, — including changes on women impact on a disproportionate into — translated labor conditions 1999). and girls (Stromquist women educational opportunities for employees, public sector also had importantimplications for SAPs favour the effort to with in accordance layoff for targeted who were single up the largest make As teachers dominance. sector private the by the policies promoted employees, segment of public sector teacher particularly professional hostile to model are neoliberal the developing throughout been decimated which have workforces, 2009). (GCE implemented been have these policies where countries quality provide efforts to current how understand It is critical to well-remunerated well-trained, a education — which necessitates in this taking place — are force teaching and sufficiently numerous in the 1980s. been decimated having workforces of teacher context other assets, from public to private or non-governmental or non-governmental public to private from other assets, operation of public of private the form take It may hands. education vouchers of inputs, sector supply private schools, private of education by and scholarships and the delivery IFC, 2011). The era of structural Bank (World sector providers and privatization for explicit Bank support adjustment saw for 2001). Support cost-sharing in education (Alexander as a necessary sector expansion, cited due measure private of to scale up provision to the limited ability of governments of Bank education education, has continued as a mainstay in private strong investment by as evidenced programs today the International Finance Corporation education projects by and the Bank’s recent reference to the private sector as an to the private recent reference and the Bank’s in their Learning education system integral part of a whole for Bank, 2011c). The Bank has argued (World All Strategy for are said which partnerships (PPPs) of public-private support forms of education and flexible more competitive to provide In benefiting parents and families. ultimately provision, expansion of school systems. for can allow cost savings theory, pointing to critiqued this view, have advocates However, to guarantee suited sector is poorly that the private evidence 2001, equity and scale in education (Alexander accountability, Oxfam 2006). a post-primary operation in Burkina Faso example, For in increasing girls’ transition to secondarysucceeded from 1997 and 2003 due to the reduction of between 35% to 40.2% of additional secondary and construction school fees schools. secondary school of the Bank’s one of the objectives However, to increase the number of children enrolled in project was operators private subsidizing by achieved schools, private 7 to 12 times higher than government charges then levy who a partial offset of these Bank 2005c). With only schools (World in private investments Bank World through scholarships, fees in social

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subsidies, agricultural of government, and role the size reduced SAPs social and of many privatization and increased of currency, the value and girls. women impacting disproportionately sectors, economic household decreased education expenditures, in decreases Large with associated on child labor were reliance and increased income, compensates instability (Lincove services result on conditioned as financing implemented were programs adjustment countries. in borrowing imbalances fiscal reduce to reforms economic Evidence the 6 While the Bank has focused on the availability of education education of availability the on focused has Bank the While their rates, enrollment primary increase to efforts their through the surrounding issues of treatment Neoliberal education reform: reform: education Neoliberal and decentralization privatization and education’s of calculations in inherent trade-offs policy the terms in return of rate the and growth economic on impact has Bank the institution, financial a As capital. human of an as but right, human a as not education defined historically for necessary capital human the in investment instrumental treat studies return of “rate such, As development. economic earning higher their through only valuable as people educated (Heyneman society.” by extracted revenues tax greater and for education promoting began Bank the 1990s, the In 2003). decentralization to turning while economy’, ‘knowledge the their of efficiency the increase to strategies as privatization and through quality improve and investments sector education evidence ignores This 2010). (Godolphin reforms quasi-market reinforce may education distribute to markets on relying that (Lincove capabilities and resources in inequalities pre-existing often have policy education neoliberal of critics fact In 2009). outweigh equity and mobility social to costs the that argued for rewarded are schools when — efficiency of benefits the weak are there costs, lowest the at education delivering who students for education quality provide to incentives that imperative is it Therefore, educate. to costly more are and privatization on rely which strategies reform education promote to incentives with combined be must decentralization 2009). (Lincove equity management, of financing, denotes a transfer Privatization and of education facilities and ownership service delivery IMF Looking back: Structural adjustment policies (SAPs) and women 42 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education gender-sensitive approachtoeducation development. particularly areaswhich needtobestrengthenedensure a the Bank’s educationsectorinvestments going forward, and The review found several issues which have implications for review oftheBank’s educationprojectsover thepastdecade. The Bank’s Independent Evaluation Grouprecently releaseda The Bank’s educationsectorportfolio 2001–2010 authority (World Bank2011b). gender-sensitive implementationofitspoliciestodevolve decentralization, itisimperative thatthe