STATE OF 111E ARI REl^ORI ON IMPROVEDFORESTHARVESTING AND REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION
PRE-PROJECT PPD 19/99 REV. itF) STRENGTHENING SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENTOF NATURAL FOREST IN ASIA-PASIFIC ,
Cover page: Skidding 45, Reduced Impact Logging Activities, " Berau Forest Management Project (BMFP) " Location: Petak 29, Swakelola Labanan, East Kalimantan, PT. In hutani I STATE OF 11/1E ARI REPORT ON IMPROVEDFORESTHARVESTING AND REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION
PRE-PROJECT PPD 19199 REV. I (F) STRENGTHENINGSUSTAINABLEMANAGEMENTOF (^)^ NATURAL FOREST IN ASIA-PASIFIC o ITTO I
FOREWORD
The Indonesia Ministry of Forestry, in its capacity as Task Manager for the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission's Ad Hoc Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management, with support from the International Tropical Timber Organization has implemented a pre-project focused on the application of the code of practice for forest harvesting in Asia- Pacific. The development objective of the pre-project PPD I 9199 Rev. , (F); "Strengthening Sustainable Management of Natural Forest in Asia-Pacific" is to promote the contribution of forest harvesting to sustainable management of tropical forest in Asia-Pacific countries.
It is expected that after the pre-project completion the awareness of improves forest harvesting practices will have been significantly raised and political support for the implementation of the Code secured. To implement a comprehensive training programme and to operationalize demonstration sites for RIL implementation there is a need to understand the status of forest management particularly state of the art on forest harvesting in each Asia Pacific country. This state of the art report was prepared by Dr. Supriyanto, who worked closely with staff of the pre-project has reviewed available papers and references related with implementation of RIL in Asia- Pacific region, I wish this report could be utilized as basic information for designing proper training programmes and other planning process for the implementation of RIL in support to the achievement of sustainable management of natural forests in Asia-Pacific.
Project Manager PPD 19/99 Rev, I (F) \
^ DR. IG. ,,. TANTRA
, I
PREFACE
This paper on State-of-the-art report on improved forest harvesting and reduced impact logging conforms to the ITFO Year 2000 Objectives. It is also one of the outputs of the Pre-Project PPD 19/99 Rev. I (F): Strengthening Sustainable Management of Natural Forests in Asia-Pacific. Timber extraction always creates a negative environmental impact, but an acceptable level of environmental impact should be met to minimize the risk. Reduced-impact logging is one of the ways to minimize the environmental impact and in accordance with Sustainable Forest Management Principles. Awareness of forest stakeholders in Asia-Pacific region to implement the reduced impact logging technique is encouraged, In December 1995, ITrO and FAO jointly organized a regional consultation on the implementation of sustainable forest management in Asia and the Pacific regions , in Bangkok, Thailand. Two key recommendations emerging from that consultation were:
. a call for the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) to establish an ad hoc Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management, and . a suggestion to develop a regional code of practice for forest harvesting. At its 16'' Session in January 1996, the APFC subsequently established an ad hoc Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management and appointed Ministry of Forestry Indonesia as task manager with a priority mandate to develop the recommended regional code.
Between I996 and 1998, the APFC ad hoc Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management, developed the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific, through an exhaustive participatory process involving various stakeholders.
Technical and financial support for developing the code was provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the governments of Australia, Japan (through the Japan International Forestry Promotion and Co-operation Center, JIFRO). and the United States of America (through the Us DA Forest Service).
The code is intended to complement the 1770 Crtteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests and InO Criteria and Indibators for Sustainable Management of Natural
,.. 111 Tropical Forests. It focuses on practical field-oriented approaches to improving forest management. The 29-member country APFC formally endorsed the code at its 17 Session in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in 1998. In endorsing the code. the APFC called on member countries and supporting international organizations to implement it. Published in early I 999, the code serves as an expression of the Asia-Pacific region's commitment to sustainable forest management. The code is a model and, as such, assists all countries in the development of national codes that need to be appropriateIy modified to reflect national circumstances. The code represents best practice procedures and is riot a legally binding document. The APFC is facilitating an email list server known as R!LNET for a better flow of information about RIL in the region. Such initiatives as the international conference on the Application of RIL to Advance Sustainable Forest Management, held in Kuching, Malaysia from February 26 to March I, 2001, are conducive to an eXchange of ideas and information on sustainable forest management and RIL practices throughout the Asia-Pacific region. All international institutions made a unanimous declaration on the commitment to increase RIL implementation through increased efforts in RIL training at the operator level. Therefore, a paper on State of the art report on improved forest harvesting and reduced impact logging is made.
. IV Table of contents
Page FOREWORD PREFACE 1/1 TABLE OF CONTENTS V I. INTRODUCTION I. I . Siniculture System 1.2. Harvesting Techniques 3 1.3. The Needs of RILin SFM 5 11. IMPROVED FOREST HARVESTING AND 9 REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN ASIA PACIFIC REGIONS 2.1. Australia 9 2.2, Bangladesh 14 2.3. Bhutan 18 2.4. Cambodia 20 2.5. China 23 2.6. F1i 27 2.7. France (New Caledonia) 29 28. India 31 2.9. Indonesia 33 2.10. Japan 38 2. I I . Korea, Republic of 40 2.12. Laos 43 2.13. Malaysia 46 2.14. Maldives 49 2.15. Mongolia 51 2.16, Myanmar 53 2.17. Nepal 56 2.18, New Zealand 59 2.19. Pakistan 62 2.20. Papua New Guinea 63 2.21 . Philippines 65 2.22. Portugal (East Timor) 68 2.23. Samoa 69 2.24. Solomon Islands 71 2.25. Sri Lanka 75 2.26. Thailand 78 2.27. United States of America 82 2.28. Vanuatu 85 2.29. Vietnam 87 1/1. GENERAL PROBLEM ' 91 IV. CONCLUSION 93 REFERENCES 95
V
PRE-PROJECT 1909 REV, I (F) She, ;9thoningJ'"st"trad6fo!It@"^emu"t orgy'@tnnzfrotestsIn/asi"4'"cmc
I. INTRODUCTION
I. ,. Silviculture System
Forest formation is defined by the climatic (temperature, precipitation, altitude, latitude) and edaphically conditions (soil type, microorganisms). The vast climatic and soil variations. within the tropics produce an extraordinary diversity of forest types, differing in composition, structure and commercial value. Forest dynamic occurs rapidly if the condition is maintained naturally, and finally the climax condition is achieved. The climax formation can be achieved if the forest ecosystem is healthy. Forest ecosystem is healthy if they are productive. biologically and structuralIy diverse, large and not fragmented, balance in class distribution and resilient to stressors (Supriyanto at a1. . 2001). Healthy forest ecosystem should be managed in sustainable way. Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is the process of managing forest to achieve one or more clearly specified objectives of management with regard to the production of a continuous flow of desired forest products and services without undue reduction of its inherent values and future productivity and without undue undesirable effects on the physical and social environment (ITF0, , 994, I 998). In this case, continuous flow of the desired products and services should be monitored continuously to know their status, changes and trends if the forest conditions (stressors) are continued. Demand for demonstrating sustainable forest management is being driven at international and regional levels by a number of factors including international government-to~government agreements, national environmental legislation, real and perceived market demand for a "green" image to investors ( Dyck and Skinner, 1988). Forest management needs to be ecological Iy, socially, and economicalIy sustainable. Ecological or environmental sustainability is difficult and expensive to determine directly. Monitoring variables which are accepted as indicators of sustainable ecosystem response to management practices have been recommended by the forest industry and international agreements, such as the Montreal Process. To achieve the goal of sustainable forest management, an appropriate Silviculture system in a given ecosystem should be considered carefully. The silviculturist look upon the forest as an ecosystem, and see their tasks as being those of guiding all of its life processes within the context of an ecologicalIy stable forest and of shaping the creation and propagation of such forest system in such a
_I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SIrst@fir@61^ :I^tall^gumt orgy'@turnfF@testsi, ,^sin. @", I^ way that all needs related to them are satisfied in the best way possible, in a sustained, continuous and rational manner (Leibundgut, 1985). Such view is applied at any applied logging system from selective cutting, strip cutting to clear cutting systems. Continuous flow of desired product should be maintained. The forested area of the APFC member countries and their C&I for SFM is shown in Table I.
Table , : Total Forested Area of APFC Member Countries
Land area Forested area C & I for SF" No. Countries V million ha million ha Australia 766.82 I58.08 20.6 MON 2 Ban ladesh 14.17 1.33 9. DFAs 3 Bhutan 4.70 3.02 64.2 DFAs 4 Cambodia 17.64 9.33 52.9 InO 5 PR China 959.81 I63.48 17.0 MON, DFAs, InO 6 Fi'i 1.83 0.81 44.6 ITro 7 France 1.86 0.37 20.0 New Caledonia 8 India 328.76 64.11 19.5 DFAs, InO 9 Indonesia 190.4, 121.00 68.0 InO to Ja an 36.46 24.08 66.0 MON 11 Re .of Korea 9.93 0.63 6.3 MON 12 Laos FOR 23.47 12.56 53.5 13 Mala SIa 32.91 19.29 58.5 InO 14 Maldives 0.03 o, 001 3.3 15 Mori o1ia 156.65 10.64 6.8 DFAs 16 M an mar 66.05 34.42 52.1 DFAs. InO 17 Ne al 14.72 3.90 26.5 DFAs re New Zealand 26.54 7.95 29.9 MON 19 Pakistan 78.78 2.36 3.0 NE 20 Papua New 46.28 30.60 66.1 InO Guinea 21 Phili ines 30.00 5.79 19.3 InO 22 Portugal 1.48 0.52 34.4 East Timor 23 Samoa 0.28 0.1 37. 24 Solomon islands 2.89 2.54 87.8 25 Sri Lanka 6.56 t. 94 29.6 DFAs 26 Thailand 51.31 14.27 28.8 DFAs. InO 27 United State of 9,589 225.99 24.7 MON America 28 Vanuatu 1.22 0.41 36.7 InO 29 Viet Nam 33.17 9.82 29.6 Source: FAO. 2000, Note: DFAs ( Regional Incentive for the Development and Implementation of National Level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia). ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization). MON (Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests).
2
. PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) $tm, !gate"ing S"stqi"@6f0 :*1,131^am"t orgy"ruinff"orestsi, ,,^$to-Q^17^
SIIviculture system is determined principalIy. by the condition of the forest whose management is being _ planned. Silvicultural activities are justified only if they serve to achieve specific prescribed economic objectives. These can be roughly divided into primary forests, secondary forests, logged-over forests, and vegetation mosaic (Lamprecht. 1989), In such condition. the stand formation will be uneven age or polycyclic. General considerations regarding the selection of the Silvicultural system is mainly based on the initial situation of the forests and the objectives of management. Silvicultural measures is aimed for securing sustained natural production. Determination of minimum harvestsble diameters, improvement of thinning, gradual transformation system, and conversion system of the forests should be considered. Determination of minimum harvestable diameter is important to be implemented in selective cutting system to ensure the sufficient wood supply. This objective can be achieved if there is sufficient large-diameter timber to make utilization profitable, the minimum harvestable diameter laid down is large enough, and the species to be exploited exhibit a regular diameter frequency distribution. Gradual transformation is generally understood to mean the gradual transformation of a forest as regards its composition and I or structure. Its consist of gradual transformatton of the growing stock (thinning and enrichment planting) and methods of transformation employing regeneration (restructuring of the tree regenerations), Conversion system is understood to mean replacement of the original growing stock by artificial forest stands over a fairly large area. It is also known as clear cutting and artificial regeneration. The harvesting technique in those Silvicultural system varies from country to the other country with regards to their ecological condition of forest
,. 2. Timber Harvesting Techniques
Timber harvesting techniques in the Asia-Pacific Region varies from one country to the other country. In the past, timber harvesting was done by very simple technology with low productivity. The impact of logging in timber harvesting, and particularly on the future of timber production and environmental impact, has attracted the attention of, sylviculturist and forest managers due to the increase use of heary machinery for timber extraction. Control and improvement of the harvesting process to minimize damage to the residual stand is critical for effective SIIviculture which supposed to be
3 PRE-PROJECT 1909REV. I (F) Shangtfie"ing SIrst, ing6fo ^.,@,^foment C^'orct"mrQ"orestsinftstg-@colic the subsequent phase in any poly-cyclic management system. The need of appropriate harvesting techniques is crucial. Timber ' harvesting is considered the most destructive operation and. if uncontrolled, causing severe damage to soil and residual forest. Therefore, sound and well-organized timber management activities and its approach, followed by consistency in implementation should -be performed in long-term 00-20 years), medium-term (540 years) and short-term (annual planning). Systematic management planning would secure the continuous wood supply. An adequate wood supply is an important prerequisite for long term sustainable development. This stresses the important of a "wise management " approach in addressing the concerns of depletion. Question is therefore addressed to the harvesting technology with regards to the adopted Sitvicultural system. How to minimize the negative impact of logging? One of the answers to this question is to apply the Reduced Impact Logging (RIL). But why RIL? Efforts toward sustainable forest management were widely discussed and done. Some reviews revealed that failures in tropical forest management are mainly due to the lack of proper enterprise management, as well as to unfavorable macro-economic framework conditions (Kleine and He UVeldop, 1993). Different countries in Asia-Pacific have different forest management problems, but they have something in common, which is the needs for enhanced harvesting methods. Therefore, Elias (1999), K!assen (, 998), Uebelhor and Kleine (1995), described several objectives of RIL in the operational level as follows: . To minimize the environmental damage, especially on residual stand and soil, . To conserve wildlife and other forest resources (water, endanger species, non-timber forest product), . To minimize overall direct impacts to the forest, . To reduce direct logging costs, timber waste, and accident rates, . To protect the long-term integrity and value of the permanent forest estate. According to Bruenig (1996), the essential technical elements of reduced impact logging are: . Pre-felling survey and mapping of topography, site and growing stock, . Technical planning of access and extraction. including road and drainage specifications; . Pre-felling climber cutting;
4
. PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) st, e^tEe",',!33"st@inc6^:,, an^, Mont orgy'"turnf^'or^stsi"^sag^cry^ . Directional felling towards planned skid trails and multiple impact zones but away from streams; o Low stumps; . Efficient utilization of the felled trunks; . Optimum width of roads and skid trails; . Winching with arch, famead or pan; . No cross-crossing by tractors; . Slash management to reduce fire hazards and water pollution; . Safe working conditions; and . General compliance with plans, rules and standards.
The basic steps of RIL in Indonesian Selective Cutting and Replanting System comprise pre-harvest, harvesting and post harvesting activities. Harvesting is the aggregation of all operation, including pre-harvest planning and post-harvesting assessment, related to the felling of trees and the extraction of their sterns or other useable parts from the forest for subsequent processing into industrial products. Logging is the act or process of felling and extracting timber from forests, especially in the form of logs.
1.3. The Needs of RIL in SFM
Timber extraction from the forest always create a negative environmental impact. An acceptable level of environmental impact should be meet to minimize the environmental risks. Environmental damage due to logging could be damage to residual stands (production, biodiversity, stand structure) and soil (compaction and erosion). After logging, they have to leave the environmental forest in good conditions. In other word, logging activity should be able to maintain forest ecosystem integrity with regards to the implemented SIIviculture system to achieve the objective of sustainable forest management, Soil is a natural entity of unconsolidated organic and inorganic constituents in dynamic equilibrium with its environment. Soil quality reflects the capacity of a soil to produce plant as determined by soil growth factors including water holding capacity, soil pH, soil fertility. soil depth and soil texture, Soil plays three important roles in terrestrial ecosystem namely: productivity and biodiversity medium, hydro!o91c function and environmental buffer (Siregar, and Supriyant0,2001). The effects of perturbations associated with intensive forest management (logging) on the soil physical, chemical and biological properties in long term become a global issues. Miss management of soil properties will decrease the forest productivity in the long term
5 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Strengthening931rstcin@6fo Mangeme"t orgy'@turnfFotestsitt^siC-@a^ In0 (1990) specified five groups of indicators of well managed natural forest ecosystem, those are (1) Resource security, (2) Continuity of timber production, (3) Conservation flora and fauna, (4) An acceptable level of environmental impact, and (5) SOCio- economic benefits. It was developed later on to the Criteria and Indicator for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests (ITF0, 1994, 1998), Those indicators are related directly to the need of implementation of reduced impact logging at any type of forest, any forest formation and any forest ecosystems. Is RIL enough to sustain the natural forest?. Just when we thought that we had made some significant steps toward sustainable forest management. a number of critics have emerged which remind us that the implementation of codes of forest harvesting and adoption of reduced-impact logging (RIL) are riot enough to sustain our natural forest. Reduced"impact logging (RIL) is intensiveIy planned and carefully controlled implementation of harvesting operations to minimize the impact on forest stands and soils, usually in individual tree selection cutting (Reid and Rice 1997; Webb 6997; Ruslim at al. 1999; Van der Hout 1999; Vanuatu Department of Forests 1999; Armstrong and Inglis 2000; Elias 2000; Sist 2000). The forest workers and supervisors should be well trained so that they can ensure minimal negative impacts on the site, maximum utilization of trees felled, minimum damage to residual trees and advanced regeneration, and rehabilitation of negative impacts that may have occurred on the site (Bull, 2001). They should be also well qualified to conduct a post-harvest assessment Bull (2001) reviewed a total of 266 studies and articles on reduced impact logging (RIL) and conventional logging (CL), Table 2. The majority of the studies was conducted in the last decade ( 199,2000). In the 1970's, the number of publications on conventional logging (CL) increased rapidly, whereas RIL was covered in only few publications prior to 1980. The intention on the implementation of RIL increased in the last decade, especially in 1991 to 2000.
6
-^- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening S"$toil, "6@ !,^1,111^elite"t orgy'drumf@orests i"/Ism4, @c^ac Table 2: The Difference Between Conventional and Reduced- Impact Logging (Bull, at a1. , 2001).
No. Parameter CL RIL No. of observation
I, Logging intensity 0101ume: 45 37 93 CL, 37 RIL in 31ha 2 Lo in in tensi frees/ha 8 8 56 CL, 45 RIL 3. Lo in c cle ears 35 34 4. Cost of Iannin us$/in3 1.44 1.72 2 CL. 8 RIL 5. Cost of Fellin Us $1m3 0.60 1.16 3 CL. 7 RIL 6. Cost of skiddin us $1m3 4.64 4.46 5 CL. 6 R!L, 7. Total cost Us$/in3 19.73 28.23 10 CL, 13 RIL 8. Residual stand Dama e 49.4 29.0 42 CL, 33 RIL 9. Stand damage (trees/trees 22 9 8 CL, 7 RIL felled 10. Darna e-site % of area 18 8 39 CL, 19 RIL 11, Cano o enin % of area 25 16 14 CL, 11 RIL 12. Lost timber % removal 25 15 25 CL, 8 RIL 13. Utilization rate (% of felled 47 60 17 CL, 4 RIL timber
Table 2 shows the benefits of Reduced Impact Logging as compared to Conventional Logging System. Reduced-impact logging produce less damage than conventional logging, and increase log value. RIL has considerable less impact on the residual stand and site and creates smaller canopy opening. This condition will enhance regeneration and in some cases, allow an earlier re-entry with higher second cut. RIL considerably increases the recovery of timber felled and reduces the percentage of lost logs, increasing productivity and income for logging operator (Bull at a1. , 2001).
7 I~ PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6&, ^tangerine"t q'W^runtC'b, ,, t, i", aim^,,#;,
11. IMPROVED FOREST HARVESTING AND REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN ASIA PACIFIC REGIONS
2.1. Australia
2.1. ,. Background
The total land area of Australia is 766,818 million hectare, and the total forest area is 158,080 hectare or 20.6 % of the total land area. Australia's topical rain forests cover about I0,516 sq. kin (Bell at a1, , 1987) and lie along the north-eastern coastline from '1's to 22's. They form two broad groups, the largest of which lies between Townsville an Cooktown and covers part of the coastal plains as well as the mountain ranges lying parallel to the coast. These ranges reach to 900 in in many areas; the highest peak is Mount Bame Frere (, 612m). Rain forest is found where the rainfall exceeds about I500 min per year, or where other conditions are favourable for the retention of moisture. West of the ranges, rainfall declines rapidly in the rain shadow and rain forest is replaced, often abruptly, by d scelophyll forest where the canopy is more open. This forest contains numerous eucalypts (Figgis, 1985). The second major group of rain forest. 2600 sq. kin in extent, lies further north and is separated from the Townsville forests by an area of open eucalypt forest. It consists of scattered patches of rain forest on the Cape York Peninsula. The largest is in the area between the MCIlwraith Ranges and the Iron Range, just north of Coen. Smaller patches are found in the headwaters of the Jardine River and on the northern tip of Cape York at Lockerbie. In both groups of forest, small-scale maps tend to exaggerate discontinuities of rain forest distribution. Except for the corridors of drier open eucalypt forest, the larger patches of forest are linked by frequent outlying clumps of rain forest occurring on suitable moist sites in gullies, along streams and on hill and mountain tops, South of latitude 19 S where frosts sometimes occur, fire"adapted rain forest species are sometimes present in open eucalypt woodlands on favourable soils. In addition there are some smaller patches of rain forest near Mackay at about 21'S. These are poorly documented but are believed to have southern subtropical floristic affinities. Until recently most forest in the Townsville to Cooktown area have been administered as state forests or national parks by the State
9 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6fo :, I'll^emut or'w'at, ,, jar!r'o723tsitt^. siC4z'den^c of Queensland. Historically this prevented indiscriminate felling for agriculture in the heyday of the dairy industry, and is the reason why so much forest cover has survived until today. Australia's tropical rain forest lie at the fringe of the great Malesian rain forest massif and have a strongly Malesian flora, which, due to its peripheral location, is rather less rich in species than much of the Males ian - heartland. The flora and fauna also contain a Gondwanic to the east and has dispersed into Malesia to the north, especially New Guinea. A number of estimates have been made of floristic composition of the rain forests, A recent study estimated there were 1161 species of higher plants in the Townsville to Cooktown rain forests. These were represented in 516 genera and 1/9 families. Of the 516 genera, 68 are endemic to Australia and 36 are restricted ti the region. With respect to the species, 710 are Australian endemics. Some 43 genera are monotypic, of which 37 genera are endemic to Australia, Another estimate (Banow and Hyland, 1988) considered northern and southern blocks together and found 133328 species and 534 genera. The forest fauna in Australia is also not particularly rich by Malesian standards, However, it also is strongly Australian in affinity, has numerous endemic and for several groups, such as butterflies. includes a high proportion of all Australia's species, About 95 bird species are associated with rain forest or with the land at their perimeters. Ten of these species are restricted to the lowlands, 25 are known only from the tablelands, and the remainder are widespread (Kikkawa, I 982), Deforestation has had indirect effects on wildlife by increasing the degree of habitat fragmentation. This has caused the loss of certain vulnerable species, In the Atherion Tablelands, for example, Lawrence (1987) believed fragmentation had probably contributed to the local losses of spotted-tailed quoll Dasyurus maculatus, cassowary Casualjus Gasuarius and lemuroid ring-tail possum Hemibelideus.
