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Malaria History
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License. Your use of this material constitutes acceptance of that license and the conditions of use of materials on this site. Copyright 2006, The Johns Hopkins University and David Sullivan. All rights reserved. Use of these materials permitted only in accordance with license rights granted. Materials provided “AS IS”; no representations or warranties provided. User assumes all responsibility for use, and all liability related thereto, and must independently review all materials for accuracy and efficacy. May contain materials owned by others. User is responsible for obtaining permissions for use from third parties as needed. Malariology Overview History, Lifecycle, Epidemiology, Pathology, and Control David Sullivan, MD Malaria History • 2700 BCE: The Nei Ching (Chinese Canon of Medicine) discussed malaria symptoms and the relationship between fevers and enlarged spleens. • 1550 BCE: The Ebers Papyrus mentions fevers, rigors, splenomegaly, and oil from Balantines tree as mosquito repellent. • 6th century BCE: Cuneiform tablets mention deadly malaria-like fevers affecting Mesopotamia. • Hippocrates from studies in Egypt was first to make connection between nearness of stagnant bodies of water and occurrence of fevers in local population. • Romans also associated marshes with fever and pioneered efforts to drain swamps. • Italian: “aria cattiva” = bad air; “mal aria” = bad air. • French: “paludisme” = rooted in swamp. Cure Before Etiology: Mid 17th Century - Three Theories • PC Garnham relates that following: An earthquake caused destruction in Loxa in which many cinchona trees collapsed and fell into small lake or pond and water became very bitter as to be almost undrinkable. Yet an Indian so thirsty with a violent fever quenched his thirst with this cinchona bark contaminated water and was better in a day or two. -
Sexual Development in Plasmodium Parasites: Knowing When It’S Time to Commit
REVIEWS VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES Sexual development in Plasmodium parasites: knowing when it’s time to commit Gabrielle A. Josling1 and Manuel Llinás1–4 Abstract | Malaria is a devastating infectious disease that is caused by blood-borne apicomplexan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. These pathogens have a complex lifecycle, which includes development in the anopheline mosquito vector and in the liver and red blood cells of mammalian hosts, a process which takes days to weeks, depending on the Plasmodium species. Productive transmission between the mammalian host and the mosquito requires transitioning between asexual and sexual forms of the parasite. Blood- stage parasites replicate cyclically and are mostly asexual, although a small fraction of these convert into male and female sexual forms (gametocytes) in each reproductive cycle. Despite many years of investigation, the molecular processes that elicit sexual differentiation have remained largely unknown. In this Review, we highlight several important recent discoveries that have identified epigenetic factors and specific transcriptional regulators of gametocyte commitment and development, providing crucial insights into this obligate cellular differentiation process. Trophozoite Malaria affects almost 200 million people worldwide and viewed under the microscope, it resembles a flat disc. 1 A highly metabolically active and causes 584,000 deaths annually ; thus, developing a After the ring stage, the parasite rounds up as it enters the asexual form of the malaria better understanding of the mechanisms that drive the trophozoite stage, in which it is far more metabolically parasite that forms during development of the transmissible form of the malaria active and expresses surface antigens for cytoadhesion. the intra‑erythrocytic developmental cycle following parasite is a matter of urgency. -
The Apicoplast: a Review of the Derived Plastid of Apicomplexan Parasites
Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 7: 57-80. Online journalThe Apicoplastat www.cimb.org 57 The Apicoplast: A Review of the Derived Plastid of Apicomplexan Parasites Ross F. Waller1 and Geoffrey I. McFadden2,* way to apicoplast discovery with studies of extra- chromosomal DNAs recovered from isopycnic density 1Botany, University of British Columbia, 3529-6270 gradient fractionation of total Plasmodium DNA. This University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada group recovered two DNA forms; one a 6kb tandemly 2Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, Botany, University repeated element that was later identifed as the of Melbourne, 3010, Australia mitochondrial genome, and a second, 35kb circle that was supposed to represent the DNA circles previously observed by microscopists (Wilson et al., 1996b; Wilson Abstract and Williamson, 1997). This molecule was also thought The apicoplast is a plastid organelle, homologous to to be mitochondrial DNA, and early sequence data of chloroplasts of plants, that is found in apicomplexan eubacterial-like rRNA genes supported this organellar parasites such as the causative agents of Malaria conclusion. However, as the sequencing effort continued Plasmodium spp. It occurs throughout the Apicomplexa a new conclusion, that was originally embraced with and is an ancient feature of this group acquired by the some awkwardness (“Have malaria parasites three process of endosymbiosis. Like plant chloroplasts, genomes?”, Wilson et al., 1991), began to emerge. apicoplasts are semi-autonomous with their own genome Gradually, evermore convincing character traits of a and expression machinery. In addition, apicoplasts import plastid genome were uncovered, and strong parallels numerous proteins encoded by nuclear genes. These with plastid genomes from non-photosynthetic plants nuclear genes largely derive from the endosymbiont (Epifagus virginiana) and algae (Astasia longa) became through a process of intracellular gene relocation. -
Reevaluation of the Toxoplasma Gondii and Neospora Caninum Genomes Reveals Misassembly, Karyotype Differences and Chromosomal Rearrangements
bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.22.111195; this version posted May 25, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. Reevaluation of the Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum genomes reveals misassembly, karyotype differences and chromosomal rearrangements Luisa Berna1, Pablo Marquez1, Andrés Cabrera1, Gonzalo Greif1, María E. Francia2,3,*, Carlos Robello1,4,* AUTHORS AFFILIATIONS 1 Laboratory of Host Pathogen Interactions-Molecular Biology Unit. Institut Pasteur de Montevideo. Montevideo, Uruguay 2 Laboratory of Apicomplexan Biology. Institut Pasteur de Montevideo. Montevideo, Uruguay. 3 Departamento de Parasitología y Micología. Facultad de Medicina-Universidad de la República. Montevideo, Uruguay. 4 Departamento de Bioquímica. Facultad de Medicina-Universidad de la República. Montevideo, Uruguay. *Corresponding authors ABSTRACT Neospora caninum primarily infects cattle causing abortions with an estimated impact of a billion dollars on worldwide economy, annually. However, the study of its biology has been unheeded by the established paradigm that it is virtually identical to its close relative, the widely studied human pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii. By revisiting the genome sequence, assembly and annotation using third generation sequencing technologies, here we show that the N. caninum genome was originally incorrectly assembled under the presumption of synteny with T. gondii. We show that major chromosomal rearrangements have occurred between these species. Importantly, we show that chromosomes originally annotated as ChrVIIb and VIII are indeed fused, reducing the karyotype of both N. -
The NTP Generating Activity of Pyruvate Kinase II Is Critical
RESEARCH ARTICLE The NTP generating activity of pyruvate kinase II is critical for apicoplast maintenance in Plasmodium falciparum Russell P Swift, Krithika Rajaram, Cyrianne Keutcha, Hans B Liu, Bobby Kwan, Amanda Dziedzic, Anne E Jedlicka, Sean T Prigge* Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States Abstract The apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum parasites is believed to rely on the import of three-carbon phosphate compounds for use in organelle anabolic pathways, in addition to the generation of energy and reducing power within the organelle. We generated a series of genetic deletions in an apicoplast metabolic bypass line to determine which genes involved in apicoplast carbon metabolism are required for blood-stage parasite survival and organelle maintenance. We found that pyruvate kinase II (PyrKII) is essential for organelle maintenance, but that production of pyruvate by PyrKII is not responsible for this phenomenon. Enzymatic characterization of PyrKII revealed activity against all NDPs and dNDPs tested, suggesting that it may be capable of generating a broad range of nucleotide triphosphates. Conditional mislocalization of PyrKII resulted in decreased transcript levels within the apicoplast that preceded organelle