Bankensures 2001–2010 over halfofEducation Sectorprojectssupported equity orfemale inclusion(Lincove 2009).Given thatfrom privatization anddecentralization withoutmandating Education Development worth program, $150million,involved enrollmentisonlysecondary 5%,theBank’s Secondary support education.Similarly girls’ inTanzania, where girls’ for supply tothelocallevel where communitiesmay not supply-side problems, while decentralizingauthority Improvement worth Program $35millionaddressedonly For example, inAfghanistan,the2004Education Quality as decentralizationarenotconsistently gender sensitive. foreducation,governancestrategies girls’ reforms such that while many educationoperationsincludeeffective A review of48Bankprojectsbetween 2002and2004found there will be no benefits for girls” (Lincove 2006, p 354). management and have no incentive to increase girls’ education, services. Moreover, “if local elites control decentralized school poorest villages will suffer from worse quality education less means or capacity to invest in their school systems, the redistribute resources to compensate for communities with groups. (Alexander 2001). If the state does not proactively increase the access and quality of education by marginalized and operate transparently in order for decentralization to be equitable, possess enough financial and human resources, and Argentina (UNESCO 2008). Local governments must already it can increase inequity — such as happened in Ghana, Mexico schools and improve efficiency, there remains a real risk that can increase local participation, increase the responsiveness of authorities. Although there is evidence that decentralization levels of government such as states, municipalities, or local educational system from the federal government to subsidiary Decentralization expand educationprovision (Lincove 2009). education, especially when relying onthe private sectorto containincentivesoperational designs forinclusionin girls’ gender-blind educationoperations. ItiscriticalthatBank severe gender equityproblems, such asChadandEritrea,had Bank educationprojectsfrom2002to2004countrieswith increased inequity. Even moreproblematic,inasampleofall unintended consequenceofprivatization may strategies be ruralareasorthemostvulnerablegroups,marginalized the girls fromthelowestin educationbenefit quintile, themost of education.Withoutsafeguards toensure thatinvestments potentially exacerbating inequitythroughatwo-tier system families who areabletopay morefor education,while school expansionmay have disproportionately benefitted entails devolving the responsibility of the Bank 2010c). last decade, with$739millioncommittedjustin2010(World other educationalsub-sector, hascrested over $2billioninthe where thebeneficiariesaremorelikely tobementhaninany 2010c). On the other hand, Bank support foreducation, tertiary education lendingfor low-income countries(World Bank levelprimary schoolingsince2000, orjustover 1%ofits Bank hasinvested only $174 millionof$12.65 billioninpre- readiness andequalizeschoolchancesofboys andgirls, the 2011). Similarly, whereas ECCEcangreatly improve school gender atthehouseholdlevel (World Bank2010c,Stromquist men —revealing astartlingneglectofthesocialdimensions of — where women facemuchhigher levels ofilliteracythan income countriesbetween 2000and2010onadultliteracy Bank hasspentlessthan1%ofitseducationlendingfor low Lack ofinvestment inwomen-friendly sub-sectors: The operations are gender-responsive (World Bank 2010a). confirm that more effort is needed to ensure that all education gender integration in teacher training and vocational training generation gender issues such as quality, the weak levels of of gender parity in some countries, and the focus on second- linked to the increase in programmatic lending, the achievement of gender has declined since 2001. While the decrease may be concerns, the IEG found that the Education Sector’s integration for the Bank’s Education Sector to explicitly integrate gender Lack of gender integration: project design. consistent inclusionofequityobjectives andindicatorsin and considerationfor equitybutthatwillnottranslateinto targets, educationprojectsmay well includestrongrhetoric groups. Withoutstrongaccountabilityfor gender-related especially incountries withhighratesofdisparitybetween ensure accountability for improving distributionalequity, objectives, interventions andindicatorsbemonitoredto willaccesseducation,itisimperativegroups thatexplicit do notnecessarily ensure thatthemostmarginalized general interventions toimprove level aggregate enrollments in many Africancountries(World Bank2011b).Given that gender equityobjective despitethediregender inequality in Africa,only oneoutof49projectsexplicitly includeda years have includedexplicit gender equityobjectives —and for thepoor, while 8% ofBankprojectsover thepastten committed toimproving oreducationoutcomes services of discrimination.Onaverage 15%ofeducationprojects for disability, orotherethno-linguisticforms religion address specificdistributionalissues for gender, letalone accountability ofeducationoperationsdonotconsistently treatment ofequityissues, monitoringand theprojectdesign, while educationsectordocumentshave relatively frequent Theeducationportfolioin projectdesign. review shows that reveals astrikinglackofequitytargets explicitly included portfolio review by theBank’s IndependentEvaluation Group department) projectappraisals, findings fromtherecent and rural/urbaninequalitiesintheBank’s (educationsector/ of distributionalissues includingincomeinequality, gender Lack ofequitymeasures: Despiterelatively stronganalysis Further heightening the urgency make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 43 Lincove (2009) Lincove “Clearly, attention to gender equity equity gender to attention “Clearly, World for a prerequisite is not Bank financing.” —  “Beginning in 2010, the Bank will commit US$750 million to those US$750 million to the Bank will commit “Beginning in 2010, MDGs with an emphasis the education furthest from countries work Bank will World The Africa. in Sub-Saharan on countries the in particular through with development partners, closely to financing and up results-based scale to Initiative, Track Fast side interventions in these countries…demand innovative support transfer cash conditional scholarships, interventionsgirls’ as such to obstacles address successfully can and school grants programs populations, for disadvantaged and attendance school enrollment lagging in areas.” as well as “education for the knowledge economy” (World Bank 2011c). The The 2011c). Bank (World economy” knowledge the for “education support (1) through, this achieve will sector education Bank’s achieve to capacity systems’ education strengthen to reforms of and base knowledge high-quality a building (2) goals; learning aid and resources government of effectiveness the increasing (3) 2011d). Bank (World education for for All’ Education Sector Strategy states that ‘Learning The the scale and identifying equity by educational will improve disparities (directing education system cause of the largest in specific targets assessment and benchmarking to include to be most likely equality) and then up-scaling interventions Strategy the Bank states: footnote to the In a effective. Sector will take Education sign that the Bank’s It is a positive inequality in action to tackle gender the call for seriously new notes that the Bank’s review education. The IEG portfolio that not ensure on learning “does education strategy’s focus (World or will be the first to benefit” the poor will be targeted for All’ to the benefits of ’Learning Bank 2011c). In order for expanding enrollment girls, quality education for improve sub- especially disparities, in countries with high gender along with to be maintained as a focus will need nationally, to maintain quality standards and achieve the imperatives Bank 2011b). learning outcomes (World Learning for All: All: for Learning In many Bank operations outside the education education the outside operations Bank many In The Bank’s new education sector strategy called ‘Learning for for ‘Learning called strategy sector education new Bank’s The All’, For ‘Education theme Strategy 2000 the to opposed (as All’, achieve to capacity systems’ education strengthening on focuses strategy, The goals. math and reading learning, The Education Sector Strategy 2020: The All Learning for Development Promote to Skills and Knowledge People’s in Investing on focus to education basic from focus Bank’s the expanding is post-primary and completion primary universal objectives: two Lack of demand-side incentives to safeguard girls’ education: sector, demand-side interventions have been included, to great great to included, been have interventions demand-side sector, transfer cash conditional for support Bank including — success 2010b). Bank (World billion $2.4 worth countries, 13 in programs basing communities, and parents by cost-sharing Reducing stipends, providing targets, equity gender on grants school demand-side other and fees school eliminating scholarships, education of accessibility the strengthen to help will incentives for demand low a displayed historically have which groups for the by underutilized been have strategies these Yet, education. Africa, in decade past the over sector: education the in Bank demand of forms other and scholarships stipends, of use the used was populations marginalized support to financing side Bank the While 2010). (Mundy projects education 35 of 9 just in and development community protection, social in CCTs uses of impact intra-sectoral the sectors, development human other primary of completion girls’ to made be to need subsidies these conditional addition, In school. secondary to transition and education in often more employed be to need transfers cash and equity; improve to strategy a as themselves operations and reduction progressive the during measure interim an as school public up shore to fees school public of elimination families. poor from cost-recovery reducing while revenues 44 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education in education will require a stronger emphasis on government gender equity. The implications of private sector expansion privatization in education and with it the associated risks to quality measures and policy advice may accelerate the rate of is premised on government uptake of Bank diagnostic tools, providers, and a shift towards ‘system strengthening’ which all learning opportunities in society, including private education In addition, the redefinition of education systems to encompass outcomes. social measured easily less with processes education transformative socially invest in to opportunity the may miss Bank the biases, and roles gendered of reproduction and production the of site the are schools that ignores which ‘learning’ of definition limited a such by defined agenda ‘results-based’ a to turning By practices. social and norms gender of transformation meaningful more to lead which topics educational those ignores and skills foundational of definition limited a provides outcomes math and reading Bank’s The mechanisms toenforce thegender policy. which lacks consistentapplication ofgender safeguards and ‘education systems,’ andtheinstitutionalcontext oftheBank reference toandrelianceonprivate providers asapartof concern: itsnarrow focus on mathandreading,itsexpanding However, afew elementsinthenew strategygive causefor implement thefollowing practicesinordertoimprove equalityineducation: theirimpactongirls’ The World Bank,includingitsseniormanagement,directors, country educationsectorboardandtaskmanagers should recommendations bank world ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Bank educationpolicyadvice andfinance. while ensuring thatallprojectscontainequitymeasures to ensure areabletobenefitfrom that thepoorestgroups andwomen,needs ofgirls includingby