Winter 2002
The BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY
Scalable Quantum Computing Using Solid-State Devices Bruce Kane The Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Process Industries David Lee Davidson The Human Factor Kim J. Vicente Sustainable Energy from Nuclear Fission Power Marvin L. Adams Stretching the Boundaries of Nuclear Technology James P. Blanchard Licensing and Building New Nuclear Infrastructure Peter S. Hastings
Promoting the technological welfare of the nation by marshalling the knowledge and insights of eminent members of the engineering profession. The BRIDGE
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
George M.C. Fisher, Chair Wm. A. Wulf, President Sheila E. Widnall, Vice President W. Dale Compton, Home Secretary Harold K. Forsen, Foreign Secretary William L. Friend, Treasurer
Editor-in-Chief George Bugliarello (Interim)
Managing Editor: Carol R. Arenberg Production Assistants: Penelope Gibbs, Kimberly West The Bridge (USPS 551-240) is published quarterly by the National Academy of Engineering, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418. Periodicals postage paid at Washington, D.C. Vol. 32 No. 4 Winter 2002 Postmaster: Send address changes to The Bridge, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418. Papers are presented in The Bridge on the basis of general interest and time- liness. They reflect the views of the authors and not necessarily the position of the National Academy of Engineering. The Bridge is printed on recycled paper. © 2002 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
A complete copy of each issue of The Bridge is available in PDF format at http://www.nae.edu/TheBridge. Some of the articles in this issue are also available as HTML documents and may contain links to related sources of information, multimedia files, or other content. The Volume 32, Number 4 • Winter 2002 BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY
Editorial 3 The Expanding Frontiers of Engineering George Bugliarello
Features 5 Scalable Quantum Computing Using Solid-State Devices Bruce Kane The end limit of Moore’s Law scaling is the threshold of the quantum realm. 9 The Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Process Industries David Lee Davidson Computational fluid dynamics has enormous potential for industry in the twenty-first century. 15 The Human Factor Kim J. Vicente Most designers of technological systems do not pay enough attention to human needs and capabilities. 20 Sustainable Energy from Nuclear Fission Power Marvin L. Adams Fission power has the potential to provide a large fraction of the world’s energy for centuries to come. 27 Stretching the Boundaries of Nuclear Technology James P. Blanchard Radioisotopes are being used in numerous commercial applications, and many more are on the horizon. 33 Licensing and Building New Nuclear Infrastructure Peter S. Hastings A resurgence of the nuclear industry will require overcoming major challenges.
NAE News and Notes 40 2002 Annual Meeting 42 President’s Remarks 47 Development Activities at the 2002 Annual Meeting 48 U.S. Frontiers of Engineering and Japan-America Frontiers of Engineering
(continued on next page) The BRIDGE
50 2002 Founders Award Presented to Stuart W. Churchill 53 Call for Nominations for 2003–2004 NAE Awards 53 Norman Fortenberry Named Director of New Education Center 54 Grant Support for EngineerGirl! Website 54 Steve Meyer Interns at NAE 55 Assessing Technological Literacy 55 Message from the Foreign Secretary 57 NAE Newsmakers 58 In Memoriam 59 Calendar of Meetings and Events
The National Academies Update 60 National Academies Presidents’ Statement on Science and Security 61 Everglades Restoration Plan
62 Publications of Interest
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self- The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the author- to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility ity of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional char- has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on ter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. National Academy of Sciences. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, The National Research Council was organized by the National under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its adminis- science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering tration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal gov- accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the ernment. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engi- Council has become the principal operating agency of both the neering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages edu- National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engi- cation and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of neering in providing services to the government, the public, and the engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered of Engineering. jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. www.national-academies.org 3 Editorial
The Expanding In a paper published in this issue, David Davidson Frontiers of Engineering describes how computational fluid mechanics can be Every year the NAE Frontiers used to solve important industrial problems. At this of Engineering Symposium juncture, however, the technology is still mostly in the brings together young engi- domain of experts, very few of whom are in industry, so neers working on cutting- applications are limited. The situation could be reme- edge technologies in many died by closer interactions between experts in univer- different fields. Papers deliv- sities and industry. ered at the eighth sympo- The papers in the area of human factors dealt with a sium this year at the variety of topics. Kim Vicente (in a paper published here) recommends changes in engineering curricula to George Bugliarello is chancellor of Beckman Center of the focus attention on interfaces between the technical and Polytechnic University in Brooklyn, National Academies in human sciences and the importance of human factors in New York, and an NAE member. Irvine, California, dealt with four themes: chemical and the design process. Another speaker emphasized the molecular engineering; technology for human beings; role of human factors in transportation. Human factors the future of nuclear energy; and engineering challenges are the most frequent causes of car crashes, which kill for quantum information technology. The six papers more than 40,000 Americans annually. To deal with published here we believe will be of special interest to this problem, we need to overcome current limitations our readers—NAE members, members of Congress, and in collecting and analyzing data about driver behavior other decision makers in government and industry. All and the influence of automotive skills, distractions, and 15 papers (including the papers published here) and a driver judgment. Another speaker addressed the impor- broad historical overview of digital communication tance of human factors in the design of interfaces delivered by Andrew Viterbi will be published in full between software and users. Lack of attention to user early next year by the National Academies Press in a needs can lead to frequent calls for customer service, new Frontiers of Engineering volume. In this editorial, I increases in product returns, and general dissatisfaction would like to underscore some of the major issues raised among customers. A stronger focus on human factors in the symposium. could obviate many of these problems, shorten develop- In the area of chemical and molecular engineering, ment times, and lead to more innovative products. one speaker emphasized the significant differences One presentation in the human factors area focused between nanocluster properties and their corresponding on the development of direct brain-computer interfaces macro properties, which have opened up a range of inno- for disabled people, one of the most fundamental chal- vative nanotechnologies. Our understanding of the lenges in human-machine interaction. In direct brain- properties of amorphous polymeric nanoclusters is still computer interfaces, computers and devices are limited, however, and this is bound to be an important activated by direct action of the brain rather than by area of research in the future. Another talk focused on muscle movements. Although considerable progress has the continuing quest for cleaner, more efficient energy been made, we still have a long way to go to help victims generation. Fuel cells, which can have very high theo- who have normal brain function but are imprisoned in retical efficiencies, have been slow to be commercialized, their bodies by disease. even though the concept is more than a century old. The enormous potential of nuclear energy has not The two approaches most frequently considered are poly- been realized because of concerns about safety, the mer electrolyte membrane (PEMs) fuel cells and sulfur management and disposal of nuclear waste, and the solid-oxide electrolyte fuel cells (SOFCs). SOFCs, proliferation of weapons-grade materials. Peter Hast- which are the more fuel flexible of the two, could use any ings (published here) discusses the programs that combustible gas, at least in theory, and thus would not explore complete nuclear energy systems, including the need a new fuel supply infrastructure. recycling of spent fuel. The United Kingdom, France, The 4 BRIDGE
Japan, and Russia already recycle fuel; the United an atom, their function will necessarily be determined by States is the only country that still uses a single-cycle, quantum mechanics (the quantum counterpart of the once-through technology. The expansion of nuclear bit—the qubit—can be zero and one simultaneously). power generation in this country will require more effi- Quantum computers will require a new concept of com- cient licensing and regulatory processes and a revital- puter architecture and new engineering; some intriguing ized supply chain. Marvin Adams addresses the experimental devices are already being developed. Bruce potential of nuclear fission to provide sustainable, reli- Kane assures us that quantum computer architecture will able energy for centuries to come. Adams also makes a ultimately have as big an impact as the transistor and the strong case for the recycling of nuclear waste. integrated circuit. The highly publicized debates about nuclear reactors Another speaker discussed quantum computing and have tended to overshadow many other applications cryptography. With current cryptographic methods, no of nuclear reactions, such as the unique solutions for matter how complex, the meaning of messages can sensors and health care they can provide. As James almost always be decoded. Quantum computers, which Blanchard points out, alpha radiation sources could will require unprecedented precision and complexity, power devices implanted inside the body that could will enable us to find and decode the meaning of mes- operate unattended for long periods of time with no risk sages and, at the same time, ensure the security of com- of radiation damage. In the longer term, nuclear en- munications. ergy can also satisfy the propulsion requirements for We have provided only a sampling of papers address- long-duration space missions. Researchers are working ing these challenges and opportunities. To transform to increase the practicality and efficiency of these these possibilities into practical realities and to prepare technologies. our society for their implications, we will need a broad Quantum information technology is another area of range of sustained research programs. research being vigorously pursued. Several presentations at the symposium focused on the implications of this technology for computational devices. As memory units in conventional computers approach the dimensions of The end limit of Moore’s Law scaling is the threshold of the quantum realm.
Scalable Quantum Computing Using Solid-State Devices
Bruce Kane
The field of solid-state quantum computing is in its infancy. Coherent operations on single qubits (the simplest type of quantum logical operation) have only recently been demonstrated (Nakamura et al., 1999; Vion et al., 2002). Nevertheless, there is a great deal of optimism that solid-state imple- mentations of quantum computers will ultimately lead to scalable architec- tures in the same way that the invention of the transistor and integrated Bruce Kane is a member of the circuit presaged the development of large-scale and networked conventional research staff in the Laboratory for computers. The optimism is based on the tremendous amount of research Physical Sciences, University of being done over a broad front that is heading steadily toward the develop- Maryland, College Park. ment of devices for conventional computation built on nearly the atomic scale. This limit is the end of Moore’s Law scaling, but only the threshold of the quantum realm. Thus, the nascent field of solid-state quantum comput- ing can capitalize on research intended for the development of smaller and faster conventional logical devices. Many difficulties will have to be overcome before qubits can be integrated into solid-state systems. Because there are on the order of 1023 atoms in a solid-state device, it is very difficult to attain the decoupling from extraneous degrees of freedom that is necessary for large-scale quantum computing. Hence, much of the early research on solid-state quantum computing has been focused on identifying potential qubits inherently isolated from their surroundings. Most current research is focused either on superconducting The 6 BRIDGE qubits (quantum information is stored on flux states in a quantum computation becomes possible. SQUID or on charge states of a small “Cooper pair box”) The error threshold is still very stringent. At most, or on electron-spin or nuclear-spin qubits in semi- one error can occur in every ~104 operations. This conductors. To have the necessary long decoherence level of accuracy is beyond the level of device variability times, these devices must invariably operate at low tem- of most, if not all, solid-state devices currently manu- peratures (< 1K). Even if research is successful, it is still factured. Meeting the accuracy threshold will un- not obvious that these technologies will be scalable (it is doubtedly be one of the major challenges advocates for noteworthy that many conventional solid-state devices, solid-state quantum computation will have to over- such as bipolar transistors and tunnel diodes, proved to come. Even if the accuracy threshold can be reached, be unsuitable for very large-scale integrated circuits for error correction will place a substantial overhead on the reasons that only became apparent years after they were resources of a quantum computer because many physical developed). Figure 1 shows the range of research being qubits encode the same logical qubit. Also, most logi- done on quantum computers. cal operations in the computer will simply be imple- A major surprise in the early days of quantum com- menting error correction protocols (Steane, 2002). puting theory was that quantum error correction was possible at all; it has been shown that if a qubit of quan- Key Issues tum information is redundantly coded into several Scaling of quantum computing will undoubtedly be a qubits, errors in quantum computation can be reduced formidable task that justifies the skepticism expressed by just as they can be corrected in classical communica- many people (Keyes, 2001). Nevertheless, an outline of tions channels (Neilson and Chuang, 2000). One cer- the leading issues can be helpful for a preliminary assess- tainty is that the operation of scalable quantum ment of current approaches to large-scale quantum com- computers will rely heavily on error correction. There puting. Many of these issues relate to information flow is a “threshold for error corrected continuous quantum rather than to individual quantum operations on which computation.” When errors at the single-qubit-level most current research is focused. quantum operations are reduced below this threshold, Efficient on-chip quantum communication will be essential for the development of large- scale solid-state quantum QC Implementation Proposals computing. Communication between devices is also Bulk-spin important in conventional Optical QC Atom QC Solid-state QC resonance QC computers, but the need for quantum error correction necessitates the continuous Linear optics Cavity QED transfer of redundant qubits throughout the computer. Rapid flow of quantum Trapped ions Optical lattices information will thus be essential for scalable quan- Electrons on helium Semiconductors Superconductors tum computing. Cross talk must be mini- mized. As the number of qubits increases, the poten- Nuclear-spin Electron-spin Orbital-state Flux Charge tial for errors due to qubits qubits qubits qubits qubits unwanted coupling between qubits also increases. Spa- FIGURE 1 Diagram of the many possible realizations of quantum computers currently being explored experimentally. Bulk-spin res- tially localized qubits could onance, optical, and atom-based qubits have all demonstrated elementary quantum logical operations, but solid-state implementations minimize this type of error. will particularly benefit from fabrication technologies being developed for conventional computer manufacturing. This synergy means Parallel logical and mea- that solid-state technologies are likely to be scalable and to benefit from continued advances in solid-state technology. surement operations must be WINTER 2002 7
possible. We usually distin- guish between the coherent logical operations of a quan- tum computer and the mea- surements of 0’s and 1’s that must ultimately produce the results of an algorithm. Error correction, however, requires that both types of operations go on together; in large-scale quantum com- puters they should occur simultaneously. Logic, measurement, and communication must be able to be performed at high speed. Because of the exponential acceleration of quantum algorithms, a quantum com- FIGURE 2 Diagram of a silicon-based quantum computer architecture. Single nuclear spins are the qubits; mobile electrons are puter operating at any clock used to manipulate the nuclear-spin states and move quantum information within the computer. Voltage pulses applied to metal speed will outperform its gates on the top of the structure control the positions of electrons inside the silicon. classical counterpart. How- ever, given a choice between two otherwise equivalent with relatively simple micron-scale lithography. A draw- quantum computer architectures, the faster architecture back is that quantum information must be moved in the will be the most desirable. computer by electromagnetic excitations on metal Individual quantum devices must be precisely engineered. traces. Large-scale implementations of superconducting The accuracy threshold for quantum computing suggests quantum computers may thus be vulnerable to cross talk, that the variability between quantum logical devices a problem also encountered in conventional computers must differ by no more than 1 part in 104. that have complex metal interconnects. Electron-spin and nuclear-spin quantum computers. Major Limitations Quantum computer architectures that use electron spins As yet, no proposed implementation for large-scale or nuclear spins as qubits in a solid-state quantum com- quantum computers has addressed all of these criteria. puter are perhaps the most technologically challenging However, it is possible to outline the major limitations of (Kane, 2000). These architectures also have some the approaches currently receiving the most attention. compelling advantages: spin qubits are known to be Trapped-ion quantum computers. Although ion traps extremely well isolated from their environments in are not traditionally thought of as solid-state devices, some materials and have longer quantum lifetimes recent proposals include complex metallizations on sub- (measured using electron-spin and nuclear-spin reso- strates to control and move ions between sites and are nance techniques) than any other qubit under investi- similar in many important ways to solid-state imple- gation in solids. Interestingly, silicon—the material in mentations. Kielpinski et al. (2002) have addressed which almost all conventional computers are imple- many scaling issues, but moving ions to move quantum mented—is also characterized by extremely long-lived information is an intrinsically slow process because ion spin states that can potentially be used for quantum masses are typically 105 that of electrons. Therefore, it computing. Spin coupling is extremely local, so cross would be desirable if quantum information could be car- talk is minimal if spins can be well isolated. Spin can be ried on lighter particles (like electrons). conveniently transported rapidly on electrons driven by Superconducting-qubit quantum computers. The prima- electric fields (Skinner et al., 2002). Finally, parallel, ry advantage of superconducting qubits is that they are rapid quantum logic and measurement appear to be pos- macroscopic. Consequently, devices are being fabricated sible using spin qubits (Figure 2). The 8 BRIDGE
FIGURE 3 One possible route to the realization of single-spin quantum logical devices in silicon (Si) is via scanning tunneling microscope (STM) lithography. A single mono- layer of hydrogen is formed on a pure Si surface (left). Using an STM, holes are punctured in the hydrogen; phosphorus is then introduced through the holes onto arrays in the Si crystal (right). Source: O’Brien et al., 2001. Reprinted with permission.
The major difficulty with spin-based implementations Keyes, R.W. 2001. The cloudy crystal ball: electronic devices of quantum computers is that they require measurement for logic. Philosophical Magazine B 81(9): 1315–1330. and control of single electron spins or nuclear spins, a Kielpinski, D., C. Monroe, and D.J. Wineland. 2002. Archi- task that is only now on the threshold of realization. tecture for a large-scale ion-trap quantum computer. Scalable spin-based quantum computing will probably Nature 417(6890): 709–711. require the development of a new technology in which Nakamura, Y., Y.A. Pashkin, and J.S. Tsai. 1999. Coherent single atoms can be accurately positioned to create control of macroscopic quantum states in a single-Cooper- devices with the precision necessary for quantum com- pair box. Nature 398(6730): 786. putation. Fortunately, several promising approaches Nielson, M.A., and I.L. Chuang. 2000. Quantum Computa- (Figure 3) for fabricating these single-atom devices are tion and Quantum Information. Cambridge, U.K.: Cam- currently being explored (O’Brien et al., 2001). bridge University Press. O’Brien, J.L., S.R. Schofield, M.Y. Simmons, R.G. Clark, A.S. Conclusion Dzurak, N.J. Curson, B.E. Kane, N.S. McAlpine, M.E. The development of large-scale quantum computers Hawley, and G.W. Brown. 2001. Towards the fabrication will require an unprecedented combination of precision of phosphorus qubits for a silicon quantum computer. Phys- and complexity. Extremely complex conventional ical Review 64(16): 161401(R). information processors are only possible because digital Skinner, A. J., M. E. Davenport, and B.E. Kane. 2000. Hydro- logic is tolerant to device variation. Quantum logic is genic spin quantum computing in silicon: a digital approach. much less forgiving. Thus, realizing the dream of a Available online at http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0206159. large-scale quantum computer will require that engi- Steane, A.M. 2002. Quantum computer architecture for fast neers overcome the daunting challenge of combining entropy extraction. Quantum Information and Computa- the precision of an atomic clock with the complexity of tion 2: 297–306. a modern microprocessor. Vion, D., A. Aassime, A. Cottet, P. Joyez, H. Pothier, C. Urbina, D. Esteve, and M.H. Devoret. 2002. Manipulat- References ing the quantum state of an electrical circuit. Science Kane, B.E. 2000. Silicon-based quantum computation. 296(5569): 886–888. Fortschritte der Physik 48(9/11): 1023–1042. Computational fluid dynamics has enormous potential for industry in the twenty-first century.
The Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Process Industries
David Lee Davidson
Continuum mechanics, one of our most successful physical theories, is readily applicable to the process industries. In continuum mechanics, the existence of molecules is ignored, and matter is treated as a continuous me- dium. The continuum hypothesis is valid, provided the equations of con- tinuum mechanics are applied at sufficiently large length scales and time scales that the properties of individual molecules are not noticed. The map- David Lee Davidson, a fellow at ping of the laws of mass, momentum, and energy conservation to the con- Solutia, Inc., Pensacola, Florida, tinuum results in field equations that describe the dynamics of the passed away on October 27, continuum. These field equations, variously known as the equations of 2002. At Solutia, he was respon- motion, the equations of change, or simply the conservation equations, are sible for product and process devel- nonlinear, partial differential equations that can be solved, in principle, opment for fibers, polymers, and when combined with the appropriate constitutive information1 and bound- chemicals. ary conditions. Continuum mechanics is the mechanical analog of classical electro- dynamics, in which a set of field equations (Maxwell’s equations) describe the dynamics of the relevant variables of the electrical and magnetic fields. Whereas Maxwell’s equations are linear unless the constitutive behavior is nonlinear, the equations of continuum mechanics are nonlinear, regardless of
1 Examples of constitutive information are Newton’s law of viscosity, which relates shear stress to shear rate, and Fourier’s law of heat conduction, which relates heat flux to temperature gradient. The 10 BRIDGE the constitutive behavior of the materials of interest. in academic circles. All of these methods involve the The inherent nonlinearity of the conservation equa- approximation of the field equations defined over a con- tions, which is due to convective transport of momen- tinuous domain by discrete equations associated with a tum, energy, and chemical species, is responsible for finite set of discrete points within the domain and spec- certain fluid mechanical phenomena, such as turbu- ified by the user, directly or through an automated algo- lence, that have no electrodynamic analog and that rithm. Regardless of the method, the numerical complicate solution of the conservation equations. solution of the conservation equations for fluid flow is known as computational fluid dynamics (CFD). CFD was initially done without automation because the need to solve these equations (e.g., in aircraft Numerical solution of the design) preceded the development of electronic com- puters by several decades. With the advent of elec- equations of change has tronic computers, more ambitious numerical calculations became possible. Initially, CFD codes were been an important research written for specific problems. It was natural to gener- topic for decades. alize these codes somewhat, and eventually, particularly as computational resources became more readily avail- able, general-purpose CFD codes were developed. It was then recognized that a business could be built upon Analytical solutions (e.g., obtained by eigenfunction the development and licensing of these codes to indus- expansion, Fourier transform, similarity transform, per- trial, academic, and government users. Today, many of turbation methods, and the solution of ordinary differ- the general-purpose commercial codes are quite sophis- ential equations for one-dimensional problems) to the ticated, cost a tiny fraction of their development cost, conservation equations are of great interest, of course, and are probably the mainstay of the industrial appli- but they can be obtained only under restricted condi- cation of CFD. tions. When the equations can be rendered linear (e.g., Four steps are required to apply a general-purpose when transport of the conserved quantities of interest is CFD code to an industrial problem. First, the domain dominated by diffusion rather than convection) analyt- must be defined. This amounts to constructing the ical solutions are often possible, provided the geometry geometry for the problem,2 which is typically done using of the domain and the boundary conditions are not too a computer-assisted design (CAD)-like preprocessor.3 complicated. When the equations are nonlinear, ana- Within the preprocessor, relevant physics are defined, lytical solutions are sometimes possible, again provided appropriate models are specified, boundary and initial the boundary conditions and geometry are relatively conditions are applied, and solver parameters are speci- simple. Even when the problem is dominated by diffu- fied. Because the conservation and constitutive equa- sive transport and the geometry and boundary condi- tions must be discretized on the specified geometry, the tions are simple, nonlinear constitutive behavior can domain discretization must be specified. This process, eliminate the possibility of analytical solution. known as meshing or grid generation, is the second step Consequently, numerical solution of the equations of in the application of a CFD code to an industrial prob- change has been an important research topic for many lem. Meshing can be accomplished using two basic pro- decades, both in solid mechanics and in fluid me- tocols: (1) structured meshing, which involves creating chanics. Solid mechanics is significantly simpler than an assembly of regular, usually hexahedral (quadrilateral fluid mechanics because of the absence of the nonlinear in two dimensions) elements or control volumes convection term, and the finite element method has throughout the domain; and (2) unstructured meshing, become the standard method. In fluid mechanics, how- which involves filling the geometry with control ever, the finite element method is primarily used for laminar flows, and other methods, such as the finite dif- 2 Specification of the time dependence (transient or steady state) and cer- ference and finite volume methods, are used for both tain boundary conditions (periodic, symmetry) are also required to spec- laminar and turbulent flows. The recently developed ify the domain completely. 3 The development of graphical user interfaces for commercial CFD codes lattice-Boltzmann method is also being used, primarily in the last 10 to 15 years has significantly increased their accessibility. WINTER 2002 11
volumes, often tetrahedrons and prisms, in an irregular investment in CFD (Davidson, 2001a). fashion. Unstructured mesh generators are usually CFD has an enormous potential impact on industry simpler to use with complicated geometries and involve because the solution of the equations of motion pro- some degree of automation. For example, the user may vides everything that is meaningful to know about the specify one or more measures of surface grid density, and domain. For example, chemical engineers commonly the mesh generator will fill the volume with elements make assumptions about the fluid mechanics in process according to some algorithm. In the third step, the units and piping that lead to great simplifications in the equations are discretized over the specified grid, and the equations of motion. An agitated chemical reactor may resulting nonlinear4 algebraic equations are solved. The be designed on the assumption that the material in the development of solvers is still an active area of research, vessel is perfectly mixed, when, in reality, it is probably the goal being to improve the likelihood and rate of not perfectly mixed. Consequently, the fluid mechan- convergence. The fourth step, after satisfactory conver- ics may limit the reaction rather than the reaction gence is obtained, is to interrogate the solution to obtain kinetics, and the design may be inadequate. CFD the desired information. That information may be a allows one to simulate the reactor without making any single number extracted from the solution data set, an assumptions about the macroscopic flow pattern and animation illustrating the transient macroscopic behav- thus to design the vessel properly the first time. Sim- ior of the entire flow field, or anything in between. ilarly, the geometrically complicated parts required for Because the data sets can be quite large,5 robust tools for melt spinning can be designed with CFD rather than data set interrogation are often required. These are usu- rules-of-thumb or experiments, resulting in “right the ally provided with the commercial CFD codes, but one first time” designs (Davidson, 2001b). Commercial leading commercial tool is a stand-alone CFD post- publications (e.g., CFX Update, Fluent News, and processor (FIELDVIEW, 2002). Applications from the Chemical Process Industry) are filled with case studies illustrating how CFD was applied to Current Industrial Applications the design of a particular unit, the optimization of a par- CFD is routinely used today in a wide variety of dis- ticular process, or the analysis of a particular phenom- ciplines and industries, including aerospace, automo- enon with good results. tive, power generation, chemical manufacturing, polymer processing, petroleum exploration, medical research, meteorology, and astrophysics. The use of CFD in the process industries has led to reductions in The primary limitation is in the cost of product and process development and opti- mization activities (by reducing down time), reduced the area of turbulent flow. the need for physical experimentation, shortened time to market, improved design reliability, increased con- versions and yields, and facilitated the resolution of environmental, health, and right-to-operate issues. It Areas of Research follows that the economic benefit of using CFD has There are, of course, limitations to the application of been substantial, although detailed economic analyses CFD, and active research is being done to overcome are rarely reported. A case study of the economic ben- them. The primary limitation is in the area of turbulent efit of the application of CFD in one chemical and flow. Turbulent flows are solutions to the equations of engineered-material company over a six-year period motion and can be computed directly, at least in prin- conservatively estimated that the application of CFD ciple. This approach, known as direct numerical simu- generated approximately a six-fold return on the total lation, requires a spatial grid fine enough to capture the smallest length scale of the turbulent fluid motion (the Kolmogorov scale) throughout the domain of interest 4 The algebraic equations are linear if the associated partial differential equations are linear, for example when the constitutive behavior is lin- and a correspondingly small time step. In typical prob- ear and diffusion dominates. lems of industrial interest, the ratio of the length scale 5 Data sets of several hundred megabytes for industrial steady-state prob- of the domain to the Kolmogorov length scale is so large lems are not unusual, and many gigabytes are easily generated for typ- ical transient problems. that the required grid is prohibitively large. Available The 12 BRIDGE computational resources are usually inadequate for this interest. Like turbulent flows, multiphase flows (which task except for relatively simple problems. may also be turbulent in one or more phases) are solu- Consequently, industrial practitioners of CFD use tions to the equations of motion, and direct numerical turbulence models, usually by solving the Reynolds- simulation has been applied to them (Miller and Bellan, averaged equations, that is, equations generated by aver- 2000). However, practical multiphase flow problems aging the equations of motion over a time scale that is require a modeling approach. The models, however, much larger than the time scale of the turbulent fluctu- tend to ignore or at best simplify many of the important ations but much smaller than the smallest time scale of details of the flow, such as droplet or particle shape and interest in the application. This procedure results in a their impact on interphase mass, energy, and momen- set of equations that have the same form as the original tum transport, the impact of deformation rate on droplet equations of motion, but with time-averaged quantities breakup and coalescence, and the formation of macro- in place of instantaneous quantities, plus one additional scopic structures within the dispersed phase (Sundare- term that arises from the nonlinear convective terms san et al., 1998). in the original equations of motion. In the Reynolds- averaged momentum-conservation equation, for ex- Enterprise-Wide Access ample, this additional term has the form of an additional Although the commercial CFD industry has greatly stress, known as the Reynolds stress. This term is mod- simplified the use of CFD codes by providing CAD-like eled based on the time-averaged quantities of the flow preprocessors, automatic mesh generation, graphical field. A variety of turbulence models are available user interfaces for all aspects of model definition, and (Wilcox, 1998), but the workhorse model of industrial on-line documentation, the industrial practice of CFD CFD is the so-called k-epsilon model, which was intro- is still primarily in the hands of specialists. Regular use duced several decades ago (Casey and Wintergerste, of a general-purpose code requires significant expertise 2000; Launder and Spalding, 1974). These turbulence in transport phenomena, an understanding of the capa- models can lead to significant inaccuracies, and CFD bilities and limitations of the modeling approaches used practitioners must use them carefully. to handle turbulence and dispersed multiphase flows, an understanding of the relationship between mesh quality, convergence, and solution accuracy, and profi- ciency with the various means of interacting with the The second limitation of CFD code, including the graphical user interface, advanced command languages (when available), and CFD is for dispersed, user-accessible FORTRAN subroutines.6 For these rea- sons, attempts to train large numbers of engineers in multiphase flows. the use of CFD have not been very successful (David- son, 2001a). Nevertheless, the potential benefit of a much broader CFD user base is very great. In our opin- Large eddy simulation (LES) is an alternative ion, CFD should be accessible to every person in the approach to turbulence modeling. Turbulent flows are enterprise who makes decisions the outcomes of which characterized by an eddy cascade, in which large eddies are governed by the laws of physics, from the CEO who transfer their kinetic energy to smaller eddies, which in makes strategic business decisions based on business turn transfer kinetic energy to even smaller eddies, and goals to the operator who adjusts valve positions to so on until, at the Kolmogorov scale, the kinetic energy meet process goals. is transformed into heat. LES attempts to solve for the We believe that this can be achieved through the larger eddies directly while modeling the smaller eddies. development of so-called “digital experts,” stand-alone Although LES is more computationally intensive than CFD (and other) applications that would be integrated other kinds of turbulence modeling, it has been applied to industrial-scale problems (Derksen, 2001). 6 Although the graphical user interface (GUI) has greatly increased acces- The second great limitation of CFD is dispersed, sibility of the commercial codes, more experienced users sometimes multiphase flows. Multiphase flows are common in avoid the use of the GUI altogether and rely on command languages, user FORTRAN, and ASCII files to integrate various tools and automate industry, and consequently their simulation is of great CFD tasks. WINTER 2002 13
into commercial CFD codes (as appropriate) and primarily in the hands of specialists, but the develop- wrapped in interfaces that speak the language of the ment of digital experts and tools to facilitate the devel- industrial application, not the language of CFD. Digital opment of digital experts may revolutionize the way experts would automate geometry construction, mesh industry uses CFD by providing ready access through- generation, solver selection, and other processes behind out the enterprise. This would result in significant the scenes. In addition, they would contain all of the gains in productivity and profitability. algorithms necessary to nurse the CFD codes to solution automatically, without having to ask the user to define References satisfactory convergence, for example. Finally, they Casey, M., and T. Wintergerste, eds. 2000. Best Practice would extract the essential ingredients from the com- Guidelines. Brussels: European Research Community on plete CFD solution and present them to the user in a Flow, Turbulence and Combustion. convenient and familiar format, so the user would not Davidson, D.L. 2001a. The Enterprise-Wide Application of have to be concerned with interrogation of the flow field Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Chemicals Industry. by computation or visualization. A discussion of one dig- Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of Chemical Engi- ital expert that has been developed for melt-fiber spin- neering. Available on Conference Media CD, Melbourne, ning has been published (Davidson, 2001b). Australia. The decision to develop an industrial digital expert Davidson, D.L. 2001b. SpinExpert: The Digital Expert for is based on the relationship between development cost the Design and Analysis of Fiber Spinning Operations. and benefit. Recently, a commercial product has Pp. 219–226 in Proceedings of the 3rd International ASME become available with the potential to change that Symposium on Computational Technology (CFD) for relationship significantly. EASA™ (Enterprise Acces- Fluid/Thermal/Chemical/Stress Systems and Industrial sible Software Applications from AEA Technology), Applications. Atlanta, Ga.: American Society of Me- which was designed to help industrial practitioners chanical Engineers. develop digital experts, solves a number of problems for Derksen, J.J. 2001. Applications of Lattice-Boltzmann-Based industrial developers, including construction of the Large-Eddy Simulations. Pp. 1–11 in Proceedings of the 3rd graphical user interface, accessibility of the final prod- International ASME Symposium on Computational Tech- uct (the digital expert or EASAp) over the enterprise nology (CFD) for Fluid/Thermal/Chemical/Stress Systems intranet, and the orchestration of computations on a and Industrial Applications. Atlanta, Ga.: American Soci- heterogeneous computer network (Dewhurst, 2001). ety of Mechanical Engineers. In essence, EASA allows an industrial CFD specialist to Dewhurst, S. 2001. An exciting new way to deploy your put bullet-proof digital experts in the hands of co- CFD. CFX Update 21: 6. workers, with a consistent interface tailored to the user. FIELDVIEW. 2002. Intelligent Light Website. Available online at: http://www.ilight.com. Summary Launder, B.E., and D.B. Spalding. 1974. The numerical com- CFD is a powerful tool for solving a wide variety putation of turbulent flow. Computational Methods in of industrial problems. Commercial general-purpose Applied Mechanics and Engineering 3: 269–289. codes have the potential to solve a very broad spectrum Miller, R.S., and J. Bellan. 2000. Direct numerical simulation of flow problems. Current research is concentrated on and subgrid analysis of a transitional droplet laden mixing overcoming the principle weaknesses of CFD, namely layer. Physics of Fluids 12(3): 650–671. how it deals with turbulence and dispersed multiphase Sundaresan, S., B.J. Glasser, and I.G. Kevrekidis. 1998. From flows. Development work on solver algorithms, mesh- bubbles to clusters in fluidized beds. Physical Review Let- ing, and user interface generation are ongoing, with the ters 81(9): 1849–1852. objectives of improving accuracy, reducing solution Wilcox, D.C. 1998. Turbulence Modeling for CFD. La Can- time, and increasing accessibility. In spite of the lim- ada, Calif.: DCW Industries, Inc. itations of CFD, the economic value of industrial appli- cations has been demonstrated in a variety of Suggested Reading industries, and its value as a research tool has been Anderson, D.A., J.C. Tannehill, and R.H. Pletcher. 1984. accepted in many areas, such as meteorology, med- Computational Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer. New icine, and astrophysics. In industry, CFD is presently York: Hemisphere Publishing Corp. The 14 BRIDGE
Batchelor, G.K. 1977. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Crochet, M.J., A.R. Davies, and K. Walters. 1984. Numeri- London: Cambridge University Press. cal Simulation of Non-Newtonian Flow. Amsterdam: Else- Berg, P.W., and J.L. McGregor. 1966. Elementary Partial Dif- vier Science Publishers. ferential Equations. Oakland, Calif.: Holden-Day. Jackson, J.D. 1975. Classical Electrodynamics. New York: Bird, R.B., W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot. 1960. Transport John Wiley & Sons. Phenomena. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Schowalter, W.R. 1978. Mechanics of Non-Newtonian Carslaw, H.S., and J.C. Jaeger. 1959. Conduction of Heat in Fluids. Oxford, U.K.: Pergamon Press. Solids. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press. Van Dyke, M. 1975. Perturbation Methods in Fluid Me- Chandrasekhar, S. 1981. Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic chanics. Stanford, Calif.: Parabolic Press. Stability. New York: Dover Press. Whitaker, S. 1984. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Mal- abar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing Co. Most designers of technological systems do not pay enough attention to human needs and capabilities.
The Human Factor
Kim J. Vicente
Many people find technology frustrating and difficult to use in everyday life. In the vast majority of cases, the problem is not that they are techno- logical “dummies” but that the designers of technological systems did not pay sufficient attention to human needs and capabilities. The new BMW 7 series automobile, for example, has an electronic dashboard system, referred to as iDrive, that has between 700 and 800 features (Hopkins, 2001). An article Kim J. Vicente is Jerome Clarke in Car and Driver described it this way: “[it] may . . . go down as a lunatic Hunsaker Distinguished Visiting attempt to replace intuitive controls with overwrought silicon, an electronic Professor in the Department of paper clip on a lease plan. One of our senior editors needed 10 minutes just Aeronautics and Astronautics, to figure out how to start it” (Robinson, 2002). An editor at Road & Track Massachusetts Institute of Technol- agreed: “It reminds me of software designers who become so familiar with the ogy, and professor in the Depart- workings of their products that they forget actual customers at some point ment of Mechanical and Industrial will have to learn how to use them. Bottom line, this system forces the user Engineering, University of Toronto. to think way too much. A good system should do just the opposite” (Born- hop, 2002). As technologies become more complex and the pace of change increases, the situation is likely to get worse. In everyday situations, overlooking human factors leads to errors, frustra- tion, alienation from technology, and, eventually, a failure to exploit the potential of people and technology. In safety-critical systems, however, such as nuclear power plants, hospitals, and aviation, the consequences can threaten the quality of life of virtually everyone on the planet. In the The 16 BRIDGE
Computer Displays For Nuclear Power Plants People are very good at recognizing graphical pat- terns. Based on this knowl- edge, Beltracchi (1987) developed an innovative computer display for mon- itoring the safety of water- based nuclear power plants. To maintain a safety mar- gin, operators must ensure that the water in the reactor core is in a liquid state. If the water begins to boil, as it did during the Three Mile Island accident, then the fuel can eventually melt, threatening public health FIGURE 1 A typical control room for a nuclear power plant. Source: Photo courtesy of C.M. Burns. and the environment. In traditional control rooms, United States, for example, preventable medical errors such as the one shown in Figure 1, operators have to are the eighth leading cause of death; in hospitals alone, go through a tedious procedure involving steam tables errors cause 44,000 to 98,000 deaths annually, and and individual meter readings to monitor the thermo- patient injuries cost between $17 billion and $29 billion dynamic status of the plant. This error-prone pro- annually (IOM, 1999). cedure requires that operators memorize or record numerical values, perform mental calculations, and exe- Diagnosis cute several steps. The root cause of the problem is the separation of the Beltracchi’s display (Figure 2) is based on the technical sciences from the human sciences. Engineers temperature-entropy diagram found in thermodynamic who have traditionally been trained to focus on tech- textbooks. The saturation properties of water are nology often have neither the expertise nor the incli- shown in graphical form as a bell curve rather than in nation to pay a great deal of attention to human alphanumeric form as in a steam table. Furthermore, capabilities and limitations. This one-sided view leads the thermodynamic state of the plant can be described to a paradoxical situation. When engineers ignore what as a Rankine cycle, which has a particular graphical is known about the physical world and design a tech- form when plotted in temperature-entropy coordinates. nology that fails, we blame them for professional negli- By measuring the temperature and pressure at key loca- gence. When they ignore what is known about human tions in the plant, it is possible to obtain real-time sen- nature and design a technology that fails, we typically sor values that can be plotted in this graphical diagram. blame users for being technologically incompetent. The The saturation properties of water are presented in a remedy would be for engineers to begin with a human or visual form that matches the intrinsic human capabil- social need (rather than a technological possibility) and ity of recognizing graphical patterns easily and effec to focus on the interactions between people and tech- tively. An experimental evaluation of professional nology (rather than on the technology alone). Techno- nuclear power plant operators showed that this new logical systems can be designed to match human nature way of presenting information leads to better interac- at all scales—physical, psychological, team, organiza- tions between people and technology than the tradi- tional, and political (Vicente, in press). tional way (Vicente et al., 1996). WINTER 2002 17
Framework for Risk Management
Public policy decisions are necessarily made in a Public ▲ Government opinion ▲ Changing political
dynamic, even turbulent, social landscape that is con- climate and ▲ tinually changing. In the face of these perturbations, ▲ public awareness Regulators, complex sociotechnical systems must be robust. Ras- associations ▲ mussen (1997) developed an innovative framework for risk management to achieve this goal (Figure 3). ▲ Changing market
Company ▲ conditions and
The first element of the framework is a structural ▲ financial pressure hierarchy describing the individuals and organizations ▲ in the sociotechnical system. The number of levels and Management ▲
their labels can vary from industry to industry. Take, for Changing skills ▲ example, a structural hierarchy for a nuclear power ▲ and levels Staff of education
plant. The lowest level usually describes the behavior ▲ ▲ associated with the particular (potentially hazardous) ▲ Fast pace of process being controlled (e.g., the nuclear power plant). Work technological change The next level describes the activities of the individual staff members who interact directly with the process being controlled (e.g., control room operators). The FIGURE 3 Levels of a complex sociotechnical system involved in risk management. third level from the bottom describes the activities of Source: Adapted from Rasmussen, 1997. management that supervises the staff. The next level up describes the activities of the company as a whole. hierarchy, and information about the current state of The fifth level describes the activities of the regulators affairs propagates up the hierarchy. The interdepen- or associations responsible for setting limits to the activ- dencies among the levels of the hierarchy are critical to ities of companies in that sector. The top level describes the successful functioning of the system as a whole. If the activities of government (civil servants and elected instructions from above are not formulated or not car- officials) responsible for setting public policy. ried out, or if information from below is not collected or Decisions at higher levels propagate down the not conveyed, then the system may become unstable and start to lose control of the hazardous process it is intended to safeguard. 600 In this framework, safety is an emergent property of a 500 complex sociotechnical sys- tem. Safety is affected by the decisions of all of the 400 actors—politicians, CEOs, managers, safety officers, (°C) 300 and work planners—not just front-line workers. Threats to safety or acci- 200 dents usually result from a loss of control caused by a 100 lack of vertical integration (i.e., mismatches) among the levels of the entire sys- 0 0 1 23 456789tem, rather than from defi- Entropy (kJ/kg °K) ciencies at any one level. Inadequate vertical inte- FIGURE 2 Beltracchi display. Source: Burns, 2000. Reprinted with permission. gration is frequently caused, The 18 BRIDGE at least partly, by a lack of feedback from one level to realize how their decisions interact with decisions made the next. Because actors at each level cannot see how by actors at other levels of the system. Nevertheless, the their decisions interact with decisions made by actors at sum total of these uncoordinated attempts at adapting to other levels, threats to safety may not be obvious before environmental stressors can slowly but surely “prepare an accident occurs. Nobody has a global view of the the stage for an accident” (Rasmussen, 1997). entire system. Migrations from official work practices can persist The layers of a complex sociotechnical system are and evolve for years without any apparent breaches of increasingly subjected to external forces that stress the safety until the safety threshold is reached and an acci- system. Examples of perturbations include: the chang- dent happens. Afterward, workers are likely to wonder ing political climate and public awareness; changing what happened because they had not done anything dif- market conditions and financial pressures; changing ferently than they had in the recent past. competencies and levels of education; and changes in Rasmussen’s framework makes it possible to manage technological complexity. The more dynamic the soci- risk by vertically integrating political, corporate, man- ety, the stronger these external forces are and the more agerial, worker, and technical considerations into a frequently they change. single integrated system that can adapt to novelty The second component of the framework deals with and change. dynamic forces that can cause a complex sociotechnical system to modify its structure over time. On the one Case Study hand, financial pressures can create a cost gradient that A fatal outbreak of E. coli in the public drinking pushes actors in the system to be more fiscally respon- water system in Walkerton, Ontario, during May 2000 sible. On the other hand, psychological pressures can illustrates the structural mechanisms at work in Ras- create a gradient that pushes actors in the system to mussen’s framework (O’Connor, 2002). In a town of work more efficiently, mentally or physically. 4,800 residents, seven people died and an estimated Pressure from these two gradients subject work prac- 2,300 became sick. Some people, especially children, tices to a kind of “Brownian motion,” an exploratory but are expected to have lasting health effects. The total systematic migration over time. Just as the force of grav- cost of the tragedy was estimated to be more than ity causes a stream of water to flow down crevices in a $64.5 million (Canadian). mountainside, financial and psychological forces In the aftermath of the outbreak, people were terrified inevitably cause people to find the most economical of using tap water to satisfy their basic needs. People ways of performing their jobs. Moreover, in a complex who were infected or who had lost loved ones suffered sociotechnical system, changes in work practices can tremendous psychological trauma; their neighbors, migrate from one level to another. Over time, this friends, and families were terrorized by anxiety; and migration will cause people responding to requests or people throughout the province were worried about how demands to deviate from accepted procedures and cut the fatal event could have happened and whether it corners to be more cost-effective. As a result, over time could happen again in their towns or cities. Attention- the system’s defenses are degraded and eroded. grabbing headlines continued unabated for months in A degradation in safety may not raise an immediate newspapers, on radio, and on television. Eventually, the warning flag for two reasons. First, given the stresses on provincial government appointed an independent com- the system, the migration in work practices may be nec- mission to conduct a public inquiry into the causes of essary to get the job done. That is why so-called “work- the disaster and to make recommendations for change. to-rule” campaigns requiring that people do their jobs Over the course of nine months, the commission held strictly by the book usually cause complex socio- televised hearings, culminating in the politically devas- technical systems to come to a grinding halt. Second, tating interrogation of the premier of Ontario. On Jan- the migration in work practices usually does not have uary 14, 2002, the Walkerton Inquiry Commission immediate visible negative impacts. The safety threat is delivered Part I of its report to the attorney general of not obvious because violations of procedures do not lead the province of Ontario (O’Connor, 2002). immediately to catastrophe. At each level in the hier- The sequence of events revealed a complex interac- archy, people may be working hard and striving to tion among the various levels of a complex socio- respond to cost-effectiveness measures; but they may not technical system, including strictly physical factors, WINTER 2002 19
unsafe practices of individual workers, inadequate over- Acknowledgments sight and enforcement by local government and a This paper was sponsored in part by the Jerome provincial regulatory agency, and budget reductions Clarke Hunsaker Distinguished Visiting Professorship at imposed by the provincial government. In addition, the MIT and by a research grant from the Natural Sciences dynamic forces that led to the accident had been in and Engineering Research Council of Canada. place for some time—some going back 20 years—but feedback that might have revealed the safety implica- References tions of these forces was largely unavailable to the vari- Beltracchi, L. 1987. A direct manipulation interface for ous actors in the system. These findings are consistent water-based Rankine cycle heat engines. IEEE Transactions with Rasmussen’s predictions and highlight the impor- on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics SMC-17: 478–487. tance of vertical integration in a complex socio- Bornhop, A. 2002. BMW 745I: iDrive? No, you drive, while technical system. I fiddle with the controller. Road & Track 53(10): 74–79. Burns, C.M. 2000. Putting it all together: improving display Conclusions integration in ecological displays. Human Factors 42: We must begin to change our engineering curricula 226–241. so that graduates understand the importance of design- Hopkins, J. 2001. When the devil is in the design. USA ing technologies that work for people performing the Today, December 31, 2001. Available online at: full range of human activities, from physical to political www.usatoday.com/money/retail/2001-12-31-design.htm. activities and everything in between. Corporate design IOM (Institute of Medicine). 1999. To Err Is Human: Build- practices must also be modified to focus on producing ing a Safer Health System, edited by L.T. Kohn, J.M. Cor- technological systems that fulfill human needs as rigan, and M.S. Donaldson. Washington, D.C.: National opposed to creating overly complex, technically sophis- Academy Press. ticated systems that are difficult for the average person O’Connor, D.R. 2002. Report of the Walkerton Inquiry: to use. Finally, public policy decisions must be based on The Events of May 2000 and Related Issues. Part One. a firm understanding of the relationship between people Toronto: Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. and technology. One-sided approaches that focus on Available online at: www.walkertoninquiry.com. technology alone often exacerbate rather than solve Rasmussen, J. 1997. Risk management in a dynamic society: pressing social problems. a modelling problem. Safety Science 27(2/3): 183–213. Because the National Academy of Engineering has Robinson, A. 2002. BMW 745I: the ultimate interfacing unparalleled prestige and expertise, it could play a machine. Car and Driver 47(12): 71–75. unique role in encouraging educational, corporate, and Vicente, K.J. In Press. The Human Factor: Revolutionizing the governmental changes that could lead to the design of Way We Live with Technology. Toronto: Knopf Canada. technological systems that put human factors where Vicente, K.J., N. Moray, J.D. Lee, J. Rasmussen, B.G. Jones, R. they belong—front and center. Brock, and T. Djemil. 1996. Evaluation of a Rankine cycle display for nuclear power plant monitoring and diagnosis. Human Factors 38: 506–521. Fission power has the potential to provide a large fraction of the world’s energy for centuries to come.