2.1.2. Forest Management Plans In Australia, State and Tentorial governments have primary responsibility fo forest management while the Commonwealth Government coordinates a national approach to environmental and industry development issues. The Australian Coinmenwealth, State and Territory governments are all signatories to the 1992 National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS), The NFPS provides the framework
10
^ PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) St, e, !gate, ,ingS"stain@6@"^fanqge", e"t q", Vat, ,mr!F'orestsin, ;Ism-Q"^ within which the governments can achieve cooperativeIy their vision for sustainable management of Australia's forest and ensure the community obtains a balanced return from all forest uses. The policy pursues broad national goals within a regionalIy based planning based framework that integrates environmental and commercial objectives. The goals cover : . conservation; . wood production and industry development; o integrated and coordinated decision making and management; . private native forests; ' plantations; . water supply and catchment management; . tourism and other economic and social opportunities; . employment, workforce education and involvement; . research and development; and . international responsibilities. A key element of the approach adopted in the National Forest Policy Statement involves Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs) between the Commonwealth and State governments. RFAs presently cover nine regions in four States where commercial timber prodiiction is a major forest use. RFAs are based on scientific, comprehensive, regional assessments of forest values and uses, and on consultation with stakeholders. The 20-year agreements seek to provide a balance of the full suite of environmental, social, economic and heritage values that forests can provide for current and future generations. They establish a forest conservation reserve system, which is comprehensive, adequate and representative (CAR), and complementary sustainable forest management systems outside reserves (for more information, refer to the leaflets Sustainable Forest Management in Australia and Forest Conservation). The CAR reserve system is based on national criteria, developed to implement the RFA process, for the protection of biodiversity, old growth and widerness : . 15 per cent of the distribution of each forest ecosystem that existed before Europeans arrived in Australia; . 60 per cent or more of the current distribution of forest ecosystems, if rare or depleted; . 60 per cent or more of the current distribution of old growth; . all remaining occurrences of forest ecosystems or old growth that are Tare or endangered; and . 90 per cent or more of high-quality wilderness.
If
_I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6fo :^f", 149eme"t orgy'@t"TarQ"orests itt/Ism4>@c!17c 2.1.3. Silviculture and forest management practices
Australia has established a substantial plantation resource, largely of Pinus indiata, managed on 30 - 40 year rotations and this now suplies about 50 % of domestic wood consumption. Plantation production is similarly split about 70% from state forest, 30% from private plantations. Cutting levels in Australia forests are high. at or approaching current sustained yield projection in most region (Mc Cormack, 1994). Australia exported significant woodchip of Eucalyptus. RFAs also provide secure access to wood resources, enabling continued development of internationally competitive and ecologicalIy sustainable industries. Industries based on value adding and efficient use of wood provide the foundation for expansion in wood products manufacturing and, in turn. generate regional and national economic benefits. RFAs are in operation for the Eden and North East regions of NSW, the Gipps!and, Central Highlands, North East, West and Gippsland regions of Victoria, the South-west forest region of Western Australia and the State of Tasmania. Comprehensive regional assessments have been completed for Southern NSW and South- East Queensland The RFA process has greatly added to our knowledge of the many values of forests. While the National Forest Policy Statement did not focus on woodlands, many of its goals are applicable to them. A number of government initiatives, such as the Natural Heritage Trust and farm forestry, address areas outside the focus of the Statement, The National Forest Policy Statement committed the signatory governments to "a strategy des^med to conserve and manage areas of old-growth forests and wilderness as part of the reserve system" The national reserve criteria require the protection of all viable examples of rare old growth and 60 per cent of existing old growth for all other forest ecosystems. For the RFAs, old-growth forest is defined as "ecological!y mature forest where the effects of disturbances are now negiigible". The following principles were applied as an integral part of the definition. . Ecological maturity is defined by the characteristics of the older growth stages . If data were available on structural, floristic and functional qualities that would be expected to characterize an ecologicalIy mature forest ecosystem, these data were used in assessing the significance of disturbance effects
12 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Surt@,'"@6@ ", fanqge"rent orgy'@hirer9:0rest. sinnsig4'gc!FC . Negligible disturbance-effects will be evident in most forests by a significant proportion of trees with age-related features and a species composition characteristic of an ecologicalIy mature forest ecosystem Sixty seven per cent of old-growth forest is protected in reserves in RFA regions, Patches of mangroves occur round the Australian coast; they are most extensive in the north and north-east. There has been no heavy commercial exploitation. At their southern limit the mangrove forests are stunted and consist solely of AVIcennia. In some places, especially Queensland, conversion to urban development is a threat. There is a copious recent literature (CIOugh, t982; Davie, 1987; Galloway, 1982; Semeniuk, 1987 and Wales, 1982). ' ' ' The concept of sustainable forest management (SFM) today derives from the World Commission on Development, the Brundtland report (1987): the ahiffty of humanity to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. To this can be added the focus on all forest values coming from the Rio de Janiero Earth Summit in 1992 The concept of SFM has a long and evolving histo in Australia, During the 20 century, public forested areas-initialI set aside to stop conversion to agricultural use~were managed to protect a range of forest values, With increased understanding of forest ecology and changing community attitudes, managements other forest values. These management practices are applicable to public and private natural forest and plantations, Through the National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS) of I992, Australia aims for sustainable management of all its forests for future generations, whenrer the forest is within reserves or in production forests or plantations, and on public and private land. The NFPS adopts three principles as the basis for sustainable forest management : . maintaining the ecological processes within forests (the formation of soil, energy flows, and the carbon, nutrient and water cycles); . maintaining the biological diversity of forests; and . optimising the full range of environmental, economic and social benefits to the community from all uses of forests within ecological constraints
Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreals Forests is applied,
13 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Strengthening s"stating6f0 !, 14/1^elite"t orgy'@turnJ"orestsi, ,^siC4Z'coy^ 2. , A. Forest harvesting practices
Part of the forest estate was production forest, felled on a selection system with a 3040 year cutting cycle (Frawley, 1985; Queensland Department of Forestry, 1983), especially in Pinus rediata. The Forest Department was able to show that tree species diversity at compartment scale was increased by this practice. It was claimed that there was no long-term ecosystem decline. Problem arose, however, because Department of Forestry management prescriptions were not strictly adhered to; in particular there was the problem of re-logging of forests at short intervals as markets developed for species which had not been commercially valuable at the time of former logging cycles Code of Forest (or Logging) Practice was made and cover over public and private forest of all states, The development of codes of forest and logging practice was initiated since 1978 and refined in I994 ( MCCormack. 1994). Most of states in Australia now have identifiable Codes of Practice, for either logging of forestry more generally, These operate generally under either regulation empowered by the various Forestry Acts, through legal contract, and generally relate to public land only.
2.2. Bangladesh
2.2. ,. Background
The total land area in Bangladesh is 14,171 million hectare. The total forest area in Bangladesh is 1.334 million hectares or 9.4 % of the total land area (FAO, 2000). Scientific forest management and conservation in Bangladesh has a history of more than a century, with government management of the hill forests beginning in the 1870s, under a system of selection felling with natural regeneration. Forest management in the country naturally encompassed the various Silvicultural and management techniques developed under British colonial era. It has consequently been based on principles of 'scientific forestry' based around Gustodial management by a centralized bureaucracy. This included the utilization of specific Siivicultural systems, as well as commencing teak plantation establishment in I 871. The strictly ecological approach to forest management has foundered in more recent years in the face of rapidly mounting population pressures and poverty-driven demands for additional agricultural lands. Consequently, since Bangladesh's
14 _!_ PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Strengthening S"st",,,"66 :I^fangene"t orgy'"turnfQ:'orestsi"/Ism4'@czj^C independence (1971) the focus of forest management has moved quite rapidly toward a community-based approach. This approach recognizes that effective forest management in conditions of intense population pressure requires community participation in planning and implementation. This approach has been increasingly enshrined in successive national Five-Year Plansr The Sundarbans mangrove forest has a distinct forest management history. The area was mapped as early as 1764, and soon after proprietary rights was obtained by the East India Company in 1757. The first Forest Management Division with jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869 and the first management plan was introduced in 1892. The Master Plan for Forestry Development stipulates that forest resources should be managed in an ecologicalIy sustainable manner to ensure species diversification and continuous improvement of environmental conditions. State-owned forests, comprising natural forests, hill plantations and Sal (Shorea robusta) plantations are used to produce forest products, except for reserved forests, which are set aside to conserve soil and water resources, and for the maintenance of biodiversity. Commercial management of forests is expected to be profit oriented. The Master Plan aims at rehabilitating denuded or encroached forest areas using participatory approaches. The Master Plan recommends a strategy incorporating six key points for forest management: enhancing environmental preservation and conservation; introducing rational forest land use; increasing public participation and benefits from resource management; expanding the resource base; improving management practices; and undertaking efficient resource allocation.
2.2.2. Forest Management Plans
Given the high proportion of forests under state control, there have been significant efforts to develop management planning for many forest areas. Where formal plans have been prepared, however, they have generally proven to be of limited value due to an inability to provide effective enforcement. The shift toward participatory forestry means that new plans, with significantly altered management prescriptions, will be required. This planning process is, however, very much in its infancy. Nonetheless, efforts to involve stakeholders in forest planning are being made in Bangladesh. Workshops and seminars have been arranged at divisional levels to enable 'grass roots' views to be expressed and to share local experiences in forest
15
. PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustaina6fo %laweme"t orgy'ginmfFo, estsi"/Isto4'@cg';c planning. Despite the absence of effective management plans in many areas, all forest areas in Bangladesh are considered to be under some form of management. Forests managed for production purposes comprise around 550,000 hectares; conservation forests constitute 220,000 hectares, while forests for coastal protection, most notably the Sundarbans area, cover 350,000 hectares, The Sundarbans Reserved Forest forms part of the largest mangrove forest in the world. It is the focus of several conservation efforts. including an FAO- executed project, which helped draw up an integrated resource management plan for the area. The plan was published in 1998 and has objectives: to produce a plan for integrated resource management designed to enhance the supply of wood and non-wood products; to conserve and manage aquatic and terrestrial wildlife resources; to study the potential for mobilizing and assisting people's participation in income- and employment-generating activities in the area (with particular focus on disadvantaged groups); to develop the tourism and recreational potential of Bangladesh's forests; and to enhance the protective role of forests against cyclones, soil erosion and tidal surges.
2.2.3. Silviculture and forest management practices
Sal (Shorea robusta) is the principal commercial species in the tropical moist deciduous forests of Bangladesh. Extensive areas of Sal forest have been heavily degraded and these are being rehabilitated as part of the country's plantation programme. The principal Silvicu!tural system used in Sal forests is 'coppice with standards'. This system divides the forest into a series of periodic cutting of 12-20 hectares, according to their relative maturity. Selection felling and improvement felling are carried out in a cutting cycle according to a particular block reaching prescribed girth and density requirements. Intermediary Silvicultural interventions include forest cleaning and release of seedlings, where rehabi!itative or supplementary planting has been carried out (or to assist natural regeneration), weeding and climber cutting during the sapling stage. thinning to waste (or for fuel wood) at the end of the sapling stage, and production thinning at a later stage. Clearfelling systems with artificial regeneration, designed to produce uniform crops of teak and sal, are also used in hill forests, riotably in the Chittagong tracts. Thus, many hill forests have been more-or-less converted to plantations A moratorium was placed on harvesting in natural Sal forests in 1972. In mangrove forests the principal Silvicultural system is 'Selection cum Improvement'. This system involves selection of
t6 _!_ PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening sustain"6@ ^ICJ, 49eme"t orgy'@turnfForestsi, ,^sir-4P"c#^c individual trees and small coupes for commercial felling. based on specified diameter limits. Misshapen, diseased or otherwise defective trees are also removed. In some instances, undesirable species are also felled, to promote growth of more valuable species. The s stern initially operated on a cutting cycle of 40 years, though subsequenti this was reduced to 20 years as a result of demand pressures. Harvesting in natural mangrove forests has been under a moratorium since 1989 with the exception of the cutting of Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) pulpwood for the Khulna Newsprint Mill; firewood; and salvage felling of top-dying Sundri (Heritiera tomes), the main timber species. A relatively recent initiative is the substantial Iantin (several thousand hectares) of (mainly) mangroves on lands created from silt deposits in the Bay of Bengal. The establishment of home gardens, an ensemble f deliberately chosen species of plants of human utility that mimic a natural climax system, is also extensive in Bangladesh. A mat home garden comprises economicalIy valuable trees with an understorey of crops and animals. Taungya system (Agroforestry) is also prevalent in many areas.
2.2.4. Forest harvesting practices Serious degradation of Sal forests on the lains of Bangladesh saw a moratorium on logging imposed in 1972. In 1989. this moratorium was extended to all natural forests and this is Ianned to continue until 2005. Nonetheless, significant ille a1 10 in continues. Presently around 80 percent of Bangladesh's wood harv t comes from private sources, mainly homestead woodlots. Harvestin techniques are generally rudimentary, and most of the harvest i burned for fuel. Most of the country's plantations have at to reach maturity. As noted above (Silviculture) harvesting systems in natural forests have generally been part of formal Silvicultural s stems. A inability to protect the forests from interventions outside formal Silviculture has, however, resulted in the serious degradation d deforestation. In part, an important management problem has be disputed tenure in many of the Forestry Department's forests. To manage the Bangladesh forests in sustainable wa , th Regional Initiative for the Development and Implementation f National Level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Maria ement f Dry Forests in Asia (DFAs) is being implemented.
17 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening Sustain"6foI^IC, 149e", e"t cy"!hint"TarG"orgytfjt, ^sin^I'@cant
2.3. Bhutan
2.3. ,. Background
The total land area of Bhutan is 4,701 million hectares, the area of which covers by 3.006 million hectares of forests or 64.2 % of the total land area (FAO, 2000). Prior to the development of forestry legislation in 1969, Bhutan's forests were managed by local communities to provide local requirements for forest products (and as a land-bank for agriculture) and according to communal interests. More scientific management of forestry is a recent innovation in Bhutan. The Forest Department was created in 1952, but development of scientifically based forest management plans was riot initiated until , 974, under technical guidance funded by UNDP. This created some serious interest to regenerate the forests in order to achieve sustained, progressive yields in perpetuity. In 1979 the Government introduced two major changes in forest policy. The commercial felling of timber was severely restricted, with responsibilities for harvesting being assigned to the Department of Forests. eventually through the Bhutan Logging Corporation. The other change was the initiation of a programme of industrial development. The move toward a more industrial focus was, however, relatively short"lived. The National Forest Policy emphasizes community participation in forest management while also focusing on the multiple values - economic, social and environmental - of forestry in Bhutan. The Forest Policy specifies the following key objectives for forest policy and management in Bhutan, Maintenance of a minimum of 60 percent of the country's land area under forests; accelerating the pace of afforestation and reforestation under a community-based management system, through Gewog (blocks of villages) level afforestation and social forestry Recognition of the multi-functionality of forests and placing economic considerations at a lower priority are Central features of the Policy.
2.3.2. Forest Management Plans
Government reserved forests in Bhutan are progressiveIy being brought under management plans with -a requirement that no forest produce may be harvested, except for personal domestic use, unless harvesting is done in association with an approved
18 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Surtci, IC6fo ^^{all^eru"t orgy'arumfForest, frillsig4'"c!I^ management plan, Permits are required for all forest activities except grazing activities and collection of forest produce for personal use. Prescriptions for management plans specify that renewable forest produce must be harvested on a sustained yield basis, Each management plan at a minimum must contain: a forest map showing planned areas of harvesting and areas for conservation and other purposes; written prescriptions and restrictions; recommended mechanisms for implementation; written objectives; any additional information deemed necessary by FSD for proper management of an area Around 17 percent of Bhutan's forests are managed under formal management plans. Forestry operations in reserved forests are allowed only with approved (ten-year) Forest Management Plans and in areas declared as Forest Management Units. At present there are 13 Forest Management Units in Bhutan, covering an area of about 89 000 ha. Almost all Forest Management Units encompass areas of shifting cultivation, as well as incorporating nori"forest areas within their boundaries. Conservation areas under management mainly comprise Jigme Doni National Park and Royal Marias National Park for which formal management plans have been prepared.
2.3.3. Sylvicuture and Forest Management Practices
Application of scientific Silvicultural management is a recent introduction in Bhutan. Forests are generally managed under many variations of five basic Silvicultural systems: (a) selection-cum- improvement system for both broad!eaved and conifer forests, (b) seed tree system for chir pine and blue pine, (c) group selection system for mixed coniferous forests, (d) clear-felling and planting and (e) fir management system. In general the management of Bhutan's forests has been based around minimizing ecological impacts, and this philosophy has been carried forward to today. Harvesting, mainly in the coniferous and mixed-coniferous forests is based around small coupe felling under a group selection system. In general, little or no post-harvest Si!vicultural treatments are applied and most regeneration is natural. Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), probably the most significant commercial species, is managed to a cutting cycle of 100-120 years. Community Forest User Groups generally do reforestation and afforestation of small forest blocks.
19 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening $24$toil, @6fo :"IC, ,aye, "eat orgy'@rural9'0res, s all, "sin4'C^7C 2.34. Forest Harvesting Practices
Harvesting in coniferous and mixed coniferous forest is generally under a group selection system in which small openings (no greater than .12 hectares) are made in the forest stand, allowing light to reach the forest floor. Chainsaws and handsaws are used in felling operations. Trees are generally debarked and bucked before being skidded or hauled to the log yard. Bhutan's steep terrain means that cable cranes are frequently the most viable means of log hauling. To manage the Bhutan forests in sustainable way, the Regional Initiative for the Development and Implementation of National Level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia (DFAs) is being implemented.
2.4. Cambodia
2.4. f . Background
The total forest area in Cambodia PRD is 9,335 million hectares or 52.9 % of the total land area of 17,636 million hectares (FAO, 2000). Cambodia has significant traditions in nature conservation. based around Buddhist precepts respecting the sanctity of all life. Early wildlife sanctuaries in Cambodia were established during the Angkorian era prior to the 13'' century, Scientific forest management techniques were introduced during the French colonial era, and these continued through to the late-, 960s when the country became embroiled in the Vietnam conflict. Prior to 1970 Cambodia had an established legal system, strong institutional framework, well- educated public service and a reasonably stable society. In the period 1970", 990, however, the country's institutional and legislative structures were destroyed and, with the reinstitution of the state's administrative authority after I 989, the country was faced with building completely new administrative systems. In the forestry sector, as well as the destruction of administrative systems, many forests have been heavily degraded through bombing, burning, spraying of herbicides, and illegal logging. Many forest areas have, until recently been inaccessible due to ongoing conflicts and access problems due to mines remain. Cambodia's National Forest Policy outlines the country's key forest management objectives. The policy is centered on sustainable forest management, with particular reference to the conservation of biodiversity and soil and water resources. The policy also dedicates
20 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SLst",',, a6f0 :"4""49,111e"t orgy^tornfQ'Ore, t, i"/I'm42'",:j^, appropriate forest lands to a permanent forest estate (though this has yet to be defined on the ground). A large part of the thrust of the policy relates, however, to social and development objectives for forest management. The policy anticipates sustaining and increasing the supply of forest products for social and economic development. and enhancing the welfare of the population, while also assuring the traditional rights and privileges of local communities. Communities are expected to undertake greater participatory roles in forest management, protection and development, and the policy emphasizes support to Community Forestry Programmes
2.4.2. Forest management plans
Existing forest management plans and practices do riot facilitate sustainable forest management and the Royal Government of Cambodia is requesting that all concessionaires prepare new plans to integrate factors related to the forest ecosystem. social environment, economics and technology in exploring management options with relevant forest stakeholders. At present, forest management plans are only required for production forests. The preparation of management plans for concession operations is the responsibility of the logging. companies. A Manual for Forest Management Planning has been prepared to assist forest concessionaires to prepare, implement, monitor and review plans and the Department of Forestry and Wildlife to evaluate, approve and monitor plans. These plans have to be approved by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife prior to commencement of harvesting operations. The Department of Forestry and Wildlife is also responsible for control of all forestry operations conducted by the concessionaires. In general. however, the Department has had insufficient capacity to effective Iy monitor operations, and a comprehensive review of harvesting operations was only implemented in I999 (resulting in a recommendation for the preparation of new forest management plans and environmental and social impact assessments). A sub-decree on concession management, enforcing sustainable forest management as a non-negotiable management principle recently entered into force.
2.4.3. Silviculture and forest management practices In principle, forest harvesting in Cambodia is carried out under selective logging systems, though at present there is little Silvicultural effort applied to regenerate logged over forests. Natural regeneration,
21 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stre, ^atoning S"stgir, @6f0 :11,814,817""t 9''9V'@turnfFore$tsi"/, sin4Z'"c!FC particularly in the deciduous forests is uncertain and, up until, 972, artificial regeneration was carried out on a small scale, in poor forest areas. A significant constraint on applying Silviculture in Cambodian forests is that national records and data on soils, botanical species, growing stock and increments of various forest types have been lost. as has much institutional knowledge and expertise. The country currently has little experience or knowledge of appropriate Silvicultural interventions, or in large-scale reforestation. A significant problem ' created by a lack of post-harvest management, is transmigration into forest areas, made possible by harvesting roads. This results in further wood and non-wood forest products extraction causing progressive forest degradation and deforestation.