increasinginvestments inpre-primary, andadultliteracy— secondary Invest in education for girls and women: gender-sensitive practice and support for the implementation of school-level strategies to increase girls' participation. gender-sensitize all decentralization training and workshops, improved training of school directors and teachers in strengthen the capacity and awareness of sub-national decision-making bodies, including through investments to Make decentralization work for girls: groups, and improving the links of education to sex-disaggregated vocational and livelihoodslarge disparities outcomes. in education project design, investing in demand-side and other interventionsby: assessing to target gender marginalized and minority disaggregated baseline data, including equity objectivesEngender for educationgroups which operations: still face level,at thesecondary andensuring gender-responsive budget practicesareused. supports toeducationalattainment such asnutrition,healthetc.,thecostsof eliminatingallschool fees, especially account ofthetruecostsachieving gender targets ineducationcoverage, includingtheprovision ofmulti-sector Invest wisely toachieve gender equality:The planningscenariostakeWorld Bankshouldensure thatcountry gender-responsive education operations). experts in country offices to engender all Bank operations (including identification, design and implementation of that Country Directors allocate resources to address gender gaps identified in CGAs and locating empowered gender Address the gender gaps: lending instruments. in gender towhich training andthedegree Bankdepartmentshave gender integrated issues into itsmainpolicyand with gender operational policies, theextent towhich departmentsareconductinggender analyses andparticipating Track The thegender policy: World BankshouldenhancemonitoringandreportingonBank-wide compliance Learning for All Strategy’s All for Learning The World Bank should mandate addressing gender gaps in all Bank activities, by requiring narrow focus on on focus narrow The Education Sector must ensure that all education operations are gender-sensitive The Bank’s support for decentralization must include specific measures to The World Bank’s Learning for All Strategy must prioritize the learning completion and transition to secondary for girls. and identify gender-sensitive means to strengthen primary should urgently address the bottlenecks in secondary education the Bank homes in on pressure-points in education systems, it parity measures to include learning and quality. Particularly as — and be linked to explicit outcomes for girls that go beyond increased investments in ECCE, secondary and adult education promotion, female participation in local education governance, training, curriculum reform, female teacher recruitment and to promote gender equality including gender-sensitive teacher A focus on ‘systems strengthening’ should also include activities indicators throughout all program functions. measures (in both scale and measure) as a cross-cutting set of be designed from the outset to track and code gender equality Education for Results part on the Bank’s global inform its system strengthening approach will be based in large backgrounds. The Bank’s ‘high quality knowledge base’ to up-scaling interventions to target girls from disadvantaged monitoring of sex and income disaggregated indicators, and that education operations target the poor through enhanced environments, and respect for labor rights. It will be critical bottom quintile, including by ensuring fee-free education, safe coordination and regulation of private schools to benefit the (SABER). At a minimum, SABER should System Assessment and Benchmarking make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 45 e t s a F ll A found found Education Girls’ Tracking Fast or F The recently released report released recently The that girls seen an increase in in FTI-endorsed countries had gross — demonstrating enrollment rates from 82% to 100% on aggregate gross of relying enrollment rates. the dangers at girls’ looking A more accurate picture is painted when rose also which primary school completion in FTI countries, meaning that girls’ — but from 56% in 2002 to 68% in 2008, rates of gross — though increasing — mask huge enrollments FTI countries contrasts the data for drop-out. Nevertheless, endorsed low-income non-FTI with the data for strongly disparities in much greater gender have which countries, half of in over enrollment, completion and learning. Indeed, or are achieved have girls and boys FTI-endorsed countries, equal primary (Clarke school completion close to achieving and Wilson 2011). FTI-endorsed countries are many Despite this progress, in primary enrollment school, low overall characterized by parity in primary some remain far from reaching gender in gender gaps large more have school and significantly While the enrollment and completion at the secondary level. with last decade has witnessed significant improvements respect to girls’ and completion of primary access school, at secondary equality is still a dream, particularly level, gender As the partnership the majority of FTI-endorsed countries. for expands to include countries with high populations and of problems facing girls’ to access the range fragile states, basic education will become more complex and require more in FTI-endorsed even Furthermore, solutions. proactive parity in access has been achieved, gender countries where impacts girls’ poor education quality disproportionately every In repetition, retention and performance. attendance, girls in primary school significantly high-income country, counterparts in reading. In FTI- their male outperform there is not one country girls are where endorsed countries, (Clark and Wilson 2011). boys outperforming significantly focus on primaryThe FTI’s access and completion has led to that numeric gains in girls’ education but it is imperative to strengthen its approach to gender the partnership works learning, primaryequality in early completion, and transition to secondary school. for within FTI processes There are a number of levers education plan preparation, appraisal, endorsement, financing, capacity building and monitoring to incentivize their education strategies and support gender-responsive Education al community to advanc e b h T glo e e quality: e nitiativ I r