Sustainable Energy from Nuclear Fission Power
Marvin L. Adams
Increases in world population and per-capita energy demand in the next few centuries are expected to cause a substantial rise in world energy use. The World Energy Council predicts a doubling of consumption to 800 EJ/yr (EJ = exaJoule = 1018 J) by 2050 (WEC, 2002). For energy production to be sustainable, input requirements (including construction materials) must be available at reasonable financial and environmental cost, and the waste Marvin L. Adams is a professor of stream must have acceptably low economic and environmental impacts. No nuclear engineering at Texas A&M production option has yet demonstrated the ability to meet a substantial frac- University. tion of projected demand sustainably: every option needs further research and development. In this paper, I summarize options for sustainable energy production, discuss the need for a significant contribution from nuclear fis- sion and its potential for providing such a contribution, and identify some challenges that must be met to achieve that potential.
Options In the following discussion of the relative merits of energy technologies hundreds of years into the future, we draw seemingly reasonable conclusions based on some fundamental truths. However, the possibility of unforeseen technological developments over such a long period of time introduces con- siderable uncertainty. With that caveat in mind, let us boldly proceed. The vast majority of the world’s energy in the coming centuries will come WINTER 2002 21
from a few sources: fossil fuels, the sun, biomass, wind, carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas. For coal to be geothermal sources, nuclear fission, and (potentially) a sustainable long-term energy option, either we must nuclear fusion. Table 1 provides an overview of the gen- find a way to economically sequester the CO2 (300 kg/s eral suitability of each of these sources for sustainable from each 1-GWel power plant) or the world must energy production. Because the anticipated demand is decide that the addition of vast quantities of CO2 to the high and because different technologies are better for atmosphere is environmentally acceptable. The burn- different applications, it is likely that all of these sources ing of biomass also releases CO2, but the same CO2 is will be tapped. then captured by the growth of new matter. Thus, bio-
Economically recoverable oil and natural gas will mass does not add to atmospheric CO2 levels. The probably be depleted within a century or two, and both greatest drawbacks of biomass are its large land use have attractive applications besides energy production. (according to the World Energy Council estimate, a sus- Thus, I will not consider them as sustainable energy tainable 270 EJ/yr would require a crop area larger than sources. The burning of coal produces a great deal of the continental United States) and its high level of
TABLE 1 Comparison of Energy Sources
Source EJa/yr Reservesa Use of Other Waste Comments Today Resources
Oil/natural 140 > 6 ZJ CO2 and other Not considered gas liquidsb emissions sustainable.
Natural gas 85 > 5 ZJ CO2 and other Not considered emissions sustainable.
Coal 90 30 ZJ Land = moderate CO2 and other Reserves greater (mines) emissions than oil or gas, Construction = 0.7c but much less than fission.
Biomass 55 Up to Land = high Particulates and R&D may help 270 EJ/yr other emissions somewhat. sustainable
Nuclear fission 28 > 600 ZJ Land = low Long life Small waste Construction = 0.7 Repository space volume. Proliferation Space is political issue, not technical.
Hydroelectric 9 30 EJ/yr Land = high (lakes) Inherently small power sustainable role.
Solar energy Small Land = high R&D may help Construction = somewhat. 30–80
Wind Small Land = high Inherently diffuse Construction = 5–15 source.
Geothermal Small <100 EJ/yr energy sustainable
Nuclear fusion 0 Enormous Not yet demonstrated. a EJ = exaJoule = 1018 J; ZJ = zettaJoule = 1021 J. b This does not include larger known reserves of oil shale, which is difficult and not cost effective to use with present methods. c Construction number = approximate number of operation-months required to replace the energy used in construction; this is one measure of the intensity of use of other resources. Data from AWEA, 1998. The 22 BRIDGE particulate and other emissions. Hydroelectric power is is readily available. Much more easily recoverable tho- renewable and emission-free but limited to 30 EJ/yr, at rium will surely be found if a demand develops (Rubbia most, by the availability of sites for dams. The sun seems et al., 1995). An additional 7 million metric tons of ura- to offer an almost limitless emission-free source of en- nium is estimated but not yet proven to be economically ergy, and the role of solar power in the future energy recoverable (WEC, 2001). Fission power uses little land supply will surely be significant, especially for small- and requires modest construction inputs (mainly con- scale local applications. However, solar energy is a dif- crete and steel) per unit of energy produced—lower fuse source that requires large land areas, and its use of than the construction inputs for wind and solar energy engineering materials is high per unit of energy pro- by factors of 10 and 100, respectively (AWE, 1998). duced. Technological advances will help, but the low Thus, as far as inputs are concerned, fission power has energy density of solar radiation is a fundamental limi- the potential to provide a large fraction of the world’s tation that will be difficult to overcome for large-scale energy for many, many centuries. However, tapping the generation. Wind power is less material intensive than full potential energy of uranium and thorium resources solar energy and will play an increasingly important will require changes from current fission-energy prac- role, but wind is also limited by its low energy density tice, including the use of “high-conversion” reactors and and relatively high land use. Other renewables, such as the recycling of fissionable isotopes. geothermal energy, have similar limitations. The tech- The output from fission power includes modest nology for large-scale generation from nuclear fusion amounts of chemical and low-level radioactive wastes, appears to be decades away, and its costs are uncertain. which are relatively easy to handle, as well as used Although fusion has enormous potential, it is not yet (“spent”) fuel, which is the main disposition challenge. clear how its advantages and disadvantages will compare Spent fuel from today’s power reactors contains approx- to those of other options, including nuclear fission. imately 5 percent fission products (atoms produced by Each of these options has drawbacks, and each has splitting another atom or by radioactive decay of an- positive features. Most of the drawbacks of any option other fission product), 2 percent “fissile” material can be overcome if we are willing to pay enough (in dol- (including 235U, 239Pu, and 241Pu), and 1 percent other lars, land, materials, etc.). It is reasonable to conclude actinides (including 238Pu and 241Am), with 238U com- that we should continue to develop all options and that prising most of the remaining mass. (“Fissile” means the all of them will be needed to some extent to meet the atom is likely to fission after absorbing any neutron, energy demand in the coming centuries. including a low-energy neutron.) Note that fission power produces a very small volume of spent fuel. With
current technology, six years of operation of a 1-GWel plant yields spent fuel that could fit inside a 4-meter Fission power uses little land cube, and the vast majority of this material is recyclable. If we recycle, which is essential for the substantial use of and requires modest uranium and thorium resources, then much less mater- construction inputs per unit ial will require disposal, and most of it will have a much shorter half-life. of energy produced. Tapping the Energy In the current “once-through” fission fuel cycle in the United States, uranium fuel that is enriched to 3 to Sustainable Fission Energy 5 percent in the 235U isotope remains in a power reactor The known economically recoverable 3.3 million for four to six years, after which it is treated as waste. In metric tons of uranium (WEC, 2001) and 4 to 6 million the enrichment process, each kilogram (kg) of natural metric tons of thorium (UNDP, 2000) could produce uranium (which is 0.7 percent 235U) is typically con- 250 ZJ (zettaJoule) and 350 to 500 ZJ, respectively, verted to 0.85 kg of “depleted” uranium (0.2 percent if used to their full potential. Thus, more than 600 ZJ 235U) and 0.15 kg of low-enriched uranium (3.5 percent of potential nuclear fission energy—1,500 times the 235U). Thus, only 15 percent of the mined uranium current total worldwide annual energy consumption— reaches a reactor. During its four to six years in the WINTER 2002 23
reactor, approximately 5 percent of the atoms in the recycle the new fissile material into new fuel. In fact, to uranium fuel fission. Thus, current practice releases maximize the energy and minimize the waste from ura- only 0.75 percent (5 percent of 15 percent) of the nium and thorium, all actinides (not just fissile isotopes) potential energy of the mined uranium; a great deal of should be recycled so that as many heavy atoms as pos- the energy-storing material is treated as waste. sible can fission. This will require reprocessing spent Essentially all natural thorium is 232Th, and 99.3 per- fuel, separating out the desired elements, and using reac- cent of natural uranium is 238U. These isotopes are not tors that can cause most of the actinides to fission. fissile—they do not fission when they absorb low- Reprocessing is a commercial practice in England and energy neutrons—and neither can fuel a reactor by France, as is highly efficient (> 99.8 percent) extraction itself. Both are fissionable (absorption of MeV-range of uranium and plutonium. Efficient extraction of other neutron can cause fission) and fertile (capture of a neu- actinides has been demonstrated on a laboratory scale, tron leads to a new fissile atom). To unlock the energy and research and development are under way to improve from uranium and thorium resources, the abundant fer- these technologies and move them to commercial scale. tile isotopes (238U and 232Th) must be converted into Because of the mix of fissile and fissionable isotopes fissile isotopes (239Pu and 233U, respectively). This is that develops after several recycling steps, fuel from simple: if either 238U or 232Th captures a neutron, it multiple recycling steps is best suited for fast-spectrum quickly converts via beta decay: reactors. In a fast-spectrum reactor, neutrons retain rel- atively high energy from birth (via fission) to death (via (1) absorption or escape). Fast-spectrum reactors can cause nonfissile actinides to fission, whereas other reactors have trouble doing so. High-conversion reactors can be fast-spectrum reactors, and thus could be both creators (2) of fissile material and burners of nonfissile actinides.
Handling the Waste If a substantial majority of the actinides are recycled and made to fission in fast-spectrum reactors, the The conversion ratio of a reactor is the production rate remaining waste will be mainly fission products. Most of fissile atoms (by conversion of fertile atoms) divided fission products decay with half-lives of decades or by the consumption rate of fissile atoms (by fission or shorter, and after 300 years the total fission-product other neutron-induced destruction). A reactor with a inventory decays to a radiotoxicity level lower than conversion ratio greater than unity is sometimes called a that of the original ore (OECD, 1999). Fission products breeder reactor. Unlocking all of the potential energy in can be immobilized in glass; this is done commercially 238U and 232Th will require high-conversion reactors. in England and France. The waste-containing boro- High-conversion reactors have been demonstrated for silicate glass is so insoluble that if it were immersed in both 239Pu/238U and 233U/238Th cycles; however, this water, only 0.1 percent would dissolve in 10,000 years. technology is not as mature as the technology used in Thus, it is not difficult to immobilize fission products for current commercial reactors. There are opportunities several hundred years, after which they are no more for innovation in many aspects of the design of high- harmful than the original ore that nature placed under- conversion reactors, including materials (for higher ground. The waste-containing glass can be isolated, for temperature operation and improved resistance to example, in stable underground geologic formations. corrosion and radiation damage), fuel form (e.g., oxide, If we wanted to reduce the radiotoxicity of fission metal, molten salt), and coolant (e.g., liquid metals, products even further, we would need to address the helium). Innovations will undoubtedly improve the fission products with long half-lives. The fission prod- technology, but even today it is clear that high- ucts that contribute most to long-term radiotoxicity conversion reactors can be designed and operated for are 99Tc and 129I, which have half-lives of 2.1×105 sustainable fission power. and 1.6×107 years, respectively. These isotopes could To take advantage of high-conversion reactors that conceivably be separated from other fission products and convert fertile material to fissile material, we must transmuted (by absorption of neutrons from accelerators, The 24 BRIDGE
reactors, or accelerator-driven subcritical assemblies) recycled 233U are more highly radioactive than 239Pu into shorter-lived isotopes (NRC, 1996; OECD, 2002). and its daughters, which means hands-on operations A recent study concludes that both of these isotopes must be replaced by remote-controlled operations. could be transmuted so that their products would decay In summary, if a substantial majority of actinides are with 51-year half-lives (OECD, 2002). This would elim- recycled (which will be necessary for us to tap the inate them as potential long-term hazards. majority of the potential energy of uranium and thor- No separation technology is 100 percent efficient; ium resources), then the waste stream from fission thus, even with actinide recycling, some fraction of the power will consist of a very small volume of fission prod- actinides will remain with the fission products for dis- ucts along with a small fraction of lost actinides. This posal. The efficiency of the separations will determine waste can be readily immobilized in an insoluble mate- the long-term (>1,000 years) radiotoxicity of the waste rial, such as borosilicate glass. The efficiency of from fission power. For example, if 99.9 percent of the actinide-separation technology will determine whether plutonium and 99 percent of the americium (Am), cur- this waste inventory will decay to ore-level radio- ium (Cm), and neptunium (Np) were separated, with toxicity in hundreds of years or thousands of years. all other actinides remaining with the waste, then it Thus, improvements in separation technology may would take 10,000 years for radiotoxicity to decay to ore have a significant impact on the waste-isolation time levels—a substantial increase over the 300 years required and on public acceptance of fission power. if 100 percent of all actinides were separated out (OECD, One disadvantage of actinide recycling is that re- 1999). Increasing the separation efficiency to 99.9 per- cycled fuel costs approximately 10 to 20 percent more cent of Am, Cm, and Np would reduce this to less than than fresh fuel. Another is that recycling technology 1,000 years. Thus, the efficiency of separation of could conceivably enable countries or groups to develop actinides has a significant impact on the waste-isolation nuclear weapons—the proliferation issue. time and thus on the difficulty of the waste-isolation problem. Economical separation of >99.8 percent of plu- Proliferation tonium has been demonstrated on a commercial scale Nuclear weapons use highly concentrated fissile (COGEMA’s La Hague plant), and 99.9 percent separa- material, such as uranium that is highly enriched in tion of Am has been demonstrated on a laboratory scale. 235U or plutonium that is mostly 239Pu. Highly enriched Research and development continues to improve the 235U can be obtained by the same process that produces technology for actinide separation; thus, it seems rea- low-enriched 235U for reactor fuel—the process is sim- sonable to expect that highly efficient (≈99.9 percent) ply carried farther. (This is the process North Korea recently acknowledged using in its weapons program.) 239Pu is generated in every reactor that contains 238U (see Eq. (1)); however, if fuel stays in a reactor for more The recycling of actinides than a few months, significant quantities of other plu- tonium isotopes are also created, which makes the would greatly simplify plutonium more difficult to use for weapon design and fabrication. Nevertheless, a National Research Coun- waste disposal. cil report has concluded that a credible weapon could be made from plutonium of almost any isotopic compo- sition (NRC, 1995). separation of key actinides will be economically achiev- The 232Th/233U cycle may be more proliferation- able eventually. This raises the possibility of a relatively resistant than the 238U/239Pu cycle, because 233U daugh- short waste-isolation time (a few hundred years), which ter products generate heat and radiation that could would greatly simplify waste disposal. make it difficult to design, build, and maintain weapons. The 233U/232Th cycle creates fewer transuranic atoms Nevertheless, it is technically possible to create weapons per unit of energy produced and, thus, in some sense from separated 233U. creates less of a long-term waste problem (Rubbia et al., Every country that has developed nuclear weapons 1995). However, it also makes recycling somewhat has obtained its concentrated fissile material from more difficult, largely because the daughters of the dedicated military programs, not by co-opting power- WINTER 2002 25
reactor technology. Nevertheless, there is a concern battles, the Yucca Mountain site has very recently been that if recycling technology is developed and widely selected by the U.S. Department of Energy and Con- used in the power industry, it could be used by some gress as the repository location for which the DOE will nations or groups to produce plutonium for a weapons attempt to obtain a license. If licensing proceeds as program. A challenge, therefore, is to develop an eco- quickly as possible, the first spent fuel will not be deliv- nomical, practical, proliferation-resistant fission-fuel ered until 2010 or later. Given the current once- cycle. This is one goal of the Generation-IV Reactor through, no-reprocessing fuel strategy, the current U.S. Development Program (Kotek, in press). One example fleet of reactors will produce enough spent fuel by 2040 of a proliferation-resistant technology that includes recycling of valuable actinides is the integral fast- reactor concept (Till et al., 1997). With this tech- nology, Pu is never separated from U during reprocess- The capacity of Yucca ing, and thus no weapons-usable material ever exists at any stage of the process. Mountain is limited by
Near-Term Issues the thermal load it can Achieving sustainable fission energy will require accommodate. changes in current practices, especially in the United States. Current U.S. policy is for all spent fuel to be shipped to a geologic repository (recently identified as Yucca Mountain, Nevada) with no reprocessing. This is to fill the Yucca Mountain repository to its estimated a once-through, or “open,” fuel cycle. There are several technical capacity (DOE, 2002). The addition of new adverse consequences of not reprocessing spent fuel: reactors would of course hasten this date. Clearly, in the near term in the United States, repository capacity must 1. More than 99 percent of the potential energy in be increased for fission power to achieve its potential. It the uranium is lost. seems equally clear that finding a second repository site 2. Some actinides have long half-lives (24,000 years would be challenging, especially politically. for 239Pu), which leads to stringent long-term The capacity of Yucca Mountain is limited by the requirements for disposal technologies. thermal load it can accommodate (radioactive decay releases energy that heats the material). If the waste pro- 3. Some actinides generate heat, which limits repos- duced lower W/kg, more mass could be accommodated itory capacity. (DOE, 2002). With the current once-through fuel strat- The first consequence is significant for the very long egy, the main thermal load after a few decades will come term. The second affects public acceptance of nuclear from the decay of the isotopes 238Pu and 241Am, with power and public acceptance of any given repository site half-lives of 88 and 432 years, respectively. If plutonium (people wonder how anyone can know that the mater- and americium were removed from the spent fuel, the ial will remain sufficiently isolated for tens of thousands heat load would be dominated by isotopes with 30-year of years) and poses significant technical challenges. half-lives; thus, the thermal load of a given mass of spent The third affects the capacity of a given repository. The fuel would be halved every 30 years (P.F. Peterson, Uni- latter two effects are very important for the near term versity of California-Berkeley, personal communication, (i.e., the next few decades). June 2002). In other words, half of the repository capac- From a technical point of view, repository space is not ity would effectively be regenerated every 30 years. It is an issue. There appear to be more than enough suitable easy to imagine that this might be more achievable polit- stable geologic formations in the world to handle waste ically than obtaining approval for another repository site. from millennia of fission reactors, especially if fission- able materials (actinides) are recycled. However, Summary and Conclusions because of the political picture today, repository space is Worldwide energy use is likely to increase in the fore- a precious commodity. After 20 years of study, more seeable future, and sustainable energy sources are not than $4 billion of expenditures, and several political abundant. It seems likely that many different sources The 26 BRIDGE will be tapped to meet energy needs. Nuclear fission NRC. 1996. Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations could potentially provide a significant fraction of the and Transmutation. Washington, D.C.: National Aca- world’s energy for millennia: its inputs (fuel and con- demy Press. Also available online at: http://www.nap.edu/ struction materials) are readily available and its waste catalog/4912.html. stream (fission products and lost actinides) is very small OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel- and not technically difficult to handle. Realizing the opment). 1999. Status and Assessment Report on potential of fission energy will require high-conversion Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmuta- reactors and the recycling of fissionable atoms, which in tion. Nuclear Development Report No. 1507. Paris, turn will require that some technical and political chal- France: Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for lenges be met. Economic Co-operation and Development. Also available In the short term, especially in the United States, online at: http://www.nea.fr/html/trw/docs/neastatus99/. waste-repository capacity is a significant issue. The OECD. 2002. Accelerator-Driven Systems (ADS) and Fast long-term capacity of the Yucca Mountain repository Reactors (FR) in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles. Nuclear could be increased significantly by separating plutonium Development Report No. 3109 (2002). Paris, France: and americium from spent reactor fuel. Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Also available online at: Acknowledgements http://www.nea.fr/html/ndd/reports/2002/nea3109.html. I thank Per Peterson and Harold McFarlane for their Rubbia, C., J.A. Rubio, S. Buono, F. Carminati, N. Fieter, J. helpful comments, information, and insights. Galvez, C. Geles, Y. Kadi, R. Klapisch, P. Mandrillon, J.P. Revol, and C. Roche. 1995. Conceptual Design of a Fast References Neutron Operated High Power Energy Amplifier. CERN- AWEA (American Wind Energy Association). 1998. How AT-95-44ET. Geneva, Switzerland: European Organiza- Much Energy Does It Take to Build a Wind System in Rela- tion for Nuclear Research. tion to How Much Energy It Produces? Available online at: Till, C.E., Y.I. Chang, and W.H. Hannum. 1997. The inte- http://www.awea.org/faq/bal.html. gral fast reactor: an overview. Progress in Nuclear Energy DOE (U.S. Department of Energy). 2002. Yucca Mountain 31: 3–11. Site Suitability Evaluation. DOE/RW-0549. Washington, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2000. D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. Also available online at: World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of http://www.ymp.gov/documents/sse_a/index.htm. Sustainability. New York: United Nations Development Kotek. J. In Press. New Reactor Technologies. Proceedings Programme. Also available online at: http://www.undp.org/ of Frontiers of Engineering 2002. Washington, D.C.: seed/eap/activities/wea/. National Academy Press. WEC (World Energy Council). 2001. Survey of Energy NRC (National Research Council). 1995. Management Resources. Part I: Uranium. Available online at: and Disposition of Excess Weapons Plutonium: Reactor- http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/ Related Options. Washington, D.C.: National Academy uranium/uranium.asp. Press. Also available online at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/ WEC. 2002. Global Energy Scenarios to 2050 and Beyond. 4754.html. Available online at: http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/ edc/scenario.asp. Radioisotopes are being used in numerous commercial applications, and many more are on the horizon.