disruption, suggesting that PyrKII is required for organelle maintenance due to its role in nucleotide triphosphate generation. Introduction *For correspondence: With increasing resistance to current front-line antimalarials, there is a crucial need to find new thera- [email protected] peutic interventions with novel mechanisms of action (Dondorp et al., 2009; Trape, 2001). The api- coplast organelle within the parasite has often been considered as a source of new drug targets Competing interests: The since it is required for blood-stage survival, in addition to possessing evolutionarily distinct biochem- authors declare that no ical pathways that are not present in the human host (Goodman and McFadden, 2013; competing interests exist. -
The Protozoan Nucleus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 209(1-2), Pp
McCulloch, R., and Navarro, M. (2016) The protozoan nucleus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 209(1-2), pp. 76-87. (doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2016.05.002) This is the author’s final accepted version. There may be differences between this version and the published version. You are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/135296/ Deposited on: 22 February 2017 Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk *Manuscript Click here to view linked References The protozoan nucleus Richard McCulloch1 and Miguel Navarro2 1. The Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davis Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow, G12 8TA, U.K. Telephone: 01413305946 Fax: 01413305422 Email: [email protected] 2. Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avda. del Conocimiento s/n, 18100 Granada, Spain. Email: [email protected] Correspondence can be sent to either of above authors Keywords: nucleus; mitosis; nuclear envelope; chromosome; DNA replication; gene expression; nucleolus; expression site body 1 Abstract The nucleus is arguably the defining characteristic of eukaryotes, distinguishing their cell organisation from both bacteria and archaea. Though the evolutionary history of the nucleus remains the subject of debate, its emergence differs from several other eukaryotic organelles in that it appears not to have evolved through symbiosis, but by cell membrane elaboration from an archaeal ancestor. Evolution of the nucleus has been accompanied by elaboration of nuclear structures that are intimately linked with most aspects of nuclear genome function, including chromosome organisation, DNA maintenance, replication and segregation, and gene expression controls. -
History of the Discovery of the Malaria Parasites and Their Vectors Francis EG Cox*
Cox Parasites & Vectors 2010, 3:5 http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/3/1/5 REVIEW Open Access History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors Francis EG Cox* Abstract Malaria is caused by infection with protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Plasmodium transmitted by female Anopheles species mosquitoes. Our understanding of the malaria parasites begins in 1880 with the discovery of the parasites in the blood of malaria patients by Alphonse Laveran. The sexual stages in the blood were discovered by William MacCallum in birds infected with a related haematozoan, Haemoproteus columbae, in 1897 and the whole of the transmission cycle in culicine mosquitoes and birds infected with Plasmodium relictum was elucidated by Ronald Ross in 1897. In 1898 the Italian malariologists, Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli, Camillo Golgi and Ettore Marchiafava demonstrated conclusively that human malaria was also trans- mitted by mosquitoes, in this case anophelines. The discovery that malaria parasites developed in the liver before entering the blood stream was made by Henry Shortt and Cyril Garnham in 1948 and the final stage in the life cycle, the presence of dormant stages in the liver, was conclusively demonstrated in 1982 by Wojciech Krotoski. This article traces the main events and stresses the importance of comparative studies in that, apart from the initial discovery of parasites in the blood, every subsequent discovery has been based on studies on non-human malaria parasites and related organisms. Background Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in 1878-1879, the search Malaria is an ancient disease and references to what was for the cause of malaria intensified. -
Plasmodium Falciparum Full Life Cycle and Plasmodium Ovale Liver Stages in Humanized Mice