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as make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 47 zero-sum game of policy trade-offs will only further hamper hamper further only will trade-offs policy of game zero-sum interventions of up-scaling immediate the towards progress equality. gender increase to targeted reform: A breakthrough for girls’ A breakthrough for FTI reform: education? evaluation mid-term a underwent partnership FTI the 2009, In has which operations, its of impact and quality the determine to forward way the about deliberation and debate much sparked huge a provides process reform current The partnership. the for gender integrate meaningfully to partners FTI the to opportunity — guidance and frameworks policies, activities, its into issues bold achieve and set to partners its for incentives the re-tool and and redesign a undergoes FTI the As education. girls’ in targets campaign replenishment a in culminating 2011, in re-launch as itself position could FTI EFA the billion, $2.5 raise to aiming education. girls’ in breakthrough a inspire to mechanism the leadership a assume to intention its signalled has FTI Indeed, education girls’ adopting by education girls’ of area the in role 4 coming the over prioritize to commits it that themes 3 of 1 as commitment strong expressed has draft initial the While years. further education, girls’ to support improve and expand to and credible a as position FTI’s establish to needed is elaboration sphere. this in progress for force influential girls’ a breakthrough for education it is critical achieve To all into mainstreamed are targets equity gender that strong FTI the of members all that and process the of components including funding, behind align their support, partnership of working ways of new A range these targets. achieving and a comprehensive could, if done right, incentivize This inconsistent inclusion of gender in country-level gender in country-level This inconsistent inclusion of no national education planning has meant that in practice, failing to integrate for been rejected education plan has ever nor has there been consistent screening of plans for gender What and interventions. measures objectives, gender-related efforts phase of the FTI partnership’s will be critical in the next systematically countries have why address is to effectively equity. address gender neglecting to robustly failed girls by than one gender- While 28 of the FTI countries included more teacher (curriculum/textbook, intervention responsive administration school feeding, training, monitoring outcomes, teachercapacity, management, health and HIV/AIDS, advocacy school environment, scholarships and incentives, as countries such — poorly-performing and policies) and laws all low and the Central African Republic, Liberia, Togo, Niger, paid scant attention have Table, on the Availability performers girls in their education faced by to the gaping disadvantages for their ESP and financing despite FTI approval systems (Clark and Wilson 2011). coordinating in role a played also has partnership FTI The the however, ESPs; of costing the in donors and governments achieve to gap financing the estimate to tools planning scenario under-estimated been typically have education basic universal does tools these on reliance the practice, In 2010). (Cambridge gender eliminate to measures of costing proper encourage not accept to loathe be may donors While inequities. other and governments and equity gender achieving of costs true the external of sums unrealistic for ask to unwilling similarly the and costs of underestimation consistent the finance, 48 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education Pakistan. Thecomplexity ofthesecountriesrequires a Democratic Republic oftheCongo, Ethiopia, Nigeria and FTI hasstartedtoengage inAfghanistan,Bangladesh, the 2. the dream of free Education For All. results in gender equity, the FTI can enable countries to realize the basis of needs and performance in achieving measurable cycle and providing top-up financing for countries both on political will to achieve gender parity throughout the schooling By increasing funding for countries which demonstrate the equity in education including in gender-sensitive budgeting. increased focus on building country capacity to advance gender technical assistance at the plan implementation level with an FTI also needs to strengthen and increase its support for in education are responsive to the needs of girls. and ensure that demand and supply-side policies and practices responsive macroeconomic programs, undergo a gender audit ensure that countries with large gender gaps adopt gender- financing gap. The IMF, World Bank and FTI partners should budgeting rather than concern to reduce the calculation of the gender-responsive on based and available, publicly and Therefore the costing of these education plans must be rigorous andthetransitiontolowercompletion ofprimary secondary. and theprovision ofdemand-sideincentives toencourage the level, andsecondary elimination ofallschoolfees atprimary ways. TheFTIshouldoffer additionalfundingto supportthe side incentives inappropriately structuredandtargeted targets anddata andprovide top-upfinancinganddemand- they utilizeresults frameworks withgender-disaggregated FTI financingisinvested in gender-responsive programs, that funds, mostcommonly theWorld Bank,shouldensure that educationstrategies.girls’ Entity The for FTI Supervising forbe eligible additionalfinancingtodevelop andimplement with largeshould gender andsecondary