Stretching the Boundaries of Nuclear Technology
James P. Blanchard
Most people are well aware that nuclear power can be used to produce electricity, but few are aware that it can be used to provide power in many other situations. Radioisotopes have been used for decades in commercial applications, such as pacemakers and smoke detectors, and recent trends indicate that other applications are on the horizon. Two technologies being actively investigated are space nuclear power and nuclear energy for micro- James P. Blanchard is a professor electromechanical systems (MEMS). in the Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin- Space Nuclear Power Madison. In 1989, a national space policy was approved that included the goal of putting a person on Mars by 2019. By most accounts, meeting this goal will require nuclear propulsion in order to shorten the mission time, thereby reducing exposure to zero gravity conditions and cosmic rays. Hence, nuclear propulsion will play a major role in space travel beyond the moon. This year, NASA announced a five-year, $1-billion program to develop nuclear reac- tors to power the next generation of spacecraft.
History Early work on nuclear propulsion was primarily focused on nuclear- thermal technologies, in which a fission reactor is used to heat a gas and accelerate it through a nozzle. Research activity in this area began in 1944 The 28 BRIDGE
and peaked in the 1960s. A typical design uses hydro- Nuclear-Electric Propulsion gen as a propellant and graphite-moderated carbide fuel There are three basic types of electric propulsion in the reactor core. One design, called Phoebus, systems: electrothermal, electrostatic, and electro- achieved 5,000 MW of thermal power and 1 MN of magnetic. In electrothermal propulsion, the propellant thrust, which is about half the thrust of a space-shuttle is heated either by an electric arc or a resistance heater. engine (Bower et al., 2002). The hot propellant is then exhausted through a con- Another early concept for nuclear propulsion was ventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. Electrostatic Project Orion, which relied on a series of nuclear blasts propulsion uses electric fields to accelerate charged par- behind the payload to create shock waves that acceler- ticles through a nozzle. In electromagnetic propulsion, ated the device (Schmidt et al., 2002). Although this an ionized plasma is accelerated by magnetic fields. In technology looked promising, it was abandoned in the all three types, electricity from a nuclear source, such as 1960s because of a ban on nuclear testing. a fission reactor, is used to power the propulsion device Fuel Efficiency and Mission Length (Allen et al., 2000; Bennett et al., 1994). The power flow for a typical nuclear-electric propulsion scheme is The efficiency of the fuel used for propulsion is mea- shown in Figure 1. sured by a parameter called the specific impulse, which The most mature of the electric propulsion concepts is defined as the ratio of the thrust produced to the rate is electrostatic propulsion. NASA’s Deep Space 1 at which fuel is consumed. The units of this parameter, device (Figure 2), launched in 1998, relies on an ionized typically seconds, are determined by dividing force by xenon gas jet for propulsion (Brophy, 2002). The xenon weight of fuel consumed per unit time. Hence, a specific fuel fills a chamber ringed with magnets, which control impulse of N seconds can be interpreted as a capability the flow; electrons emitted from a cathode ionize the for providing a unit thrust with a unit weight of fuel for gas. The ions pass through a pair of metal grids at a N seconds. By comparing the specific impulses for dif- potential of 1,280 volts and are thus accelerated out the ferent propulsion technologies, one can assess their back. A second electrode emits electrons to neutralize advantages and disadvantages. Increased fuel efficiency the charge on the device. The engine is capable of pro- is manifested in several ways—shorter trips, larger pay- ducing 90 mN of thrust while consuming 2,300 W of loads for a fixed total launch weight, and flexibility for electrical power. This device is solar powered, but future scientific activities at the destination. designs anticipate using a fission reactor to produce the The specific impulses for several propulsion options are electricity. shown in Table 1. The specific impulse for nuclear fuels All electric propulsion systems require supplies of elec- can be many times that of chemical fuels, while the thrust tricity, and fission reactors, which have high power den- is correspondingly lower and the run time longer. Electro- sity, are an excellent choice for meeting this need. static thrusters have relatively low thrust but can run vir- Numerous projects are under way to develop fission reac- tually continuously and, therefore, can provide short trip tors with low weight, high reliability, long life without times and low launch weights for a given payload. In con- refueling, and safety during launch. A wide variety of trast, chemical rockets tend to run at high thrust for short heat-transport and energy-conversion technologies are times, accelerating rapidly as the rocket fires and then being investigated. One example of a fission reactor is coasting between necessary adjustments in trajectory.
TABLE 1 Propulsion Parameters for Several Propulsion Technologies
Technology Specific Impulse (sec) Thrust per Engine (N) Run Time (duration)
Chemical 150–450 0.5–5 million A few seconds to hundreds of minutes.
Nuclear thermal 825–925 5,000–50,000 A few minutes to several hours.
Electromagnetic 2,000–5,000 10–200 A few seconds to several hundred hours.
Electrostatic 3,500–10,000 1–10 A few minutes to several days or months.
Source: Niehoff and Hoffman, 1996. Reprinted with permission of the American Astronautical Society. WINTER 2002 29
slender device in a magnetic mirror configuration. This device is powered by fusion reactions in the plasma; the thrust is produced by plasma ions exiting the end of the device. Accelerated by the mirror’s magnetic-field gra- dients, the ions provide efficient propulsion. One con- cept features a 50 m long, 7 cm radius plasma and produces 50,000 N of thrust at a specific impulse of more than 100,000 seconds (Kammash et al., 1995).
Small-Scale Radioisotope Power MEMS have the potential to revolutionize many technologies, and the number of commercial applica- tions is increasing rapidly. Many applications, such as pumps, motors, and actuators, can be improved with FIGURE 1 Schematic drawing of power flow for a typical nuclear-electric propulsion onboard power supplies, and various technologies are device. Heat is produced in the nuclear source (typically a fission reactor core) and being explored to provide such power. Obvious choices, converted to electricity in the power converter. The electricity is then used to power such as chemical batteries, fuel cells, and fossil fuels, the thruster. The radiator dissipates the waste heat. Source: NASA, 2001. show some promise, but none of them can match radioisotope power for long, unattended operation the safe, affordable fission engine (SAFE-400), a 400-kW (Blanchard et al., 2001). This is because of the larger (thermal) reactor that is expected to produce 100 kW of energy density available with nuclear sources. electric power using heat pipes for energy transport and a Radioisotopes can be used to produce power in a vari- Brayton cycle for energy conversion (Poston et al., 2002). ety of ways. Thermoelectric and thermionic technolo- The core consists of 381 uranium-nitride fuel pins clad gies convert the heat generated by the decay to with rhenium. The uranium-nitride fuel was chosen electricity; other approaches make more direct use of because of its high uranium density and high thermal the released energy. Thermoelectric conversion uses a conductivity. Molybdenum/sodium heat pipes are used thermal gradient between two different materials to for heat transport to provide passive safety features in case of an accident.
Plasma Propulsion An approach related to electric propulsion is the plasma rocket, exemplified by the variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) (Diaz, 2000). Like an ion thruster, a VASIMR injects a propel- lant (usually hydrogen) into a cell and ionizes it. The resulting plasma is heated using radio-frequency injec- tion and a magnetic nozzle that accelerates the gas to provide the propulsion. A second example is the gas dynamic mirror, a long, FIGURE 2 Schematic drawing of the Deep Space 1 ion thruster. Source: NASA, 2002. The 30 BRIDGE
3a 3b
FIGURE 3a A schematic drawing of a simple device using a P-N junction and radioactive source to produce the potential. FIGURE 3b Photograph of a device using pits rather than trenches to hold the source. create a current via the Seebeck effect. Thermionic (Lange and Mastal, 1994). RTGs were also used to pro- conversion creates a current by boiling electrons off a vide power for the Cassini and Voyager missions. Much cathode (at high temperature) and catching them at an like the pacemakers mentioned above, RTGs create anode. Techniques for more direct methods include power by thermoelectric conversion. Most RTGs are simple collection of the emitted charged particles, ion- modular, with each module containing approximately ization near a P-N or P-I-N junction in a semiconduc- 2.7 kg of Pu (133 kCi) and measuring approximately tor, and conversion of the decay energy to light and 42 cm in length and 114 cm in diameter. The modules subsequent conversion to electricity in a photovoltaic. produce 276 W of electric power at the beginning of life and, despite decay of the isotope, will produce approxi- History mately 216 W after 11 years of unattended operation. Radioisotopes have been used as power sources for Current research is focused mostly on the miniatur- decades. Early pacemakers were powered by approxi- ization of RTGs for many applications, such as MEMS; 238 mately 0.2 grams (3 Ci) of Pu, producing about in addition, efforts to improve the efficiency of existing 0.2 mW and delivering about 0.05 mW to the heart RTGs are ongoing. muscle (Parsonnet, 1972). Whereas pacemakers pow- ered by chemical batteries have lives of less than Nuclear Microbatteries 10 years and thus require replacement in most patients, Thermal devices, such as RTGs, are difficult to reduce the half-life of 238Pu (approximately 86 years) permits to the microscale because, as the size is decreased, the radioisotope-powered devices to last the life of the surface-to-volume ratio increases, thus increasing the rel- patient. ative heat losses and decreasing the efficiency of the Although a smoke detector is not strictly a power device. Hence, microbattery designs have tended to source, many smoke detectors contain radioisotopes focus on direct methods of energy conversion. For ex- (usually 1 to 5 microcuries of 241Am). The source ion- ample, one can construct a diode from silicon using a izes air between a pair of parallel plates, and a chemical layer of P-type silicon adjacent to a layer of N-type sil- battery (or house current) is used to collect these icon and a radioactive source placed on the top of the charges and thus measure the degree of ionization in the device. As the source decays, the energetic particles gap. When smoke enters the gap, the increased ioniza- penetrate the surface and create electron-hole pairs in tion trips the sensor. the vicinity of the P-N junction. This creates a poten- Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are tial across the junction, thus forming a battery. Figure 3a used in many applications, including underwater power is a schematic drawing of such a device, and Figure 3b is and lighting in remote locations, such as the Arctic a photograph of one concept created at the University of WINTER 2002 31
Wisconsin. The device shown in Figure 3b is fairly large, whereas inorganic crystals can achieve efficiencies of up measuring approximately 0.5 cm on each side, but one to 30 percent. TRACE Photonics, Inc. (Charleston, can easily imagine using a single pit from the device as a Illinois), has built a scintillation glass using sol-gel power source. This would provide a microbattery mea- processes with high light-conversion efficiency under suring approximately 400 microns by 400 microns by radiation exposure (Bower et al., 2002). Current over- 50 microns; using a beta emitter (63Ni), it could produce all efficiencies are approximately 1 percent, but device approximately 0.2 µW of electrical power. An early integration can probably be improved because of the prototype of the device pictured in Figure 3b, loaded low weight and direct conversion. with a weak source (64 microcuries of 63Ni), produced Applications of Micropower Sources approximately 0.07 nW of power. Given that the ther- mal energy of 64 microcuries of 63Ni is 6.4 nW, this All current MEMS devices sold commercially are pas- device is about 1 percent efficient. Placing a second sive devices. Hence, there is no existing market for diode on top of the source would nearly double the effi- micropower sources. Nevertheless, one can envision ciency (because the decay products are produced isotrop- many future applications of MEMS devices with onboard ically). Work is also under way to improve the efficiency micropower sources, such as small drug dispensers placed by optimizing the design. directly into the bloodstream and laboratories-on-a-chip When an alpha source is used in such a battery, the that can carry out real-time blood assays. Researchers at available energy for a fixed activity level is increased by UCLA and UC Berkeley have been investigating several orders of magnitude. Unfortunately, the high- so-called “smart-dust” concepts for using wireless com- energy alpha particles damage the silicon lattice as they munications to create large-scale sensor networks (Kahn pass through and quickly degrade the power. Attempts et al., 1999). This approach involves distributed sensors are being made to overcome this limitation by using that can communicate with each other through a net- materials that are resistant to damage. Materials being work and thus “provide a new monitoring and control considered include wide-band-gap semiconductors, such capability for transportation, manufacturing, health care, as gallium nitride, which might improve radiation sta- environmental monitoring, and safety and security” bility and device efficiency (Bower et al., 2002). (Asada et al., 1998). These devices will require power Thermoelectric devices are another approach to using for data collection and storage, as well as for the delivery alpha sources. These devices use the heat from the of information between neighboring devices. source to produce a temperature gradient across the A new application of nuclear power is the self- thermoelectric device to produce power. Thus, there is powered cantilever beam produced at the University no risk of radiation damage, and alpha particles could of Wisconsin (Li et al., 2002). This device, shown in be used. Hi-Z Technology, Inc. (San Diego), developed Figure 4, places a conducting cantilever beam in the 63 a 40 mW device using a radioisotope heater unit (RHU) vicinity of a radioisotope, in this case Ni. As the beam that was produced by NASA several years ago. The collects the electrons emitted from the source, it RHU uses about 2 grams of 238Pu to produce 1W of becomes negatively charged, and the source becomes thermal power. Using this as a heat source, Hi-Z pro- positively charged. The beam is thus attracted to the duced a thermoelectric device that established a tem- perature difference of approximately 225°C throughout the device and provided 40 mW of power. The effi- ciency of the device was approximately 4 percent. Some improvement can be gained through improved insula- tion and thermoelectrics. A third approach to creating a micropower device uses radioisotopes to excite phosphors that emit pho- tons, which can then be collected in a standard or mod- ified solar cell. This protects the photovoltaic from damage but increases losses in the system. In addition, FIGURE 4 Schematic drawing of a self-oscillating cantilever beam. Devices can be the phosphor may be damaged. Typical organic scintil- modeled as capacitors in parallel with leakage resistors, with most of the leakage lators have energy-conversion efficiencies of 1 percent, resulting from ionization in the gap. The 32 BRIDGE source until contact is made and the device discharges. Scientific Instruments 73(2): 1071–1078. This causes the beam to be released and return to its Diaz, F. 2000. The VASIMR rocket. Scientific American original position. The process then repeats itself. 283(5): 90–97. Hence, the beam undergoes a repetitive bending and Kahn, J.M., R.H. Katz, and K.S.J. Pister. 1999. Mobile Net- unbending; the period of the oscillation is determined working for Smart Dust. Pp. 271–278 in Proceedings of the by the strength of the source, the beam stiffness, and the ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Com- initial separation between the beam and the source. puting and Networking. New York: ACM Press. Work is ongoing to produce wireless communication Kammash, T., M. Lee, and D. Galbraith. 1995. High- devices based on this design. Performance Fusion Rocket for Manned Space Missions. Pp. 47–74 in Fusion Energy in Space Propulsion, edited by Conclusions T. Kammash. Progress in Astrophysics and Aeronautics 167. Nuclear power is the best, perhaps the only, realistic Lange, R., and E. Mastal. 1994. A Tutorial Review of power source for both long-distance space travel and Radioisotope Power Systems. Pp. 1–20 in A Critical long-lived, unattended operation of MEMS devices. Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion Much more research will have to be done to optimize 1984–1993, edited by M. El-Genk. New York: American the currently available technologies for future applica- Institute of Physics Press. tions, but nuclear technologies will clearly provide Li, H., A. Lal, J. Blanchard, and D. Henderson. 2002. Self- viable, economic solutions, and they should be given reciprocating radioisotope-powered cantilever. Journal of continued attention and support as they approach Applied Physics 92(2): 1122–1127. commercialization. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). 2001. The Safe Affordable Fission Engine (SAFE) Test Series. References Available online at: http://www.spacetransportation.com/ Allen, D.T., J. Bass, N. Elsner, S. Ghamaty, and C. Morris. ast/presentations/7b_vandy.pdf. 2000. Milliwatt Thermoelectric Generator for Space NASA. 2002. DS1: How the Ion Engine Works. Available Applications. Pp. 1476–1481 in Proceedings of Space online at: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/ Technology and Applications International Forum-2000. ipsworks.htm. New York. American Institute of Physics Press. Niehoff, J., and S. Hoffman. 1996. Pathways to Mars: An Asada, G., T. Dong, F. Lin, G. Pottie, W. Kaiser, and H. Overview of Flight Profiles and Staging Options for Mars Marcy. 1998. Wireless Integrated Network Sensors: Low Missions. Pp. 99–126 in Strategies for Mars: A Guide for Power Systems on a Chip. Pp. 9–16 in Proceedings of the Human Exploration, edited by C.R. Stoker and C. Emmart. 1998 European Solid State Circuits Conference. Paris: Paper no. AAS 95-478. Science and Technology Series Seguir Atlantica. Vol. 86. San Diego, Calif.: Univelt. (Copyright © 1996 Bennett, G., H. Finger, T. Miller, W. Robbins, and M. Klein. by American Astronautical Society Publications Office, 1994. Prelude to the Future: A Brief History of Nuclear P.O. Box 28130, San Diego, CA 92198; Website: Thermal Propulsion in the United States. Pp. 221–267 in http://www.univelt.com. All Rights Reserved. This mater- A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, ial reprinted with permission of the AAS.) 1984–1993, edited by M. El-Genk. New York: American Parsonnet, V. 1972. Power sources for implantable cardiac Institute of Physics Press. pacemakers. Chest 61: 165–173. Blanchard, J., R.M. Bilboa y Leon, D.L. Henderson, and A. Poston, D., R. Kapernick, and R. Guffee. 2002. Design Lai. 2001. Radioisotope Power Sources for MEMS and Analysis of the SAFE-400 Space Fission Reactor. Devices. Pp. 87–88 in Proceedings of 2001 ANS Annual Pp. 578–588 in Space Technology and Applications Inter- Meeting. Washington, D.C.: American Nuclear Society. national Forum. New York: American Institute of Physics Bower, K., X. Barbanel, Y. Shreter, and G. Bohnert. 2002. Press. Polymers, Phosphors, and Voltaics for Radioisotope Micro- Schmidt, G., J. Bonometti, and C. Irvine. 2002. Project batteries. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. Orion and future prospects for nuclear propulsion. Journal Brophy, J. 2002. NASA’s Deep Space 1 ion engine. Revue of of Propulsion Power 18(3): 497–504. A resurgence of the nuclear industry will require overcoming major challenges.