2.44. Forest harvesting practices
Selective logging, rather than clear-cutting is the most Common forest harvesting technique in Cambodia. Selection of high value species is generally more profitable than attempting to remove all timber. Legal harvesting is generally carried out by the private sector. under concession agreements. Virtually all concessions are held by foreign companies or joint ventures. In 1999, a national code of practice for forest harvesting (modeled after the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific) was prepared, with the intention of achieving sustainable management in concession forests. Key elements of the code include prescriptions on harvesting practices, a requirement for the preparation of operational management plans, a requirement for environmental impact assessments in forest concessions, and a framework for community consultation by forest concessionaires. In the year to April 2000, the Government has carried out a review of all forest concessionaires to determine compliance with their contracts and Cambodian laws. The review recommended that new contracts and management plans should be drawn up. and that in the interim a moratorium on harvesting should be imposed. The Government has also acted to curb the serious problem of illegal logging. A forest crime monitoring and reporting project has been established, while the government has also cancelled nine forest concession agreements covering 2 million hectares, In a999 the Government issued a declaration on Measures to Management of Forests and the Elimination of Forest Illegal Activities. This decree permits the operation of wood processing facilities only by harvesting concession holders, as a means of eliminating the use of illegalIy harvested wood, Nonetheless, there
22
^- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengtheningS"stci""6^ "^ICJ, 438", e"t cy!'or'at, ,mrq"orestsi, ,^$, 242c^ remains considerable scope for illegal logging and transportation across borders To address the concerns of funding agencies about the lack of control of forest exploitation, in' 1997 the Government initiated the Forest Policy Reform Project, with financing from the World Bank, to help identify and address critical constraints to sustainable forest management. The studies undertaken with this project identified policy recommendations and specific actions required to ensure sustainable forest management in Cambodia, including rationalizing concession allocation and control, monitoring and control of illegal logging, restructuring of revenue generation and collection from forestry, and drafting legislation to support the policies To manage the forest in sustainable way, Cambodia is implementing the ITFO Criteria and Indicators of Sustainable Forest Management.
2.5. China
2.5. ,. Background
The total forest area in PR China is 163,480 million hectares or covers 17.0 % of the total land area (959.80 million hectares), FAO 2000. Forests were cleared in China's main agricultural areas for centuries ago. Successive dynasties and wars took a further toll on the forests resulting in increasing environmental consequences and by the time the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, the forest estate was in poor condition, covering only 8.6 percent of the land area. Consequently, most timber currently comes from northeast China and the less densely populated parts of the northwest and southwest. Since then, the country has carried out afforestation to mitigate natural disasters such as wind and sandstorms, droughts and floods. These State-owned Forest Farms ' and collectively owned Forest Farm plantations have primarily comprised windbreaks, farmland shelterbelts and "Foursides" (planting along rivers and roads and around houses and villages), Early attempts by the Ministry of Forestry, in the late-1950s and 1960s, to encourage selective species plantation and establishment of forest farms for high timber yield were thwarted by the Great Leap Forward in 1958, and the Cultural Revolution (1966-76). From the inId"1970s, however, fast growing and high-yield, timber plantation bases were established using special State funds and a development programme to develop a further 20 million hectares of these bases over 30 years was introduced in 1988. The Ministry of Forestry also set up joint trial plots
23 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening $4, t@trad6fo %f@, 148e", errt cy"orct"mrrotests rin, gsm-!z'"c!I^c
4 with provincial/autonomous regional authorities and on State forest farms. By 1998, 3.4 million hectares of high growth and yield timber plantations had been established, compared with a total area of established timber plantations of around 33.5 million hectares. These high yield timber plantations are dominated (76 percent) by conifers, of which Cunninghamia lanceolata makes up 46 percent and pine species 30 percent. Ninety percent of the reforestation undertaken is through tree planting by the rural population. The annual plantation rate presently exceeds 5 million hectares. While meeting the market demand for forest products and securing effective supply to society remains a high priority for China, the emphasis is now on sustainable management, and sustainable development, of forest resources. The goals of the Forest Action Plan for China's Agenda 21 are to lay the foundation for the establishment of sustainable, and comprehensive, forest ecosystems and a fully developed forestry industry by 2010. The Plan envisages the evolution of appropriate administrative, and social services, systems to support this industry by the middle of the 21st century. Over the longer term to 2050, the aim is to complete the industrial development , of forestry, establish a modern forest management service, and to achieve significant environmental improvement, A long-term goal is to increase forest cover to 26 percent of the land area by 2050. The overall objective for development of timber plantations in China will use existing forest regions and key forestry counties as a base. Priority is given to regeneration, transformation, and improvement of the existing low quality stands. Areas with favorable site conditions are selected for fast growing and high yield timber plantations, Between 2001 and 2010,6.39 million hectares of high yield plantations are planned, of which 3.45 million hectares will be new plantations, and 1.06 million hectares will be a transformation of existing forests. 'Cultivation of young and middle aged stands will be 1.88 million hectares. Between 2011-2050, a further 13.29 million hectares is planned. Ten major forestry ecological programmes are expected to provide the framework for addressing the most vulnerable environments, and address issues of erosion, desertification and flooding, Combating desertification is a major focus with 27.5 percent of the country affected. Consistent with this is a large-scale afforestation programme targeting barren and arid areas of western China over the period 2000 to 2010. Western China is also the initial focus of an even more ambitious programme to return farmland to forest and grassland. The
24
^- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stre, !itfurring SIrst@talc6fo ", t@,, 43e, ,, e"t orgy'@turdfForestsi"/Ism-@@c!!?c Us $230 million allocated to this programme includes funds for compensating participating farmers for loss of income. Mountain forest areas are also identified as a high priority for environmental improvement, forestry development and the alleviation of poverty. Further long-term objectives are to standardize and legal ize economic management and operational management systems in order to optimize resource allocation and realize sustainable forest development; and to improve the forestry legal system.
2.5.2. Forest management plans
Forestland management agencies are legally required to apply the relevant forestry laws and regulations. This includes carrying out inventories and statistics collation, development and implementation of forest management and conservation plans, investigation of illegal activities damaging to forestlands, and management and application of compensation and subsidy fees. A national continuous forestry inventory system based on sample plots has been in place throughout the country since 1977. At a lower forest management level, a 'Class 11' inventory is conducted about every ten years by state-owned forestry enterprises and forest farms. This is fundamental for ascertaining the actual level of national forest resources and drawing up forest management plans. Further inventory assessment is undertaken at the operational level for determining felling area, afforestation and improvement cutting. The Forest Management Plan required by law is a comprehensive planning and design document serving as a guide for forest management departments to administer the resources scientifically. Elements of the plan include policy, targets, distribution, logging, cultivation, development, forest and environmental protection, construction of production facilities and cost-benefit analysis. Government laws, regulations and policies rely on logging quota management as the central element of forest resource management and overall management of forest resource consumption. The quota management system is based on the principle that consumption should be lower than plantation. It includes sub-quotas based on types of cutting, which are divided into Final Felling, Intermediate Felling and Other Felling. Forest inventory, consumption surveys and forest management right licenses have all contributed to improved forest management by reducing deforestation, Inaccurate ratification and illegal occupation.
25 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening S"scott, 46&! !1/@,, 49me"t cy"orct", 31fQ;'orestsin, ;1sta-@"c,lit 2.5.3. SIIviculture and forest management practices Sitviculture in China predominantly focuses on plantation establishment and management. The introduction of advanced technology, and superior tree species from - overseas, and the application of aerial seeding and closing hills for natural regeneration have significanty lifted afforestation success. Introduced tree species cover one'fifth of the area of established plantations. Considerable investigation of the forest management of major fast growing and high yield species has been carried out. Ten species form the basis of large-scale timber production establishment, with Pinus, Lan>(, Eucalyptus and Populus the predominant genera, along with Cunninghamia lanceolata. Cunninghamia lanceolata is the most widely planted species in China. It is grown on a 25-30 year rotation after establishment by broadcast seeding or closely planted rooted cuttings. Soil is cultivated before planting and the plantation is often intercropped with maize or vegetables. Light thinning is carried out at regular intervals and, in some areas; vigorous coppicing sees the plantations maintained under a GOPpice with standards system. When the stands are felled the GOPpice is thinned and the cycle repeated. Other plantation species are managed with similar degrees of Silvicultural intervention. as appropriate. To address environmental problems while as well as food and timber resource issues considerable focus has been placed on multi- purpose species, and it particular the establishment of shelterbelts. The main trees used for this are Poplars, Paulownia and Elms. Paulownia has considerable potential in the North China Plains (the main agriculture region) because its deep rooting system interferes little with the water supply of agricultural crops, and it modifies the microclimate in a beneficial way for agriculture. In the last decade greater attention has been paid to non- wood forests as a means of strengthening the local economy and eliminating poverty. In the natural forests considerable effort is being made in rehabilitating degraded areas, with particular emphasis on tending and transforming secondary growth. Efforts are being made to gradually adjust the species composition, enhance management and improve quality so as to achieve the goal of high yield, high quality and high efficiency. China has been working to establish a national network of model forests to share information and experiences, The International Model Forest Network has supported this. China is also a participant in the FAO Asia-Pacific model forests project. A very recent initiative
26 } PRE-PROJECT 1909 REV. I (F) Strengthening $45t@inn6f0:114"44eme"t orgy'"turdfq"@, eggs jinx$t@41'"C!FC is a major programme in Western China to afforest barren areas and to convert farmland to forest.
2.5.4. Forest harvesting practices In the coniferous and mixed coniferous forests, clear felling, followed by replanting is the general harvesting practice. Earlier experiments with selection logging in Manchuria proved uneconomic, however, China is now moving towards selective harvesting system even in coniferous forests. Under the clear-felling system, each coupe is about 3 hectares. and separated by a 20 meter buffer strip. The strips are left to provide wind protection, and to provide local fuel wood supplies while a second-rotation crop is growing. After the removal of saw logs. branch wood is collected for mining timbers, pulp and fuel wood. Felling is generally done using chainsaws, though manual crosscut saws and axes are also used in some instances. Tractor hauling predominates, with the construction of temporary tramways (narrow- gauge railways) a typical means of transportation. China is currently developing a national code of practice for forest harvesting, based on the regional code, with assistance from FAO and ILO. To manage the forest in PR China, the criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management of the InO, DFA's and Montreal Process are being implemented.
2.6. Fiji
2.6. ,, Background Fiji has a total area of 1.83 million hectares, with the total forest area of 0,815 million hectares or 44.6 % of the total land area (FAO, 200). The country comprises islands of which too are inhabited and supporting a population of 783,550 (end 1994), with a population growth well below 29', (Bureau of Statistics 1990). The largest islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu which together contain over 90% of the population and comprise 87% of the land area. The islands lie between 178 E and 179'\!V longitude and between I 6'N and 23'S latitude just inside the tropical belt, They are largely volcanic, of varying geological age and of mederately fertile soil, with fairly steep dissected topography in the forest areas,
27 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stre, ^thenings"stdin@61b !"14,149e"^t ^!'arct"mrFo, agari",^siC4'@c, 7:1:
2.62. Forest Management Plans
The forest in Fiji is classified as natural forest, plantation forest and mangrove forest. To maintain the sustainability of the forest, Fom is implemeting the Criteria and indicators of Sustainable Forest Management issued by the ITFO. IUCN (1991) classified several protected area in Fiji and stated as The National Trust for Fiji Act, those are National Park, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Nature Reserves, Reserves, Sanctuaries, Scenic Reserves, Marine Parks, Parks and Wildlife Management Area.
2.6.3. Silviculture and forest management practices After several thousands of year of human occupation and over a century of European influence, approximately 0.8 million hectares (ha) or about 47% of the country remains under natural forest cover. Reforestation together with afforestation has brought some 90,000 ha of long deforested land back into production. A small area totaling about 42,000 ha is under mangrove forest, Broadly speaking, extensive area of the drier parts of the two main islands have suffered deforestation. Consequently, the indigenous forest cover is more than 50% in the wetter parts of the country. In 1994, 50,000 ha of grass land have been planted with Pinus earlbieae, the major part of which industrial plantations, with annual cut of presently close to 400 000 in3. Another 50 000 ha of in ahagony plantations is gradually entering the harvesting stage and may yiped I 00 000 in of logs by the year 2000,
2.6.4. Forest harvesting practices
The ILO was invited to assist the country in the introduction of logging training to ensure that harvesting was carried out eficientiy through villages and that newly established plant for milling and chipping of pine was regularly supplied with logs. The ILO project was handed over to the Forestry Department in I 993. The training was participated by operators of chainsaws, skidders, bulldozers, loaders and cable crane operators, as well as foremen, managers and supervisors of logging companies and for forestry staffs. More than 2000 trainees took part in the training courses which are continued by a team of Fijian instructors.
28 I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SLrstcim61^ !1/@,,^cine"t cy!'w'"tornfQ"orests tit^$^424c, j^ Code of Practice on Safe Design and Use of Chainsaws was made by a national committee which consisted of representatives of the Forestry Department, the logging industry, the Fiji Forestry Training Centre and ILO Logging Training Project. The relevant information from Australia, New Zealand, North America and Europe was also considered. The code aims at minimizing adverse impacts of logging and at providing a basis of environmentally sound, economicalIy viable and save operations. The code comprises main sections on Planning requirements, Operational requirements, Environmental requirements, Equipments and safety, and Training and supervision.
2.7. France (New Caledonia)
2.7. ,. Background
The total land area of New Caledonia is I. 858 million hectares and it total forest area is 0,372 million hectares or 20.0% of the total land area (FAO, 200). The archipelago of New Caledonia, a French overseas territory, comprises five main islands: Grand Terre, Layoute Islands (Mare, Lifou and Ouvea) and Iles des Pins. Grand Terre is a long mountainous chain, reaching I 640 in with Mount Panie, while the other islands are flat calcareous plateaux. The climate is subtropical, with two dry seasons, and the southeaterly trade winds play a major role in distribution of rain. The east coast and central chain of Grand Terre have a humid tropical climate with heavy rainfall (2000 - 4000 mm/year), while the west coast and the north enjoy a dry tropical climate (rainfall about 1500 min/year). The great variety in relief, exposure and rainfall, as well as variations in soil, explains the complexity and the fragmentation of the various types of vegetation. The variety of forest formation in New Caledonia reflects the wide range of natural conditions, which vary considerable over short distances, so that it is rare to find a formation with a hornogenous structure and composition covering a large area. This partly expalins the fragmentation of areas distribution, as well as the differentiation and distinctiveness of New Caledonian flora (3500 species recorded. of which 600 are arborescent). There is a very high rate of endemism, nearly 80 %, because of the early isolation of the archipelago. Five families are endemic: Am borellaceae, Oncothecaceae, Parecryphiaceae, Phellinaceae and Straburgeriaceae. Frequent outcrops of ultrabasic 'eruptive rock result in extremely poor soil, associated with a specific type of flora. Forests
29 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stte, !gtEe"i, !as"stci, ,"6@ ^,,@,, eyene"g qCw'"turnfQ"orestsin, gsm^Pony^c are found mainly on ultrabasic soil. Few low-altitude forests are left, and most of the remaining forests are found in mountainous regions. Human activities have caused serious degradation of the forest cover, resulting in vast expanses of niaouli savannah and brushland, degraded form of natural forests. This is due mainly to the use of fire and to mining (often causing irreversible darnae in the latter case). Agricultural clearing and logging are thus not main causes of the degradation of natural forests. These degraded formations cover the largest areas on the various islands, although closed forest is still common, However, only small areas of open forest are now left on ultrabasic land at low and medium altitudes, as a result of strong human pressure and frequent bushfire.
2.7.2. Forest management plans
The future for New Caledonian forestry activities is promising. Its natural forest its natural forest have been comparatively well managed. Protected areas policies and the prohibitation of logging activities in water catchments are well established. The major environmental problems relate to opencast nickel mining with mine spoils (FAO, 1997). Most of the forest area is classified as prote^ion area. The production forest area is limited.
2.73. Silviculture and forest management practices
Closed moist forest have a high degree of endemism (nearly 90 %); this is especially true of those on ultrabasic (eruptive rock), which are very different from those on other types of rocks. Typical families are Podocarpaceae, Cunioniaceae and Aracariaceae. The upper storey is usually high (up to 40 in) and the lower storey consists mainly of Araliaceae and Mynaceae. Shrubs grow to 1.5 in. totaling over 400 species belonging to 50 families. Plantation forest is implemented in flat lands.