disparitiesinprimary education butalsothetransitiontolower secondary. Countries funding andpolicysupport toincludenotjustprimary imperative thatFTIdonorsexpandthepurposesoftheir Given incentivizing thesignificant roleofFTIfinance, itis 1. new strategyshould: the schoolcompletionandtransitiontosecondary primary a breakthroughforeducation,includingincreasing girls’ of gender equity. For theFTIpartnershiptotruly leverage FTIpolicyandfundingbehindtheprinciple toalign strategies is considerablescopefor arange ofboldandambitious and identifyingthemosteffective implementation,there As theFTIpartnershipsetsoutdefiningitspolicypriorities FTI partnerstomake concretetherighttoEducation For All. holistic approachtogender equalitywhich willenableall out-of-school girls. out-of-school world’s the of majority the for account which states, post-conflict and fragile populations, out-of-school large with countries address Better school. secondary for fees abolishing to approach ambitious more a include secondary, lower and to transition girls’ for support policy and financing of scope the Expand

3. in support toincreasesocialprotectionfor ofprograms girls. in thesecountriesmustensure thatresourcesarecoordinated and multilateral organizations and Education Clusters working to overcome thesebarrierstoUPCandgender equity. Bilateral analysis thatiswell context suited tothecountry initsefforts ofthesepartnerships,the beginning agendered integrates effort to succeed, itisimperative thattheFTISecretariat,from inotherlow-incomethe situationofgirls countries. For this the barrierstogender equitythey faceare quitedifferent to settings,in accessingandcompletingschoolfragile and different, tailoredapproach.Girlsfaceincreasedchallenges to stronger, morecomprehensive policies. its processwillstrengthenthe country-level processandlead that areaffected by theFTIareabletoeffectively participate in as thecountry-level process. Ensuring thatallstakeholders tendstobeasstrongorweakand therefore FTIin-country The FTImodelisheavily dependentoncountry-level processes 4. especially nationalandlocalwomen’s groups. participation, includingtheparticipationofcivil society, and should besystematized andannualwith multi-stakeholder advancing towards ambitioustargets ingender equity. They in countriesasneededtoensure areeffectively thatstrategies gender outcomesandfacilitateresponsive course-correction The JSRs mustreportonplanperformance withrespectto policy work todevelop inESPs. educationstrategies girls’ the FTIshouldprovide sufficient additionalfinancing for To incentivize gender countriestointegrate intotheirESPs, advancing gender equityareincludedintheESP. the appraisalprocessneedstoensure thatstrongtargets for this outcome, includingby alldata,and sex-disaggregating measure bothquantitative andqualitative toward progress in society. TheindicatorsintheRFshould bechosento skills they needtoprotect themselves andfully participate schoolwiththe fromsecondary graduate girls marginalized relevant, appropriateandofasufficiently highqualitysothat schoolasanoverarchingsecondary objective. Schoolmustbe withuniversalare sex-disaggregated, completionofquality The RFneedstobeboldwithstrongtargets andindicatorsthat it hasreliedoninthepast. the narrow and instrumental benchmarks for educationwhich those identified under the 4A framework, if it is to overcome the obstacles to implementing the right to education, including effectively achieve education outcomes — but it must address the entire FTI partnership by articulating the results chain to new RFcouldserve tounifyasoundpolicy framework for their collective efforts inachieving theobjectives in ESPs. The Group includinggovernment partnerstocoherently monitor Sector, willallow Reviews membersoftheLocalEducation for planendorsement,ESPs, Status Reports Country and Joint process. Incombinationwiththerevised Appraisal Guidelines and strengthentheconnectionbetween allstepsintheFTI intended tosetouttheobjectives thepartnershipwillachieve The FTIisdeveloping anew Results Framework which is Engender country-level coordination. gender intothenew ResultsIntegrate Framework (RF) make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 49 in

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in States notably partnerships subscribe All and to aligned It to countries substantial education. significant Development and This Room for improvement in development co-operation 50 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education interacts withtheWorld Bank’s inconsistentor contradictory reveals how thegender-blindness oftheIMF’sprevailing views the report’sexamination oftherole IFIsisinstructive. It While the locus of change is and always will level,be at country this dream. political will,backed by resources, willbeneededtorealize and empowering isnotimpossible, butamassive increase in tohavegirls aneducationthatiscomplete, safe, enriching countries. Achieving acrossthe boardtoenable progress highlights examples ofpracticesthathave worked insome identifies clearpriorities for action by governments and experience. At thesametime, useofthe4Aframework practices thatdiminishthequalityandlengthoftheirlearning Consequently aresubject girls toavariety ofdiscriminatory needed toimprove availability acrossalllevels ofeducation. exposes theuneven adoptionofpoliciesandpractices the ‘lenses’ofaccessibility, acceptability and adaptability, Analysis oftheunderlying causesofthisdisparity, through tolerated by any government orinternationalinstitution. even inschool.Thesearerightsviolationsthatshouldnotbe risk ofbeingterrorizedorsexually subjugated ontheway toor havegirls even morebarrierstocontendwith,facingserious far aseducationalopportunityisconcerned.Inconflictstates, communitiesareatthebottomof heap as marginalized are taken from intoaccount,itisclearthatpoorergirls levels ofeducation.Whenmultiplefactorsdisadvantage early andhave farfewer tohigher chancesofprogressing aremorelikelygirls thanboys school todropoutofprimary