Licensing and Building New Nuclear Infrastructure
Peter S. Hastings
Electricity demand is outpacing supply growth, and experts have calculated that the United States will need new baseload power generation (including nuclear power generation) by 2010 (NEI, 2002a). As part of the Nuclear Power 2010 Initiative, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) established the Near-Term Deployment Group (NTDG) to examine prospects for new nuclear plants in the United States in the next decade. According to a recent Peter S. Hastings is licensing man- study by NTDG, a resurgence of the nuclear industry will be influenced by ager at Duke Energy in Charlotte, many factors, including economic competitiveness; deregulation of the energy North Carolina. industry; regulatory efficiency; existing infrastructure; the national energy strategy; safety; management of spent fuel; public acceptance; and nonprolif- eration (DOE, 2001). NTDG also noted that the nuclear industry is experi- encing current shortfalls in several important areas (DOE, 2001): • Qualified and experienced personnel in nuclear energy operations, engi- neering, radiation protection, and other professional disciplines. • Qualified suppliers of nuclear equipment and components [including] fabrication capability and capacity for forging large components such as reactor vessels. • Contractor and architect/engineer organizations with personnel, skills, and experience in nuclear design, engineering, and construction. The 34 BRIDGE
Nuclear industry infrastructure can be defined in economics, safety, reliability, and sustainability and terms of technologies, facilities, suppliers, and regulatory that could be deployed commercially by 2030 (DOE, elements; design and operational engineering and 2002). In 1999, DOE initiated the Nuclear Energy licensing tools; and (perhaps most important) human Research Initiative (NERI), an R&D program to capital to sustain the industry in the near and long address long-term issues related to nuclear energy; in terms. NTDG concluded that, although the industry 2000, the Nuclear Energy Plant Optimization Program has adequate industrial and human infrastructure today was initiated to focus on the performance of currently to build and operate a few new nuclear plants, we can- operating nuclear plants. not be sure that this infrastructure can be expanded In 2000, NEI formed the industry-wide New Nuclear quickly enough to achieve the goal of 50 GWe in new Power Plant Task Force to identify the market condi- nuclear plant installed capacity as laid out in the indus- tions and business structures necessary for the construc- try’s strategy for the future, Vision 2020 (NEI, 2002a). tion of new nuclear power plants in the United States. In April 2001, the task force published the Integrated Plan for New Nuclear Plants, which includes a discussion of nuclear infrastructure (NEI, 2001). More recently, Our industrial and NEI announced Vision 2020, an initiative with a goal of adding 50,000 megawatts of new nuclear generating human infrastructure may capacity by 2020, along with increases in efficiency power uprates at existing plants equal to an additional not expand quickly enough 10,000 megawatts of generating capacity (NEI, 2002b). to meet our goals. DOE funding has recently been allocated to advanced reactor development, specifically for the exploration of government/industry cost sharing for the demonstration of early site permitting as part of new NRC licensing The nuclear industry faces infrastructure challenges, processes (which also include provisions for combined untested implementation of new Nuclear Regulatory licenses and design certifications) and for national lab- Commission (NRC) regulations, and uncertainties oratory activities associated with fuel testing, code ver- about the economic competitiveness of new nuclear ification and validation, and materials testing associated plants. The near-term deployment of new nuclear- with new reactor designs (DOE, 2001). power generation will be a good litmus test of the via- bility of a larger expansion in nuclear production. Technological Infrastructure According to NTDG, even though the level of addi- A number of elements are required to support a new tional capacity in the industry goals in Vision 2020 is or existing nuclear plant. Suppliers and fabricators of meager in terms of overall U.S. energy needs, achieving nuclear fuel and safety-related components are clearly the goal presents major challenges (DOE, 2001). essential, as are suppliers of balance-of-plant equipment, construction materials, electronics and instrumenta- Industry and Government Initiatives tion, and countless other components. Various initiatives have been undertaken by the U.S. The U.S. fuel-cycle industry has undergone signifi- nuclear industry and DOE to encourage the domestic cant changes in the past few years. Future fluctuations development of additional nuclear facilities. In 1998, in uranium prices, the deployment of new enrichment DOE chartered the Nuclear Energy Research Advisory technologies, significant consolidation of fuel-cycle sup- Committee (NERAC) to advise the agency on nuclear ply companies, and the possible recycling of spent fuel research and development (R&D) issues. NERAC could all affect the supply chain for nuclear fuel (i.e., released the Long-Term Nuclear Technology R&D Plan mining/milling, conversion and enrichment, and fabri- in June 2000; NERAC is also responsible for over- cation into ceramic fuel pellets). The NTDG study rec- seeing the development of plans for both NTDG and ognized the sensitivity of new reactor deployment to Generation IV, a project to pursue the development these factors. NTDG solicited designs for nuclear plants and demonstration of one or more “next-generation” that could be deployed by 2010 and attempted to iden- nuclear energy systems that offer advantages in tify generic issues that could impede their deployment. WINTER 2002 35
Proposals were received from reactor suppliers identify- provides for the development of the Yucca Mountain site ing eight candidate reactor designs. NTDG evaluated in Nevada as a mined, geologic repository for high-level these designs to determine the prospects for deployment waste and the development of a transportation system of a new nuclear plant in the United States by 2010. linking U.S. nuclear power plants, an interim storage Candidate reactor technologies were required to facility, and the permanent repository (NEI, 2002c). demonstrate how they would operate “within credible The recycling of spent fuel to recover fissile material fuel-cycle industrial structures” assuming a once- and long-lived heavy elements would reduce the heat through fuel cycle using low-enriched uranium fuel and generation and volume of final waste products. When to “demonstrate the existence of, or a credible plan for, most existing U.S. nuclear plants were built, the indus- an industrial infrastructure to supply the fuel being pro- try—encouraged by the federal government—planned posed.” NTDG’s design-specific evaluations concluded to recycle used nuclear fuel by recovering plutonium. In that the candidates that would use existing fuel-cycle 1979, however, the United States deferred the repro- infrastructure could be built by 2010. However, NTDG cessing of all commercial used nuclear fuel because of also concluded that infrastructure expansion to achieve concerns about the possible proliferation of nuclear the industry’s goal of 50 GWe of new installed capacity weapons. Thus, the industry was forced to adopt a once- by 2020 was a “generic gap” that warrants government through, single-use fuel cycle. Reprocessing and recy- and industry action (DOE, 2001). cling are not currently cost effective in the United Siting for new reactors will be greatly influenced by States, and most of the discussion about recycling is now how efficiently 10 CFR Part 52 (the NRC regulation for focused on increasing the capacity of waste repositories early site permits, standard design certifications, and and the transmutation of actinides. combined nuclear plant licenses) can be implemented. The domestic supply of certain reactor components is NTDG concluded that the federal commitment to cost another long-term concern. Over time, U.S. capacity sharing via government/industry partnerships should for fabricating large components with long lead times include a demonstration of the NRC’s early site permit (e.g., reactor vessels and steam generators) has dimin- process for a range of likely scenarios. Recently a part- ished. NTDG concluded that in most cases, other coun- nership to evaluate sites for new nuclear plants was tries have the necessary capacity and could support the announced, and DOE selected three utilities to partici- early expansion of nuclear plant construction in the pate in joint government/industry projects to pursue United States, but domestic capabilities will also have NRC approval for sites for new nuclear power plants. to be reestablished (DOE, 2001). General Electric, for These projects, the first major elements of DOE’s Nuclear Power 2010 Initiative, are intended to “remove one more barrier to seeing the nuclear option fully revived” in the United States. All three companies Over time, U.S. capacity intend to seek early site permit approvals that would enable them to locate new, advanced-technology nuclear for fabricating large plants at sites owned by the utilities that currently host commercial nuclear power plants (i.e., Dominion En- components with long lead ergy’s North Anna site in Virginia, Entergy’s Grand Gulf times has diminished. site in Mississippi, and Exelon’s Clinton site in Illinois). According to a press release on June 24, 2002, DOE expects applications to be submitted by late 2003. Design concepts for the waste-management compo- example, has indicated that many of the components nent of fuel-cycle infrastructure were also evaluated and much of the hardware (including pumps, heat by NTDG. Each design concept addressed the on-site exchangers, nuclear fuel, control rods, and some in- storage of spent nuclear fuel; but the current lack of a na- ternal reactor components, as well as most balance- tional system for high-level waste disposal is a program- of-plant equipment) for its advanced boiling water matic gap common to all new technologies. The reactor (ABWR) can be produced in the United States. Nuclear Waste Policy Act (first passed in 1983, amend- However, the reactor pressure vessel and the large in- ed many times, and still the subject of heated debate) ternal components (the same components used for The 36 BRIDGE
Japanese and Taiwanese ABWRs) will have to be fabri- cent will reach 40 years by the end of 2010; and more cated by foreign suppliers that have maintained their than 40 percent will reach 40 years by 2015. As of June capacity and expertise for fabricating and machining 2002, 10 license renewal applications had been granted, these large components. Foreign suppliers can and do and 14 applications were under NRC review; 23 more meet U.S. codes and regulations; most foreign countries applications are expected by 2005. License renewal also follow identical or similar codes, such as ASME Section provides an important collateral benefit by keeping the III, IX, and XI, as well as U.S. NRC-imposed regulations industry and workforce energized and engaged, thus and guidelines. NTDG concluded that this area of helping to preserve the institutional and human capital infrastructure will have to be reconstituted in the that will be necessary for the near-term deployment of United States for economic reasons and that, for some new reactors. components (particularly reactor vessels), the existing Other high-profile licensing actions related to nuclear worldwide capacity may not be adequate to support a industry infrastructure include: an application for a large expansion of reactor capacity. license for a spent-fuel storage facility currently before the NRC and in hearings submitted by Private Fuel Stor- Regulatory Infrastructure age (a group of eight electric utility companies in part- NRC is perhaps best known for regulating reactor nership with the Skull Valley Band of Goshute Indians); construction and operation. The agency also regulates two pending applications (one from the United States nuclear fuel-cycle operations, including the mining, Enrichment Corporation and one from Urenco) for milling, conversion, enrichment, and fabrication of fuel deploying new gas-centrifuge enrichment technologies and waste-management facilities. A number of pro- in the United States; and an application for the con- posed licensing actions and regulatory initiatives are struction and subsequent operation of a facility to con- currently under way at the NRC. The most important vert surplus weapons material into commercial fuel as in terms of near-term continuity in the nuclear industry part of an agreement between the United States and and adequate energy supply is the renewal of reactor Russia to dispose of more than 60 metric tons of surplus licenses. NRC regulations limit commercial reactor plutonium. licenses to an initial 40 years (based on economic and A key aspect of regulatory development for near-term antitrust considerations) but also allow licenses to be deployment is the efficient implementation of 10 CFR Part 52. Created in 1989, this regulation established three new licensing processes for future plants: early site permitting (i.e., NRC approval of a site before a deci- A key aspect of regulatory sion has been made to build a plant); design certifica- tion (i.e., NRC approval of a standard design); and development is the combined licenses (i.e., a combined construction per- mit and operating license). These processes could pro- efficient implementation vide a dramatic improvement over the two-step process of 10CFR Part 52. used for existing U.S. plants. NRC has stated that an application for a combined license that references an early site permit and a certified reactor design could result in an operating license being granted in as little as renewed (NRC, 2002). The license renewal process one year (Jeffrey S. Merrifield, NRC commissioner, involves confirmation that structures, systems, and com- remarks to American Nuclear Society Conference, ponents can continue to perform safely beyond the orig- June 7, 1994). In actuality, however, only the design inal term of the operating license. certification process has been demonstrated thus far, and License renewal is important for maintaining a it has taken as long as 10 years. significant portion of existing energy production. Not surprisingly, NTDG has called the efficient Currently licensed nuclear reactors generate approx- implementation of 10 CFR Part 52 a high priority for imately 20 percent of the electric power produced in the short-term deployment and a matter that requires the United States. The first plant will reach the end of its attention of industry and government. NTDG recom- original license period in 2006; approximately 10 per- mends that four actions be taken: the expediting of the WINTER 2002 37
design certification process; the demonstration of the provide 22 percent of new electricity demand during early site permit and combined license processes; the that decade (NEI, 2002d). So, not only are there ample development of generic guidelines to ensure the effi- economic reasons for continuing to pursue improve- cient, safety-focused implementation of key Part 52 ments, there are also substantial collateral benefits, such processes; and a demonstration of progress toward a new as ensuring the ongoing development of technological risk-informed, performance-based regulatory framework tools and the engagement of human capital in nuclear (DOE, 2001). technologies. DOE’s recently announced plans to work in partner- ship with industry to evaluate sites for new nuclear plants will test the early site permitting component of this regulation. DOE proposes that near-term invest- A risk-informed approach to ments be made as part of the Nuclear Power 2010 Ini- tiative, in part to “demonstrat[e] this key NRC licensing regulatory decisions and process” (DOE press release, June 24, 2002). Another evolving area of regulatory infrastructure is processes will focus attention NRC’s effort to “risk-inform” their regulatory processes. on health and safety. The intent is to improve the regulatory process by incor- porating risk insights into regulatory decisions, thereby conserving agency resources and reducing unnecessary burdens on licensees. The risk-informed approach com- Computer Technology bines risk insights and traditional considerations to The most dramatic contributor to changes in design focus regulatory and licensee attention on the design tools in the last 25 years has been computer technology. and operational issues that are most important to health With today’s computational speeds, optimization and and safety (NRC, 2001). simplification of new plant design and construction In the context of the efficient implementation of seems to be limited only by the imagination. One has 10 CFR Part 52, NTDG calls for a new regulatory frame- only to compare modern development tools to histori- work that is fully risk-informed and performance-based cal methods to appreciate the change. and “go[es] beyond the ongoing efforts to risk-inform Core physics simulations provide a good example. In 10 CFR Part 50 for current plants” to improve the the 1970s, a typical simulation used a lattice-cell code protection of public health and safety, eliminate regula- that modeled a single fuel pin (or rod) surrounded by an tory burdens that do not contribute to safety, and infinite array of homogenized media created to look like “increase the confidence of prospective applicants in the adjacent pins. Approximations were used to model the regulatory environment for new plants and encour- assembly-averaged thermal-hydraulic effects and axial age business decisions to proceed with new nuclear pro- representations, and in-core fuel management was per- jects” (DOE, 2001). formed by trial-and-error shuffle schemes, using manual iterations until cycle length and power peaking require- Engineering and Licensing Tools ments were met. The skills necessary for the development of new infra- Modern design software typically uses a two- structure are largely the same as those necessary for the dimensional code that models a full fuel assembly and maintenance of existing facilities. In fact, efforts to con- uses advanced ray tracing, collision probability, or tinue improving existing facilities not only provide a Monte Carlo techniques. The core simulator is a three- performance benefit to facility stakeholders, they also dimensional advanced nodal code with pin reconstruc- help ensure that human and technological resources tion techniques and explicit thermal-hydraulic will be available for the development of new facilities. modeling and is capable of three-dimensional space- Thus, ongoing improvements to existing facilities are time calculations. Core-loading pattern development extremely important. From 1990 to 2000, for instance, has been automated, using advanced nodal codes cou- improved efficiency at U.S. nuclear power plants pled with simulated annealing techniques to develop provided the production equivalent of constructing core-loading patterns that meet predetermined limits 22 new 1,000-MW power plants—enough power to on pin peaking, cycle length, and other attributes to The 38 BRIDGE minimize fuel cost within applicable core physics limits. configuration-management of the facility—a key Another dramatic example of the benefits of aspect of the design, licensing, operation, and mainte- increased computer power is the advent of computer- nance of a nuclear facility—have been greatly facil- aided design (CAD) and engineering, which not only itated (Bernstein, 2001). have enabled the development of increasingly complex and sophisticated civil/structural models, but have also Human Infrastructure significantly eased the burden of physical-interference One of the most important aspects of nuclear infra- modeling and facility-configuration control. Designs in structure, particularly for a domestic resurgence of the the 1970s were modeled primarily on paper and required industry, is the development of human resources. The hundreds of individual drawings. Plastic and wooden nuclear industry faces the dual challenge of an aging scale models were often painstakingly fabricated and workforce and a growing gap between its employment maintained (Figure 1) to help identify costly interfer- needs and the number of graduating students. Replace- ences between electrical, mechanical, and structural ment of the aging workforce is essential for both exist- components that could be missed in two-dimensional ing plants and new facilities. drawings and to assist with the visualization of designs NTDG cited key initiatives dealing with human and changes to those designs. resources at DOE, NEI, and the American Nuclear So- In the last decade or so, the development of more ciety and recommended that these initiatives be main- and more sophisticated models (Figure 2) as the basis of tained and strengthened (DOE, 2001). On June 10, design has improved the coordination of drawings, 2002, DOE announced the establishment of a new pro- accelerated the communication of design alternatives, gram, Innovations in Nuclear Infrastructure and Educa- and significantly reduced the requirements tion, that offers several million dollars in awards to for field reworking (Bernstein, 2001). Using a central university consortia to encourage investments in pro- data representation results in improved integration grams on research reactors and nuclear engineering and and coordination among various design documents in strategic partnerships with national laboratories and and between design disciplines. In addition, pro- industry. At the same time, DOE announced that it curement, construction, and subsequent ongoing would award more than 100 scholarships, fellowships, and grants to nuclear sci- ence/engineering institu- tions and students. Other public and private efforts to bolster the edu- cational infrastructure for the nuclear industry are under way throughout the United States. As a result, almost every university and national laboratory asso- ciated with nuclear science and engineering now offers scholarships and fellowship programs.
Conclusion The potential for a resur- gence of the nuclear indus- try in the United States is a function of many factors. FIGURE 1 Scale model for the McGuire Nuclear Station Reactor fabricated to help identify interferences. Source: Photo cour- New technologies continue tesy of Duke Energy. to be developed, but key WINTER 2002 39
factors to the future of the nuclear industry in the United States.
Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges the support and assistance of Dr. Per Peterson (University of California, Berkeley), Richard Clark (Duke Energy), and the Process, Power, and Offshore Division of Intergraph Corporation.