27.4. Forest harvesting practices
The forest ecosystem in New Caledonia is very unique and specific. Island ecosystem is the dominant condition. Therefore, the logging practice is done carefully. Selective logging system is implemented in high land, while the clear cutting is implemented in plantation forest, 30 _;__ PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6foI^faringe"ant orgy'"turnf9"orest$,', t, asiz 2.8. ,. Background Traditions of nature conservation have a long history in India. The earliest recorded conservation measures can be traced to the 3 century BC when provisions for the establishment of protected areas, including rules for the administration and management of forests, were codified in the Arthasashtra Indica. Traditional forest management also incorporated the establishment of sacred groves, as a tribute and means of expressing reverence of nature and in violate to any human interference. and village groves where only very limited use by communities was permitted. Extensive clearance of forests accompanied the advance of agricultural and pastoral societies. but an awareness of the need for ecological prudence was retained. The origins of scientific forest management in the tropics are found in India. Dating from the inid-19th century. these are the basis of classical tropical forest management. particularly the principles developed as part of the Brandis system. Population pressures eventually disrupted this strictly ecological management and poverty- driven pressures had to be accommodated. , leading to the rise of community forestry programme as a partial solution. More recently, India has given a lead in participatory approaches to forest management through the Joint Forest Management initiative (see below), The concept continues to evolve and assimilate local variations as it spreads to more states and brings more forest area under its auspices. 2.8.2. Forest management plans Forest management plans are prepared by State ' forest departments for specific tracts of government-managed forests. While there is considerable variation in various State planning processes, it is fair to say that the plans are scientifically based and focus on technical rather than social objectives. and community consultation has generally not been a high priority. Joint Forest Management is carried out under Village Forest Management Plans, which are site- specific ensuring that plans and budgets are tailored to the specific site requirements and the specific needs of local users, Consultative processes are built into the plan to ensure communities maintain agreement over management objectives. The Plans also ensure a consultative process in the formation of interest groups within a village and with outside resource users, and a process of analysis of local 31 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain"6@ !"^tangene"t orgy'at"mrfo, e$t'si"Asia-@'4ctj^c resources and needs, Forest management objectives are then negotiated and agreed amongst all stakeholders, and the rights and responsibilities of different actors are set out. More than 70 percent of India's forests are managed in accordance with formal. nationally approved, management plans. About 60 percent of these managed forests are managed predominantly for production purposes, while the remainder is conservation forests. 2.8.3. Silviculture and forest management practices . Formal Silviculture in India is founded in the principles of Scientific Forest Management. This incorporates the various elements of the Ferman management approach into an iterative sequence of establishing firm administrative control over the forests; clarifying and formalizing ownership and customary rights; defining the physical dimensions of the forest estate; investigating the Silvicultural characteristics and wood properties of the main species; estimating growth rates and patterns; and prescribing sustained yield management regimes, combining yield control and replacement of the forest as it is utilized. A wide variety of SIIvicultural systems are applied in Indian forests and the following provides a broad generalization of their application. Selection systems and selection cum improvement felling are applied to evergreen and semi-evergreen. moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests. Regeneration is generally natural although supplementary planting often occurs. Tending is largely limited to the establishment stage with intermediate Silvicultural interventions often - neglected. The Uniform system is applied in moist deciduous forests where natural regeneration of valuable species is adequate. Irregular shelter wood systems are applied to evergreen and moist deciduous forests where regeneration can be established only with considerable effort. In this system trees below exploitab!e girth are retained as advance growth and intensive tending is the norm. Clear-felling systems are used in moist and dry deciduous forests where natural regeneration is unsatisfactory or where a change in crop composition is desired. Silvicultural interventions include intensive post- establishment tending, as well as pruning and thinning at later stages, as required. Coppicing systems are utilized in dry deciduous forests. These include the Simple Coppice system. Coppice with Standards, and CDPpice with reserves. Where these systems are applied rigorously, tending is carried out immediately after felling and thinning. , 32 -,- PRE-PROJECT 1909 REV. I (F) Strengthen, ',!93"stci, ,a6f0 ^'41/4geme"t orgy'at"mrQ;'orestsi"/Ism4'@cmt 2.84. Forest harvesting practices Forest harvesting practices, similar to Silvicultural management, encompass a wide variety of techniques according to the multiplicity of forest types in India. In evergreen and semi- evergreen forests, as well as some deciduous forests. the principal harvesting system is selective felling of valuable species, often incorporating improvement felling. Traditional teak Silviculture comprises a selection system. In moist deciduous forests, shelter wood and clear felling systems are common. 'Uniform and clear felling systems are utilized where regeneration is profuse. Irregular shelter wood systems and clear felling with replanting are used where regeneration is unsatisfactory, for example in Sal (Shorea robusta) forests in Uttar Predesh, Coppicing systems predominate in dry deciduous forests, for example in eucalyptus plantations, where the provision of fuel wood and small poles is required. In an effort to preserve forest resources, the Indian Supreme Court prohibited the Forest Department from harvesting wood in 'nori-plan' areas (areas that have not been targeted for managed culling and replanting) in 1996. The court also banned the shipment of logs from India's northeastern states. requiring all wood shipments be at least sawn timber. In 1997, the Supreme Court ordered the closure of all unlicensed sawmills and wood processing plants. and forbade states from licensing new operations. 2.9. Indonesia 2.9. ,. Background Indonesia began establishment of forest plantations in 1873. These were mainly teak plantations located in Java. PIhus methusii was planted on Sumatra during the First World War. Reserves were originally established on the basis of two colonial government ordinances. By 4950 the estimated area of plantations was 500,000 hectares. Conflicting demands for land in Java then resulted in a period of reduced planting. In 1967. the Government adopted Basic Forestry Law Number 5, which set in place forest management prescriptions classified according to main forest functions. Around that time the Government also adopted a number of programmes that stimulated commercial timber expansion. These Programmes helped to dramatically decrease the number of people living in poverty. Reforestation within concession areas (by concessionaires) was 33 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengtheni, ^Is"stain@6@ ^,@"432ne"t orgy'"turnfq;'orestsi",!as, ,4'"cant: initiated in the 1970s. By 1980 the total area of plantations was 2.7 million hectares, mainly in Java, and by 1990 the plantation estate had increased to 3.7 million hectares. In the late I 980s, the government launched a new program to establish industrial forest plantations to develop pulp and paper manufacturing facilities in order to reduce its dependence on oil exports, and to achieve the goal of becoming one of the leading pulp and paper producers in the world. The new plantations, called "Hutan Tanaman industry" (HTl) or Industrial Forest Plantation, emphasized the establishment of short rotation wood fiber species for pulp and paper production Scientific management of the natural forests, in Indonesia, dates back to the 1930s, but until relatively recently natural forests were logged only selectively and with relatively little destructive impact on the forests. Indonesia started large-scale harvesting its forest only 40 years ago. Harvest levels accelerated dramatically in the inid- 1970s and 1980s after large-scale logging concessions were introduced in 1967. Concessionaires were required to follow the Indonesian Selective Cutting System. In 1960, estimated annual log production was only 2 million m'; In 1975, it was 19 million in ; in 1985, 26 million in'; and in 1990, 38 million in . In 1989 the Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting System (TPTl) was introduced, placing greater importance on natural regeneration and enrichment planting. A "Reform Agenda of the Forestry and Estate Crops Sector" was launched in 1998, as part of the recovery programme implemented in response to the ,997 monetary crisis. The reform agenda will follow four phases: (,) rescue, (2) recovery, (3) stability, and (4) progress and development, Forestry is in the rescue phase until2001. All of Indonesia's natural forests are owned and administered by the State. The Ministry of Forestry's role is to wisely utilize the resources of the forest so as to recognize the multiple functions of forests, and achieve intergenerational equity, Since 4997, Indonesian forest management and utilization have been restructured with a shift from timber-based to resource-based management. In parallel, greater focus is also given to empowerment of local communities, decentralization, and strengthening the role of research and education. The MOF is also reviewing several policies to make them more compatible with sustainable forestry management principles, riotably the Act on Basic Provisions for Forestry and the concept of people's participation in forest management In February 2000, the Government of Indonesia made a commitment to set up an Interdepartmental Committee on Forestry to 34 -,- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) .St, ,,^tfie, ,ing Surtci"@6fo !, I'll^emut q", YammfFom, trill, artc^'c^j^ initiate policy related to forest management. The commitment spells out eight important points as priorities in the reform of policy on forest resource management and the activities of forest-based industries. These are: . To invite cooperation and coordination of other Ministries to impose strong measures . against illegal joggers especially those operating within national parks, and to enforce the closure of illegal sawmills. . To speed up forest resource assessment as the basis of a National Forest Programme (NFP) . To evaluate policies relating to conversion forests and place a moratorium on all natural forest conversion until the NFP is agreed. . To downsize and restructure wood based industries to balance supply and demand for raw materials and most importantly to increase the competitiveness of Indonesian wood based industries. . To close heavily indebted wood industries and link proposed debt write-off to capacity reduction. . To relate reforestation to existing forest industries and those under construction. . To recalculate the real value of timber. . To use decentralization processes as a tool to enhance sustainable forest management. This commitment is based on concern over diminishing forest resources, where the annual rate of deforestation has reached 1.8 million hectares in the past decade. Damage to forest resources is exacerbated by the capacity of wood and pulp industries that far exceeds the sustainable supply of forest resources. The potential of forest-based ecotourism is currently being actively explored in Indonesia. In particular, it is intended that ecotourism will be developed further in Nature Recreation Parks and Hunting Parks. 2.9.2. Forest management plans In the 1980s a Consensus Forest Land Use Plan was established for all provinces, This designated forest functional areas based on biophysical and ecological features. As at April I 999, the forest area of a2, ., million hectares was divided into conservation forest (20.6 million hectares), protection forests (33.9 million hectares) and production forest (58.5 million hectares). The remaining 8.1 million hectares is designated non-permanent forestland or 35 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) $trailgtfie"jays"st"inn6@ ", tc, ,49ame"t orgy'"turnf!F'orestsi"/1st^-(1'4c:I^ conversion forest designated for conversion to' other uses such as agriculture, mining and industrial forest plantation. All 27 provinces have developed land-use plans. Under the concessionary management system. each concessionaire is required to prepare an Annual Management Plan that covers production, marketing, equipment usage, road network development and maintenance, and Silvicultural activities on the logged areas, as well as community development. The concessionaire is also required to submit a five-year management plan, as well as an overall plan that covers the duration of the concession tenure, and a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment Report for the entire concession area. Management plans must show progress in post-logging Satvicultural activities to ensure the sustainability of the forest for the next harvesting rotation. Particular attention is paid to the number of commercial species standing in post-harvest inventories. Failure to file adequate plans is punish able by limiting the following year's production targets for the violating concessionaire. 2.9.3. Silviculture and forest~management practices Three main Silvicultura! systems are employed in Indonesia to cover the wide range of natural forest types across the dipterocarp- rich forests in Sumatra, Kalimantan and SUIawesi to the dipterocarp- poor forests in Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Inari Jaya. These are (, ) Indonesian Selective Cutting and Replanting System (TPTl- Tebang Pilih Tanam Indonesia), (2) Clear Cutting with Natural Regeneration (THPA), and (3) Clear Cutting with Artificial Regeneration (THPB). applied to plantation forests. These systems are regulated through laws and decrees. The Ministry of Forestry has prepared guidelines for these systems. These require loggers to submit plans for inventory, road construction, felling, and residual stand inventory, to replant, to retain at least 25 commercial trees (20-30 cm dbh) per hectare after logging, and to carry out post-harvest surveys and treatment. The dominant TPTl system has been applied to management of the natural forests since 1989. This system requires concession holders to manage on a 35-year cutting cycle (mangroves, by contrast, are managed on a 45-year cycle). No tree less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter may be felled for timber. At least 25 commercially valuable trees with diameters between 20 and 30 centimeters must remain per hectare after logging, and enrichment ' planting is specifically required after harvesting. Seedling stock may come from either nurseries or from dense natural regeneration 36 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) StrungtEe",',^ s"sini""6fo :"fairqge"""t gear"turnfg;'orests tit, gsm4?"c!^ elsewhere in the forest. Each concession is divided into 35 blocks, and only one block can be harvested per year. The Ministry of Forestry sets an allowable annual cut that is based on the cutting cycle, and the area under concession. A minimum of 700 hectares within each concession area is required to be protected as a conservation area. Average annual growth rates for short rotation pulp and paper plantations are estimated at 25-30 in'/ha/yr on 8 to 10 year rotations for hardwood (such as acacia and eucalyptus), while pines are grown on 45 to 18 year rotations. 2.94. Forest harvesting practices Forest harvesting in Indonesia is predominantly carried out using the Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting System (TPTl). as described above (Silviculture). However, the system of logging concessions and selective cutting, whereby private concessions are granted to private or state companies, is being replaced by the Production Forest Management Unit (KPHP) system. Studies conducted with the support of the UK Overseas Development Agency (ODA), conclude that the KPHP is a promising system for better management of natural production forests in -Indonesia. This concept is being introduced in two provinces, Central Kalimantan and Jambi where the area of production forest management units range from 40,000 to 120,000 hectares. In many cases where company licenses have been revoked the Ministry has taken over the management of these concessions. In 1998 the government issued a new policy that limited concession areas to a maximum of 400,000 hectares throughout the country. Expired concessions and excessive areas are allocated or sold at auction to co-operatives. or to small- and medium- scale businesses. There is currently a proliferation of mini- concessions of up to 100 hectares that can be allocated by local government as part of the decentralization process. Indonesia has operated as task manager for the FAO Asia Pacific Forestry Commission in developing the Asia Pacific Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting and has organized related training tours and workshops. A draft national code has also been prepared and a guidebook 'Principles and Practices of Forest Harvesting in Indonesia', has been developed to assist these processes. At the operatorleve!, a guidebook for tree harvesting in tropical forest has also been published. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) continues to be promoted and has involved the establishment of RIL demonstration sites, and the publication of a technical procedures manual, and 37 -J PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) StrengtheningS"$tai, ,"6fo :"IC, ,49eme"t orgy'atI'mJIT'orestsi"/1sta-early^c training material. RIL guidelines are currently being formulated. Studies comparing conventional harvesting with reduced impact harvesting have been carried out, Since , 996, around 100 forest concessionaires have been trained in RIL techniques. The timber industry is currently confronted with a huge gap between supply and demand of raw material, This gap has resulted in a threat not only to the forest itself, but also to the continued existence of significant portions of the wood industry in Indonesia. The shortfall in 2000 between log su^ply (24.7 million in ) and industrial production demand (63.5 million in ) is 38.8 million cubic meters, Ministry of Forestry estimates for distribution of wood supplies from forests in year 2000, are: natural forest - ,4.3 million in (58 percent), conversion forest - 7.0 million m' (28 percent). plantation forest " 2.8 million in' (, I percent), and community woodlots - 0.6 million in' (3 percent). 2. ,0. Japan 2.10. ,. Background The total land area of Japan is 36 460 000 ha. Japan is heavily forested country, with forest covering 66 9', of the total land area, or more than 24,081,000 hectares. There is considerable diversity in Japan's forests ranging from small .areas of sub-tropical forests located south of To kara islands; warm temperate forests located from the western Pacific coast to Kyushu island; cool temperate forests from the middle to north-east; and sub-frigid forests on Hokaido islands. Japan has more than 10.5 million hectares of plantation forests, containing predominantly coniferous species in relatively young age. Major plantation species are cedar, cypres and pine in most part of Japan. specially Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) which were planted during 1950's under the assumption of intensive management for high-quality timber. In general, the species distribution in terms of areas is as follows: about 50 91, predominantly coniferous, more 42 % predominantly broadleaved. 7.4 % mixed forest stands. and about 0.6 9^'. predominantly bamboos. The total growing stock in Japan's forests has been calculated at 3.5 billion cubic metres, and a good half of it consists of softwood species in man-made forest plantation, About 42 % of forests are in public ownership, and 58 % of forests are private. Japan has more than 2.5 million hectares of land in formally protected areas. Included in this total is a network of specific forest 38 -.,- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) St, e, ;gate, ,i, !gS"st@inc6@ !, 1412^emut orgy'at","f9;'orest, i, ,,!aim^I^ reserves. Important non-wood forest product in Japan include mushrooms, bamboo shoots, chesnuts, wax and lacquer. 2. , 0.2. Forest Management Plans The ownership of the forest in Japan can be classified into three catagories: private forest (, 4.6 million ha), public forest (2.7 million ha) and national forest (7.6 million ha). The government of Japan established the "Basic Plan for Forest Resources" which aoutlines basic ideas on forest management policies and provides individual forest owners with information on forest management practices. In addition, the " Nationwide Forest Plan" was developed based on the Basic Plan as a comprehensive forest management plan in a'ccordance with the " Forest Law'. Under the " Nature Conservation Law" and the " Natural Park Law, " areas with scenic beauty and valuable ecosystem are designated as the Nature Conservation Areas and Natural Parks. These protected areas play an important role in the forest conservation, and also contribute to the sustainable forest management in Japan. ,- - 2.0.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The government of Japan established the ' National Land Use Plan" as part of integrated national plan for the management of land resources, The "Basic Plan for Forest Resources' which is an integral part of the national forest program, was developed to maintain consistency with national land policy. The contents of the important forest management plans, such as the Basic Plan for Forest Resources, are developed through consultations with relevant governmental agencies based on the Forestry Basic Law. Once agreement is reached, the Cabinet makes the decision. Effort are made to ensure the consistency and harmony with other national policies and plan such as the Basic Environment Plan, which aims at achieving sustainable development. Since April 1999, mornitoring of domestic forests has been implemented in reference to some of the criteria and indicators identified in the Montreal- Process. Moreover by financing InO's activities, the government of Japan has contributed to ITrO producer countries' efforts toward the Year 2000 objective through development of a manual for application of criteria and indicator, improvement of 39 _ _I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening $45t@inn6!^In^t@"49e", e"t orgy'"targf^"@, ast, in, gsm-early^ forest fire management, dissemination of reduced-impact 'logging practice, and enhancement of statistical functions and networks. 2. , 0.4. Forest harvesting practices Forest harvesting is most commonly done as a highly mencanized cleanell operation. The logging operation in Japan is conducted by implementing the Reduced-Impact Logging principles. Variety of methods are used, for example skyline, mainline, haul-back line and mobile tower yarder. The use of cable was able to reduce the density of forest roads and disturbances to forest soil. 2.1, . Republic of Korea 2. ,,.,. Background Total forest area in Republic of Korea is 9926 000 hectare or 6.3 % of the total land area (FAO, 2000). Forest management and nature conservation in Korea dates back many hundreds of -years' For example, during the Silla and Sinra Dynasties (400600 AD), the importance of scenic areas was emphasized and one of the constitutional "Five Rules of Practice" was that people should cherish all living things. By the , 5 Century, a self-regulating form of community forest management, known as "Sarinmgae", had been established to ensure forest protection. Forest management systems were largely dismantled during the Japanese colonial era (, 910-1945) during which the vast majority of forests on the Korean peninsula were cleared to meet Japanese demand for timber, and local requirements for fuel wood. Consequently, much of the forest that exists today in Korea is the result of large-scale afforestation programme, first initiated at the end of the Second World War, and intensified in the post-Korean War period. Concerted afforestation efforts under the 10 year Forestry Development Plans have resulted in an increase in stocked forestlands to 6.3 million hectares in 1995. Following the Korean War, and proceeding decades of deforestation and forest degradation, management objectives were necessarily aimed at forest restoration and rehabilitation, with a particular emphasis on mitigating and preventing soil erosion. In recent years, the primary objective in . managing natural resources, including forests, has been sustainable development as targeted in the Fourth Forest Development Plan. Until recently, forests in Korea 40 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthe, ,ing S"5,437,461^ Mainqgement orgy^tumor, ,",,, in. ,a, i, ,I'coy^ were classified into two categories, Reserve and Non-Reserve forests. This classification hindered efficient and rational forest lands development, mainly because it provided insufficient flexibility in managing forests for conservation and production purposes. In 1994, the Forest Law was amended to reclassify forest lands into three categories - productive, protective (environmental) and convertible (multi-purpose or semi-conservation) forests. This reflects a new emphasis on multiple objectives for forest management. The major goals of the Forestry Promotion and Advancement Law support this framework, by encouraging private forest owners to actively participate in managing forests, and by strengthening government incentive systems to promote further development of national timber resources 2. ,,. 2. Forest management plans The system of forestry planning in Korea is largely hierarchical. Under the Forest Law of 1961 a national forest plan is required to be produced every 10 years in order to establish and manage the forest resources. Local governments are required to set up local forest plans on the basis of the direction of the national forest plan. Due to the decentralized and fragmentary nature of Korean forest ownership, it is impractical to prepare management plans for each individually-owned tract of forest. Cooperative management plans are drawn up for many privately owned forests, setting out objectives for groups of collectively managed forests. Forest land in Korea is classified into national Forest (20 %), Public Forest (8% ) and Private Forest ( 72%). 2.1, .3. Silviculture and forest management practices Korea's principal forestry efforts during the past 40 years have focused on tree planting and reforestation. Large-scale reforestation began in 1973 with the First lovear Forest. Development Plan. The basic objective of the , 0-year Forest Development Plan is to create a new source of the national economy to promote public benefits from forest lands. Almost 4 million hectares of forests have been planted or rehabilitated. The focus of Sinicultural practices tends, as a consequence, to be centered around plantation techniques Silvicultural systems are chosen according to species, quality of forest lands and growing conditions for trees. In coniferous forests, 41 -, PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening S"st@inc6f0 :",,",, 43eme"t orgy'@turnfQ"orests in, !asi"-Q'@czj7c understorey removal and pruning are carried out, as required. Thinning, normally carried out in winter, occurs 'once or twice before final harvesting. The optimal age for thinning varies depending on the growing conditions in each plantation. Reforestation is based on field surveys that identify topography and soil conditions in areas planned for reforestation. Species are then matched to site characteristics, as well as to the preferences of forest owners. The productivity of en established plantation is largely influenced by genotypes of planted Stocks. To produce superior planting stocks, the Forest Genetic Research In titute has established seed orchards and clone banks of important tree species. From the year 2000, the seed orchards produced enough seeds to meet the annual reforestation plan. The planting density is generally standardized: 3000 stock per ha for slow- growing timber tree species, 400 to 600 stocks for fast-growing tree species, and 400 stocks for nut-bearing tree species. The stock volume comprises of coniferous (45%), Deciduous (28%) and Mixed (27%). To maintain the forest sustainability, Forest Administration aplies the Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicator for Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests. 2. ,1.4. Forest harvesting practices Forests occupy around 65 percent of Korea's total land area, but annual per hectare forest productivity is very low. This is mainly due to a very high proportion of immature stands but, equally important, is that Government sets a very conservative annual allowable cut. At present, the allowable harvest is set at around 11 percent of the annual volume increment. On-ground harvest management follows a set of guidelines for cutting in both national and private forests. These guidelines stipulate best practices for optimal recovery of timber. The guidelines also incorporate elements of a code of practice for harvesting, and Silvicultural prescriptions. To reduce the reforestation expenses, human labor and disturbance of forest ecosystem, tending of natural forest are being exercised. The suitable forest for tending is selected on the basis of the site quality and the growth of characteristics of the trees. The selected natural forest is converted into productive forests through proper intermediate treatments. The quality of timber harvested is generally poor. Inferior grade timber, and pest and disease damaged timber, makes up more than 50 percent of the annual harvesting volume. In part this is due to poor harvesting techniques and insufficiently developed technology. 