experience ofeducation:infartoomany poorercountries, The Availability girls’ Table castsaharsh lightontherealityof realizing therighttoEducation For aswell Allgirls asboys. This reporthasshown justhow farthe world isfromtruly abuse and fear girls face in and out of school is ended. concrete steps to ensure that the persistent discrimination, historic wrong, governments around the world can make around the world. By setting a collective goal to set right this women’s rights perpetuated under the watch of governments the serious shortcomings of the past and current assault on to correct course, the international community must face trajectory for women and girls, and for the planet. Yet in order for a more sustainable, exponential and equitable development cannot be questioned or bargained with. It should light the path The right to an education that is free, quality and emancipating girl to C 11 onclu s s ’ right to to right ’ ion: r ion: e n e wing commitm wing e ducation the top of the international agenda. agenda. international the of top the at place rightful its at community global the to concern vital of issue this put and education and gender on effort similar a for stage the set should 2011 2015. to up period the in change for momentum valuable created nevertheless initiative the contested, were commitments some 2010.Although September in MDGs the on meeting High-Level UN the at showcased and together brought were that partners all from commitments of raft a in resulted This children. and women of health the improve to effort targeted a in — agencies Nations United and sector, society civil corporate the foundations, governments, including — key partners together brought SG 2010,the and 2009 throughout engagement sustained salutary. is health Through newborn and maternal on progress accelerating for Plan Action Joint a of development General’s Secretary- UN the of experience recent The policies. macro conducive and will political increased for conditions the create to essential be also will leadership political High-level boys alike. through arenewed partnershipforand theeducationofgirls and civil society —willberequiredtoup-scaletheirefforts occupied. AllFTIpartners—developing countries, donors seize thismomentandstepoutoftheshadows ithastoolong considerable interesttotheinternationalcommunity. Itmust the plateandprove thatitcanleverage change inthisareaof in education.2011couldbedecisive year for FTItostepup and framework for countriestoprioritizegender equality has notyet fulfilleditspromiseinproviding the motivation especially enrollment—have ingirls’ beenimpressive, FTI the EFA FTIhasaclearroletoplay. Whilesomeresults — As thesolemulti-lateralfinancingmechanism for education, more widely. sector planningthatcombatgender injusticeineducationand is requiredtoensure thatthey encourage macroeconomic and major shiftinthefundamentalapproachesofbothinstitutions do notsupport thespiritandletterof4Aframework. A large andeducationinparticular. Currently, theIFIs’policies address deeply-entrenched gender inequalitiesinsocietyat in education,providing governments withlimitedtoolsto have topursue progressive pathways togender equality Together theireffect istocurtailthe spacethatcountries policies andpracticesregardinggender andeducation. e nt nt

make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education 51 Improvements in the school infrastructure, such as building separate latrines and ensuring secure school premises. as building separate latrines and ensuring such the school infrastructure, in Improvements the teaching profession. in balanced representation of men and women policies that ensure Recruitment positive as ensuring teaching and learning, such bias and stereotypes in to eliminate gender Measures classroom practice and training in gender-equitable textbooks in representation of women schools. violence within of gender address all forms and practices to eliminate and properly Laws enrollment, progression for and learning targets of progress equity-based against Tracking and location, among others. wealth grade, age, gender, that disaggregates data by in a way Progressive elimination of the cost barriers preventing girls completing primary from school and progressing to elimination of the cost barriers preventing Progressive such as and demand-side measures fees and other charges This should include abolition of secondary and tertiary. transportation to school. or free programs feeding and subsidized school stipends, ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Strong government plans, backed by resources, must be the centerpiece of efforts to achieve gender equality gender equality to achieve must be the centerpiece of efforts resources, by backed plans, Strong government This must be audit of national education strategies. should conduct a gender in education. All governments girls’ to that policies and plans to promote and foster right to ensure budgeting gender-responsive complemented by plans should address the following: funded. All government education are fully ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Governments should be open and transparent in their budgeting and planning processes and especially engage engage and planning processes and especially should be open and transparent in their budgeting Governments society participation in education sector planning groups as part of their commitment to broad-based civil women’s oversight. and budget to prohibit discriminatory as practices in school administration, such must also table and enact laws Governments on grounds of pregnancy or child marriage. exclusion at the UNGASS in September 2011 to raise event a high-level should convene Nations Secretary-General The United education, and set out a global strategy to ensure equality in in gender of the enduring challenge political awareness equality in education at all levels. gender to achieve to up-scale interventions that concrete action is