ARTICLE Received 12 Nov 2014 | Accepted 29 May 2015 | Published 24 Jul 2015 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8690 OPEN Plasmodium falciparum full life cycle and Plasmodium ovale liver stages in humanized mice Vale´rie Soulard1,2,3, Henriette Bosson-Vanga1,2,3,4,*, Audrey Lorthiois1,2,3,*,w, Cle´mentine Roucher1,2,3, Jean- Franc¸ois Franetich1,2,3, Gigliola Zanghi1,2,3, Mallaury Bordessoulles1,2,3, Maurel Tefit1,2,3, Marc Thellier5, Serban Morosan6, Gilles Le Naour7,Fre´de´rique Capron7, Hiroshi Suemizu8, Georges Snounou1,2,3, Alicia Moreno-Sabater1,2,3,* & Dominique Mazier1,2,3,5,* Experimental studies of Plasmodium parasites that infect humans are restricted by their host specificity. Humanized mice offer a means to overcome this and further provide the opportunity to observe the parasites in vivo. Here we improve on previous protocols to achieve efficient double engraftment of TK-NOG mice by human primary hepatocytes and red blood cells. Thus, we obtain the complete hepatic development of P. falciparum, the transition to the erythrocytic stages, their subsequent multiplication, and the appearance of mature gametocytes over an extended period of observation. Furthermore, using sporozoites derived from two P. ovale-infected patients, we show that human hepatocytes engrafted in TK-NOG mice sustain maturation of the liver stages, and the presence of late-developing schizonts indicate the eventual activation of quiescent parasites. Thus, TK-NOG mice are highly suited for in vivo observations on the Plasmodium species of humans. 1 Sorbonne Universite´s, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 91 Bd de l’hoˆpital, F-75013 Paris, France. -
The Parasitophorous Vacuole Membrane Surrounding Plasmodium and Toxoplasma: an Unusual Compartment in Infected Cells
Journal of Cell Science 111, 1467-1475 (1998) 1467 Printed in Great Britain © The Company of Biologists Limited 1998 JCS5005 COMMENTARY The parasitophorous vacuole membrane surrounding Plasmodium and Toxoplasma: an unusual compartment in infected cells Klaus Lingelbach1 and Keith A. Joiner2 1FB Biology/Zoology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany 2Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8022, USA Published on WWW 14 May 1998 SUMMARY Plasmodium and Toxoplasma belong to a group of are unique phenomena in cell biology. Here we compare unicellular parasites which actively penetrate their biological similarities and differences between the two respective mammalian host cells. During the process of parasites, with respect to: (i) the formation, (ii) the invasion, they initiate the formation of a membrane, the so- maintenance, and (iii) the biological role of the vacuolar called parasitophorous vacuolar membrane, which membrane. We conclude that most differences between the surrounds the intracellular parasite and which differs organisms primarily reflect the different biosynthetic substantially from endosomal membranes or the capacities of the host cells they invade. membrane of phagolysosomes. The biogenesis and the maintenance of the vacuolar membrane are closely related Key words: Host cell invasion, Membrane biogenesis, to the peculiar cellular organization of these parasites and Parasitophorous vacuole, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma INTRODUCTION several species of the genus Plasmodium as model systems. T. gondii and P. falciparum infect mammalian cells causing Apicomplexa are unicellular eukaryotes which are obligatory toxoplasmosis and human malaria, respectively. Both parasites intracellular parasites with short-lived extracellular stages. have complex life cycles. Our discussion will centre primarily Unlike many other microbial organisms which utilize on the erythrocytic stages (merozoitertrophozoiterschizont) phagocytic properties of their host cells for invasion, of P. -
Plasmodium Asexual Growth and Sexual Development in the Haematopoietic Niche of the Host
REVIEWS Plasmodium asexual growth and sexual development in the haematopoietic niche of the host Kannan Venugopal 1, Franziska Hentzschel1, Gediminas Valkiūnas2 and Matthias Marti 1* Abstract | Plasmodium spp. parasites are the causative agents of malaria in humans and animals, and they are exceptionally diverse in their morphology and life cycles. They grow and develop in a wide range of host environments, both within blood- feeding mosquitoes, their definitive hosts, and in vertebrates, which are intermediate hosts. This diversity is testament to their exceptional adaptability and poses a major challenge for developing effective strategies to reduce the disease burden and transmission. Following one asexual amplification