42 ,- - PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stre, !ithe"frogs"stdin@61^ MCIi"gene"t orgy'gnumfF@restsi, ,/^sin4>"^7c Harvesting costs in Korea are high, mainly because of relatively high (by Asian standards) labor costs, and high recovery and transportation costs. A significant trend is that costs associated with SIIviculture and harvesting have increased marked Iy during the past 20 years, while stumpage prices have trended downward over time, This dichotomy is an obstacle to establishing sustainable harvesting practices and implementing reduced impactlogging techniques. 2. , 2. Laos 2. ,2. ,. Background Traditional forest management in Laos reflects the historical influences of the then - Siam (Thailand) on the country. Shifting cultivation has predominated among the country's hill-tribes for many centuries, while more settled Laotian principalities had discernible conservation ethics. Laos came under French control in the late. ,9'' century, but its forests remained largely under traditional management. The country's turbulent history, post-Second World War, meant that new techniques for forest management received little attention until relatively recently, after the People's Democratic Republic consolidated political control of the country. Similarly, until recently the forests remained largely free from exploitation and, consequently, Laos retains a relatively high proportion of forests largely undisturbed by commercial activities. The National Forestry Action Plan stipulates four primary objectives for forest management: biological resources of forests should be protected by an approach emphasizing people's participation; the economic resource value of forests should be balanced with conservation; afforestation, production and forest development must be linked to food production and, particularly, the provision of alternatives for shifting cultivators; and development of increased forest cover to 70 percent of total land area by giving priority to natural regeneration systems. The Vision 2020 outlines additional priorities as being to allocate land to rural families and encourage sustainable plantation development, and to survey the forest resource and to set up appropriate systems of forest management and infrastructure to achieve Government objectives. 43 I PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6^ "^14,349ene"t cy!'w'@turnfc"orestsi, ,,^siC4^"^inc 2.12.2. Forest management plans All production forests in Laos, both natural forests and forest plantations, are required in principle to be managed according to forest management plans derived from research results in the country and the region. At present, however, few plans have been drafted toriiy a handful of projects and concessions have management plans). There are no management plan guidelines and no requirement to prepare them prior to allocation of harvesting quotas. There are basic operational management plans for harvesting, and logging quotas for each province are worked out based on assumptions that in some cases have yet to be adequately validated. Annual logging volumes are set by logging quotas issued by the Prime Minister's Office based on proposals from Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF), Ministry of Commerce and Tourism, and the industry. Annual quotas are riot set systematically and do riot necessarily reflect forest management objectives. 2.12.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The implementation of scientific Siiviculture is only carried out on a small scale in Laos. Selective logging is practiced mainly because it is more profitable than clear felling. Harvesting techniques are generally fairly simple and little Silviculture is applied pre- or post- harvest. Reliance is mainly on natural regeneration. Nonetheless, Laos is endeavoring to conduct research to improve the potential for Si!vicultural management. Recent research projects administered by the Department of Forestry have included, growth rate studies of natural forest, thinning systems for teak plantations, management systems for natural dipterocarp and pine forests, and development of natural forest management plan models. Several donor projects have collected growth data and implemented low impact, low intensity harvesting models to demonstrate sustainable forest management through community participation. The majority of intensive SIMculture is applied to the modest plantation estate, which has largely been established since 1990. The Government envisages that the plantation sector in Lao will develop along different lines from the commonly accepted model in Southeast Asia. The focus is to be on agroforestry techniques, which will see the plantation estate highly integrated with food crop growing, cattle rearing and aqua-culture, rather than tree monocultures. Plantations are expected to be environmentally friendly, using mosaic planting patterns and leaving intact, scattered natural trees during land 44 PRE-PROJECT I 9199 REV. I (F) 3,731^the?, t, !g$"st"jin6@ ^^ICJt^camt orgy'"twinfFote, t, in^wig-!PC^^c clearing, with protection strips for water bodies, steep areas, - and rice paddies. At present, however, this model is far from realization. The two largest plantation development projects in Laos are industrial Eucalyptus carnaldulensis and Acacia inarigium monocultUres. 2. ,2.4. Forest harvesting practices Prior to 1986, Laos' forestry industry largely operated to meet moderate domestic demands for timber. In 1986, however, the introduction of the New Economic Mechanism. , saw the industry take a more outward focus with a rapid acceleration in export levels. High intensity logging was the gredominant means of harvesting, based upon the harvest of 25 in Ihectare (or more) with a prescribed cut every 50 years' Since most concessionaires do riot practice post- harvest management to ensure that the residual growing stock is nurtured and protected between cycles, forests have been progressiveIy degraded and progressiveIy yielded species and volumes of lesser quality and lower value. In 1991. concerns over unsustainable logging practices and corruption led to a Presidential Decree banning logging. The full ban was, however, relatively short- lived. I The country stopped issuing concessions for forest harvesting in ,994, but logging is still permitted in areas designated to become hydroelectric reservoirs, irrigation reservoirs, transmission pylons, electricity lines and other infrastructure and rural development projects. These remain a major source . of environmental concern. There has been an increasing reliance on logs from infrastructure projects and agriculture and rural development projects requiring conversion of forested land to non-forest land-use. Between I 995-99, 3.3 million in of logs were formally recorded as harvested, of which 63 percent were from conversion of forested lands for development projects. There are no standards or guidelines for roading, landing locations, felling or extraction. Harvesting waste in the forest is excessive as volumes and grades of logs are riot assessed or recorded until delivery of logs to the second landing. There are few incentives for efficient harvesting operations nor supervisory or monitoring procedures to ensure compliance with regulations and specifications. A National Code of Timber Harvesting Practice was drafted in inid-, 997. The purpose of the Code is to provide guidelines for carrying out timber harvesting operations in order to protect the environment and promote forest development consistent with the principles of sustainable development. 45 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strungtfie, ling s"st"tnn6fo ^^I'm, ^e^"t or'organmfQ"orests in^siC4', c, j^: 2.13. Malaysia 2.13. ,. Background Natural forests in Malaysia have been progressive Iy brought under systematic managem'ent since the appointment of the first Forest Officer in 1901. Most-notable was the development of specific forest management systems, particularly for the dominant dipterocarp forest ecosystems. In the early 1920s, forest management in Malaysia was carried out through the Regeneration Improvement Felling (RIF) system, which prescribed sequential felling with a five-year regeneration period, The RIF was superseded by the development of the more sophisticated Malayan Uniform System (Mus) in 'the late 1950s. A more conservation oriented approach to forest management has seen significant modification to the Mus, as well as the introduction of the Selective Management System in the 1970s for hill forests where the Mus was unsuitable. Establishment of forest plantations dates back to the 1950s. when trial areas of teak we're planted in Peninsula Malaysia. More recently, the timber value 'of extensive areas of rubber -wood plantations has been recognized and utilized. The reservation-of the Matang Mangroves began in 1902 and was completed in. 1906. By 1908 the whole gazette forest came under management. .The first Working Plan was prepared in I 952 for 1950 to 1979. It was the first complete Plan ever published in Malaysian Forestry and has since been revised at , 0-year intervals. One of the more significant; events for forest management in Malaysia, in recent history, was the advent of an ITFO mission team to Sarawak in 1989. The mission was responding to an invitation from the Sarawak government to assess the sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources as well as the maintenance of the ecological balance in sustainable forest management policies and practices, including areas of international cooperation and assistance. the mission issued a report titled, The Promotion of Sustainable Forest Management: A Case Study in Sarawak, Malaysia, which recommended a number of measures to promote sustainable management including a reduction in Sarawak s annual timber production from the Permanent Forest Estate from I2 million cubic meters to 9 million cubic meters. Forest management objectives are clearly specified in the National Forestry Policy. The Policy clearly differentiates between a Permanent Forest Estate (PFE), to be maintained and managed as forest in perpetuity. and Stateland Forest areas outside the RFE, often termed Conversion Forests. In the past, State land Forests were 46 , I --,- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening S"stdinc6fo :I, f@"48eme"t orgy', twinfQ"orestsi, a^siC4>@c, j^: designated for eventual clearing to meet demands for additional lands for agricultural, urban or other non"forest purposes. More recently, efforts are being made to incorporate these into the permanent forest estate. All forest lands in Malaysia are state-owned. The primary management objectives in the PFE are to maximize the economic, social and environmental benefits to Malaysia and its people from the sustainable management of the country's forest resources. The National Forest Policy specifies that productivity in the PFE be optimized through sound regeneration and rehabilitation programme compatible with environmental requirements, as well as providing for the conservation and protection of the forests' biological diversity, water and soil, and sustainable productivity potential. The PFE comprises 14.3 million hectares, of which 3.7 million hectares are broadly designated as protection forests (soil and water protection as well as amenity forests), and I 0.6 million hectares are available for productive purposes. An additional 2.1 million hectares of forest outside the PFE is protected in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. State land Forests presently comprise around 3.5 million hectares. 2.13.2, Forest management plans Since the 1950s, the development and implementation of forest management- working plans has been mandatory. Each forest concession area or forest management unit, whether inside or outside the PFE and including protected areas, must have a Forest Management Plan. The plan contains a description of the area, the objectives of management or prescriptions on how the management unit is to be harvested, the species to be removed, the minimum cutting diameter limits, the annual allowable harvest, penalties for harvesting damages and a variety of other prescriptions. Plans that encompass harvesting must specify the number of trees to be left behind, road construction prescriptions, and measures taken to minimize soil erosion and other residual damage. 2.13.3. Silviculture and forest management practices In Peninsula Malaysia, two Silvicultural systems are practiced, the Malayan Uniform System (Mus) and the Selective Management System (SMS). The Mus is effective Iy a system for converting virgin tropical lowland dipterocarp forest into a approximately even-aged forest containing a high proportion of the commercial species to be 47 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Straytfie, ,ingS", tai""6fo %,",^gene"t or'WornmfQ"o7.5t, in^5,3<1'omitt managed under the Uniform system. This is achieved by a clear-felling of a mature trees down to a minimum diameter at breast height (dbh) of 45 centimeters, This is followed by the release of selected natural regeneration of varying ages, aided by systematic poison girdling of defective and non-commercial species. The Mus focuses mainly on the seedlings and saplings that are expected to form the bulk of the next harvest. This has led to much heavier poison girdling of trees than is necessary and also drastic opening of the canopy. Hence over the years the emphasis has to a more discriminating approach to poison girdling and a more conservation al approach in Silviculture treatments (this is the 'modified' Mus). The SMS was introduced in the 1970s when the Mus was found to be unsuitable for managing hill dipterocarp forests in Peninsula Malaysia. The comparatively more di^cult terrain, uneven stocking. lack of natural regeneration on the forest floor, and uncertain seedling regeneration after logging meant the Mus failed to promote adequate post-harvest rehabilitation. Problems with erosion and the difficulties in regenerating the cut-over forest did riot favor drastic opening of the canopy. SMS operates on a 25-30 year cutting cycle with an expected net outturn of 3040 cubic meters per hectare. The minimum cutting dbh prescribed for dipterocarp species is 50 centimeters. The cutting limit for non-dipterocarp species should not be less than 45 centimeters dbh, while the residual stocking should incorporate at least 32 sound commercial trees per hectare for . diameter class 30-45 centimeters. Similar systems are practiced in Sabah and Sarawak. 2.13.4, Forest harvesting practices Forest harvesting in Malaysia is regulated and controlled. An Area Control approach is used whereby a certain area of forest is designated for harvesting each year. This is done through the allocation of an annual felling coupe based on resource availability and current forest management practices. For example, the annual coupe for Peninsula Malaysia during the period 4995-2000 was 46,000 hectares, These areas are allocated as forest concessions using a license tender process. Harvesting systems require both pre- and post-felling inventories to be carried out, while harvest volumes are closely monitored to ascertain correct royalty payments. Harvesting in Malaysia is largely mechanized with roads and skid-trails built. Yarding is generally done using tractors and skidders, although cable-yarding systems are used in locations where roading options are limited. Malaysia is, however, implementing a large 48 --,- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain"6fo :"IC, ,49eme"t orgy'"twinfForestsin, ;, sin-Q'@C!fiC number of innovative projects designed to develop better techniques for reduced impact logging. These include, for example, the testing of helicopter logging in Sarawak (under an InO funded Sarawak Model Forest Management Area project implemented by the Sarawak Forestry Department in partnership with Sarawak Timber Association). This project is developing a variety of measures to encourage efforts towards sustainable forest management, including airborne video- recording and mapping. computer-aided road-building and design, and comparative studies of PATH logging, RIL logging. hell-logging, and conventional logging. In Sabah, an ongoing carbon^ffset driven rehabilitation project is planting high value Dipterocarps and fruit trees in areas of logging disturbance. The Sabah pilot programme (supported by Forests Supporting CO2 Emissions (FACE)), includes mapping; pre-selection and marking of marketable timber; pre-harvest cutting of climber vines; slope and riparian restrictions on logging; weather restrictions on logging; lowering the impact of access roads through planning; use of directional felling techniques; planning of skid trails; and eliminating the use of bulldozer blades on skid trails. The modified Mus and SMS promote reduced impact logging, with an emphasis on reducing residual damage to future crop trees Environmental Impact Assessments are required for logging areas greater than 500 hectares. In an effort to optimize the utilization of forest and mill residues, as well as promoting trade in . under utilized species. Malaysia has undertaken a variety of studies with cooperation from various agencies. Research has also been intensified in reduced Impact Logging and Low Impact Logging technologies. The use of modified excavators and skyline mobile yarding for log extraction is also being evaluated. In order to alleviate the negative impacts of road construction on forests and the environment, Forest Road Specifications have been revised and applied to logging, since 1999. 2.14. Maldives 2. ,4.1. Background Historically, the Maldives has had good natural cover of forest trees and was self-sufficient in forest products. Little information is available on the history of forest management in the Maldives, though it appears that the historical adequacy of forests meant that little regulation was required. Currently, however, the country is 49 I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Straytfieni, ^ Sustain@6fo :"faradgeme"t orgy'"turnfQ"orestsi"/, sin-@"c!17c experiencing significant shortages of forest products, mainly as a result of population pressures and unsound land use practices. The second National Environment Action Plan is undertakes an integrated approach to the management of the environment and focuses on working towards the goal of sustainable development. The approach taken in the formulation of the second National Environment Action Plan resulted in drawing out a number of key issues, which need to be addressed and then identifying appropriate responses to them. Increasing timber production has been stated in development plans as a priority factor in promoting and sustaining the limited forest resources. Demand for wood (mainly for firewood, boat-building and house construction) outstrips supply, mainly due to population pressures and previous improper management. Wood is recognized as a valuable natural resource in the Maldives and the preservation ^rid regeneration of timber stocks is an important element of government policy. 2.14.2. Forest management plans The law prohibits harvesting of natural vegetation without written government permission. There are, however, no regulations requiring forest management plans, and presently few forest areas have formal planning measures applied. 2.14.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The key tree species for boat building in the Maldives are Calophyllum mophyllum, Cordia subcordata, Thespesia populnea and Hidscus till^ceus. These species are all easily propagated by either vegetative cuttings, or by- seed, Calophyllum mophyl!urn and Cord^^ subcordata are grown in simple GOPpice systems with relatively short rotations and little Silvicultural management other than cutting. Thespesia populnea and Hihiscus tiliaceus are grown from seedlings, Gasuanha equisetifolia is grown in shelterbelt systems for fuel wood and as shelter from both wind and salt spray. The relatively extensive areas of mangroves in the Maldives have received no scientific management and nor (to 1993, at least) have management plans been proposed for these forests 50 -^- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Spyst"jin6fo ^IC",^emu"t q"orct"mrFote$ts, ',,^sag-@ami^: 2. ,44. Forest harvesting practices In 1993 a permit system for harvesting timber and fuel wood in the mangroves forests was introduced. The system requires written permission from the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture to removal mangrove timber. The permit system, however, encourages high grading of the mangroves since permits authorize removal of specified lengths of bole. More recently, the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture has restricted the issuing of timber cutting permits to protect the existing vegetation, Only a few species is permitted to be cut as firewood, Regulations also require that any tree cut down must be replaced by two newly planted trees. Fuel wood collection on uninhabited islands is authorized only on specified days of the week. 2.15. Mongolia 2.54 Background Until the 1920s, Mongolia was essentially a feudal agrarian society, with a high proportion of the population comprising nomadic herdsmen. Nonetheless a tradition of nature protection dates back to the 13th century when many forested hills were protected as holy areas. The introduction of Buddhism in the 16th and 17th centuries was accompanied by conservation-based philosophies resulting in the establishment of the first protected areas in the late 1700s. In 1924 the Mongolian People's Republic was declared and Mongolia became the world's second communist country. Close ties with the Soviet Union saw Russian forest management prescriptions adopted in Mongolian forests, while forest management fell under the purview of community collectives and the principal focus 'was on wood production, More recently, conservation and forest rehabilitation have become the main focus of Mongolian forest management, The principal objective of forest management in-Mongolia is to protect and develop the existing forests to ensure their maximum contribution to soil and watershed protection, and the-conservation of existing ecosystems. At the same time forests are also expected to meet people's needs for industrial wood, fuel wood and minor forest products, and to contribute to export revenues through the export of wood products. The Forest Law of 1995 recognizes that forestry is a long-term activity, which must be guided by far"sighted strategy and planning to 'ensure the balanced development of resources. Proper 51 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strewtfie"ing S"st@ting6fo M@",^merit orgy'"turnfq"@restsi, I^sad4Por,j^ planning includes taking into account the institutional, economic, environmental'and social objectives of the country. 2. ,5.2. Forest management plans The Forest Law of Mongolia notes that a forest inventory and management planning should be' carried out every 10 years, There are presently no records of how much forest is under management as such. According to the Mongolian Law on Forests, all forest land is categorized in one of 3 groups: Strict Forest Zones; Utilization Forest Zones; and Protected Forest Zones. Management of Strict Forest Zones is planned and financed by Central Government. However, formal forest management plans have yet to be prepared for most major tracts of forest. Local forests administered by district and local governments are under discretionary forest management, and there is no requirement for local governments to issue formal management plans, Where private sector entities hold contracts to harvest or manage forests they are required to have management procedures approved by the Government. Private sector harvesting for industrial purposes is controlled by contracts, which are required to stipulate the purpose of harvesting, species of trees. volume and duration, as well as forest management interventions, technology utilized and a programme for protection of the forest from fire, disease, harmful insects, and for regeneration. 2. ,5.3. Silviculture and forest management practices Silviculture in Mongolia is largely restricted to ensuring regeneration of forest areas after harvesting. A major problem in Mongolian forests is that natural regeneration is generally inadequate to maintain current forest areas and forest types. Natural regeneration tends to promote the expansion of birch and 'aspen forests at the expense of more valuable species. The Forest Law of Mongolia I995 requires that logging enterprises undertake regeneration activities in harvested areas, but currently only to percent of harvested areas are artificially reforested. The current regeneration method consists of piling and burning of logging waste, manual site preparation and planting of bare-root seedlings. The nursery-grown seedlings are 2-3 years old. The most common planted species are pine and larch. The survival rate of seedlings is reported to be only 30-65 percent. 52 . ^- PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Just@jin6fo arc, ,eyeme"t or^""twinfFo, BSt, trillsia-!Pacific 2.15.4. Forest harvesting practices Until the 1940s the majority of forest harvesting in Mongolia was done under selective cutting systems (in deciduous forests) without any formal forest management. Clearfel!ing systems have predominated in coniferous forests. Horses and yaks were mainly used in skidding operations and, consequently, residual damage was relatively low. Timber harvesting technologies have traditionally followed Russian systems. Whole-tree logging has been common with skidding to roadsides and transport to landings by truck. Mongolia is slowly implementing changes to logging methods including a shift from clear-cutting to selective logging in larch and pine forests. All forest harvesting is licensed by the governors of each soum (District). Licenses are only issued after considering the economic efficiency of proposed activities, the cutting technique and processing technology. level of utilization, and funding set aside for the protection and regeneration of the forest. Mongolia is currently formulating a national code of practice for forest harvesting with assistance from ILO and FAO. 2. , 6. Myanmar 2. ,6.1. Background Systematic management of forests in Myanmar can be traced back to ancient times, when the kings of Myanmar legally designated protected forests and wildlife sanctuaries. The scientific management of natural forests in Myanmar began in the inid-19th century, with the development of the Brandis Selection System, during British colonial era. The Brandis system melded German principles of scientific forestry, with the traditional Burmese forest culture. During the following 60 years the system evolved, and was eventually modified, into the Burma (Myanmar) Selection System. By the early 1920s the Myanmar Selection System was already well established, and has continued to be practiced in natural forests throughout the country, through to today Establishment of forest plantations using the Taungya method was originated in Myanmar, with initial teak plantings in 1856. This method. the forerunner of modern tropical agroforestry and community forestry practices, continued through to around 1930, when problems with bee hole borer, allied with erosion problems on sloping terrain led to the shelving of plans for large-scale teak afforestation, Extensive 53 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain"6f0 ^^!4,349eme"t ^"orct, ,tarQ"o123t, i"^sag^'@cry^c planting of teak only commenced in 1972, and has continued to the present day. . . The Forest Policy of I 995 has an over-riding objective of conserving forest resources to achieve sustainable forest management and development, while optimizing socio-economic benefits. The Forest Policy enunciates basic tenets of: sustainable production; satisfying basic needs; institutional strengthening and improvements in efficiency; protection of forests and biodiversity; and participatory forestry. The policy focuses on sustainable forest management to ensure a continuation of the current level of forest benefits, both tangible and intangible, for the present and future generations. The policy places priority on meeting people's basic needs for fuel, water, fodder, shelter, food and recreation, while at the same time harnessing the full economic potential of the forests through increased productivity. Conservation objectives are emphasized including protection of soils, water catchments, ecosystems, biodiversity, genetic resources, scenic reserves and national heritage sites. The policy plans for a participatory approach to forest management with an emphasis on people's participation in forestry, wildlife and nature conservation activities. as well as in establishing plantations and increasing incomes through the application of community and agroforestry systems. 