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Polymer-Based Additive Manufacturing: Process Optimisation for Low-Cost Industrial Robotics Manufacture

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Polymer-Based Additive Manufacturing: Process Optimisation for Low-Cost Industrial Robotics Manufacture polymers Review Polymer-Based Additive Manufacturing: Process Optimisation for Low-Cost Industrial Robotics Manufacture Kartikeya Walia 1 , Ahmed Khan 2 and Philip Breedon 1,* 1 Department of Engineering, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK; [email protected] 2 PepsiCo Europe, Leicester LE4 1ET, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The robotics design process can be complex with potentially multiple design iterations. The use of 3D printing is ideal for rapid prototyping and has conventionally been utilised in concept development and for exploring different design parameters that are ultimately used to meet an intended application or routine. During the initial stage of a robot development, exploiting 3D printing can provide design freedom, customisation and sustainability and ultimately lead to direct cost benefits. Traditionally, robot specifications are selected on the basis of being able to deliver a specific task. However, a robot that can be specified by design parameters linked to a distinctive task can be developed quickly, inexpensively, and with little overall risk utilising a 3D printing process. Numerous factors are inevitably important for the design of industrial robots using polymer- based additive manufacturing. However, with an extensive range of new polymer-based additive manufacturing techniques and materials, these could provide significant benefits for future robotics design and development. Citation: Walia, K.; Khan, A.; Keywords: industrial robotics; low cost; additive manufacturing; polymer materials Breedon, P. Polymer-Based Additive Manufacturing: Process Optimisation for Low-Cost Industrial Robotics Manufacture. Polymers 2021, 13, 2809. 1. Introduction https://doi.org/10.3390/polym Robots are deployed for numerous applications and in various industries, with a 13162809 continuous demand for more companies and manufacturers trying to integrate robotics and automation into their production lines [1–3]. This wide adoption has also seen a reduction Academic Editor: Paul F. Egan in cost for industrial robots, but the entry barrier of cost [4] is still considered high for some applications. These applications can include the food, packaging, and electronics Received: 30 July 2021 industries, where the payload can be relatively lightweight [5,6]. There are many potential Accepted: 18 August 2021 Published: 21 August 2021 applications where the industries outlined above can benefit if the appropriate robotic solutions are available [7]. Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral When a robotic system is tasked to handle light payloads, these systems can often be with regard to jurisdictional claims in over-specified based on the available ‘standard robot commercial’ specifications. When published maps and institutional affil- such a system is over-specified based on existing commercial availability, this can result in iations. redundancy and an investment in a system that is over-engineered for the task specified. Optimisation of the material selection and a design specification based on a low payload can result in the design of a lighter robotic system [8,9]. With the development of innovative manufacturing solutions, additive manufacturing (AM), or more popularly known as 3D printing, provides a realistic approach to the design Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of lightweight and customised designs [10,11]. In addition, its throughput and low-cost This article is an open access article approach for initial prototyping solutions have drawn increasing research interest during distributed under the terms and the last decade. Integrating polymer-based 3D printing for the purposes of manipulator conditions of the Creative Commons fabrication with lightweight applications is therefore central for further investigation in Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// relation to this study. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ According to the ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 [12], additive manufacturing processes have 4.0/). been broadly classified into seven categories: (1) binder jetting; (2) directed energy deposi- Polymers 2021, 13, 2809. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162809 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers PolymersPolymers2021 2021,, 13, x 2809 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22 2 of 20 tion;According (3) material to the extrusion; ISO/ASTM (4) 52900:2015 material [12] jetting;, additive (5) powder manufacturing bed fusion; processes (6) sheet have lamination; beenand broadly (7) vat classified photopolymerisation. into seven categories: The design (1) binder specification jetting; (2) anddirected the choiceenergy ofdepo- material influ- sition;ence (3) the material properties extrusion; of the (4) output material [13 je,tting;14]. A(5) wide powder availability bed fusion; of (6) materials, sheet lamina- with different tion;mechanical and (7) vatand photopolymerisation. thermal properties, The fordesign various specification AM processes and the choice provides of material better control of influence the properties of the output [13,14]. A wide availability of materials, with differ- the desired characteristics of the design [15–17]. ent mechanical and thermal properties, for various AM processes provides better control of the desiredGeometric characteristics Dimensioning of the design and Tolerancing [15–17]. (GD&T) is a protocol [18] at the center of anyGeometric mechanical Dimensioning design and and is Tolerancing complimented (GD&T) by ais multitudea protocol [18] of manufacturing at the center of processes anyand mechanical material design selection and allowingis complimented for the by exploitation a multitude ofof numerousmanufacturing opportunities. processes A CAD andmodel’s material mesh selection file manufacturedallowing for the using exploitation any of of the numerous above-mentioned opportunities. different A CAD 3D printing model’sprocesses mesh tends file manufactured to differ in dimensions,using any of the usually above-mentioned in a range different of less than 3D printing± 0.5 mm [19,20]. processesHowever, tends this to valuediffer in still dimensions, represents usually a significant in a range variation of less than in dimensions ± 0.5 mm [19,20]. for the robotics However,applications this value or for still any represents other application a significant requiring variation assemblyin dimensions of various for the robotics 3D printed or off- applicationsthe-shelf components.or for any other Hence, application this dimensional requiring assembly deviation of various needs 3D to beprinted compensated or off- [21–23] the-shelffor at thecomponents. design stage Hence, which this addsdimensional to the overalldeviation design needs complexity.to be compensated There has[21– been some 23]effort for at to the standardise design stage the which GD&T adds characteristics to the overall ofdesign additively complexity. manufactured There has been parts [24–26]. some effort to standardise the GD&T characteristics of additively manufactured parts [24– 26].2. Materials and Methods 2. MaterialsThis and section Methods discusses in-depth the various polymer-based AM processes and several variablesThis section that discusses should be in-depth considered the various while polymer-based selecting a preferable AM processes manufacturing and several method. variables that should be considered while selecting a preferable manufacturing method. 2.1. From Digital Model/CAD to a 3D Printable Mesh 2.1. FromMesh Digital is Model/CAD a digital blueprint to a 3D Printable of the 3DMesh CAD model which encompasses the geometric dataMesh for is that a digital part. blueprint Most of the of the 3D 3D modelling CAD model software which has encompasses an option the to exportgeometric a mesh file in datathe for latest that updatespart. Most because of the 3D of modelling the growing software acceptance has an ofoption 3D printing to export for a mesh rapid file prototyping in inthe every latest updates manufacturing because of industry. the growing Some acceptance used mesh of 3D printing formats for [27 rapid] include prototyp- .stl, .obj, .amf, ingand in every .3mf. manufacturing All these file industry. formats Some have used gained mesh respectable formats [27] support include .stl, across .obj, the.amf, 3D printing andtoolchain, .3mf. All butthese all file of theseformats vary have in gained terms ofrespectable the type ofsupport data theyacross store the and3D printing what information toolchain,goes to but the all 3D of printer.these vary The in terms choice of ofthe the type file of data format they is store also and tightly what coupledinformation with the tool goesbeing to the used 3D forprinter. 3D printing. The choice of the file format is also tightly coupled with the tool being used for 3D printing. 2.1.1. Standard Tessellation/Triangulation Language (STL) 2.1.1. Standard Tessellation/Triangulation Language (STL) The most commonly used [28] file format, standard tessellation/triangulation lan- The most commonly used [28] file format, standard tessellation/triangulation lan- guage (.stl), essentially divides a 3D model surface into smaller triangular meshed surfaces. guage (.stl), essentially divides a 3D model surface into smaller triangular meshed sur- faces.The The triangles triangles can can be be made made arbitrarily arbitrarily smallsmall to approximate the the curved curved regions, regions, but but increas- increasinging mesh mesh density density increases increases the the file file size. size. In In FigureFigure 11,, the perfect perfect
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