cycle in the liver, parasites reach high burdens by rounds of asexual replication within red blood cells. A few of these blood- stage parasites make a developmental switch into the sexual stage (or gametocyte), which is essential for transmission. The bone marrow, in particular the haematopoietic niche (in rodents, also the spleen), is a major site of parasite growth and sexual development. This Review focuses on our current understanding of blood-stage parasite development and vascular and tissue sequestration, which is responsible for disease symptoms and complications, and when involving the bone marrow, provides a niche for asexual replication and gametocyte development. Understanding these processes provides an opportunity for novel therapies and interventions. Gametogenesis Malaria is one of the major life- threatening infectious Malaria parasites have a complex life cycle marked Maturation of male and female diseases in humans and is particularly prevalent in trop- by successive rounds of asexual replication across gametes. ical and subtropical low- income regions of the world. -
Malaria Challenge Presentation Notes(.Pdf, 2.3
1 Malaria is an infectious disease that is spread by mosquitoes, in particular female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. Malaria is a disease that is found in hundreds of different countries around the world and over 3 billion people are at risk from the disease. 2 Note this slide is animated Malaria is caused by a eukaryotic protist, a single celled organism. The parasite belongs to a genus known as Plasmodium. The image shows a false coloured micrograph showing one of the life stages of the parasite (shown in blue) inside human red blood cells. Four species of Plasmodium infect humans: • Plasmodium falciparum • Plasmodium vivax • Plasmodium malariae • Plasmodium ovale Click once Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are the parasites that cause the most cases of malaria worldwide. (Other two species are greyed out.) Click again Plasmodium falciparum can cause serious complications and can be fatal if untreated. It is responsible for the most deaths due to malaria. (Plasmodium vivax is greyed out) 3 Note this slide is animated Plasmodium has a complex life cycle. Part of it takes place inside a human host and part of it takes places inside a mosquito vector. There are essentially five key stages to the Plasmodium life cycle: 1. The Anopheles mosquito bites a human injecting the Plasmodium parasite which enters the humans blood. At this stage the parasite is in a form known as a sporozoite, which is long and thin and is capable of moving in between and within cells. 2. The parasite travels in the blood until it reaches the liver. -
Physarum Boats: If Plasmodium Sailed It Would Never Leave a Port
Applied Bionics and Biomechanics Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2010, 31–39 Physarum boats: if plasmodium sailed it would never leave a port Andrew Adamatzky∗ University of the West of England, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom (Received 8 January 2009; final version received 4 March 2009) Plasmodium of Physarum polycephalum is a single huge (visible by naked eye) cell with a myriad of nuclei. The plasmodium is a promising substrate for non-classical, nature-inspired computing devices. It is capable of approximation of the shortest path in a maze, computation of planar proximity graphs and plane tessellations, primitive memory and decision making. The unique properties of the plasmodium make it an ideal candidate for a role of amorphous biological robots with massive parallel information processing and distributed inputs and outputs. We show that when adhered to a lightweight object resting on a water surface the plasmodium can propel the object by oscillating its protoplasmic pseudopodia. In experimental laboratory conditions and computational experiments we study phenomenology of the plasmodium-floater system, and possible mechanisms of controlling motion of objects propelled by on-board plasmodium. Keywords: Physarum polycephalum; motility; biological robots 1. Introduction computer (Adamatzky et al. 2005) with parallel inputs and A plasmodium, or vegetative state, of Physarum poly- outputs. This ensures that the plasmodium explores the en- cephalum, also known as a true or multi-headed slime vironment in a distributed manner and responds to changes mould, is a single cell with many diploid nuclei; it be- in surrounding conditions as an amorphous, decentralised, haves like a giant amoeba. In 2000 Nakagaki (2001); and yet internally coordinated entity.