2.16.2. Forest management plans In 1996. the Forest Department launched a special operation to update and reformu!ate Forest Working Plans to incorporate modern sustainable forest management concepts. The new district forest management plans place emphasis not only on timber production, but also on non-wood forest products, biodiversity conservation, and the socio-economic well being of local people. The plans are implemented at the district level and formulation of plans for 62 districts, covering the whole of the country, has been completed. Additionally, the development of village forest conservation I management plans has proved to be important for preventing or containing forest degradation and deforestation. It is mandatory to prepare a management plan before handing over forests to community user groups, and plans are certified by the Forest Department to ensure they meet the Department's technical requirements. Some form of management plan covers all forests in Myanmar, although many older working plans have been terminated. 54 . PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Slut@jin6fo ", fang8emmt qC3y@twinJFor2, tsi, ,, gsm4'any^c The District Management P!ans that substitute these old working plans are riot yet approved (2000) and still in the review stage. 2. ,6.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The principal SIIvicultural system practiced in natural forests is the Myanmar Selection System. The system operates in felling cycles of 30 years and requires the division of forest blocks into 30 compartments of approximately equal yield capacity. Each year selection felling is carried out in one compartment. All marketable trees that have reached minimum exploitable girth requirements are selected for cutting. In moist teak forests the minimum diameter at breast height limit is 73 centimeters, while in dry forests the diameter limit is 63 centimeters. The fixed diameter limit for other hardwoods varies across species. Teak trees are girdled 2-3 years before harvesting to enable the tree to dry, prior to harvest and enable transportation by water. Defective trees in compartments are poison- girdled, and intermediate Siniculturai interventions include cleanin and seedling release, climber cutting, and thinning in congested stands. Supplementary planting is done both to increase the proportion of commercially important species and enrich the natural forests, or to restore and rehabilitate degraded forest lands. In general. however, there has been a preference in Myanmar to allow forests to regenerate naturally. In Local Supply Reserves and fuel wood plantations a variety of other Sitvicuitural regimes are practiced, including clear felling, coppice, and coppice with standards systems, A UNDP project in the Ayeyarwaddy delta is 'presently focusing on sustainable use of mangrove forests, which have been degraded as a result of everexploitation for charcoal manufacture. 2.16.4. Forest harvesting practices At present, the Myanmar Timber Enterprise is the sole agency responsible for the extraction and export of teak and other hardwood species. Harvesting and export of hardwoods other than teak was carried out by private sector agencies between I 989 and I 993. Indiscriminate cutting and failure to follow the procedures of the system resulted in the banning of logging and log exporting by the private sector. Harvesting plans generally prescribe a 'two pass' system, where teak is harvested first and other species later. Teak is first girdled and then harvested, utilizing the prescriptions of the Myanmar 55 PRE-PROJECT 1909 REV. I (F) strungtfie",',!g s"$tai"46fo a^,@"43e"""t orgy'"t"mrQ"orests i"/Isiz-@"^^c Selection System on diameter limits for cutting and post-harvest inventories. Traditionally, teak logs have been floated down streams to rafting stations and it often took several years for logs to be delivered to mills. A switch to a trucking system has created a significant saving of time and volumes lost in transit are also minimized. Clearing of stumps and dragging of logs are done mainly by elephants and, to a lesser extent, water buffaloes. The use of animals in extraction of logs has proven to have the least impact on the environment and biodiversity. The Myanmar Timber Enterprise utilizes around 5,000 elephants for timber extraction. Mechanical extraction is riot considered to be economicalIy feasible under the Myanmar Selection System, and is used only in limited areas. Heary machinery is used mainly for road construction, loading and -unloading of logs, and transportation. Myanmar has developed a national code of practice for forest harvesting based on the regional FAOIAsia-Pacific Forestry Commission Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific. 2. , 7. Nepal 2. , 7.1. Background Various traditional systems of forest administration have developed across the centuries including, for example, the kipat system of exclusive communal rights in the east of the country, and the shingo nawa (forest caretakers) of Sherpa society. From the early 20 Century a National Code for forest administration placed responsibility for forest management in the hands of village leaders, under the supervision of a district administrator. in 1957, however, control of all private forests was vested in the State under the Forest Nationalization Act 1957. This Act was designed to bring all forests under effective management and, particularly, to halt the conversion of forest lands to agriculture. In the late I 970s community access to forests and participation in forest management once again became important Under the Panchayat Forest Rules, which endeavored to enforce sustainable utilization of forests, and regulate access to forests. Meanwhile, successive governments in Nepal pursued a policy of large-scale export of logs and timber from the Terai and .SIwalik regions, to India. Up until the1970s, forest-based income was the country s largest source of government revenue. However. in an effort to reduce forest degradation the export of logs and timber Was banned in 1979. 56 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustainc6fo ^fartqge", e"t or', VCtt, mrQ"orestsin/Ism4>, c^^c More than half of Nepal's forests have been cleared or seriously degraded in the past 30 years to make way for agriculture, and to meet demands for fuel wood, fodder and timber. More recently, a realization that the 'protective' forest management strategy was failing has seen a strong shift back towards community participation in forestry. The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector has spelled out the following long-term objectives for the development of the forestry sector: to meet the basic needs of people for fuel wood, fodder, timber, and other forest products, and to contribute to food production through effective interaction between forestry and farming practices; to protect the land against degradation by soil erosion, floods, landslides, desertification, and other effects of ecological imbalance; to conserve ecosystems and genetic resources; and to contribute to the growth of local and national economies by developing forest management and forest based industries and creating opportunities for income generation and employment. The medium term objectives of the Master Plan' are to support decentralization and promote people's participation in forest resource development. management and conservation, and to develop the legal framework needed to enhance the contribution of individuals, communities, and institutions to forest resource development. 2.17.2. Forest management plans All types of national forests are required to be managed under a management plan. The Department of Forests (DoF) has responsibility for sustainable management of all forest resources, including government-managed forests. The Government of Nepal has particularly recognized that the implementation of improved management systems in the Terai forests could substantially increase revenues from these forests. Consequently, the Department of Forests has committed to implementing scientific management plans in all Terai forests. Management plans have been prepared for many districts of the Terai. The absence of adequate funding, along with inadequate technical capacity and a variety of social factors have, however, precluded the implementation of many plans. The Leasehold Forestry Programme requires the leaser(s) to prepare a 5-year operational plan in order to work in the leasehold forest. The Community Forestry Programme has similar requirements for the completion of a Forest Operational Plan. The Operational Plan specifies various protection, utilization and management aspects for each community forest. Plans are prepared 57 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) St, 31^chewing S"stdin"6f0 :1/@/'43Gm"t cy"^"turnfq;'orests infoi"-4P"cry^c . by Forest User Groups with assistance from District Forest Office staff. Forest User Groups are allowed to sell forest products, raise funds, and use the income generated for rural development and forest regeneration as per their Operational Plan. More than 7,000 plans have been developed for managing community forests that have been transferred to forest user groups. 2. ,7.3. Silviculture and forest management practices Silvicultural management in Nepal has moved through distinct phases during the past 50 years, evolving from passive community/subsistence management. through a period of government control with a particular emphasis on low!and forest exploitation and, more recently, with the shift back to community participation. While there is naturally considerable variation in SIIvicultural treatments applied by several thousand independent Forest User Groups, studies indicate that considerable Silvicultural interventions are being implemented, Where appropriate, Forest User Groups are undertaking selective felling, planting, thinning, and pruning operations, known as Ban Godne Silviculture. Activities are generally geared to providing products and services to meet users' current needs. For example. pruning and thinning activities are primarily carried out to supply fuel wood, with the Si!vicu!tural benefits being in some respects a positive externality. , The vast majority of Nepal's forests remain, however. under government jurisdiction, and most of these receive inadequate scientific Silvicultural management. The exceptions are valuable lowland production forests, particularly in the Terai. These forests, comprising high proportions of Sal (Shorea robusta), tend to have been managed under scientific 'coppice with standards regimes, although encroachment by migrants has regularly compromised management efforts, 2.7.4. Forest harvesting practices Forest harvesting practices in Nepal fall into two distinct categories. The first is Small-scale, manual harvesting by communities. The other is by government forestry agencies. Harvesting techniques are labor intensive, and industrial logging is only slightly more mechanized than that carried out by the villages. Handsaws and axes are used for felling, deciimbing. and cross-cutting. 58 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Strengtheni, ^Sustainc6fo:^!",,^emu"t orgy'@turnf9"oustsi"/Ism^'cc, j^c Bullock carts are used to haul logs to landings or depots, from where they are loaded manually onto trucks for transportation to mills. 2.18. New Zealand 2. ,8.1. Background Forestry play an increasing important role in New Zealand s economy. New Zealand's forest resource can be divided into two distinct types. The first is large areas of natural forest made up of species indigenous (and often endemic) to New Zealand and including both virgin and regenerating forest. The second type is a smaller, but still extensive, area of forest that has been planted with mainly non- native, coniferous species. New Zealand's 6.4 million hectares of indigenous forest is located mainly in the mountains and hill country, and on the West Coast of the South Island. The major in dig^nous tree species in these complex forests are beech, kauri, rimu, taraire and tawa. Public opinion I^vours the preservation of our native forest, and approximately 77 percent of New Zealand's indigenous forest is in national parks and reserves, covering a 8.2 percent of the total land area. New Zealand's national parks area a major tourist attraction, offering a wide range of walking tracks and other activities, and containing many unique wildlife species. 2. ,8.2. Forest Management Plans Forest Management Plan in New Zealand involves (a) Gathering information (e. g. biodiversity and wildlife survey), (b) Evaluation of all information (natural and economic), (c) Operational considerations (roading and logistic), (d) Formulation of project plans and ecological and timber yield targets, (e). Providing for auditing and monitoring. 2. ,8.3. Forest Management Practices Sustainable forest management principal in New Zealand involves (a) application of ecologicalIy sensitive Sitvicu!tural systems, (b) careful measurements of forest growth and structure, (c) individual selection of groups of trees to meet ecological, Silvicultural and timber yield targets, (d) careful removal of prepared trees, and (e) checking 59 -- J PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) StrengtheningS"stdinc6f0 :,^1,114,817^"t orgy'@t, ,mr^"ores, swillsic4Z'@c, 75c and tending the forest to ensure regeneration, and prevent deterioration in health and quality. Sustainable forest management is currently in. use and has been successfully employed in the only large scale sustainable indigenous Rimu management operation in New Zealand at Okarito and Saltwater Forests in South Westland since 1993. The technologies developed in South westland is applied to all Timberland forest. At present, 83 % by area of the Rimu Forest area are sustainably managed. The remaining I7 % of area comprise mixed beech (dominant) and rimu forests, which are available for harvesting of rimu at unsustainable rates as part of an interim transitional arrangement approved by the Government. The unsustainable management was ceased at the end of 2000, All beech forests are to be sustainably managed for those species. 2.18.4. Silviculture and forest management practices The New Zealand forest industry is almost entirely based on planted forest, which cover 1.7 million hectares, or 6.4 percent of New Zealand's land area. New Zealand has had planted production forests, of mainly coniferous softwood species, since the early 20 century. Approximately 90 percent of this forest area is planted with rediata pine. This species grows quickly under New Zealand conditions, and the average time from planting to harvest is around 28 . years' Much of the planted forest area is young, with 61 percent being 15 years old or younger, - so production will increase substantially over the next ten years' Sixty-two percent of the planted forest has been pruned to produce high quality timber. In the year ended 30 Iune 1999 the forest industry : . harvested , 6.4 million cubic metres of wood from New Zealand's forests (up 5 percent on the previous year); . processed on-shore 11.0 million cubic metres (up 3 percent); . exported the roundwood equivalent of ,1.1 million cubuc metres (up 8 percent), in raw and processed form, earning New Zealand $2.5 billion (up 5 percent) and ranking forestry third in terms of commodity exports; . exported to over 40 countries; . employed over 2,000 people; . accounted for 3.9 percent of GDP 60 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain"6fo :^t""49eme"t or'orct, ,fujiF'orestsill, ^sin-@@^ 2.18.5. Forest harvesting practices Rimu tree removals amount to approximately 30 % of the total large (40 - 90 cm in diameter), beech and rimu trees combined. Most of seedlings, saplings, poles and younger rimu trees up to 40 cm diameter are retained. These should completely replace the removed trees over time. A few large defective rimu' trees are retained and provide ecological benefits. Beech trees are currently generally riot harvested. A low yield will be possible under sustainable management regimes. The intensity of tree harvest is between 13 to 20 trees I ha or 10 - 16 % of all the large rimu and beech trees combined per hectare. Orikaka is a larger forest of 6,400 ha of which 30 % is already cleared, previously heavily logged for rimu or subject to severe earthquake disturbance. It is Beech dominant forest. The intensity of tree harvest would be 6 trees per hectare or 5 % of all the large rimu and beech trees combined per hectare. Introduction of low impact helicopter harvesting reduced dramatically environmental impacts. The advantages of timber harvesting using helicopter are as follows True selective logging under sustainable forest management. Improved retention of forest structure in unsustainable management, Reduced damage to non-targeted species. Minimized effects on soil and water values. Dramatically reduced roading requirements. Retention of other forest values. Ability to economical!y salvage from previously logged areas. Flexibility to leave individual trees, species and areas of land. To enable extraction of determined yields from a practical manageable area, the total annual harvest is concentrated over a fraction of the total forest area. This area is then riot visited for harvest for a time period equivalent to the inverse of its fraction of the forest. This period is the felling cycle. For the forests in these plans, information on the distribution of dead trees gained from inventory and the proportion of volume extracted from field trials have indicated that between 10 and I5 year felling cycles are appropriate. This will achieve a spatial distribution of felling gaps well within the scale of natural disturbances, The New Zealand Forest Code of Practice (FCOP) was first published in I 990, after three years of consultation between LIRO and the forest industry, territorial authorities (councils) and other interest groups. In 1991 a comprehensive new environmental law, the Resources Management Act, was passed by parliament and the FCOP 61 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) Strengthening S"stating6&! !^{@, t^emu"t orgy'attrailfC"orestsi", asi"^Pony^c was revised and updated in 1993, The aims of the code are to plan, manage and carry out forestry operations in sustainable manner". It contains both environmental planning and operational information, is designed for ease use, and should be a good tool to promote better forestry practices, 2.19. Pakistan 2. , 9. , . Background Forest has been central in human history in that they provide critical ecosystem services for climate range and forege, wildlife habitat, biotic diversity, watershed protection, soil erosion control, etc. Humans have left an impressive mark on the world over the past Several centuries. With the dramatic growth in population-from around I billion in I 800 to 5 billion today-pressure on the land has greatly increased, The need for greater food production has led to a massive increase in cropland, By early 1990's, .almost 40 percent of earth land surface had been converted to croplands and permanent pastures. This conversion has occurred largely at the expense of forest. Of the four forest cover percentage groups (> 70 %, 40-69 %, , 0-39 %, 0-9 %), Pakistan lies in the last category: 0-9%. Between 1981 and ,990, there had been a 4.3 % decrease in forest areas of the Tropical Asia and Oceania, which Pakistan is a part of. During the same period, 0.6% deforestation had been occurring each year. This is an alarming situation and needs to be stalled and then reversed, if possible. 2.19.2. Silviculture and forest management practices As recognition of the multiple values of forests has grown, so have concerns for their disappearance. In Pakistan. subtropical, temperate, riverain and mangrove forests are being lost because of questionable land use practices and the evenncreasing demand for timber and firewood. As a result, more responsible management approaches are being demanded that can accommodate complex economic and the development of plantations and afforestation practices are needs. of the hour, Total Forest Area under the control of the Forest Departments (including A::ad Kashmir and the Northern Areas) is 4.26 million hectares. The per capita forest area is only 0,037 ha compared to the 62 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengtheni, ^Just@jin6@ ^,@"49enent cy!'or"tyrof^"orest, in, ;, sin^'coy^c world average of ONE ha, Main reason for this is that more than 70 % land area of Pakistan is And and semi-And with annual rainfall of 250- 500 min: too low and erratic to sustain natural vegetation and to plan afforestation/regeneration programmes. Due to diverse ecological conditions, a variety of forest types exist in the country. There are natural forests growing in the moist- and-dry temperate zones and on the foothills. On the other extreme are the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta and the Arabia Sea. lingated plantations and to some extent. riverain forests are manmade. 2.19.3. Forest harvesting practices Of 4.26 million hectares (of forest area), only 1.12 million hectares (26.3%) produce timber and firewood: the rest are meant to protect the watershed area and the erodable lands. Besides forests, the forests department also controls 6.4 million hectares of Rangelands. In fact. there are about 51.3 million hectares of Rangelands in Pakistan. These ranges provide sustenance to livestock population of about 98.6 millions. Being under incessant grazing pressure, these lands are producing hardly 10-15 % of their actual potential, Over grazing has intensified the problems of desertmcation resulting in accelerated soil erosion and degradation of plant communities. 2.20. Papua New Guinea 2,204. Background Papua New Guinea is a unique country in term of geographical position, its ecological importance and its social and political structures. The total land of PNG is 46.0 million hectares out of which 39.0 million hectares or 84.8% of land area, where their total natural forest area is 36,909 million hectares. The total productive forest is estimated to be 15.0 million hectares. Currently 10 million hectares has been acquired as forest concession areas with about 5.0 million hectares remaining. The annual cut to date has been below 4.0 million in' per annum, PNG's forest play important social resources for the local people and a biological wonder. Ninety seven percent of the land area is in customary land ownership. In 1996, PNG had 26 million hectares of unlogged primary rainforest. There are 63 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SIrst@tm6fo ^t@"49eme", orgy'@turnf9"orestsin, ^sin4'"c,itc 45 different types of forest and woodland that have been identified in ' PNG. These contain the large majority of PNG's estimated 20 000 species of higher plant and account for perhaps 7.5 % of the worlds total biodiversity. 2.20.2. Forest Management Plans Forest management in PNG has traditionally been exercised by the traditional landowners ' following broadly sustainable management practices and with little interference from outside, The laws and regulations that are currently in force includes: (1) Forestry Acts 1991, (2) Forestry Regulation ,998. (3) National Forest Development Guidelines, (4) National Forestry Plan, (5) The Environmental Planning (, 978), (6) The Environmental Contaminates Act (1978), and (7) The Water Resources Act (1982). 2.20.3. Silviculture and forest management practices PNG has a relatively small plantation forest. PNG's forests are of closed broad!eaved type. The most common sub types are lowland and montane rainforests. The principle species utilized are mainly lowland rainforest species including Intisia bjuga, Pometi:a pinnata, Ptsrocaipus in dieus, Calophylum spp, Geltis spp and Eucalyptus deglupta. In the management practices there are some key issues concerning unsustainable level of logging, inadequate forest research, rapid change in governments. structure of the forest sector and the reliance on round log exports and fund equitably. The first certified forest area in PNG was Bainings, certified by the SGS Qualifor programme in 1993/94. Recently the EU-funded IREP program in Kiinbe has been certified, also by Qua!for, a programme that caters for many small operators. 2.20.4. Forest harvesting practices More recently there has been massive industrial logging by foreign companies who primarily export round jogs; more than 10 % of the forest resources. New area identified for logging in the National Forest Plan in 1996, the PNG Forest Authority has maps that identify over 100 further new concession that cover an area more than 10 million hectares. In contras there are approximately 200 000 64 . PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strewtfie, ,ing s"gratin6fo MCIi4ge", errt orgy'drumfFo, estsi"^to. @adj^ hectares of forest and more than 100 community groups involved in community based forest management in association with a support agency, mostly national non-government organization. The main forest products are round logs, the majority of which are exported. The principle markets for PNG's timber are Japan . (56%), Korea (, 7%) and China 00%). Some of them are also exported to the Philippines and Hong Kong. A nationwide survey of portable sawmills was undertaken in 1993/94, There are over 2000 portable sawmills in the country doing ., their own thing. Villagers, families and or communities own 90% of the sawmills, The markets are mainly local but major efforts have been made to develop the trade. PNG Logging Code of Practice has been developed in 1995. This is being implemented now and adjustment is continuously being made to hold improve the system. The Logging code of practice is also part of the 1991 Forest Act that came about due to increase pressure from World Bank for improved forest management practices. 2.2, . Philippines 2.2, .,. Background The management of forests in the Philippines dates back to at least the 15 Century, when tribal councils regulated the extraction of forest products from within tribal spheres of forest ownership. The first official effort to administer the forests was made during the Spanish colonial era, with the establishment of an 'Inspection General de Montes', designated to administer the cutting and extraction of timber, as well as surveying and issuing concessions to forest and mountain lands. Scientific forest management in the Philippines is, however, strongly influenced by American forestry practices. In 1904, the Us military government passed a Forest Act, which signaled the development of forestry as a science in the Philippines, Around the same time a Bureau of Forestry was established. Mechanized harvesting, based on North American practices, was undertaken through the period 1900-1942. After the Second World War the selective logging system was developed in the Philippines. This was a modification of the selection cutting system adopted in some European and North American countries. Since the I 970s, the rapid depletion of timber stocks has seen a shift in emphasis from timber harvesting and utilization, to protection, development and rehabilitation of forestlands. 65 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengtheni, ^ SL$coin@61^ %f@,,^emu"t orgy'@turnfC"orestsin. ^sir-Pony?c 2.21.2. Forest management plans Forest management planning is envisaged to be strongly consultative, with NGOs, private sector organizations, 'communities and other beneficiaries involved in participative planning with national, regional and provincial planning groups, and the Community, Environment and Natural Resources Forestry Planning Group. In the past, access to forest resources has been mainly through license agreements or permits operated mainly in large-scale operations involving thousands of hectares of forestlands. Since 1993. specific forest management planning by private sector concessionaires has been carried out under Industrial Forest Management Agreements (legislated under Department Administrative Order No. 60, ,993). The various forms of community- based forest management also require the preparation of management plans. Forests under the Integrated Social Forestry Programme (IsFP) are managed under a Certificate of Stewardship Contract. Production sharing contracts for plantation forests managed under Forest Land Management Agreements (FLMAs) provide for leasehold agreements, with specified reforestation targets. As of October 1996, all people-oriented forestry programmes were integrated and unified under the Community-Based Forest Management (GBFM) programme. By inid-1999 almost 4 million hectares were covered by CBFM tenurial instruments. 