Factors Influencing the Implementation of Ground Based Solar Parks
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Factors influencing the implementation of ground based solar parks. A case study research on the implementation of ground based solar parks in Fryslân and Groningen. Rinske Pollema Wageningen UR Factors influencing the implementation of ground based solar parks. A case study research on the implementation of ground based solar parks in Friesland, and Groningen. Rinske Pollema 920829 662 090 Wageningen, February 2018. LUP80436 MSc Thesis Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning Wageningen University Supervisor: dr. ir. W. van der Knaap Second reviewer: dr. ir. G.J. Carsjens This thesis is the final product of my student career. I thank everyone who contributed to the creation of this thesis. Especially I thank everyone who supported me at home and at the office of Ekwadraat. ii Summary Climate change is increasingly visible and felt by humans and nature. One of the measures we can take to limit the impact of climate change is to stop using fossil fuels and to start using sustainable energy. However, our society is equipped for fossil fuels and not for sustainable energy. Spatial planners all over the world are trying to integrate the sustainable energy sources in the landscape the best they can. One of the renewable energy sources is solar energy. Solar energy at a large scale is increasingly realized on the ground, so-called ground based solar parks. These solar parks are visible in the landscape, and this change sometimes leads to resistance at the level of citizens, but also at the level of the municipalities and provinces. In the research, I focus on socio-technical transition theory, more specifically on the multi-level perspective, combined with the TPSN framework at the spatial scale. Based on this theory, different factors influencing the implementation of ground based solar parks have been researched. Three different cases have been researched. All three cases received in 2014 the SDE+ subsidy and are located in the provinces of Fryslân or Groningen. The cases are EK Garyp in Garyp, Sunport Delfzijl in Delfzijl and Vierverlaten in Hoogkerk. The results of this research show that the three cases have been realized at fairly easy locations. All three locations are locations that cannot be seen from the surrounding houses. Two of the locations were already intended as industrial area. The third location is situated at a former dumpsite, at which the municipality already was looking for a new usage. It appears that the concepts industry, culture, and areal differentiation mainly played a role in the implementation of these three ground based solar parks. However, as the land in the Netherlands becomes more scarce, other factors can become more important. The importance of a good financing system and awareness of the public has become clear through other countries. Ground based solar parks could be implemented in the time given by the SDE subsidies (3-4 years) if they are structurally integrated into the regime. The window of opportunity is opened, now it needs to be integrated into the regime. However, it is important to continuously research the development of the planning of usage of land in relation to the realization of sustainable energy projects in the Netherlands. iii List of abbreviations and frequently used units and values In this thesis, several technical units and values are used. To get a good understanding of these units and values, I will explain their meaning and relation to each other in this chapter. FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS A Ampere BMWA Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour BMU Federal Ministry for the Environment, nature conservation and nuclear safety EK Garyp Enerzjy Kooperaasje Garyp FiT Feed in Tariffs FSFE Fûns Skjinne Fryske Enerzjy (foundation which financially supports sustainable energy projects in Fryslân) FUMO Fryske Utfieringstsjinst Miljeu en Omjouing (Regional Enforcement Service) GHG Greenhouse Gasses GSP Groningen Seaports MPC Multi-phase concept MLP Multi-level perspective NEV Nationale Energie Verkenning (National Energy Outlook) NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan PBL Planbureau voor de leefomgeving (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency) PV panels Photovoltaic panels, or solar panels RES Renewable energy sources RES-E Electricity from renewable energy sources RETs Renewable energy techniques SNM Strategic niche management SDE+ subsidy Stimulering Duurzame Energie (stimulation of sustainable energy production subsidy) TM Transition management TPSN framework Territory, place, scale, and network framework UNITS AND VALUES To prevent using too many zeroes, prefixes are used. Prefixes can be used in front of every unit, in this report I will mainly use it for Watts. In the table below, these prefixes are explained. Prefix Short prefix Value Kilo K 1.000 Mega M 1.000.000 Giga G 1.000.000.000 Tera T 1.000.000.000.000 Peta P 1.000.000.000.000.000 iv FULL LOAD HOURS AND PRODUCTION FACTORS A kWh is the actual power produced by the solar panels. The amount depends on the intensity of the light and the hours of sunlight is called the full load hours and is calculated by kWh/kWp. A kWp (kilowatt peak) is the power of the PV installation, the power that solar panels generate under standard conditions, corresponding to the power that a panel generates during the best days of the year. SOLAR PARKS AND SPACE As Posad et al. (2017) mention, not only the size of the object is important. The impact on the spatial planning, how much energy it will generate, and how the object can be spatially embedded into its planned location have to be taken into account as well. The Dutch government therefore often uses PJ (petajoule) as the main unit. To understand the size and scale of this energy unit and to get a clear image of the units used in this thesis, figure 1 includes an illustration of one petajoule. One petajoule is about 277 MWh. 1 Figure 1. One Petajoule. Source: (Posad spatial strategies/ Generation.Energy; FABRICations; H+N+S lanschapsarchitecten; Dirk Sijmons; Studio marco Vermeulen; NRGlab/Wageningen Universiteit; Ruimtevolk, 2017) A solar park of 1 ha, produces roughly 1 MWp of solar power (GID, 2017). A solar park of one megawatt, therefore, is about the size of a farmyard, as is shown in Figure 2. 1 ha, size of a farmyard 10 ha, size of a few parcels 100 ha, size of a village Figure 2. Visualization of different sizes of solar parks. Source: RVO (2016). 1 Wind turbine: At 2240-3200 full load hours and a wind turbine of 3 MW. Solar park: With panels of a peak load of 270-420 Wp and 850 kWh/kWp, 2 rows of panels in a 35° angle, and 9 meters distance between two rows. v Table of contents Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ iii List of abbreviations and frequently used units and values ........................................................................... iv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Greenhouse gas emission ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The renewable energy transition ................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 The transition in the Netherlands .............................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Ground-based solar parks .......................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Spatial planning and energy ........................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Focus of the research ..................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Relevance of the research .......................................................................................................... 7 1.4.2 The aim of the research .............................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Readers guide ................................................................................................................................. 8 2. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Sustainable development ............................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Socio-technical transitions............................................................................................................ 11 2.3 Multi-level perspective (MLP) ...................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1 Temporal scale ......................................................................................................................... 16 2.3.2 Structural scale ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.3 Spatial scale .............................................................................................................................. 18 2.4 Schematic overview ...................................................................................................................... 23 3. Research objective and