taken gender equality in education commitments to achieve for eliciting new should establish a process event The high-level should report back in 2012. which 2011 must be the year for concrete action at national, regional and global level towards achieving not only gender parity parity gender not only achieving towards action at national, regional concrete and global level for 2011 must be the year A common policy and girls equally. in primary boys for enrollment, but also the full realization of the right to education girls and accessible for and that primary to ensure available and secondary schooling is fully should be developed agenda between of inequalities non-discrimination and the overcoming towards geared that the education practiced in schools is the education system. and girls within and beyond boys Schools and adaptable. acceptable accessible, but also available, not only education make and must act to can Governments to primary and learn in school up to stay opportunity the have that girls will ensure This girls. for and safe should be free secondary to and tertiary levels. and progress completion 1. The way forward in 2011: action now for women and women for forward girls now in 2011: action way The The intention of this report is to provide a hard-hitting wake-up call to governments, donors, and campaigners and that donors, governments, to call wake-up a hard-hitting to provide of this report is The intention best of rights violations, examples on drawn The report has equality. of gender goal on the EFA is still failing the world will need to recast global community The recommendations. and make conclusions draw lessons learned to practice and equality gender the redefining Goal by the third Millennium Development beyond go equality to of gender the goal on access to primary secondary on the transition to and completion of not only but also focusing school. indicators, of overcoming geared towards the education experience is that indicators to ensure qualitative These should include more the need for highlighting By school. and girls within and beyond boys between stereotyping and inequalities adaptability availability, accessibility, the improve (to framework 4A the across interventions gender-sensitive/responsive and stay they girlsin school, ensure to get advocacy to inform report seeks all), the education for and acceptability of school. discrimination within and beyond in overcoming geared experience an education agenda agenda for change: report recommendations 3. the role of international the State, equality in education is gender in the quest to achieve While the main locus of change equal rights in and through to secure engage in efforts must actively community institutions remains vital. The global and boys. girls for education 4. 5. 2. 52 make it right: Ending the Crisis in Girls’ Education countries that scored 76–70% received 2 points, countries that scored 69–60% received 1 point, and countries that scored 59% 59% scored points. that 0 received countries lower and or point, 1 received 69–60% scored that countries points, 2 received 76–70% points, scored 3 that received countries 81–77% scored that countries points, 4 received 86–82% scored that countries scored points, that 5 received countries 89–87% points, 6 received 91–90% scored that countries points, 7 received 93–92% 8 scored that received 95–94% countries scored points, that countries points, 9 received 97–96% scored that countries points, 10 that received countries 100–98% indicator, scored this For exemplify. to order in used be can girls’ for primary to NER ‘adjusted of indicator first The system. scoring the within weighting equal received indicators eight the indicator. of each Each for countries between variance the reflect to as so devised were boundaries score the that noted be should 10. It and 0 between score a to correspond indicator,For figures each the Principe, Guyana, Bhutan,Belize, andDjibouti. Verde, Kiribati,Comoros, Micronesia,Samoa,SolomonIslands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanatu, MarshallIslands, Maldives, SaoTome and capita oflessthan$3000. Withinthis, countrieswere excluded ifthey have apopulationoflessthan1million.ThisincludedCape wascountry given ascoreof‘0’ for thatindicator. Themaincriterion for inclusioninthetable was countrieswithaGDPper from theUIS, eitherdirectly orformed ascompositeindicators, frombetween 2005–2010. Wheredatawas notavailable the education.Thereareatotalof8indicatorsin thescoringtable,on girls’ giving amaximumscoreof80points. Thedataistaken The Availability Table isnotaprecise rankingofcountriesbutrathera system for demonstrating overall positionandprogress ann 9. 8. 7. 6. issues, aswell retention,completionandlearningforboys. girls life. Thepost-MDGframework shouldincludecomprehensive targets thataddress governance andimplementation policies thatwillensure canstay thatgirls inschoolandacquirethelearningthey needtoempower themthroughout Pursuit ofthegoal ofgender parityinenrollmentshasobscuredtheneedfor balancedattentionto, andinvestment in, andcountrieswhere aredisadvantagedregions girls relative toboys. elimination ofallcost-barrierstoeducation.Bilateralsupport needstobepredictableandshouldtargeted towards genderschool,includingtheprogressivebilateral support withagreed inalignment targetsandsecondary inprimary All educationdonorsshouldmake robust3-year commitmentstotheFTIreplenishment,while scalinguptheir education. and thatthenew Learningfor Allstrategyprioritizesgender parityinaccessandlearningthroughoutalllevels of The World Bankshouldensure withandoperationsinclientcountriesare thatallagreements gender sensitive, gender-sensitive andaccountfor thedisproportionateburdenonwomen ofpublicsectorspendingconstraints. The IMFandMinistriesofFinanceshouldensure thatmacroeconomicmodelling,advice andpolicymakingare e x x A The global community must actively engage in efforts to secure equal rights in and through education for girls and boys.