2.21.3. Silviculture and forest management practices Silvicultural interventions in the Philippines are predominantly carried out utilizing three distinct management systems. The Philippines Selective Logging System is a polycyclic system, under which extensive natural management is applied to residual dipterocarp forest. The system specifies that trees with a diameter at breast height (dbh) greater than SOCm be harvested, while 20-25 undamaged trees per hectare with dbh in the range 36-60 centimeters are left to provide the next crop, The system is expected to operate in cutting cycles of around 40 years, though in practice the cycle is generally 30 years, or sometimes less, Loggers are required to implement Timber Stand Improvement (TSl) measures after harvest, although TSl measures are regularly omitted from logging operations. Timber stand improvement is the post-logging phase of the system and generally comprises refining and liberation, Refining 66 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SIrst, inn6fo :lid"@gene"t orgy'@turnfq"@restsi",^$,, 41'@c^^c comprises climber cutting and girdling of over"mature and defective trees. Liberation eliminates competing vegetation. An intensive natural management system, similar to the Malayan Uniform System, is also applied to dipterocarp forests. This system operates on a 60-80 year rotation and involves removing the overstorey in a series of two or three harvesting operations over a period of 10 years' The canopy is gradually opened up, and finally cleared, to induce regeneration. Sitvicultural treatments are applied 10 years after the final harvest followed by two thinning operations at 20 year intervals. Plantation Silvicultural systems are regularly practiced on clear-cut forestland. A system utilizing fatcataria, for example, sees seedlings planted at 4x4 meter spacing after clear-cutting of natural forest. Trees are grown in short rotations of 8-10 years with an intermediate harvest at year-4 to yield raw pulp material. 2.21.4. Forest harvesting practices The management of dipterocarp forests in the Philippines is based on principles of sustained yield and multiple uses. Harvesting operations systematically remove mature, ovenmature and defective trees, while leaving sufficient trees for future harvests, as well as sufficient forest cover to protect and conserve water, soil and biodiversity. Selective logging in the Philippines follows a three-phase system of tree marking, harvesting through directional felling, and residual inventories. Government timber management officers implement residual stand inventory, with assistance from the licensee's tree-markers. This operation determines the extent and reasons for damage due to logging operations and appraises the residual growing stock for yield projection and computation of allowable cut Logging systems commonly used in the country include: truck logging using converted trucks with a winch to drag logs to landings. This is a relatively small-scale form of cable-yarding requiring a dense network of roads and without the capacity to handle large logs; tractor logging using a mobile traction (skidding) system with winches or log arches to bring logs to the landing area; High-Lead Yarding - a cable system making use of a stationary 'donkey' engine yarder, hauling logs 200-300 meters to elevated landings, This technique has been banned in dipterocarp forests under the Department Administrative Order No. 3,1993. 67 I_ PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening S"scotia@6fo :It47.4^elite"t orgy'@turnfQ;'orestsi, ,;^sin4'^, y^ Labor-intensive systems are also very common using manual and animal skidding. Most harvesting is actually done manually or with carebao (large oxen). Department Administrative Order No. 24 (1991) prohibits logging in the old growth forests and on slopes with gradient greater than 50 percent. An FAO study on the efficacy of imposing logging bans concludes that the Philippines is continuing to struggle to implement the ban on harvesting in natural forests. In spite of the ban, the achievement of effective protection and conservation remains elusive. The lack of effective institutions and policies to deal with both reduced timber supplies (and enforcement of harvesting restrictions) together with substantial social and economic impacts have made the realization of natural forest conservation difficult. The Philippines has become major net importer of timber since imposing restrictions on harvesting in natural forests. leading to concerns over the harvesting practices and sustainability of harvests in the other countries supplying imported timber. 2.22. Portugal (East-Timor) 2.22. ,. Background East-Timor was colonized by Portugal and integrated to Indonesia until 1999. Since I 999 East Timor become an independent country. East Timor consists of enclave of Am beno, Eastern Timor Island, Atauro Island and Jaco Island. Geographical Iy, East Timor is located at South Attitude of 8'1 0' - 9'32' and East Longitude of I24'4' - I 27'30'. The total land area of East Timor is I 4,609 Kin' includes Am ben0 (778 Kin'), Atauro island (140 Kin'), Jaco island tit Kin'). Most of the land is hilly, flat land (20 %) is found mostly in coastal area. The land is divided in 122 water catchments. Total forest area is 699,822 ha or 47.90 % of total land, It consists of protection forest (435,277 ha), National Park (25,163 ha), Recreation Forest (13,687 ha), Permanent Production Forest (45,211 ha), Limited Production Forest 070,484 ha) and Conversion Forest (I0,000 ha). 2.22.2. Forest Management Plans The complete data on the forest types in East Timor is not available yet, also for its management plans. , 68 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengtheni, ^ sustain@6fo ^f@1143eme"t or'3rdt"mr"orestsi",;1stg. @^, j^ 2.22.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The important species found in production forests is Santalum album, Teetona grandis, Vilex pubesGens, Pterocaipus indieus, Eucalyptus platyphylla, Casualtrialunghuhniana, Pometia pinnata and Pterocaipus indibus. 2.22.4. Forest harvesting practices Timber harvesting in East Timor is conducted using selective cutting in limited production forest, while clear cutting is done in plantation forests. Conventional logging is the common technique to extract the timber from the forest. 2.23. Samoa 2.23. ,. Background Western Samoa is an independent country located halfway between New Zealand and Hawaii. The total land area of Samoa is 283 000 ha, of which covers by I05 000 forests or 37.1 % of the total land area. Western Samoa comprises of two main islands, Up o1u and Savain, apart from several smaller ones. Samoa archipelago is of relatively young volcanic origin; many volcanic eruptions are known in historic time. The volcanic material in Samoa has a very porous structure. Temperatures differs from around 26.5 'C at the coast to less than 22 'C in the islands. Different type of vegetation in Samoa can be found. It is differentiated into littoral forest, mangrove scrub and forest, swamp forest, lowland rain forest, and moritane rain forests. Littoral forest type grows on sandy or rocky substrates in the narrow zone between low-growing littoral vegetation on the seaward side and lowland forest inland. The important species in this forest types, among them is Barringtoriia asiatica, Calophyllum mophyllum and Terminal18 catapa. The forest in Samoa has always provided the Samoans with many different products. First of all was a source of fire and timber. Timber was necessary for construction of the all-traditional open house, canoes, ceremonial- and household objects, The forest use by 69 _I PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) St, z^achem',!9345tai"46@:1147, ^emu"t 9"'or@turnfq"orests, ',,, gsm4P"cant the population has never been excessive. People just took what they want. In fact, most of the people only entered the edge of the forest and never entered very deep. In general, no more forest would be cleared if not necessary. Most of the village is located in coast. Forest cutting mostly is done in coastal zone. Timber production is generally done for the local demand. 2.23.2. Silviculture and forest management practices Obviously the great variety of ecosystem implies a tremendous biodiversity. The native flora comprises nearly 500 species, of which native fern comprise almost 200 species. The isolated position of Samoa made it possible for many unique species to evolve. As a result 32% of the native Samoan plants are endemic. Plantation for timber production was established during colonial time. The Germans introduced several species such as Tectona grandis, A1bizzia spp, and Ainucaiia excelsa. Teetona 91^, ridis was planted for timber production, while Araucan^, excelsa was used for windbreak. Introduced species of A1hizzia spp and Mikania micronta known as fast growing tree species successfully grows in Samoa. In 1970's the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, Forests, and Fisheries started more seriously with the establishment of commercial timber plantation, Species planted included Tectona grandis, Swietinea macropylla, Toona spp, Cedrela odorata, EUCalypt spp and Poumuli (local species), In the beginning of 1990's the total area under forest plantation was 2,000 ha. The principle way of planting is line planting in low quality of soil. Most of spacing was 10 x 2 meters. The average final number of stern per ha is about 200 trees. The plantation was done in government land, but also in leased customary land. Forestry research was also established to conduct research on species trials and management system. The Department of Lands Surveys and Environment, assisted by the South Pacific Regional Environment. has recently started a project with the local people of Sa'ariapu village in order to protect and conserve one of the last remaining areas of high mangrove forest in the country. The objective of the project was to show to the local people the way to make money out of the mangrove without cutting the trees. Activities include eco-tourism and the production of handicrafts, 70 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain@6foin, tan"gene"t orgy'drumfQ;'orestsi, ,., gsm4'ac!I^C 2.23.3. Forest harvesting practices Growing need for foreign currency has certainly affected the situation of the Samoan forest, Gradually logging activities increased, and several sawmills were established. The logging activities were not accompanied by any serious management plan and the resources were depleted at great speed, Also establishment of cattle imposed a threat to the forest areas. Fuel wood is important forest product in Samoa. People harvest the fuel wood from the forest traditionally and in unsustainable way In 1990 and 1991, the country was struck by two exceptionally strong cyclones. which left destruction everywhere. Large forest area was practically blown away, implying a dramatic change of forest cover. There was remained 13 000 ha is still considered to be merchantable, Logging operation was done to rescue the blown over logs. The remaining commercial plantation was Swertetia inagagony amounting to 2000 ha. 2.24. Solomon Islands 2.24. ,. Background Land area of Solomon Islands is 2,856,000 ha, which covers by 2,536,000 ha of forest. The Solomon Islands is one of the world's most extensively forested countries. Most of the country is under high rain forest with a small portion of swamp forest, including mangroves, and upland forest. The major species harvested are Pometia pinnata, Calophyllum spp. , and mixture of whitewoods. Agathis (the kauri tree) is also found in some areas, The vegetation types in Solomon Islands include Littoral forest, Mangrove forest, Freshwater swamp forest, Lowland rain forest, Montane rain forest. Baringtoriia asiatica, Calophyllum mophyllum and TerminalIa catappa are found in littoral forest. Rhyzophora apiculata, Brugue^re parviflora, Nypa fiatioans are found in mangrove forest. Fresh water forest is dominated by Campnosprema brevfy, etiblata and TerminalIa brasii. Intsia ^, Juga, Pterocarpus Indicus and TerminalIa brasii are also found in this forest types. The lowland rain forest contains about 60 common tree species, of which twelve are very common: Calophyllum kej'wski4 C. vitiens, Campnosperma brevfy, etiolata, Dinenia salomonensis, Elaeocaipus sphaericus, Endospermum medullosum, Gineiina moilucana, Marenthes Gorybosa, Pannari papuana spp. Salomonense, Pometia pinnata, Schizomeria serrata and TerminalIa 71 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) StrewtEe, ,ing S"stain@6fo ^^faringemu, ,t qCw'"ruinff'orestsi"/, Sin4P"C, FC Galamansanai (Doinbois and Fosberg, 1998). Some lowland rain forest in the Solomon Islands has 'low diversity. In Santa Isabel, there are almost mono-dominant stands of Campnosperma bievj?etolata, and sometimes with Dellinea salomonensis as co-dominant species. In Santa Cruz group, gymnospermae tree Agathts macrophylla appears. 2.24.2. Forest Management Plans The Solomons Islands Constitution protects the right of land owners to utilize their land and forests as they wish. Consequently, any restriction resulting from designation of a reserve or forest park would impose upon this basic right. Some 87 % of all land is held in customary or tribal tenure, Formal protected areas legislation principalIy comprises two acts, both dating from the colonial era. The Wild Birds Protection Act (1914) enabled the Minister, under section 14, to declare any island or islands, or parts of any island or any district. as a bird sanctuary. The National Parks Act (, 954) makes provision for the establishment of strictly protected natural areas as national parks. The forest policy of the Solomon Islands was reviewed in 1983, and a National Forest and Timber Policy was approved by the Government in 1984. The Policy called for the maximum desirable log processing, minimum wastage and increased investment in forests, aims that were restated in I 985-89 National Development Plan. Failure to achieve these and more detailed aims are attributed to shortcomings in the forest legislation, institutional weakness and a lack of public participation and awareness. Consequently, a revised forest policy has been promulgated. This six imperatives, those are protection, sustainable use, basic needs, development, participation and distribution. Six objectives are established including " (Vl) set aside areas for environmental, ecological, scientific and heritage reserves taking into account landowner needs and customary values; protect sensitive areas". The forestry and Timber act (1969, amended 1977) has narrow perspective, but makes some provision for controlled forest areas for forest water catchments protection. The Forest Resources and Timber Utilization (Amendment) Act I 987 was approved in March I987, with a retro prospective commencement date of I6 June I 978. The North New Georgia Timber Corporation Act (1979) provides for establishment of a corporation for promotion of timber utilization in New Georgia. The corporation can impose conditions on licensed felling and is charged with the duty of encouraging replanting in felled 72 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening S"st"fin6fo ^,@,,@acme"t orgy'@turnfF07eSLsi"/1st"4P4C, 75C areas (Sloth, 1988). There was new Forestry Bill, 989 that was due to go before Parliament in November ,989, which included provisions for the establishment of conservation areas. The Town and Country Planning act (1979) provides for tree preservation order for " any tree, groups of trees or woodlands ..,. In the interests of amenity". The Lands and Titles Act 0968, amended I 970) makes provision for preservation order to be applied to land of "historic or religious" value, and permits the establishment of nature reserves" Regulations prescribe measures for the protection and preservation of the marine. Environmental can be promulgated under the Delimitation of Marine waters Act (1978). A forestry bill was due to be presented to parliament in November I 989. This includes provision for environmental protection and establishment and management of conservation area (ISA. I 989). 2.24.3. Silviculture and forest management practices The total plantation forest in Solomon Islands at year 2000 is estimated 49,900 hectares, with the annual establishment of new plantations has been estimated at I 000 ha. The species planted among them are EUCalypts (, 2,000 ha), Gineiina (8,500 ha), Mahagonies (5,000 ha), Teak (,, 500 ha), Terminalia (7,000 ha), Other broadleaved (15,900 ha). State-owned land covers only 257 sq. kin (9.0% of total land area), of which 240 sq. kin is committed to forestry plantations or operations. The Solomon Islands is partly to the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SREP) and has ratified 00 August 1989) the 1986 Convention for Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SREP Convention). The convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have and adverse effect on the species, ecosystems, and biological processes being protected. General responsibility for environmental matters is part of the portfolio of the Minister of Lands. Energy and Natural Resources. The Environment and Conservation Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources has responsibility for environmental protection and the conservation of natural resources. The Forest Division comprises management, plantation, research and development, timber control (logging and utilization) and herbarium and extension sections. Training of forestsrs takes place in 73 _ I PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening s"stc, ',, 466 "^,@,,@8eme"t orgy'@t"mrQ"orests trills, z-@cc:I^c Papua New Guinea, at the Solomon Islands College of Higher Education, and Australia. The Conservators of Forests is responsible for implementation of the Forestry Timber Act. 2.24.4. Forest harvesting practices The Solomon Islands Development Trust is a rural development organization, which place its operation, with particular focus on community education, in environmental context, and is a significant influence in the rain forest logging debate. Community- based association has been formed to counter the growing threat of over-exploitation. The production of round wood. industrial round wood, saw logs and veneer logs, fuel wood, sawn wood from 1990 to 1998 (x 1000 Cum) was 468 to 872,330 to 734,330 to 734,138 to 138, 12 to 12, and 16 to 42, respectively. The production of round wood and industrial round wood, saw logs and veneer logs was practically double, while the production of fuel wood was stable, and decreased for sawn wood. Mangrove forest has never been heavily exploited and the canopy is typically 24 in tall. Some 95 % of logging takes place on land in customary tenure, whilst reforestation on the same class of land is restricted to just 98 ha on Malaita, indicating a serious imbalance between reforestation and logging operation (Wenze1, 1989). Prior to the 1970's, forest cover was largely pristine, but has since been heavily exploited by foreign interests. During the last 20 years, a timber industry has developed. Widespread logging has resulted in the loss of primary forest on several islands, especially Ghizo and KOIombangara, with consequent loss of wildlife habitat, soil compaction and erosion, leading to reef sedimentation. Historically, forestry practice has riot given due to consideration to the ecological effects of logging, and small-scale operations are underway or planned in several small areas, rather than utilizing larger block on larger islands. However, since 1986 logging companies have been required to fell only trees wit diameters in excess of 60 cm. Thus preventing the removal of super smalls (trees with diameter as little as 35 cm). These regulations are likely to reduce damage substantially to forests during logging and enhance natural regeneration. 74 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Slut"find6fo :"{c, ,^mumt q", Vat, ,, 12fq"orestsill, gsm^'^, j^ 2.25. Sri Lanka 2,254. Background Traditions encouraging nature conservation have a long history in Sri Lanka. The first recorded wildlife conservation areas were established more than 2000 years ago and Buddhist precepts, adopted by the ruling dynasties of Sri Lanka around this time, forbade killing of any form of life. Around the 12'' century large tracts of forest, including the Udawattekele and Sinharaja forests, were protected as reserves. Formal legislative protection of forests was enacted in 1895 through Forest Ordinance (No. IO), which established forest sanctuaries. Forest plantations were first established in Sri Lanka during the 1870s, although large-scale plantation establishment did riot commence until the 1950s. The Taungya system was adopted for establishing teak plantations, often with under-plantings of mahogany. Pines and eucalypts have been planted in up-country grasslands (patana) since 1938. During the past hundred years extensive tracts of natural forest have been cleared in the face of rapidly increasing population pressures, Much forest was subject to destructive Chena (slash and bum) shifting cultivation, while a focus on wood production and clearing for agricultural development saw Sri Lanka, incurring very high rates of deforestation until quite recently. In 1990 a logging ban was implemented in all natural forests in Sri Lanka. The principal objectives for forest management in Sri Lanka as outlined in the Forestry Master Plan 1995, include: establishment of a protected area network that is fully representative of forest ecosystems, and species. This is to be supplemented by ex-situ conservation wherever necessary; creation of a permanent forest estate, which is categorized into various forest classes depending on the objectives of management. It is proposed that all forest areas will be managed scientifically through appropriate forestry management plans, and with people's participation wherever possible. This will include development and management of agro-forestry systems and improvement of the wood production potential of home gardens. Forest plantations being managed as commercial ventures by establishing a "forest plantation profit center'. Partnerships will be built for the scientific management of the plantations with appropriate community based organizations or the private sector. In addition, degraded state lands will be leased out on a long-term basis to the private sector for the development and management of forest plantations. 75 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sustain"6fo :,^{gilt^elm"t cy", Vat"mrC"orestsi, ,/1st, -d'or,Jib The National Forest Policy, developed in 1995, has forest conservation as its primary emphasis. The Policy stipulates that a large proportion of the forests be completely protected through the establishment of a protected area system. Forest conservation efforts are expected to take special account of biodiversity, soil and water conservation objectives. The policy aims to promote multiple-use forestry with natural forests outside the protected area system being managed in sustainable way to help meet increasing demands for bio- energy, wood and nori-wood forest products and various services of forests, especially for the benefit of the rural population. The policy also recognizes the crucial role played by home-gardens, agro- forestry, and trees outside forests, in supplying timber, fuel-woods and non-wood forest products. The policy advocates further development of community participation in forest management with a particular focus on broadening the institutional framework for forest management with clearly defined roles and responsibilities for the forest partners. Farmers, community organizations, NGOs and commercial entrepreneurs are all expected to become partners with the State in assuming appropriate forest management roles, 2.25.2. Forest management plans Forest management plans are prepared for both natural forests and forest plantations and provide operational prescriptions for implementing key forest policy guidelines. Management plans are required to provide for the conservation of forests, with particular regard to biodiversity, soils, water, and historical, cultural, religious and aesthetic values. Management also seeks to increase the productivity of the forests and to enhance the contribution of forests to the welfare of the rural population. State forest management plans have the objective of bringing all state forests under sustainable management, both in terms of the continued existence of important ecosystems, and the flow of forest products and services. Natural forests are managed firstly for conservation values, and secondly for multiple use production forestry. All forest areas in Sri Lanka are considered to be under formal management. 2.25.3. Silviculture and forest management practices In the absence of harvesting in natural forests, the key Silvicultural interventions are planting and release of seedlings as a rehabilitative measure in degraded forest areas. A variety of 76 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening S"$toilt@6@ !, lait^emu"t orgy@turnfq;'orestr I'll^siC4cc^:b Silvicultural techniques are applied to plantation-grown species. In teak plantations, for instance, a typical initial stocking is between 1,200 and 1,600 plants per hectare. Plantations are heavily thinned to a final stocking of around 300 sterns per hectare. Teak rotations are in the range of 30^0 years, In rubber and coconut plantations (currently important sources of wood supplies), old stumps are grubbed out prior to re-planting, because they are a possible reservoir of plant pests and diseases. Other SIMcultural interventions generally relate to improving production of latex or coconuts. An important objective is to develop improved management techniques for agroforestry systems and home gardens to improve wood production potential. At present, home gardens are the predominant agro-forestry technique, while the government is also promoting the taungya system. 2.25.4. Forest harvesting practices Timber harvesting is banned in all natural forests. Non-forest wood resources, consequently, play a major part in wood supplies, Home gardens are the single most important source of wood and contribute around 40 percent of total log. supplies. Rubber and coconut plantations provide around 30 percent of timber supplies, while the bulk of the remainder is from unrecorded sources. Forest plantations and illicit supplies from natural forests contribute around 4 percent of total wood supplies. Elephants are used extensively in logging operations in Sri Lanka. As experience with mechanized logging has accumulated. elephants have been increasingly recognized as being ideal for certain forest operations, both in terms of cost and in response to demands for sensitive and responsible environmental management. A normal harvesting operation in Sri Lanka might comprise felling and bucking with power saws, elephants used for skidding to a roadside, and truck haulage to mills, Elephants skid logs by two methods, selected according to terrain type: the harness method, or the side method. The harness method is used when the terrain is flat and offers no danger of the log rolling down a slope. Skidding on slopes is done by the side method, so that an elephant, when sensing danger, can simply jettison the bit from its mouth and release the log instantly Elephants are used to lift logs into trucks, thereby avoiding the need for additional equipment. Elephants are also employed in sorting logs at landings and depots. The main functions here are rolling, lifting and pushing 77 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening $"stdin6f0 9^!@,, 49eme"t cy'orct, ,mr!F'D'art, trillsic^'@c:I^c 2.26. Thailand 2.26. ,. Background Forestry in Thailand has historically been controlled by the monarchy with a focus on the utilization of resources. In the inid- 1800s the forest area comprised over 70 percent of the total land area and forests were regarded as sufficiently abundant for people to be granted unconstrained rights to harvest timber, with the exception of teak. Early commercial forest exploitation was typically on the basis of negotiations between colonial buyers (mostly British subjects) and local chieftains, who had complete ownership of the forests. The Royal Thai Forest Department was created under the Ministry of Interior, in 1896, in an attempt to control exploitation of forests. At this time the concession system and some associated controls were introduced, Initially, the Department relied heavily on trained European forest officers borrowed from India and Burma to administer its forests. The first teak plantations were established about 1898, but further development was sporadic until about 1960, when regular planting commenced. The Silviculture Division of the RFD established 133,800 hectares of commercial plantations by I 980 of which 55 percentwere teak. By 1985 the area was 542,100 hectares, and by 1994 rose to 827,677 hectares. Eucalyptus was first introduced into Thailand in the northern province of Chiang Mai in f 950. Hailed as a fast-growing tree, it was promoted by the government under a reforestation scheme to rehabilitate the Thung Kula Rong Hai plains in the Northeast. Eventually, it was introduced on a broad scale ostensibly to replenish denuded forests. When adverse impacts of the programme resulted in conflicts among locals, the Forestry Department suspended the promotional scheme. In 1941 the Forest Reserve Act placed the control of all forests lands in Government hands. By the inid-, 960s, the total forest area had dropped to around 50 percent of the land area. In response protection and conservation measures were introduced into forest management and it was decreed that the forest cover should be held at 50 percent. Subsequently, village based forestry was introduced and rights to cultivate land were issued. Encroachment into forestland continued, however, and reached a peak between , 976 and 1978 when more than 2 percent of forest was cleared, annually. The introduction of a national forest policy in 1985, and a widening of forest management focus to water catchments protection, fores. t rehabilitation, and 78 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening Sitstci, ,@6@ !