References Bernstein, P. 2001. 2D to 3D Challenge: Autodesk on Archi- tectural Desktop. London: CADDesk. DOE (U.S. Department of Energy). 2001. A Roadmap to Deploy New Nuclear Power Plants in the United States by 2010. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. DOE. 2002. Generation IV website. Available online at: http://gen-iv.ne.doe.gov. NEI (Nuclear Energy Institute). 2001. Integrated Plan for New Nuclear Plants. Washington, D.C.: Nuclear Energy Institute. NEI. 2002a. Vision 2020 Booklet. Available online at: www.nei.org/documents/Vision2020/_Booklet.pdf. NEI. 2002b. Industry Projects to Build New Nuclear Plants. Available online at: www.nei.org. NEI. 2002c. National Used Nuclear Fuel Management Pro- FIGURE 2 Model of 1,000 MW reactor (Lianyungang Unit 1), Elias Mayer, Fortum gram. Available online at: www.nei.org. Engineering, Ltd., Vantaa, Finland. Source: Graphic courtesy of Process, Power and NEI. 2002d. Plant Improvement Programs. Available online Offshore Division, Intergraph Corporation. at: www.nei.org. NERAC (Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee). areas of infrastructure to support expansion must be 2000. Long-Term Nuclear Technology R&D Plan. maintained and (in many cases) expanded for a future Washington, D.C.: Nuclear Energy Research Advisory nuclear option to be sustainable. Although significant Committee. challenges lie ahead, a number of government, industry, NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission). 2001. Risk- and joint public/private efforts are under way to facil- Informed Regulation Implementation Plan. Washington, itate this expansion. The reestablishment of the indus- D.C.: Nuclear Regulatory Commission. trial infrastructure that supplies materials and NRC. 2002. Reactor License Renewal Overview. Available components, the continued improvement and demon- online at: www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/renewal/ stration of effective regulatory processes, and the devel- overview.html. opment of essential human resources are all critical The 40 BRIDGE
NAE News and Notes
2002 NAE Annual Meeting
NAE members, foreign associ- to confront issues that are techno- NAE members. The first speaker, ates, and guests gathered in Wash- logically grounded but require polit- Andrea Goldsmith, associate profes- ington, D.C., this October for ical action. (The complete text of sor of electrical engineering at Stan- the 2002 Annual Meeting. The Wulf’s remarks begins on page 42.) ford University, discussed design meeting began on October 5 with The induction of the Class of 2002 challenges for future wireless sys- an orientation followed by the followed President Wulf’s address. tems. Challenges include capacity NAE Council dinner honoring the The program continued with the limits of the wireless channel and 74 new members and seven foreign presentation of the 2002 Founders limits at the hardware, link, net- associates. Award to Stuart W. Churchill, Carl work, and application levels. The The public session on October 6 V.S. Patterson Professor Emeritus of second speaker, Cynthia Riley, bio- was opened by NAE chair, George Chemical Engineering at the Uni- fuels technology manager at the M.C. Fisher. President Wm. A. versity of Pennsylvania. Churchill National Renewable Energy Labora- Wulf then addressed the group. He was recognized “for outstanding tory, addressed the issue of biomass reviewed the purpose of the strate- leadership in research, education, energy, particularly the production gic plan, “to promote the technolog- and professional service, and for of alternative transportation fuels ical health of the nation,” and the continuing contributions in com- from biomass. necessity of engineers providing the bustion, heat transfer, and fluid President Wulf then introduced leadership to fulfill this goal. To dynamics for over half a century.” Eli Fromm, recipient of the inaugu- accomplish this and to maintain our (The complete text of Churchill’s ral 2002 Bernard M. Gordon Prize reputation and effectiveness, Wulf remarks begins on page 50.) for Innovation in Engineering and said, NAE will have to rethink its For the second year talks were Technology Education. Fromm was traditional role as passive responder given by recipients of the Lillian M. recognized “for innovation that to questions posed by the federal Gilbreth Lectureships, which recog- combines technical, societal, and government. Engineers, individu- nize outstanding young engineers experiential learning into an inte- ally and collectively, must be willing and bring them to the attention of grated undergraduate engineering
Class of 2002 WINTER 2002 41
provided the entertainment, and the Doc Scantlin orchestra pro- vided the music. The final event of the meeting, a technical symposium, Computing Meets the Physical World, was held on Tuesday, October 8. David D. Clark presided; speakers included Butler Lampson, Microsoft; Manuela Veloso, Carnegie Mellon University; David Culler and Kristofer Pister, both of the Univer- sity of California, Berkeley; Chris Diorio and Thomas Daniel, Univer- sity of Washington; and Eric Grim- Lillian M. Gilbreth lecturers, Cynthia Riley (left) and Andrea Goldsmith son, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The next annual meeting is curriculum.” Dr. Fromm is the Roy the White House Office of Science scheduled for October 12–14, 2003. A. Brothers University Professor, and Technology Policy. Speakers Mark your calendars now! professor of electrical and computer included Marye Anne Fox, North engineering, and director of the Carolina State University; William Center for Educational Research in J. Perry, Stanford University; Ralph the College of Engineering, Drexel Cicerone, University of California, University. Irvine; John P. Holdren, Harvard A reception following the pro- University; Arden L. Bement, Jr., gram included a book signing by H. National Institute of Standards and Guyford Stever, former NAE for- Technology; and Norman P. Neu- eign secretary, whose memoir was reiter, science and technology advi- recently published by the Joseph sor to the secretary of state. On Henry Press. A symposium honor- Monday afternoon, members and ing Dr. Stever was held the next foreign associates attended section morning, following the Annual meetings at the new National Aca- Business Session. The symposium demies building at 500 Fifth Street, was moderated by Philip M. Smith, N.W., in Washington. former executive officer of the The annual reception and dinner National Research Council, who dance were held at the J.W. Marriott worked with Dr. Stever at both the Hotel. Musician, comedian, and National Science Foundation and PBS personality Mark Russell H. Guyford Stever The 42 BRIDGE
President’s Remarks
National Academies operate under following question was raised: an 1863 charter from the U.S. Con- Although there is no doubt that gress that calls on us to provide we need technologically astute advice to the government on issues leadership, will engineers “stand up” of science and technology, and to do to fill that need? Are engineers, so without compensation whenever both individually and collectively, we are asked. Our role is unique willing to provide that kind of among academies around the world, leadership? When the question was and in that role, we have been of first asked, I thought it was a “no immense value to the United States. brainer.” Of course we would! On Wm. A. Wulf But it’s a passive role. That is, if and reflection, however, I am not so when we are asked, we provide sure—for several reasons: These remarks were delivered at advice to the government. By con- 1. The culture of engineering is the Annual Meeting on Octo- trast, the new strategic plan starts for engineers to be unassuming, ber 6, 2002. with the words: “to promote the to be inconspicuous. It is an immense honor to wel- technological health of the nation 2. The culture of engineering come our new members and foreign . . . ” That may sound innocent rewards technical achieve- associates. You must feel honored as enough—but notice that the words ment, not leadership. How well; my own induction is one of my do not say wait to be asked or only often have you heard someone fondest memories. The academy is provide advice or limit our target say, “She isn’t an engineer any renewed and enriched by each new audience to the federal government. longer; she’s become a manag- class. Your knowledge and experi- The new strategy is a much broader er.” ence enable us to continue to play and much more proactive mandate. a unique and invaluable role in In the course of our discussions, a 3. The culture of engineering pro- service to our country. I also want question arose about the need for scribes our giving advice, to acknowledge the families and technical leadership in terms of the except on technical matters. friends of the members of the new new policy. As president of NAE, I How often have you heard class. I know that none of those am at the nexus of science, engi- someone say, “That’s a political being inducted would be here if it neering, and public policy. Every question; we have nothing to weren’t for their support. day I see that technologically astute contribute.” I am going to raise a somewhat leadership is essential to wise gover- 4. The culture and practice of the weighty issue with you today, so I nance in our increasingly technology- NAE reflect the culture of hope you’ll forgive me for diving dominated world. Questions of engineering. We regularly right in. By way of context, I should technology are integral to many of explain that in 1999, after two years the most important issues facing the decline to undertake studies if of preparation, NAE proposed a new country—energy, the environment, the answer isn’t technical. strategic plan. Every year at its defense, both at home and abroad, Perhaps one of the most telling August meeting the NAE Council and on and on. These issues require reflections of our reluctance to stand reviews the plan and sets opera- more than a superficial knowledge up is that only eight members of tional objectives for the coming of engineering and technology. Congress have engineering degrees year. This year the council affirmed They require the sort of deep, vis- (two of whom also have law the new plan. But rather than talk ceral understanding that only comes degrees). That’s eight out of 535! about the plan itself, I want to talk with the practice of engineering. That’s 1.5 percent, much lower than about a question that arose in our In the context of an extended dis- our representation in the population discussion of it. cussion of the profound need for that might be qualified for office. As many of you know, the technically savvy leadership, the Engineers just don’t seek elective WINTER 2002 43
office in this country. That’s quite a technologically grounded (that is, and less intrusive than a pat- contrast with countries like China one needs a technical background down search. where the prime minister and about for an in-depth understanding of the As a trusted advisor to the federal a third of the ministers are engineers. issues), the required response isn’t government, the National Acade- There’s nothing in the genetic necessarily technical. When talking mies will undoubtedly play an makeup of people who choose to be about these kinds of issues, we must important role in identifying and engineers that makes them shy away ask ourselves whether we’re pre- validating technologies; in fact, from public office; it’s something in pared to stand up. we are already up to our eyebrows the culture of this country. Don’t Let’s begin with the familiar in doing exactly that. More than misunderstand me. I believe we ground. When Bill Perry was secre- 50 studies and activities are going should stand up. But we’re going to tary of defense, he liked to point out on. Some are long term, such as a have to ask ourselves some tough that one of the reasons we won the study requested by the President’s questions about what we value and Cold War was that we never actu- science advisor, Jack Marburger, for how we preserve those values when ally had to fight a conventional, an R&D agenda. That report, Mak- we stand up—or, indeed, perhaps non-nuclear war because NATO ing the Nation Safer, was published in decide that we won’t. Either way, it would be a credible adversary in a June. Other activities are shorter should be a conscious decision. conventional war. We were credible term, such as advising the FBI on its My summer reading this year in spite of the significant numerical next-generation computer system. included Tuxedo Park, the story of advantage—in both troops and These activities are very, very the people who provided technical armament—of the Soviet Union important, and the Academies are leadership just before and dur- and the Warsaw Pact. NATO was a uniquely capable of doing them. In ing World War II. One of them, credible adversary as the result of fact, we’ve been doing them since Vannevar Bush, was an engineer, the “offset strategy.” We offset their shortly after the founding of the but most of them were physicists. I numerical advantage with superior National Academy of Sciences found it interesting that they faced technology. Our troops could (NAS) in 1863. This is a familiar, some of the same cultural issues we locate, identify, target, and destroy comfortable role, and we have no face now. They resolved them fairly potential attackers with far greater trouble standing up in this way. But quickly, under the pressure of the accuracy, speed, and lethality than now let me shift to the second class war—but there is no doubt that Warsaw Pact troops. MAD (mutu- of issues—technologically based radar, the Norton bombsight, the ally assured destruction) may have issues that require advice that is not proximity fuse, and the atomic prevented a nuclear war, but the off- necessarily technical—and may not bomb, which were crucial to win- set strategy was a major component even be intended for the govern- ning the war and saved millions of of the larger strategy for preventing ment. I am going to use four ex- lives, were possible only because the a conventional war. amples: (1) the balance between physics community stood up. We are now faced with a very dif- openness and national security; I know of no organization other ferent adversary with a different (2) student visas; (3) the root causes than the NAE that can begin the advantage, and we need different of terrorism; and (4) need-driven conversation about standing up. I technologies to offset those advan- basic research. am going to use the events of 9/11 as tages. But the principal is the same. In each case, engineers under- a concrete framework for my With technology, specific threats stand the issues far better than remarks, but I believe the general can be detected and countered; for either the general public or most issues apply to a much broader range example, sensors can detect explo- policy makers. We understand the of topics. This discussion can be sives and chemical and biological issues because of our experience and divided into two broad sets of issues. agents. Technology can also reduce our technical expertise. But the The first set, which relates to the use the costs of security. Some of the answers aren’t technical, and may in of technology in countering terror- technologies of most interest can fact be political. With these exam- ism, will be fairly comfortable terri- reduce the costs to our lifestyle and ples, I invite you to think about tory. The second set may be less our civil liberties, rather like a whether, and if so how, engineers comfortable because, although it is metal detector, which is both faster should stand up. The 44 BRIDGE
Openness vs National Security these restrictions have little experi- not be true—I’m not an expert, and During the Cold War, the govern- ence with the openness/security bal- I haven’t been briefed on the infor- ment and the technical community ance of the past. Specifically, they mation that prompted that remark. developed a consensus on the bal- are not aware that openness actually However, I quickly learned that ance between openness and security, contributed to our real security. Iranian universities and the Iranian especially with respect to nuclear That lack of experience is leading to academy are filled with people who weapons technology. In fact, we overly cautious, and potentially are influential in their country, have came to understand that a certain counterproductive, behavior. Unless been educated in the West (the degree of openness enhanced our the engineering community, which United States in particular), are security. For example, MAD, the by and large has much more experi- sympathetic to our goals and values, policy of mutually assured destruc- ence with national defense than the and are anxious to have better rela- tion, depended on each side knowing scientific community, becomes tions with us. enough about the other’s capability engaged, it is unlikely that we will No one outside the research com- to ensure that neither made a find the optimal new balance point. munity can possibly have the kind miscalculation. The issue of openness and secur- of in-depth, gut-level understanding More generally, openness in ity arises from a combination of of the technical contributions and research allowed researchers to technical concerns and security the ambassadorial role of our foreign make rapid progress toward a deeper concerns, both of which we know a students. At the same time, how- understanding of nature and lot about. But the actions indicated ever, we must take into account that allowed engineers to translate that are definitely not technical. Should some of the terrorists who hijacked understanding into a better life for we stand up? If so, how? the four planes last September were everyone. Of course, some things here on student visas. Therefore, had to be classified to ensure our Student Visas benign neglect in granting and national security. But the people Student visas may be a special case tracking students is no longer accept- involved in setting policy under- of the previous example. As many of able. Sensible precautions are cer- stood the wisdom of building high you in academia know, it is now tainly in order. Just as with fences around small areas. That is, much more difficult for students openness, we must find a new bal- we opted in favor of openness, to get visas to enter the United ance point. except in the areas where secrecy States—especially for young men Again I ask the same basic ques- was essential—and those secrets we from Asia and the Middle East. You tion. We have experience that is protected vigorously. also know that foreign students and highly relevant to resetting the bal- Since 9/11 and the anthrax inci- immigrants have contributed enor- ance point. Should we stand up? If dents of last fall, there has been a mously to the welfare of this country. so, how? knee-jerk response to reduce open- As a first-generation immigrant, I ness. For example, we have re- have a visceral sense of the contri- Root Causes of Terrorism stricted access of foreign nationals to butions that my father, and all of The NAE is conducting a study national laboratories, barred some the immigrants entering today, have to help channel resources to amelio- foreign nationals from attending cer- made to the United States. Even rate our most serious vulnerabilities. tain college courses (such as classes students who return to their native Rather than just fortifying airports, in cybersecurity), and required a countries can be of immense value we need to take a broad look at the government review of research to the United States. Because they kinds of vulnerabilities that exist papers before they are published. I understand us and our values, they and the risks they pose—that is, the believe we must find a new balance are often our best spokespersons. probability of an incident and the point between openness and secur- Two years ago my wife and I, with consequences of that incident— ity; the situation today is quite dif- NAS Presdient Bruce Alberts and associated with each vulnerability. ferent (in terms of the adversary and his wife, visited our counterpart The resulting assessment should the relevant technologies) from the academy in Iran, a country that be the basis for our investments in situation during the Cold War. In President Bush has labeled part of protection. many cases, the people advocating the “axis of evil.” That may or may As a result of my involvement in WINTER 2002 45
this study, I now know that we have breed desperation and create a cli- many times. But is it true? And is it a huge number of vulnerabilities— mate for terrorism. appropriate? vulnerabilities that can have cata- If we are really going to eliminate Unfortunately, it’s not true. First, clysmic consequences. I now know terrorists, if we are really going to mission agencies like DOD, DOE, what engineers in this area have make ourselves safe, we will have to NASA, and others do support basic known for a long time—that we address the issues that affect the research. In fact, they are the prin- cannot defend against all threats. quality of life in developing coun- cipal funders of certain areas of basic We can move the target a bit, but if tries, and engineers will play a cen- research! Second, as pointed out by we have a perfect defense against tral role in this. That’s not a fuzzy, Donald Stokes in his book, Pasteur’s the N most serious threats, terrorists humanitarian, do-good statement. Quadrant, the basic/applied dicho- will simply select the N+1 threat. It’s a national security statement. tomy is too simplistic. Not all basic So we can move the target, but we It’s also not a complete statement, research is motivated by intellectual cannot create a perfect shield. because the issues of democracy, curiosity alone. Sometimes it is Much the same is true of mount- freedom, justice, and hope must also motivated by both curiosity and ing an offense against networked be addressed. But a decent quality practical concerns. As a prime terrorist organizations. Al-Qaeda is of life is a necessary precursor. example, Stokes cites Pasteur’s germ not likely to conveniently (for us) Engineers have the expertise and theory of disease, which Pasteur dis- amass again in an area where we can experience. Relatively straight- covered while he was in pursuit of use our Cold War era armaments to forward risk analysis shows that we very practical concerns related to advantage. Oddly, the same tech- cannot defend against all threats. the brewing of beer. nical properties that make the Inter- Should we stand up and explore the I believe some basic research ques- net robust to failure make the consequences for national policy? If tions are also motivated by practical human network of terrorists robust so, how? concerns about counterterrorism. I to failure. I think only engineers know this is true in my field of com- can appreciate that statement in Need-Driven Basic Research puter security, and I believe it is true depth. The popular press and our My fourth and last example is in virtually all fields. The question political leaders, by contrast, seem directed at us rather than at the remains. Are we, especially we aca- to be operating on the assumption government. At the end of World demic engineers, prepared to stand that a combination of defensive War II, Vannevar Bush submitted a up and let our intellectual pursuits be actions at home and offensive report to the president, Science, the at least partly directed by the actions abroad can keep us safe. As Endless Frontier, which set the tone nation’s needs? Are we willing, for we know, they won’t. for federal support of research for example, to devote a fraction of our In the long run, we will have to the next 50 years. In his report, capacity to addressing the needs of deal with the reasons terrorists hate Vannevar Bush defined the differ- the developing world in order to us—what some have called the root ence between basic and applied reduce the risks here at home? The causes of terrorism. I am not an research. He argued that mission physicists at Tuxedo Park, in the Rad expert, although I have been getting agencies, such as the Department of Laboratory, the Manhattan Project, a crash course for the last 13 months. Defense (DOD) and the Depart- and thousands of others did that But I’ve learned that terrorism arises ment of Energy (DOE) could not be during World War II. Are we pre- from a complex interplay of geopoli- expected to support basic research. pared to do it now? tics, religion, regional/ethnic pride, The demands of their mission, he economics, and other factors. The said, would drive out basic research Conclusion eventual solution will have to in favor of applied research. Ulti- I chose these four examples address a broad spectrum of issues, mately, that argument led to the because each of them highlights a including bringing democracy, free- creation of a new agency—the different aspect of the basic question dom, justice, and especially hope, to National Science Foundation—to of whether engineers, individually potential terrorists. I do not want to support basic research. In the inter- and collectively as an Academy, are delve into all that now, except to vening 50 years, the academic com- prepared to step beyond our tradi- note that poverty and hopelessness munity has reinforced this argument tional role, although in that role we The 46 BRIDGE have been invaluable to the nation. increasing relevance and influence of on that role? If so, how? Your officers This is hardly an idle question. the Academies is stressful in many and council members will be grap- Much of the authority of the Acad- ways, but it reflects the importance of pling with these questions, and we emies rests on our reputation for engineering and science in the mod- welcome your input! The urgency providing authoritative, fact-based ern world. Our relevance demands of these questions underscores why reports. There is some danger that that we rethink our traditional role as you, our new members, are so impor- we could tarnish that reputation. If passive responders to questions posed tant to the Academy and to the the Academy stands up now, we by the government. Our relevance country. Your knowledge and exper- must carefully consider how to do it may also be pushing us toward the tise make it possible for us to provide in a way that enhances rather than role of commentators on issues with our policy makers with the best engi- detracts from our reputation—and technological roots that require non- neering and scientific advice avail- hence our effectiveness. technical action. Think about it. able anywhere. In conclusion, let me note that the Are we prepared to stand up and take WINTER 2002 47
Development Activities at the 2002 Annual Meeting
Anita Jones and Bill Wulf share a laugh with Muriel Feely and George Clemow. Bill Wulf chats with Mildred Willenbrock and Frances Elliott.
The Reunion Program was cre- tions, are invited to attend regional NAE President Bill Wulf. For more ated in 2000 to enable spouses of reunions and a reunion brunch dur- information on the Reunion Pro- deceased NAE members to remain ing the NAE Annual Meeting, and gram, contact Tess Samuel at (202) engaged in Academy activities. other special activities. This year 334-2431 or [email protected]. Members of the group—now num- the brunch was hosted by NAE bering 50—receive NAE publica- member Anita Jones, spouse of
More than 50 Academy members participated in the Annual Meeting seminar, Then members took the opportunity to address specific questions to nationally “Estate Planning from Your Spouse’s Perspective.” respected estate planning attorney Frank Mirabello (right).