^, all^cinemt or'War"mrC;'orestsi"^siC. @coy^ research, was riot sufficient to halt the loss of forest. By I 998, the forest area had shrunk to only 25 percent of the country's land area. In 1993, the Government saw benefit in pulp production and launched a new project to encourage the private sector to grow eucalyptus to feed the industry. The state leased out land for the private sector to grow the trees and charged a minimal rent of 10 baht per rai annually. It also attracted farmers by offering soft loans, and allowing a grace period of five years' Farmers owning hundreds of thousand rai participated during 1995 and 1997. Pulp production demanded I8 million cubic meters of eucalyptus in I 990 and annual demand is expected to reach 55 million cubic meters in 2015. Recognition of the severity of deforestation and forest degradation, and a series of major floods and a landslide that claimed hundreds of lives in late 1988, prompted the government to introduce a complete ban on logging in 1989. Measures to protect the remaining forests and promote plantation establishment were also introduced. Thailand has subsequently moved form being a net exporter, to a net importer of forest products. More latterIy. forest management has placed an emphasis on community and people's participation and advancement. Sustainable forest management is an important element in Thailand's 8th National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001). The principal forest objectives within the plan are to preserve and rehabilitate conservation forests to cover at least 25 percent of land area, to maintain mangrove forest areas at riot less than 160,000 hectares, and to promote and expand total forest cover to 40 percent of land area. The five key goals for the Royal Forest Department are: Protection of the remaining natural forest; Forest rehabilitation and forest plantation extension; Reduction of forest and land resource utilization conflict; Enhancement of management effectiveness; Forest research development and extension These are consistent with the objectives of the 1995 Forest Sector Master Plan, which envisages: arresting the destruction of the remaining habitats of biological diversity rehabilitating degraded watersheds; promoting social justice and equity in forest-based rural development; meeting the bulk of national needs for forest-based products from domestic sources; strengthening rural and national economies; and actively supporting international efforts to control global warming. 79 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) (^) I. VElfi QQ\<, ; T:)atOil';-:;$19 stre, ^winnings, &, tai""6f011/@/'49e", eat Sri!Lingj^*. lib\a ;\;!,,\;Line!?. 1:3, ,, 13;'.!;!}!!tilt qf9v'"turnrro, ,sagi"/13,244c,Jib 31\:>It*;}. gilt!\ ;\\ LEI^, 1.1*:\!,,!.:*A \:: 2.26, ^2GForest;managem9!!tPla!!^;r! d if!:3:0:1^!ia, ion 22;\,! it}T*e;?2.1 .:: ,,*I :'*, *. , \:~., it : :'-, ,if!{ - !'. iris' ;'13<. at: \, ip. 'If, I .;', 191;it ,*,'I :=;;\,; ':'*c *c : t:!\;. r;*I;T-h^:...:, preparations{, Qf^ *!:letiQ!laityfoieSb in^n, ^9911/9/1t plans commenced;:. in 4.9^5, ., but, were:,,^iscontinu. ^^.;, lay^e. ^*^' ^0^!!tryW!^g logging ban was leptoneed;, n; ^:^89'1'.!T!^t!^.^4 a, ;^Oi. ^^;^9C!91:, M, ^I^! plan Iwa's:.. completed'. inn995^in^ny-^19ments, oil^is ;!I:^^;. t!^!^; ,^Q^ adopted;:. ask, part. :-Qf^.;T'bail^rid's. ,*n^jig!lab;;;L!.^:!gin^ib!^a, ^^y^I^^in^it 'strategy, ;The. *in^crp-!ey!^11^taster^!?!an is ^eiDg, -imp!99n^it^aitj;Q^^^ local, level. plans ., drawn:.!!p 6thrpu^h. -!_ a ^91t^in, !IRG PIPp^;^S: . j;fii^ approach!*has;:been ,apP!I^<13 911.2^, IPIl^t, ;.^^!$i^:,:!p, "by^':pigjj^^^,^: Lampang;inithe: 1/19itlii: an^:^;or^if^^!Di, .ill^. i^^ ^^^^fly;-:T^I^^^;!!^!:'^ designed:to modeltbe. .^Qj!om. up pLqgeSS:!Q, PI^!rining;;IWC, *?;, ' '~ ' I ' " . ' ' ' ' ' " ' ,. ' I , ~ ' '~ ' ' ~ ,' ' I ' J I . , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' :' c FF '> ' ' ' I' ' ' ~ . ' ' \ ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' ' ' , ;. . \*I. . ; A . , . . ,. . a , , a ...,. , ,- . . , . ** I . : - : I, . I, f; - I ,, I -, . r. , ,.,: , I, ^ . .-, . . I* ' . I I . . ^;2653, ;SIIyipql!!, re!ant!. forest:trial!:igemQ. Pi;!;19^tip^^j, 3:51. -:!:It:> :: : . -. A I . .\.: = - . . c! .. , . a. - .\\-. .. . I ' . - 13 .It , ~ - ,. . f:. . 'I, ; i':I .. - I . r; : f: C' : i' -\ '-- ; ,, ' -" - ; I 1.7. .--. :,: NativevTeak, erectQ"at 9180dj$),*^as^:^^^nit^^3 Digst3j^y^r^^ .species-:fobcomme!:@jarp!antatjons;CIOjher;;11, ip^^!e^}!p^,\specie^,:^^q. b lass !PterqcaipL!$ a'ing!?.roban?!Is, !;:,:!?int^.f9C;^rolls:siSPP. -,, ;;^W!^i!^!11^ macrophyila and Hopea odoraia are PIahi6d on a smaller:SCj^19, -:j^^^ trees:grown. in*plantations; on?909ds!$9i!s .in^Y, :reapji. \j^o5^yerage of :60'6entimetetsJofldiameter at, .brea^theigj!t, !grid;::^. QinE;t9rS:'in^^^19ht, in -about:. 50 eyears^,;I;ypic^!Mali20Q*itQ>^1.6Qp:, sterns, ;perl^^gt:ar^:^re ipianted. and, .eanopy^closure takes. piac^.*be^u^<^!I;t^e tbii^. an^,:i991!^ -year. and; suppressesIthe:., dev. elopment;:Qf=w^!SEI^:-, Pruning!is:g^!rr!^d .out:. near:the*time. !.@f, panopj; CIO. sur^<;TiiS, bast:I^91-a^^^^.:IPL!TPO$'^!.:qf reducing the chance of ground fires re^g^rig-!:jig:. ip^;!!!I^,.:,!a3!^ facilitating. acpg:ss!tq, tile stan. q; The first t^jog^19.99ng!^11y?takes place ,when:the;;dominant^eight;. reaches;;a!?o9tj^,^pig, lotmet9r$:.,^:!!!,:the ,second'when!the;dominantheight. rela!$^9^.. it^t63j^31n^;j^^:!;;:t: 11*,,.;I :Teak; isealso, ;thendominantstiee:in; merit!!ixedl^.^qj4!!Pi!^. forest^ipf northern Thailand. These f6rests, -Iare, qp^nt:witty!9a^!!^95,591^I^^, or jin*small*groups. IHoweverijJQggingiiin, *n^tU191eiQi^^t$::in:.^hailand was .banned:inn989!:Inithe. absen^e;91th1.5. banj!tile. -. natjgnal. for^^try:pg!19y ,states, that efficiency!in timberproductiQn;$110u!^ be. in. qreas^d';t^!9119h ' appropriate_'forest, management. tech. I!iq!!e. SLusingboi^:Sgl^pnPn. !an;I 'clear-cutting systems. ., I;-.., ^-;;~. ,,- *....:! ,.., .*. I. ,,\.: .: .:-,,. :^.,-; -:;:. - .-: ^..* ~ The clearcutting Isystem required thd^:the:* cleared;area . ^p : replanted jinm'ediately. :Teak forests .were roaringed, under a 130. year felling cycle; trees to be felled were marked and girdled. for, felling. -j'^e tropical evergreen forest was managed under a similar'System andthe same felling cycle. The dry Dipterocarp forest was managed under 'modified coppice' and 'GOPpice with standards systems, based on a 20-year rotation. -80 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthen, ',^ Sustaina6^ !,, 4,849e"lent orgy'@turnfq;'o725tsi"/1st44'@c!I^c The Forest Master Plan specifies eucalyptus and pulp production as major tools to rehabilitate degraded forests. Eucalyptus trees in Thailand are felled for pulp at five years of age and replacement saplings are planted immediately. The trees, however, extract large amounts of water from the soil, which is a particular problem where rice is grown in adjacent areas, The root system of the trees is also extensive and difficult to remove for alternate cropping. Mangrove forests are valuable to both the economy and protection of coastal environments. Local people for variety of purposes including firewood, charcoal, poles, tannin, and medicine and fish nurseries have traditionally utilized the forests, The forests are two-storied, with an upper layer up to 20 in high The SIIvicultural system in natural mangrove forests has been revised from time to time in order to suit auction licensing, to promote effective regeneration and to prevent illegal cutting. The traditional Silvicultural system applied is clear felling in alternate strips. Rotation is set at 30 years with a felling cycle of 15 years' In practice, dividing the area into 15 coupes, forming an angle of 450 to the tide, and cutting alternate strips every 15 years, thus giving a rotation of 30 years, does it. This Sitvicultural system shows good results and continues to be used today. Mangrove plantations in Thailand belong either to the Royal Forest Department or to private individuals. The two species that are commercially planted on a large-scale are Rh^^ophoia apiculata and Rhizophora inucronata. Rhizophora species are generally planted at a spacing of I X I in or 1.5 x 1.5m. The cutting rotation applied for private plantations is fixed at 10 years for firewood and charcoal burning, 2.26.4. Forest harvesting practices In May 1989, two Royal Decrees were passed to amend and supplement the Forest Act. making provision for a nationwide ban on commercial timber production from natural forests. Timber harvesting has been reduced drastically since the implementation of these bans and is now only undertaken in plantations and mangroves. As a consequence, there is riot the impetus to develop reduced-impact harvesting guidelines, or a harvesting code of practice. In principle, Thailand has moved to implement sustainable yield management harvesting practices for its plantation forests with logging operations based on selective cutting. 81 . PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Sin, ^chewing S"st"jin6f0 ^141,113e", e"t Cy', V'at"mr9;'o725tsi", aim^'4,175t 2.27. United States of America 2.27. ,. Background About one-third of the total U. S. land area is made up of forestland, which is land that is at least 10 percent stocked by forest trees of any size. The forests vary from sparse scrub forests of the and, interior West to the highly productive forests of the Pacific Coast and the South, and from pure hardwood forests to multi-species mixtures to coniferous forests. Most of the forestland in the eastern U. S. is in private ownership, while most land in the west is public. American forest have a wide variety of forest types and ages, including old-growth stands, naturally regenerated forests, and planted forests. Areas of old growth remain in the Pacific Northwest, parts of California, and much of the Rocky Mountains. East of the 100'' meridian, most of the forests are second growth, naturally regenerated stands. In some cases, these lands were never fully converted to agricultural use, but selective logging was common. The tree species found in these stands are usually similar to those that would have existed there before European settlement. Even in most forest plantations, the species composition mimics the forest that would have naturally regenerated there (Sedj0,1991). 227.2. Silviculture and forest management practices Suitable Lands-Of the 93 million acres of commercial forest!ands on NFS lands, an estimated 47 million acres (51%) are considered suitable for timber production. Lands that are suitable for timber production are those that are capable of reforestation within 5 years of harvest. able to be harvested without irretrievable damage to soils or watershed, and are riot in an area reserved by Congress or otherwise determined to be unavailable for timber production. Responsible officials may establish timber production as a multiple- use land management plan objective for lands where costs of timber production are justified by the ecological, social, or economic benefits. Through the land management planning process, each national forest and grassland determines the location and amount of suitable acres. Of the 47 million acres within the National Forest System designated suitable for timber production, there are an estimated 9 million acres (roughly 20 %) located in inventoried road less areas where existing land management plans would allow timber 82 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stte, ^thening $"st, jin6fo :a^f@,, 49e, ,, e"t Cy'or"turnfC"orest, ,'"/Ism-PC^^c harvest and road constructions to occur in the Western United States and Alaska. The trend in Silvicultura! practices is shifting away from even- aged management toward management of uneven-aged stands primarily due to public controversy .and management concerns about nori-timbers resources. These multi-story and multi-age stands require thinning and other Silvicu!tural treatments with greater frequency, thus needing road access more often, Thinning to remove excessive forest fuels, before using prescribed fire, or to treat diseased or incest infested stands is often economical Iy feasible only if a road system is present- (Us DA Forest Service) 1999c). Nationally, clear cutting has decreased from 31 % to total harvested acres in 1989 to to % in 1997 (Us DA Forest Service 1998b). This downward trend is expected to continue. 2.27.3. Forest harvesting practices Of the 747 million acres of forestland in the United States in 1997, about 490 million acres are considered commercial (capable of growing 20 cubic feet or more of wood per acre per year), Approximately 70 % of all commercial forestland is found in the Eastern United States; roughly 30 % is found in the West. Private lands account for 71 % of the total commercial forestland; the remaining 10 % are in other public or tribal ownerships. On public lands, almost 7 % of the total forestland base has been set aside from timber production. Some 78 % of the reserved forestland area is in the West The volume of timber on all forestlands has been increasing since I952 when inventory data first became available. Much of the hardwood timber volume is in the East, while much of the softwood volume is in the West. In the West, 46 % of the softwood timber resources are on NFS lands (Us DA Forest Service 1999b). Within the I 92 million-acre National Forests System, the Forest Service manages ,40 million acres of forestland, 56 % of total federal dorest land. Because of the distribution. of public lands, 78 % of the commercial forest and on national forests is in the West. In 1997, the volume of growing stock on all National Forest System (NFS) lands was approximately 1,260 billion (nearly 1.3 trillion)-board feet (BBF). Net annual timber growth in 1996 on all NFS lands was about 20.5 BBF. Removal of timber volume from all NFS lands due to harvest, mortality, or land clearing for the same year totaled about 4.1 BBF, or approximately 20 % of growth (Us DA Forest Service I 999b), While the I 996 removal is riot a current annual 83 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) StrengtheningS"st@jin6f0 %, 4,843e", e"t orgy'arumrrores, sinnsic. eonj^c average, the difference between growth and removal is indicative of an ongoing substantial net increase in volume of wood fiber standing on NFS lands. Trends in Consumption, Production, and Import of Wood Products- a significant effect of the reduction in Federal timber harvest betiNeen 1987 and 1997 (from about 13 BBF to 4 BBF annually) has been to trahsfer harvest to private forest ecosystems in the United States and to forest ecosystem in Canada (MacCleery 2000). For example: . Since 1990, United States softwood lumber imports from Canada rose from a2 to 18 BBF, increasing from 27 % to 36 % of United States softwood lumber consumption. Much of the increase in Canadian lumber imports has come from the native old-growth boreal forest. In Quebec alone, the export of lumber to the United States has tripled since 1990. The increased harvesting of the boreal forest in Quebec has become a public issues there, . Harvesting on private lands in the southern United States also increased after the reduction of Federal timber harvest in the West. Today, the harvest of softwood timber in the southeastern United States exceeds the rate of growth for the first time in at least 50 years' Increased harvesting of fiber by chip mills in the southeastern United States has become a publicissue regionalIy. Total national production of lumber, plywood, and all other timber products in the United States has been relatively stable over the past decade, averaging slightly more than 18 billion cubic feet annually from 1997 to-, 999. However, total national consumption of timber products during the same period has averaged about 20 billion cubic feet annually. Sofhaood lumber production is the largest category within the totals above. National .production has riot been keeping pace with demand. Production averaged 35 BBF while consumption averaged 45 BBF annually. National Forest Timber Harvest- Timber harvest is the process by which trees with commercial value are cut and removed from the forest. Timber sale refers to a contractual process of selling the timber to a purchaser and implementing a series of harvesting requirements for what type, how and when the trees are removed. For purposes of this analysis, these terms are used interchangeably. Timber sales are often used as a least-cost method of managing vegetation to meet resource objectives or to achieve desired ecosystem conditions. These objectives or desired conditions include improving wildlife, reducing fuels that may increase fire risk, recovering timber value from natural disasters, such as windstrom or 84 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Stre, !gate, ,i, ^$^st@I'm6fo", tc"49,111ent q"or"turnfForests i"^sad-G'"6:1^c fire, reducing impact of insect and disease, and improving tree growth in addition to producing timber from the national forest. Roads are required to support a timber sale, and frequently they must be constructed or reconstructed to meet timber harvest or other resource management objectives. Roads are needed to move equipment into the area and to haul logs or other forest products to the community where they will be processed, While timber can be harvested using helicopters or cable yarding systems from existing roads, the terrain. and the distance to an existing road, Each timber sale contract specifies the yardng method . and any permanent or temporary road construction and reconstruction required. Road spacing and distance from the nearest road have a direct effect on yarding coast of wood fiber. As the road spacing or distance from the nearest road increases, so does the average yarding distance for a given harvest unit. This affects turn speeds and production rates, which affect yarding costs. Frequently, the edge of a harvest unit furthest from the road reflects the maximum external yarding distance. External yarding distance dictates the size class of the yarding equipment needed to retrieve the material. This in turn determines the road width needed for that size equipment. Generally, wider road spacing means longer yarding distances, which requires larger yarders and wider road widths. The location of a road is particularly important in an area planned for cable logging. Roads located at the break provide better cable deflection. which results in larger payloads and less ground disturbance. 2.28. Vanuatu 2.28. ,. Background Plant consists of 870 vascular plants, including 130 endemics (15%) 31 endemic orchids (39%) Insects consists of 71 species of butterflies, with 5 only in Vanuatu, 26 shared with PNG and/or Solomon Islands; southern islands with distinctive fauna. 12 species of ants and termites, 5 endemic (42%) Other invertebrates consist of 76 species of land snails, including 57 endemics (50%) Reptiles- Amphibians : 22 species, including 4 endemic lizards Perochirus guentheri (Saw-tailed Gecko) group endemic. Efate and Anatom, know from 4 specimens. Ernoia speiseri (Speiser's Skink) group endemic, Ambrym, Anatom, Efate, Malakula. Birds : 57 species of land birds, 2 endemic genera and 5 other endemic species Pmnopus tannensis (Silver-shouldered Fruit Dove) group endemic Ducula bakeri 85 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strengthening SIrst","46fo ^,@, IC^elite"t 96w'@t",@f4"orestsi, Instz-eony^ communities. Participatory approaches and flexible forest management to support communities and agricultural production were riot encouraged. Local communities considered public forests belonged to 'everybody, but nobody' and over-exploited them accordingly. Of 1.34 million hectares of plantations established to 1992, only 0.4 million hectares were considered successful. Most were poor in quality, with limited economic, social and environmental benefits. The central objectives of Vietnamese forest policy are to: meet the nation's needs for forest products and sustainable environmental protection; increase social and economic benefits of forest resources through efficient utilization; increase people's participation in forest protection and utilization; and improve the living conditions of the rural population through forestry development. A central plank in Viet Nam's forestry strategy is the Industry Plantation Programme (The 'Five Million Hectare Reforestation Programme'), This programme envisages the establishment of 5 million hectares of intensiveIy managed industrial plantations (including rehabilitated areas), by 2010. It focuses on: (a) the creation and more effective protection of special use forests and watershed protection forests; (b) the economic regeneration or expansion of forests to meet domestic consumption and export needs of the wood products industry; and (c) the effective development of communes with bare lands/hills to create more employment, improve incomes and reduce the pressure on forests, A ban on wood and timber extraction from many natural forests is in place and it is planned to transform the' Vietnamese forestry sector by placing a strong emphasis on forest plantations, and protection, regeneration and restoration of natural forests. By 2010, it is planned to have established a system of protection forests covering 8 million hectares, providing (among others) watershed and soil protection services. The forest estate will also include a system of special-use forests covering more than I million hectares of natural forests, incorporating National Parks, Protected Areas, and Historic Sites, as well as a system of production forests. Special-use forests are planned to extend over I O million hectares, in which forest plantations will play a key wood supply role, 2.29.2. Forest management plans Forest management plans have been given relatively low emphasis in Viet Nam. The land allocation process, which has seen 5 million hectares of forestland devolved to Vietnamese households, 88 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening SUEt"inn6f0 9/@/'430me"t orgy'@tyrefQ;'ores, ,in^sin4'coy^ largely precludes the preparation of detailed management plans for many specific tracts of forest, Forests that remain under control of state agencies have formal management planning applied. 2.29.3, Silviculture and forest management practices Strong restrictions on harvesting in natural forests mean that the focus of Si!vicultural efforts in Viet Nam is on rehabilitating natural forests and establishing plantations. Protection forests, managed for the conservation of water and soil, and to counter the erosive impacts of water and wind, form the largest category of natural forests. These forests have been given increased Silvicultural attention in recent years, with supplementary planting being carried out as a part of forest maintenance, regeneration and restoration. Denuded hillsides and barren lands are being reforested, often with multi-stoned forest plantations. At present, the average quality of Silviculture is likely to be low, given that households, which have received forestland tenure through the land allocation process, are carrying much of the work out. The principal plantation species on barren and degraded lands is Eucalyptus carnaldulensis. Sitviculture is negligible with seeds mainly collected locally (from small trees where seeds are most accessible), poor planting stock, little site preparation, no fertilizing, weeding. thinning or protection, The trees are susceptible to Cylindrocladium fungal attack during the wet season and leaves, twigs, and branches are foreged for fuel wood, thus breaking the nutrient cycle. Growth performance is, consequently, generally poor with mean annual increments commonly in the range of 5-8 in Ihectare/year. 2.29.4. Forest harvesting practices In the past, production forests have been managed to meet the objectives of both timber production and environmental protection. However, as natural forests were cleared or degraded, during decades of high-impact timber extraction and shifting cultivation, the government has enacted decisions to limit production for a period of 15-20 years to assist forest restoration and rejuvenation. A timber exploitation ban was placed on special-use forests and reserved forests (most natural forests) in 1992, and also encompassed limits on other logging. Collection of all forest products from protected areas, and critical watersheds has been banned for 30 years. Commercial logging has been prohibited in the remaining natural forests of 89 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) St",^timing Sustaina6f0",,",, 43e", e"t ^:N'@turnfQ"orestsi, ,^sir4Z'"cry^C Northern Viet Nam, southeast of the South -Mekong Delta, and in the Red River Delta. An annual allowable cut of 300,000 cubic meters will be applied from Year 2000. A ban has also been placed on timber exporting. Timber extraction is done in conventional method, clear cutting is applied in plantation forests. 90 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) strengthening sustain"6@ :It@"qgeme"t orgy'"turnf!F'oustsin/Ism-Q'eraj^ 1/1. GENERAL PROBLEM The implementation of Reduced Impact Logging (R!L) in Asia Pacific Region varies among the countries. RIL is being developed, and adjusted to the specific ecological condition and Silviculture system in the country. The general condition is shown in Table 3. Forest legislation and National Forestry Policy were made. Code of Practice, Reduce Impact Harvesting Guidelines, Operational Operator, Accreditation and Demonstration Forest were developed, or being developed, or will be planned or nil. The important progress was also made among the APFC member countries. Each APFC member countries should issue their own code of forest harvesting practice. FAO model code of forest harvesting practice can .be used for guideline (Dykstra and Heinnch, I 996). To evaluate the implementation of RIL the Environmental Impact Assessment should be done. Silvicultural system should be considered in RIL implementation since each species has its own SIIvlcultura! regimes. Modified system must be done in proper way, In most cases, skilled and trained operator and workforce is still needed, It should be supported by the rational incentives, good safety and health to reduce the accident. Safety has tended to be neglected as results of economic difficulties. POSchen (2000) suggested that occupational safety and health criteria should be part of the criteria of sustainable forest management. ILO Code of Practice on Safety and Health in Forestry Work should be implemented. 91 PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F) yin, !4thami^1345t@Inn6f0 :1.1""@88me"t orgy'ct"mrQ"orest$ trillsi"-!2'"c#^c IV. CONCLUSIONS .. A successful code of forest practice requires a solid foundation of research and other comprehensive analyses to accurately identify forest practice problem as well as cost-effective solution and Sitvicultural regimes. The success of RIL implementation can be enhanced if forest owners, managers and operators can actively communicate their view and experience throughout the process of designing, applying and revising the code. To improve forest-harvesting practices, a skilled and trained workforce is essential. Developing such a workforce requires morie . resources and support from all levels of management, dedication b forest supervisors, enthusiasm from trainers and. above all, application of the required standards by all forest operators. All in a'or industry organizations are required to have accredited operators. The need of regional training center for RIL is crucial. Transfer of technology among the member countries is needed. 93 PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F) Strungtfiet, ing S"stdinc6&! arc",!genent orgy'"turnf"orestsin, asi^41'4c;I^C Table a jin Iemenjatjon of K6 Elements of Sustainable Forest Maria ement in Asia-Pacific: Count Status APFC 2000 Sub-Region Country Legislation National Code of Reduced. Impact Operational Demonst Forest Policy Practice Harvesting Guidelines Operator ration Accreditation Forests Pacific Region Australia V V V States have own Guidelines (MelanesIaI Fun V V V Developing Nil I Polynesia) New Galedonia I V Nil Nil Nil New Zealand I V V Combined with Code V V PNG I V V Planned Developing Planned Samoa I V V Planned Nil Planned Solomon Islands V V V Developing Nil Planned Vanuatu V V I V Nil I South-East Cambodia V V V Developing Nil Nil Asia Region Indonesia V V I Institutions/Companies Company based V Lao PDR V V V Developing Nil V Malaysia V V V Harvest guidelines V Some States V V Maldives V V Nil Nil Nil Nil Myanmar V V V Developing Nil V Philippines V V Minimal logging Minimal Logging Nil V Thailand V V Logging Suspended Logging Suspended Nil V Vietnam Planned Nil V V V Nil South Asia Bangladesh V Planned Planned Nil Nil Region Bhutan V I Developing Planned Nil Nil India V V Planned Nil Nil Nil Mongolia V V Developing Nil Nil Nil Nepal V V Planned Some Forest Types Nil Nil Pakistan V V Planned Nil Nil Nil Sri Lanka I V Developing Planned Nil Nil East Asia China -v V Developing Planned Nil Region Japan V V V V Nil Nil Republic of Korea V V Planned Planned Nil Nil State-based forestry management with each state determining its own Codes of Practices and Reduced Impact Logging Guidelines, Some countries in the Pacific are currently reviewing their Codes of Practice. 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