The Academy offers a range of Insight, and free access to estate Perspective. For more information resources to assist members with planning attorneys retained by the on estate planning and estate-based estate planning. Resources include Academy. At the recent NAE philanthropy, contact Merrill Mead- a quarterly newsletter (Insight on Annual Meeting, members partici- ow at (202) 334-2431 or mmead- Estate Planning), an online informa- pated in an estate planning seminar, [email protected]. tion center at NationalAcademies.org/ Estate Planning from Your Spouse’s The 48 BRIDGE
U.S. Frontiers of Engineering and Japan-America Frontiers of Engineering
the program. Four speakers pro- For the first time, six engineering vided an overview of the field with graduate students from institutions examples of human-factors inter- across the country participated in ventions in complex sociotechnical the meeting. Their attendance was systems, applications in surface made possible by a grant from IBM transportation systems, human- Corporation. computer interactions in the con- This year’s dinner speaker was text of large panel displays, and Andrew J. Viterbi, president of direct brain-interface technology. Viterbi Group and cofounder of The session on the future of nuclear Qualcomm, Inc., who spoke on the energy covered a wide range of issues development of digital communica- related to the potential of nuclear tion and the wireless industry. energy. Talks focused on advanced Michael L. Corradini, chair, Engi- nuclear reactor technologies, neering Physics Department and nuclear infrastructure, sustainable professor of nuclear engineering and Mary Czerwinski from Microsoft gave a presentation nuclear fission energy, space nuclear engineering physics at the Univer- on human factors engineering implications for novel power, and nuclear energy for micro- sity of Wisconsin-Madison chaired software user-interface design. electromechanical systems. The the organizing committee and the symposium concluded with a session symposium. The 2003 organizing The NAE held two Frontiers of on quantum computing. Speakers committee, chaired by Pablo G. Engineering (FOE) symposia, one in addressed the status of research on Debenedetti, Class of 1950 Professor September and one in October. The large-scale quantum computers, and Chair, Department of Chemical eighth U.S. Frontiers of Engineering quantum cryptography, ion-trap Engineering, Princeton University, meeting was held at the Beckman quantum computation, and scalable has begun planning for the next U.S. Center in Irvine, California, Sep- quantum computing using solid- Frontiers meeting, which will be tember 19–21, and the second state devices. Extended summaries held September 18–20, 2003, at the Japan-America Frontiers of Engi- of symposium presentations will be Beckman Center. neering (JAFOE) meeting was held published by the National Aca- Funding for the September 2002 October 24–26 in Tokyo, Japan. demies Press in February 2003. U.S. Frontiers of Engineering Approximately 100 engineers attended the U.S. FOE Symposium, where talks covered topics in the areas of chemical and molecular engineering, human factors engi- neering, the future of nuclear ener- gy, and quantum computing. The session on chemical and molecular engineering covered cutting-edge research in the field. Talks were focused on fuel cells, the computa- tional design of materials, and state- of-the-art computational fluid dynamics and its applications in twenty-first century industry. For the first time, a session on human- factors engineering was included in Participants had numerous opportunities for informal discussion. WINTER 2002 49
Symposium was provided by the Defense Advanced Research Pro- jects Agency, the U.S. Department of Defense (DDR&E-Research), the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the National Aero- nautics and Space Administration, Microsoft Corporation, Ford Motor Company, IBM Corporation, and Cummins, Inc. The second Japan-America Fron- tiers of Engineering (JAFOE) Symposium was attended by approx- imately 60 engineers—30 from each country. Four topics were covered at the meeting: bioengineering, Participants had an opportunity to learn about each other’s work during the poster sessions. synthesis and applications of nano- materials, sustainable manufactur- terials Science and Engineering, and network technology, large-scale ing, and pervasive computing. Ohio State University, and Hideaki civil systems, and energy. Presentations were given by two Matsubara, deputy laboratory direc- NAE has hosted the U.S. Fron- Japanese and two Americans in tor, Japan Fine Ceramics Center, tiers of Engineering meeting since each area. The topics included mol- cochaired the organizing committee 1995 and JAFOE meetings since ecular engineering of gene and and the symposium. The JAFOE 2000. (NAE also has a bilateral stem-cell therapeutics, advanced symposium was organized in cooper- Frontiers program with Germany, nanocarbon materials, design for ation with the Engineering Acad- which began in 1998.) The meet- the environment and recycling, emy of Japan and the Japan Science ings bring together outstanding and computer-augmented environ- and Technology Corporation (JST). young engineers (30 to 45 years old) ments. The talks elicited a great Funding was provided by JST, the from industry, academia, and gov- deal of discussion and many brisk National Science Foundation, the ernment at a relatively early point Q&A sessions. Other highlights Office of Naval Research, and the in their careers. Frontiers provides included poster sessions where each Army Research Office. Plans are an opportunity for young engineers participant talked about his/her under way for a third JAFOE meet- to learn about the cutting-edge technical work or research; a tour ing in the United States on Novem- developments, techniques, and of the meeting site, the National ber 20–22, 2003, at the Beckman approaches in many fields. The Museum of Emerging Science and Center. meeting also facilitates the estab- Innovation; a visit to the Super- An organizing committee for the lishment of contacts and collabora- conductivity Research Laboratory 2003 meeting, chaired by James G. tion among the next generation of followed by dinner and a speech by Fujimoto, professor, Department of engineering leaders. Dr. Shoji Tanaka, director-general of Electrical Engineering and Computer For more information about the the laboratory; and visits to the Edo- Science, Massachusetts Institute of symposium series or to nominate an Tokyo Museum and the Asakusa dis- Technology, and Kazuhiro Sakurada, outstanding engineer to participate trict of Tokyo. division head, Tokyo Research Labo- in future meetings, contact Janet NAE member Robert H. ratories, Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co., Hunziker at the NAE Program Wagoner, George R. Smith Chair met in Tokyo. The program will Office at (202) 334-1571 or by of Engineering, Department of Ma- include bioengineering, information e-mail at [email protected]. The 50 BRIDGE
2002 Founders Award Presented to Stuart W. Churchill
professional work. As an extreme example, my youngest brother studied engineering during his mil- itary service in World War II but decided to go to law school after the war. Now a federal district judge, he says his engineering education helps him in decision making, and the term BSE in his biography intimi- dates attorneys and discourages them from trying to flimflam him. My other brother, after a few years of practice as an engineer, became a businessman in partnership with my father. He too says his engineering education has been invaluable in his George M.C. Fisher, Stuart W. Churchill, Wm. A. Wulf, and Wesley L. Harris. second career. Growing up in a small agricul- The 2002 Founders Award was my remarks. I will focus today on the tural community in Michigan in the presented to Stuart W. Churchill, characteristics and benefits of an depths of the Great Depression, I Carl V.S. Patterson Professor education in engineering, both for- knew almost nothing about engi- Emeritus of Chemical and Bio- mal and informal. I hope you will neering. An outside counselor molecular Engineering, Univer- indulge me in choosing a topic that brought in by my high school sug- sity of Pennsylvania, “for out- is as familiar to you as it is to me and gested that I consider chemical standing leadership in research, indulge me further in choosing engineering as a field of study in education, and professional ser- examples from my own career. college because of my penchant for vice, and for continuing contri- Even early in our undergraduate mathematics and chemistry. My butions in combustion, heat studies, we all began to appreciate father then suggested that I discuss transfer, and fluid dynamics for the insight and power associated the possibility with the only engi- over half a century.” These with the engineering method of neer in our community, expecting remarks were delivered during analyzing physical and chemical (and hoping) that he would dis- the NAE Annual Meeting on behavior objectively in mathemati- courage me. That young man, October 6, 2002. cal and conceptual terms. This embittered by his inability to find a capability distinguishes engineers job as an electrical engineer three When Bill Wulf called with the from everyone but scientists, and years after graduation, did his best news concerning this award, I was our willingness, even eagerness, to to discourage me. But, with the awestruck. I was even more awe- apply our analyses to practical ends, irrepressibility of youth, I bravely struck when I reviewed the list of no matter how complex, distin- chose to enter the unknown world previous recipients. I wish to express guishes us somewhat even from of engineering. my sincere gratitude to my nomina- them. A second characteristic of At the University of Michigan, I tors and to the Awards Committee engineering, less well known to was soon inspired to emulate my for choosing me for this great and the general public, is the tradition teachers, particularly Alfred H. unexpected honor. Many people of exposing work-in-progress to White and George Granger Brown, have contributed to my career, and untrammeled criticism by our peers. who related our daily assignments to thereby to this award, too many to An engineering education influ- their work as researchers and con- acknowledge individually, so I will ences our daily lives as well as our sultants, and Donald L. Katz, with only mention a few in the context of WINTER 2002 51
whom I did undergraduate research The original owners of the Frontier the confidence to expand the hori- that resulted in my first publication. Chemical Company cashed out zons of my teaching and research One of my teachers in mathematics, their capital gains after only one and the courage to interact with Clyde E. Love, encouraged me to year and thereby broke their colleagues in other fields, such as keep that option open, and I promise to include me in the own- Peter Debye (physical chemistry), crowded the requirements for a ership of the company. The loss of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar degree in mathematics into my any hope of a stake in that enter- (astrophysics), Ruel V. Churchill schedule, along with the marching prise precipitated my long-deferred (mathematics), and George Uhlen- and concert bands. The marginal return to graduate school. After beck (physics). The latter once told effort I made for that second degree more than half a century, my expe- me that a physicist would know bet- in mathematics has had a subtle but riences at Shell Oil and Frontier ter than to work on the problem we lasting effect on my career in terms Chemical continue to be major were discussing but that I would of capability and recognition. resources in my teaching. Processes probably succeed because engineers The outbreak of World War II and technology change rapidly with are willing to settle for approximate, prevented me from following my time, but the principles of engineer- numerical answers. My collabora- inclination to go to graduate school ing design and operation change tors when I first became a faculty and become a teacher, but in the more slowly. Most current teachers member, especially Alexander Weir, long run that unwelcome circum- have not had the benefit of indus- Richard E. Balzhiser, Robert. H. stance proved to be fortuitous. trial experience, and this dis- Kadlec, Chiao-min Chu (electrical Instead of continuing my formal tinction was one reason for my engineering), and, above all, education, I worked for four years for willingness to continue teaching a Cedomir M. Sliepcevich, also the Shell Oil Company, where, terminal design course 13 years after greatly contributed to the expansion because of the critical times, I was my nominal retirement. of my horizons at that stage. given extraordinary responsibilities. When I returned to graduate My research career began in 1948, My tasks were especially satisfying school, my industrial experience a fortuitous time when funding was because they clearly contributed to and greater maturity somewhat readily available, partly from indus- the national war effort. The infor- counterbalanced my academic rusti- trial fellowships, partly from grants mal education I received in that ness and helped me cope with the and graduate-student fellowships vibrant environment was perhaps significant changes in the curri- from the National Science Founda- equal in importance to my formal culum that had occurred during the tion (a legacy of Vannevar Bush, the undergraduate education. intervening five years. In graduate first recipient of this award), but Several engineers with Ph.D.s school, I was once again greatly mostly in the form of contracts with who worked in refinery operations inspired by my teachers and even- various agencies of the U.S. Depart- at Shell Oil rather than research tual colleagues at the University of ment of Defense. At that time, very became my new role models because Michigan, especially by Robert Roy few restrictions were imposed on the they knew so much more than I did White, Joseph J. Martin, and Myron details of the subject matter. This about what went on in those huge Tribus, as well as those I already freedom enticed me to undertake “black boxes.” Their example fur- mentioned. My graduate career was research on a wide variety of topics, thered my desire to do graduate somewhat unusual because I took the scope of which frequently work, whether or not I became a many advanced courses in physics expanded as we abandoned our orig- teacher. and chemistry, as well as in mathe- inal objectives to pursue experimen- When the war ended, however, I matics, an opportunity and privilege tally observed anomalies. That was diverted once again from that now denied to doctoral candidates practice had several consequences— ambition—this time by the chal- because of wholly contract-based both negative and positive. A pos- lenge of becoming the only engi- funding. My extensive, high-level sible negative consequence was, as neer outside of management in a course work in fields other than my departmental chairman warned, small start-up chemical plant based chemical engineering proved to be that if I persisted in diverse work on an untested new process. That an invaluable resource in my subse- rather than becoming an acknowl- venture was almost too successful. quent academic career. It gave me edged expert on a particular topic I The 52 BRIDGE might never gain national recogni- for the acceptance and support of years I have had a very gratifying, tion, and perhaps not even tenure. my colleagues at Penn. perhaps unique, privilege. My By that time, however, I had become One of the greatest rewards of an grandson, Stefan C. Zajic, while an addicted to exploratory research, and academic career is the opportunity undergraduate, collaborated with I did not heed his advice. A positive to work with and learn with gradu- me in research and became a co- consequence of this diversity is that ate students. It has been my good author of several publications. I have played a small role in an engi- fortune to collaborate with a con- Considering the very low public neering aspect of solutions to most tinual series of truly exceptional stu- profile of engineering, it is surprising major societal problems of the last dents who were attracted by the that anyone chooses to study engi- half-century. As new areas of opportunity to work on problems of neering. Yet every autumn, all over research emerge, they require the obvious importance to our society the country, remarkable young peo- study of new science and technology and were willing to share the risks of ple show up in our classrooms for on the teacher’s part as well as the exploratory research and accept the that purpose. In general, they are graduate student’s part. For example, burden of carrying out both numeri- brighter, better prepared, more ana- the beginning of my career as a fac- cal and experimental work. Because lytical, more motivated, more self- ulty member coincided with the ini- of our close intellectual interactions disciplined, and have a higher order tial appearance of large electronic and the bonds of trust that devel- of integrity than their counterparts digital computers. As a direct result, oped, they have become my second in other fields. They are clearly most of my research has involved the family. I will mention only four by deserving of the experience and ben- numerical solution of increasingly name, J. David Hellums and efits of an engineering education. As complex models, the development Lawrence B. Evans, who are here teachers and employers, we should of required new algorithms, and con- today, Warren D. Seider, with whom recognize and appreciate this bounty, firmatory experimental work—a I have interacted almost every day and, considering their initial talent, requirement I have always imposed for 40 years, and Hiroyuki Ozoe, we should not take too much credit on modeling. with whom I have continued to col- for their later achievements. My time for teaching and laborate during the entire 30 years Sixty years into my professional research at Michigan was gradually since he returned to Japan. career, I consider myself fortunate usurped by administrative duties, My wife Renate has been not and privileged to have had the expe- and the offer of a chair at the Uni- only supportive and inspiring, but riences and benefits of an engineer- versity of Pennsylvania that would also, by virtue of her editorship of ing education, not just in the formal permit me to devote all of my efforts International Chemical Engineering, sense, but also by virtue of the life- to preferred activities prompted me has also encouraged me to seek out long process I have described. I am to leave Michigan. That promise literature in other languages. As a cognizant of and grateful for the materialized under the leadership of consequence, Verein Deutscher Inge- contributions of my colleagues and Arthur E. Humphrey, Joseph Bor- nieure made me a corresponding collaborators to my career. Finally, I dogna, and Eduardo Glandt, member, presumably in appreciation am very proud to be an engineer, to although, with my consent, it was for my calling attention to the over- be a member of the National Acad- occasionally violated. I was then looked German literature in chemi- emy of Engineering, and to receive (35 years ago), and am now, grateful cal engineering. In the last several the Founders Award. WINTER 2002 53
Call for Nominations for 2003–2004 NAE Awards
for the next round of prizes. and foreign associates will receive DRAPER ◆ RUSS GORDON ◆◆FOUNDERS BUECHE The Founders Award and Arthur nomination materials by mail. NAE AWARDS M. Bueche Award are presented Please note: Nominations for the annually at the NAE Annual Meet- 2005 Russ Prize will be accepted in For the past 40 years, NAE has ing. The Charles Stark Draper Prize January 2004. recognized outstanding engineers for is awarded annually in February dur- Nonmembers who wish to submit the development of (or involvement ing National Engineers Week. The nominations can obtain materials in) engineering innovations or Bernard M. Gordon Prize (even from Kimberly West at (202) 334- processes that have greatly improved numbered years) and the Fritz J. and 1628 or [email protected]. Information people’s lives. NAE awards five Dolores H. Russ Prize (odd num- may also be downloaded from our prizes and bestows more than bered years) are awarded biennially. website www.nae.edu/awards. Nom- $1.5 million biennially for achieve- Nominees for the 2004 Draper and inations must be mailed or faxed to: ments in engineering and engi- Gordon prizes and the 2003 NAE Awards, National Academy of neering education. We invite you to Founders and Bueche awards will be Engineering, 500 Fifth Street, N.W., help us continue this tradition by accepted from January 3, 2003, NAS 316, Washington, DC 20001. nominating outstanding engineers through April 7, 2003. Members Fax: (202) 334-1595.
Norman Fortenberry Named Director of New Education Center
strategy were already initiated: Dr. Fortenberry most recently served as senior advisor for policy, • In 1999, the Committee on analysis, and planning, as well as act- Engineering Education was ing division director for undergradu- established as a standing pro- ate education in the Directorate for gram of the Office of the Presi- Education and Human Resources of dent of NAE. The committee studies issues related to engi- the National Science Foundation neering education through pro- (NSF). Dr. Fortenberry has served in jects that explore timely multiple capacities at NSF over a 10- questions. year period and is the only person to Norman L. Fortenberry have served concurrently as director • In 2000, the NAE Council of two separate divisions for a two- Norman L. Fortenberry has been expanded its interpretation of year period. Prior to joining NSF, named director of the Center for the the criteria for NAE member- Dr. Fortenberry was a faculty mem- Advancement of Scholarship on ship to recognize contributions ber in mechanical engineering at Engineering Education (CASEE), a to engineering education. new NAE initiative to catalyze Florida A&M University. He also improvements in engineering educa- • In 2001, the Bernard M. Gor- served as executive director of the tion by focusing attention on what is don Prize for Innovation in GEM Consortium, an alliance of being taught and how it is being Engineering and Technology universities and employers devoted taught. Education was established as to promoting engineering and CASEE is the final part of a four- a biennial award of $500,000 science education . Dr. Fortenberry part strategy to improve the effec- to emphasize the importance can be reached by e-mail at tiveness of engineering education. of education to the future of [email protected] or by telephone at The other components of the engineering. (202) 334-1926. The 54 BRIDGE
Grant Support for EngineerGirl! Website
NAE recently received a $35,000 Bridge), and a growing number of NAE publicized EngineerGirl! in grant from the Northrop Grumman educational links related to engi- the October issue of The Technology Litton Foundation to support an neering and technology. Teacher magazine. NAE intern dedicated to developing EngineerGirl!’s fact-based, engi- The grant from Northrop Grum- new educational content for the neering-related content includes: man Litton will be used to support a EngineerGirl! website. In 1998, engaging text and images appropriate graduate student who will be selected NAE launched the Celebration of to middle school students; links to through the existing National Women in Engineering website to reviewed resources (both online and Academies Internship Program, provide information and inspire girls traditional media) for students as which brings high potential science to pursue careers in engineering. well as parents and teachers; career and engineering students to Wash- Over a two-year period, the site was descriptions and role models in the ington, D.C. While working at renamed EngineerGirl! and com- “Gallery of Women Engineers”; ma- NAE, the intern will develop new pletely redesigned to appeal to terial connecting EngineerGirl! con- website content and participate in young women in grades 6 through tent to various areas of the middle outreach activities, which will 12 and the adults who support them and high school curriculum. The site include visiting classrooms and mak- (parents, teachers, counselors, club was visited by more than 50,000 users ing presentations at engineering and leaders, and engineers). in the first year; it currently receives teacher conferences. Sixteen girls from 14 states and almost 800 visits a day. The EngineerGirl! website was Canada were recruited to help cre- EngineerGirl! has been publicized created through a grant from the ate the new site by suggesting con- through National Engineers Week, AT&T Foundation and is currently tent and providing feedback on the the Girl Scouts, the Society of supported by Texas Utilities and design. Features of the site include Women Engineers, the Women Southern Company. The goal is the “Gallery of Women Engineers,” in Engineering Programs and to make the Celebration of Women “Ask an Engineer,” detailed career Advocates Network, and teacher in Engineering/EngineerGirl! website descriptions, engineering “Fun organizations. This fall, in part- the premier web portal for informa- Facts” (e.g., a woman supervised the nership with the International tion about engineering careers construction of the Brooklyn Technology Education Association, specifically designed for girls.
Steve Meyer Interns at NAE
at the University of Wisconsin- and national levels. For the past two Stout, Menomonie, and an intern at years, Steve has been teaching tech- NAE since September, has been nology education—as well as coach- working with Greg Pearson on the ing football and track—at Nekoosa Technological Literacy Assessment High School, Nekoosa, Wisconsin. Project. Meyer, who earned a bach- In January 2003, he will begin elor’s degree in physics from Luther teaching technology education at College, Decorah, Iowa, has a broad- the University of Wisconsin-Stout. based education in mathematics, the Meyer also has a consulting com- sciences, and technology. He pany, Technological Literacy Con- Steve Meyer believes very strongly in technologi- sulting (TLC), that specializes in cal literacy for everyone. In his educational consulting and public Steve Meyer, a master’s degree career so far, he has been involved in speaking. He can be reached at candidate in technology education technology issues at the local, state, [email protected]. WINTER 2002 55
Assessing Technological Literacy
NAE, in partnership with the Americans Need to Know More About developers on how to measure tech- National Research Council Board Technology. (See the companion nological literacy in three pop- on Testing and Assessment, is website, www.nae.edu/techlit, for ulations: students, teachers, and launching a new study on assessing more information.) One of the find- out-of-school adults. The first meet- technological literacy in the United ings of the earlier project was that we ing of the Committee on Assessing States. The study, which will be have few data to indicate the extent Technological Literacy is scheduled chaired by NAE Member Elsa M. and nature of what Americans for January 16–17, 2003, at the Garmire, Dartmouth College, is a understand about the technological National Academies. For more follow-on study to the work done by world. The new project, funded by information, contact Greg Pearson, the Committee on Technological the National Science Foundation, is program officer, (202) 334-2282 or Literacy, which last January pub- intended to provide guidance to [email protected]. lished Technically Speaking: Why All public-sector and private-sector test
Message from the Foreign Secretary
yet applied for membership to Eight new foreign associates were CAETS, but the presence of the vis- inducted at the NAE Annual Meet- iting representatives was encourag- ing, one a carryover from last year. ing. Further details will become Unfortunately, only a few of them available on the CAETS website were able to remain for the Foreign (http://www.CAETS.org). Associates’ Breakfast, to which all Following the CAETS meeting, attending foreign associates are NAE foreign associates and members invited. At the breakfast, foreign met in Stuttgart, Germany. Some 29 associates had an opportunity to foreign associates from as far away as meet with new and former col- Harold K. Forsen China and Japan attended, along leagues and discuss issues important with Europeans from Austria, Bel- to the profession, their countries, The annual meeting of the Inter- gium, Germany, Italy, the Nether- and the Academy. NAE President national Council of Academies of lands, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Bill Wulf and Executive Officer Engineering and Technological Sci- United Kingdom. Two NAE mem- Lance Davis and Bill Colglazier and ences (CAETS) took place at the bers who were visiting in Europe also John Boright of the National Czech Technical University in attended. The meeting was hosted Research Council (NRC) also Prague, Czech Republic, August by DaimlerChrysler and foreign asso- attended. I encourage all of our for- 26–27, 2002. Twenty of the 26 ciate Wolfgang Schmidt. President eign associates to attend the NAE member academies attended; visit- Bill Wulf and I made short presenta- Annual Meeting, and especially to ing representatives of academies of tions on current NAE activities. take advantage of this get-together engineering in Russia, Slovakia, and Attendees showed considerable to exchange views on topics of inter- South Africa also attended. Mem- interest in our counterterrorism national interest. bers of the newly elected 2002–2003 activities. Later we toured the The second Japan-America Fron- Board of Directors include the Czech Mercedes assembly factory near tiers of Engineering (JAFOE) was Republic, Finland, Hungary, India, Stuttgart. Everyone seemed to enjoy held in Tokyo on October 23–26, Korea, Mexico, and the United the meeting thoroughly, and we are 2002, at the National Museum States; NAE President Bill Wulf looking for potential hosts in other of Emerging Science and Innova- became president of CAETS for European countries so we can have tion (MeSci), a science center spon- 2003. No new academies have as meetings more often. sored by the Japan Science and The 56 BRIDGE
Technology Corporation, which wan. The program included an possible activities, and considered also sponsored the symposium. overview of the NEC laboratory and possible external sources of funding. Sixty-two young investigators were a tour of some exciting new devel- The next step is for the five unrep- invited from the two countries; opments. President Wulf and I resented NRC divisions to con- guests representing CAETS acade- described some of NAE program tribute their ideas and participate in mies in Australia, China, and India activities, and attendees asked many planning activities with representa- also attended. The sessions were questions and offered some sugges- tives to the CIP. We also plan to interspersed with visits to MeSci tions for future consideration. The have presidential fellows for inter- and the Superconductivity Research foreign associates expressed great national programs join us as part of Laboratory. Poster sessions provided interest in having more of these the CIP. We are still developing the additional opportunities for atten- meetings, and we agreed that we position description of these senior dees to present some of their would look into having more meet- fellows, but it is hoped they will pro- research data and publications. ings, generally in conjunction with vide guidance and contacts at high Ample time was provided for atten- travel for JAFOE and German- levels with international organiza- dees to discuss their research and American Frontiers of Engineering tions and sponsors. We identified other areas of common interest and (GAFOE) meetings. Because the three principles (or banners) for our to learn about the culture of the host NAE delegation had to stay over international activities: Capacity country. (For a more detailed Sunday, NEC graciously provided us Building for the Use of Science to description of the JAFOE Sympo- with a tour of the Hakone region Inform Policy and Policy to Develop sium, see p. 48.) A planning session south of Tokyo, where we were able Science; Global Health and En- was held to discuss the agenda and to view the splendor of Mt. Fuji and vironment: Toward a Sustainable schedule for the next JAFOE sym- Lake Ashinoko. World; and International Security: posium, which will be held in the The Committee on International Toward a Safer World. United States at the Beckman Cen- Programs (CIP) of the NRC, which Much remains to be done, but we ter on November 20–22, 2003. reports to the Governing Board, is feel we have made a good start. While in Japan, President Bill made up of the foreign secretaries of Additional resources are being made Wulf, Executive Officer Lance the NAE, National Academy of Sci- available for us to develop and exe- Davis, and I were honored to meet ences, and Institute of Medicine. cute these programs, and we will be with foreign associates in the area, The committee recently met to working with NRC divisions and courtesy of our host, the NEC begin developing a strategic plan for our International Advisory Board to Corporation, and its chairman and the committee and for our inter- flesh out the plan. NAE foreign associate Hajime national programs with an eye Sasaki. The meeting was held at toward increasing the international the NEC Central Research Labora- presence of the National Aca- tory on the Monday following the demies. We developed a three- JAFOE meeting and was attended dimensional matrix in areas where Harold K. Forsen by eight local foreign associates and regional programs and interest Foreign Secretary NAE member Nicky Lu from Tai- already exist, collected a list of WINTER 2002 57
NAE Newsmakers
Zdenek P. Bazant, W.P. Murphy Chair in Civil Engineering, Univer- Samuel C. Florman, chairman, Professor of Civil Engineering and sity of Texas, received the 2002 Kreisler Borg Florman Construction Materials Science, Northwestern Freyssinet Medal from the Fédéra- Company, was presented with the University, has been elected a mem- tion Internationale de Béton. Dr. 2002 Civil Engineering History ber of the National Academy of Sci- Breen was cited “for his major con- and Heritage Award. Presented by ences, the Austrian Academy of tributions to the development of ASCE, the award is given to indi- Sciences, and the Istituto Lombardo clear conceptual thinking in the viduals who have made outstanding Academia di Scienze e Lettere. In design of concrete structures.” He contributions to a better under- addition, Dr. Bazant received hon- was also acknowledged “for his many standing of, and appreciation for, orary doctorates from University of important contributions to the the history and heritage of civil Colorado, Boulder, and Politecnico development of transparent design engineering. di Milano, Italy. He was also named codes for both concrete buildings In recognition of his seminal a “Highly Cited Scientist” by the and bridges” and “his numerous contributions to mineral processing Institute of Scientific Information. stimulating lectures on the design science and engineering and to This award is given to the 250 and application of structural con- Australian mineral processing authors most often cited worldwide crete given worldwide.” research and innovation, Douglas in all fields of engineering. On January 29, 2003, Edward J. W. Fuerstenau, professor in the Robert G. Bea, professor of civil Cording, professor of civil engi- Graduate School, University of and environmental engineering, neering, University of Illinois at California, Berkeley, was recently University of California, Berkeley, Urbana-Champaign, will receive elected a Foreign Fellow of the was awarded the ASCE Ralph Peck the Nonmember Award for Out- Australian Academy of Techno- Medal. Dr. Bea was honored for his standing Achievement in Con- logical Sciences and Engineering. pioneering contributions to the struction, and George J. Tamaro, Elias P. Gyftopoulos, professor design of pile foundations for off- senior partner of Mueser Rutledge emeritus, Massachusetts Institute shore platforms and the application Consulting Engineers, will receive of Technology, was awarded the of reliability methods to the design the Member Award for Outstand- 2002 ASME Robert Henry of deep foundations. ing Achievement in Construction Thurston Award. Dr. Gyftopoulos Arthur E. Bergles, Clark and from the Moles. These awards are was cited for publishing significant Crossan Professor of Engineering, considered by many to be the most scholarly books and articles that Emeritus, Rensselaer Polytechnic prestigious awards in the construc- represent landmark contributions to Institute, received the Itherm tion industry. thermodynamics and related physi- Achievement Award from the Charles Elachi, director, Jet cal sciences. Intersociety Conference on Ther- Propulsion Laboratory, was selected Michel T. Halbouty, chairman mal and Thermomechanical Phe- as co-recipient of the 2002 Techno- and chief executive officer, Michel nomena in Electronic Systems. Dr. Entrepreneurial Achievement for T. Halbouty Energy Company, was Bergles was also presented with the the World Environmental Well- awarded the Gold Medal for Dis- Holladay Distinguished Fellow Being Award. Given by the Takeda tinguished Achievement by the Award from ASHRAE for his con- Foundation, this award is presented American Petroleum Institute. Mr. tinuing preeminence in engineering to individuals who have made Halbouty was recognized for his and research. In addition, Dr. outstanding contributions to the many contributions to the industry, Bergles was awarded the 2002 Inter- creation and application of new geology, petroleum engineering, and national SFT Award from the knowledge in three fields: social/ the welfare of the nation. French Thermal Society for his con- economic well-being (information John W. Hutchinson, Gordon tributions to thermal sciences and and electronics), individual/human- McKay Professor of Applied international cooperation. ity well-being (the life sciences), and Mechanics, Harvard University, John E. Breen, Nasser I. Al-Rashid world environmental well-being. was awarded the 2002 ASME The 58 BRIDGE
Timoshenko Medal. Dr. Hutchin- was presented with the 2002 Pierre State University, has been selected son was recognized for seminal con- Galletti Award at the AIMBE an- to receive the 2003 Fellow Award tributions to our understanding of nual meeting. Dr. Nerem was recog- of the Mineral, Metals and Mater- the mechanical behavior and failure nized for his contribution to public ials Society. The award is given for of materials and structures. awareness of medical and biological outstanding contributions to the Sia Nemat-Nasser, professor, engineering and to the promotion of practice of metallurgy or materials Center of Excellence for Advanced the national interest in science, science and technology. Materials, Department of Mechani- engineering, and education. Eugene Wong, professor emeri- cal and Aerospace Engineering, Norman R. Scott, professor, tus, University of California, Berke- University of California, San Diego, Department of Agricultural and ley, has been elected a foreign was awarded the 2002 ASME Nadai Biological Engineering, Cornell member of the Royal Swedish Medal. Dr. Nemat-Nasser was cited University, was awarded the 2002 Academy of Engineering. for his outstanding theoretical and Cyrus Hall McCormick-Jerome Wm. A. Wulf, president, Na- experimental research on a wide Increase Case Gold Medal Award. tional Academy of Engineering, was range of material systems and inves- Dr. Scott was recognized for his out- presented with the University of tigations into various phenomena. standing accomplishments as an Pennsylvania Medal for Distin- Robert M. Nerem, Parker H. administrator and as the leader of an guished Service during a ceremony Petit Professor and director, Institute engineering society. celebrating the sesquicentennial of for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Robert H. Wagoner, George R. Penn engineering. Dr. Wulf was the Georgia Institute of Technology, Smith Chair in Engineering, Ohio keynote speaker at the event.
In Memoriam
PIERRE R. AIGRAIN, 78, con- and retired director, Research Insti- CHANG-LIN TIEN, 67, Univer- sulting engineer, died on Octo- tute, University of Dayton, died on sity Professor and NEC Distin- ber 30, 2002. Dr. Aigrain was October 23, 2002. Dr. Rowe was guished Professor of Engineering, elected a foreign associate to NAE elected to NAE in 1977 for contri- University of California, Berkeley, in 1976 for contributions to solid- butions to the theory and design of died on October 29, 2002. Dr. Tien state devices and to science and high-power microwave electron was elected to NAE in 1976 for con- technology policies in France. tubes and solid-state microwave tributions to the theory of heat devices. transfer and for its application to dif- JOHN D. FERRY, 90, professor ficult contemporary engineering emeritus of chemistry, University of VIVIEN T. STANNETT, 85, pro- problems. Wisconsin-Madison, died on Octo- fessor emeritus of chemical engi- ber 18, 2002. Dr. Ferry was elected neering, North Carolina State KEITH W. UNCAPHER, 80, to NAE in 1992 for developing University, died on October 1, senior vice president, Corporation experimental techniques and a con- 2002. Dr. Stannett was elected to for National Research Initiatives, ceptual framework for modern NAE in 1995 for contributions to died on October 10, 2002. Mr. viscoelasticity of polymers. the understanding of transport Uncapher was elected to NAE in processes and polymer radiation 1998 for his work on information JOSEPH E. ROWE, 75, retired chemistry in polymers. technology on the national level. associate vice president for research WINTER 2002 59
Calendar of Meetings and Events
2003 February 5 NAE/NAS Officers Meeting March 18 NRC Governing Board January 13–14 NAE/IOM Committee on and Joint Council Meeting Executive Committee Meeting Engineering and the Health Irvine, California April 3 NAE Regional Meeting Care System Meeting February 5–6 NAE Council Meeting Troy, New York January 14–15 Intel LEAP Conference Irvine, California April 8 NAE Regional Meeting January 15 NRC Governing Board February 6 NAE National Meeting Urbana, Illinois Executive Committee Meeting Irvine, California April 10 NAE Regional Meeting January 16–17 NAE/NRC Committee on February 6–7 NAE/IOM Engineering and Boulder, Colorado Assessing Technological the Health Care System April 15 NRC Governing Board Literacy Meeting Workshop Executive Committee Meeting Irvine, California January 23 NAE Peer Committee Chairs April 26–29 NAS 2003 Annual Meeting Workshop February 18 NAE Draper and Russ Prizes Press Conference April 28 NAE Finance and Budget January 28 NAE Finance and Budget National Press Club, Committee Conference Call Committee Conference Call Washington, D.C. April 28–29 NAE/IOM Committee on January 30 NAE Membership Policy NAE Draper and Russ Prizes Engineering and the Health Committee Meeting Forum Care System Meeting Irvine, California NAE Draper and Russ Prizes May 1–3 German-American Frontiers of February 3 Beckman Center Advisory Dinner and Presentation Engineering Symposium Board Meeting Ceremony Ludwigsberg, Germany Irvine, California Union Station, May 5–6 NAE Convocation of February 3–4 NRC Governing Board Washington, D.C. Professional Engineering Meeting February 20 NRC Governing Board Societies Irvine, California Executive Committee Meeting May 8 NAE Regional Meeting February 4 The National Academies March 10–11 NAE/IOM Engineering and Cambridge, Massachusetts Corporation (TNAC) Board the Health Care System All meetings are held in one of the National of Directors Meeting Workshop Irvine, California Academies buildings, Washington, D.C., unless March 13 NAE Regional Meeting otherwise noted. For information about regional NAE/NAS/TNAC Dinner Seattle, Washington meetings, please contact Karen Spaulding at Irvine, California [email protected] or (202) 334-2197. The 60 BRIDGE
The National Academies Update National Academies Presidents’ Statement on Science and Security
On October 18, 2002, NAE Presi- mation that do not provide precise monitor this issue effectively, as dent Wm. A. Wulf, National Acad- guidance on what information science and potential threats emy of Sciences President Bruce should be restricted from public change over time? Alberts, and Institute of Medicine access. Experience shows that vague • Do any materials widely used in President Harvey Fineberg issued the criteria of this kind generate deep research require additional following “Statement on Science and uncertainties among both scientists security procedures? Security in an Age of Terrorism”: and officials responsible for enforc- ing regulations. The inevitable • How can the scientific, engi- After the September 11, 2001, effect is to stifle scientific creativity neering, and health community assaults on the World Trade Center and to weaken national security. establish systems that will rapid- and the Pentagon, and the subse- To develop sharp criteria for deter- ly detect new potential threats quent anthrax attacks via the postal mining when to classify and/or from terrorism, as well as novel system, the scientific, engineering, restrict public access to scientific opportunities for countering and health research community was information, as well as to address the terrorism, that arise from new quick to respond at many levels, from other important issues outlined discoveries, and convey these in initiating new research to analyzing below, we call for a renewed dialogue an effective manner to the rele- needs for improved security. This among scientists, engineers, health vant government agencies? community recognizes that it has a researchers and policy makers. To clear responsibility to protect the stimulate such a dialogue, we present Action Point 2 United States, as it has in the past, two “action points”: one focused on The federal government should by harnessing the best science and scientists, engineers, and health affirm and maintain the general technology to help counter terrorism researchers and the other focused on principle of National Security Deci- and other national security threats. policy makers. sion Directive 189, issued in 1985: In meeting this responsibility, the No restrictions may be placed scientific, engineering, and health Action Point 1 upon the conduct or reporting of research community also recognizes The scientific, engineering, and federally funded fundamental a need to achieve an appropriate health research community should research that has not received balance between scientific openness work closely with the federal govern- national security classification, and restrictions on public informa- ment to determine which research except as provided in applicable tion. Restrictions are clearly needed may be related to possible new secu- U.S. statutes. to safeguard strategic secrets; but rity threats and to develop principles openness also is needed to acceler- for researchers in each field. Among In determining what research and ate the progress of technical knowl- the questions that the scientific, information should be restricted from edge and enhance the nation’s engineering, and health community public access, agencies should ask: understanding of potential threats. should address are the following: • How should we apply the prin- A successful balance between •Are there areas of currently ciple of building “high fences these two needs—security and open- unclassified research that around narrow areas” in the ness—demands clarity in the dis- should be classified in the new new security environment, so as tinctions between classified and security environment? to protect critical and well- unclassified research. We believe it defined information and yet to be essential that these distinctions • How can the scientific, engi- permit the essential flow of not include poorly defined categories neering, and health community scientific and technical knowl- of “sensitive but unclassified” infor- establish systems that can edge and human capital? WINTER 2002 61
• How can such determinations enlist the help of a large num- as well as from the many agencies of be made at the outset of a ber of the nation’s best scien- the federal, state, and local govern- research program so as not to tists, engineers, and health ments involved in counterterrorism. disrupt the research? researchers in counterterrorism The nation’s safety and the contin- efforts, for both the unclassified ued improvement of our standard of • How can we avoid creation of and the classified areas of the living depend on careful, informed vague and poorly defined cate- overall program? action on the part of both govern- gories of “sensitive but unclas- ments and the scientific, engineer- sified” information that do not Achieving the purpose of scien- ing, and health community. A provide precise guidance on tific and technological activity—to promote the welfare of society and to continuing, meaningful dialogue what information should be strengthen national security—will needs to begin—one that produces a restricted from public access? require ingenuity from our science, true collaboration for the many deci- • How can the government engineering, and health community, sions that need to be made.
Everglades Restoration Plan
A central feature of the complex Florida and in a previous NRC restoration plan. effort to restore the Florida Ever- report. It also acknowledges the Some of the funds currently allo- glades is a proposal to drill more importance of conducting pilot cated for coring could be diverted than 300 wells that would funnel up studies on a regional scale to deter- for more test wells and monitoring. to 1.7 billion gallons of water a day mine the consequences of large- Coring, which uses drills to pull up into underground aquifers, where scale aquifer storage and recovery. cylinders of rock samples, can be the water will be stored and then The committee that wrote the useful, the committee said, but it is pumped back to the surface to new report, Regional Issues in Aquifer costly, and it may yield unreliable replenish the ecosystem during dry Storage and Recovery for Everglades and nonrepresentative data. periods. Aquifer storage and recov- Restoration, commended the authors The most important overall ery, as the process is known, has of the Everglades research plan for improvement to the research plan been successfully employed on a designing studies that will attempt at this point would be greater atten- much smaller scale in Florida since to compile all existing data, map the tion to the principle of adaptive 1983, but the size of the new pro- architecture of the aquifers and management, the committee said. posal is unprecedented and has underground water flows, measure The adaptive management approach raised several concerns. For ex- salinity, and test for the presence of allows natural-resource managers to ample, how much of the surface chemicals and pathogens. The addi- examine the results of incremental water stored in aquifers can actually tional monitoring proposed in the planning steps or experiments and be recovered? And what if fresh sur- research plan for the pilot sites is a adapt subsequent decisions accord- face water mixes with salt water or good first step, the committee said; ingly. Planners should consider now undergoes other undesirable chemi- but more test wells are needed, as what should be done if the Ever- cal changes while underground? well as more extensive monitoring, glades studies show that aquifer stor- To answer these questions, federal because the salinity and physical age and recovery on the proposed and state officials working on the properties of the water being recov- scale is not feasible. Everglades restoration project have ered is likely to vary considerably NAE member Daniel P. Loucks, drafted a comprehensive research from site to site. Everglades Cornell University, served on the plan that “goes a long way to pro- researchers also should study the committee that reviewed the plan. viding the needed information,” effects of chemicals and pathogens The full text of the report is avail- according to a new report from the on ecosystem communities and not able online at: http://www.nap.edu/ National Research Council (NRC). just on individual organisms, so that catalog/10521.html. The research plan clearly responds the findings can help meet the to suggestions from scientists in objectives of the overall Everglades The 62 BRIDGE
Publications of Interest
The following reports were to allow time for the development of way of reducing costs and improving recently published by the National alternative strategies if necessary. efficiency. This report evaluates the Academy of Engineering or the Paper, $18.00. fiscal and policy implications of pri- National Research Council. Unless vatization, describes scenarios in otherwise noted, all publications are In War and Peace: My Life in Science and which it works best, and enumerates for sale (prepaid) from the National Technology. This thoughtful and the efficiencies that might be gained Academies Press (NAP), 500 Fifth candid memoir by Guy Stever, by contracting with private water Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Wash- NAE/NAS member and NAE for- utilities. Hardcover, $39.95. ington, DC 20055. For more infor- eign secretary from 1984–1988, mation or to place an order, contact recounts his experiences during Seventh Annual Symposium on Frontiers NAP online at http://www.nap.edu World War II when he worked with of Engineering. This collection or by phone at (888) 624-8373. the British to develop and refine includes summaries of presentations (Note: Prices are subject to change radar technology, his involvement given at the March 2002 sympo- without notice. Online orders receive a in the antiballistic missile defense sium. Topics include: microme- 20 percent discount. Please add $4.50 program, and his participation in chanical flyers, dynamic planning for shipping and handling for the first the establishment of new insti- and control of civil infrastructure book and $0.95 for each additional tutions, including NASA. Stever, systems, the design of future wireless book. Add applicable sales tax or GST who has achieved a position of systems, and reengineering the par- if you live in CA, DC, FL, MD, MO, world leadership in science and alyzed nervous system. Paper, TX, or Canada.) technology, offers remarkable $31.00. insights into the history of the last Florida Bay Research Programs and half-century. Hardbound, $29.95. Small Wonders, Endless Frontiers: A Their Relation to the Comprehensive Review of the National Nanotechnology Everglades Restoration Plan. Florida Making the Nation Safer: The Role of Initiative. Carried out at the request Bay is closely linked to the Ever- Science and Technology in Countering of the White House Economic glades through a series of canals and Terrorism. The openness and effi- Council and other federal agencies, waterways. In the late 1980s, the ciency of our key infrastructures this review recommends that support crystal-clear water in the bay began make them susceptible to terrorist be increased for the National Nano- to cloud up, and dense meadows attacks. This report examines areas technology Initiative long-term of seagrasses began to disappear. It of vulnerability to nuclear and radi- research program and that inter- was expected that the Comprehen- ological threats, bioterrorism, public disciplinary efforts be promoted. sive Everglades Restoration Plan health threats, toxic chemicals, and Although the report recognizes that (CERP) would help reverse these attacks on information, energy, and nanotechnology has the potential to conditions. However, recent obser- transportation systems. Technical revolutionize industry, it recom- vations suggest that the influx of approaches to mitigating these mends further study of the basic sci- fresh water planned by CERP might threats are presented. Paper, entific principles of nanotechnology actually promote these changes $43.95. and a more widespread inter- in the marine environment. The disciplinary culture. The report con- report suggests that a focused tech- Privatization of Water Services in the cludes that continued investment in nical review and evaluation be car- United States: An Assessment of Issues the development of nanotechno- ried out and that research be and Experience. Many communities logical instruments, as well as con- conducted to reduce uncertainties in the United States are looking tinued collaboration at the local, about the potential long-term into the advisability of privatizing national, and international level, are effects of CERP on Florida Bay and water and wastewater services as a necessary. Paper, $18.00. WINTER 2002 63
An Assessment of Precision Time and ment in supporting research and challenges” for enlisting advances Time-Interval Science and Technology. advanced education. Paper, $25.00. in the chemical sciences in the Precision time and time-interval counterterrorism effort. Each grand (PTTI) science and technology are For Greener Skies: Reducing Environ- challenge includes specific chal- used by all of the armed services mental Impacts of Aviation. Although lenges and related research needs. for navigation and communica- each generation of commercial air- The goals of the report are to help tions. Military operations that craft produces less noise and fewer chemical scientists understand how depend on PTTI that could benefit emissions, the demand for commer- their research can be applied to from improvements in PTTI cial air transportation services has national security problems, to sug- technology include weapon-system grown so quickly that total aircraft gest ways to improve the safety of four-dimensional coordination, noise and emissions have continued U.S. civilians and military per- network-centric warfare, and secure to increase. Meanwhile, noise and sonnel, and to provide information military communications. Research air quality standards have become to federal agencies to support invest- areas related to PTTI that would more stringent, making it increas- ments in research that can con- lead to improved military capabil- ingly difficult for airlines to recon- tribute to national security. Paper, ities include materials science, cile public demand for air services $28.25. chemistry, and atomic, molecular, with concurrent demands to reduce and optical physics. The report pre- noise, improve air quality, and pro- Naval Engineering: Alternative sents the committee’s analysis of tect the environment. The Federal Approaches for Organizing Cooperative the current status of PTTI in the Aviation Administration (FAA), Research—Special Report 266. A key United States and findings and rec- the National Aeronautics and responsibility of the Office of Naval ommendations based on that analy- Space Administration (NASA), Research (ONR) is to maintain a sis. Paper, $18.00. and the Environmental Protection robust capability in naval engineer- Agency (EPA) asked the National ing and improve the Navy’s ability Evolutionary and Revolutionary Tech- Research Council to recommend to translate creative research into nologies for Mining. The United research strategies and approaches innovative warships. However, the States is a major producer of metals that could mitigate the environ- Navy is facing a diminishing knowl- and other mined products, and min- mental effects of aviation. Based on edge base and a serious shortage of ing is very important to our econ- the roles and missions of the FAA, personnel with broad, interdiscipli- omy. The industry is in transition, NASA, and EPA, this report pro- nary experience. To address these however, because of environmental vides a framework for government problems, the Transportation considerations, poorer grades of ore, research policies and programs that Research Board was asked to inves- regulatory burdens, and limited could lead to technological change tigate and evaluate alternative access to land. Under these circum- fast enough for commercial aviation approaches for structuring coopera- stances, innovation and develop- to grow and still be environment- tive research programs in naval ment are more important than ever. ally sustainable. engineering. The report describes The National Research Council was the basic organizational concepts of asked to provide guidance on future National Security and Homeland four models and identifies the technological developments in the Defense: Challenges for the Chemical advantages and disadvantages of mining sector. This report identifies Sciences in the 21st Century. This each. It also identifies the features research areas for new technologies report of the proceedings of the of each model that would satisfy in exploration, mining and process- National Security and Homeland ONR’s objectives of revitalizing the ing, and associated health, safety, Defense Workshop focuses on field of naval engineering and and environmental issues. The research in chemistry and chemical improving the design and produc- report calls for more cooperation engineering. The workshop ad- tion of naval ships. Paper, $20.00. between government, industry, and dresses four themes: discovery, Available from TRB Bookstore academia in mineral research and interfaces, challenges, and infra- at (202) 334-3213 or online at development and emphasizes the structure. The committee used the http://www.nationalacademies.org/trb/ essential role of the federal govern- workshop findings to identify “grand bookstore/. The 64 BRIDGE
Regulation of Weights, Lengths, and to federal regulation and to recom- mittee’s recommendations relate Widths of Commercial Motor Vehicles— mend revisions to the regulations, if primarily to the process by which Special Report 267. In the 1998 appropriate. Federal regulations federal regulations are established Transportation Equity Act for the affect the costs of transporting and the relationship between 21st Century, the secretary of trans- freight and passengers. The report the federal government and state portation is instructed to ask the recommends organizational arrange- governments in regulating truck Transportation Research Board to ments that would promote changes size and weight. Paper, $24.00. conduct a study of the regulations in the regulations to improve the Available from TRB Bookstore governing the weights, lengths, and efficiency of truck freight trans- at (202) 334-3213 or online at widths of commercial motor vehi- portation and mitigate the costs of http://www.nationalacademies.org/trb/ cles operating on highways subject truck traffic to the public. The com- bookstore/.
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