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Copyright 2012 Sarah Elizabeth Alderfer Copyright 2012 Sarah Elizabeth Alderfer EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FICTION AND THE PRODUCTION OF SHAME, 1680- 1753 BY SARAH ELIZABETH ALDERFER DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2012 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Robert Markley, Chair Associate Professor Anthony Pollock, Co-Chair Associate Professor Catharine Gray Associate Professor Lori Humphrey Newcomb Abstract This dissertation argues that eighteenth-century fiction problematizes the relationships among virtue, modesty, and shame. Where the conduct manual and the moral novel demonize the shameless female subject, women writers such as Aphra Behn, Eliza Haywood, and Charlottle Lennox consistently decouple shame from virtue to expose the limitations of the virtuous principles in the world of the conduct manual and moral novel. The introduction considers the historical relationship between the conduct manual, the moral novel, and women’s writing and the ways in which each engages in the production of shame, arguing that the moral novel of the mid-eighteenth century neither negates nor contains the power of amatory fiction but illustrates the inability of “virtue rewarded” to resolve the tensions within eighteenth-century fiction and the representation of female subjectivity. Chapter 1 argues that Behn’s amatory fiction, Love Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684), The Fair Jilt (1688), and The History of the Nun (1689), resist the culture of shame and guilt surrounding the sexually available, desiring, and dangerous woman, blurring the lines between the moral and the immoral and questions the conduct manual’s insistence that virtuous behavior liberates the female subject. Chapter 2 analyzes the ways in which the heroines of Haywood’s early amatory fiction test the limits of virtue and shame in sustaining a woman’s reputation, arguing that public reputation is more important than a woman’s internalized sense of honor. Haywood’s fiction experiments with the heroine’s recognition of the mechanisms of shame and her ability to manage her reputation and sexual subjectivity. Chapter 3 analyzes the anti- pamelist fiction by Haywood and Henry Fielding to argue that the virtuous example exalted by Samuel Richardson’s Pamela exposes women to, rather than preserves them ii from, sexual danger and endorses social expectations that demand the performance of virtue and shame as a means of economic and social survival. Chapter 4 explores the consequences of virtuous reading in Lennox’s novel The Female Quixote, arguing that Lennox questions the moral novel’s capacity to instill that sense of virtue which makes a heroine an appropriate wife and exposes the need to internalize shame to survive in the eighteenth-century world. iii For my grandfather, Nathaniel, who inspired me; For my parents, John and Patricia, who encouraged me; For my husband, Sam, who supported me; And for my children, John and Elsa, who made me believe in myself. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While I spent many hours writing the words on these pages, this dissertation is truly the result of the hardwork of many people, without whom, this project would not have been possible. First, I am grateful for the sound advice, guidance, and the incredible patience of both Bob Markley, my director, and Tony Pollock, my co-chair. They both read countless drafts and spent many an afternoon helping me bring shape to new ideas and rethink old ones. In the time I spent working on this dissertation, they never lost their enthusiasm for my project even when I was dangerously close to losing my own. They have taught me how to be a strong scholar and a dedicated teacher. I would also like to express my thanks to my committee members, Catharine Gray and Lori Newcomb, who always provided me with thought-provoking commentary and encouraged me to make the abstract more concrete. I am grateful for the time both spent talking with me and reading my work. I often left their offices with more questions than I had answers, and I found great pleasure in finding those answers. The entire experience of graduate school and dissertation writing was made easier by the many friends I made. I found incredible colleagues and friends in 315 and squanderd many an afternoon with Mary Rose Cottingham, Gail Hapke, Sam Looker, and Rebecca Weber. My first cubicle-mate, Elizabeth Baldridge, welcomed me into my office in 315 with a kind note and a plastic file folder. I still have that folder and I am reminded of her generosity and spirit every time I see it. Anytime I needed a laugh, Julie Price and Sarah Alexander never failed me. In Alli Meyer and Christa Olson, I found friends who became family. We shared tables at coffeeshops while writing, meals in each other’s homes, and our professional and personal triumphs and disappointments. v I would like to also thank my new colleagues at Vincennes University. Teaching full time and finishing a dissertation is difficult, but my new colleagues offered incredible support and encouragement while I adjusted to a new environment and prepared for my defense. Laurel Smith, my department chair, has been a wonderful cheerleader and a fantastic professional example. Misty Standage and Amber Braden welcomed me not only as a new colleague but also as a friend. Finally, I would never have been able to take on such an enourmous task had it not been for the incredible support and love of my family. My parents, John and Patricia Moore, laid the foundation for my scholarly ambitions. Both taught me to love reading, but my mother, in particular, encouraged my love of books. A birthday or holiday never passed that she did not give me books. As a teacher, my father taught me that knowledge came from questions and conversations. When I was home from college on weekends, we often stayed up late talking, sometimes about little things but, more often, about big things. Those conversations are some of my most cherished memories. Perhaps more than anyone else, my husband, Sam, deserves my most heartfelt gratitude. He lived (and sometimes suffered) through this project on a daily basis. Living with a person who is writing a dissertation is no small feat, but he did it with saint-like patience and an incredible amount of grace. vi Table of Contents Page Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1: Navigating Honor and Shame in Behn’s Amatory Fiction………..38 Chapter 2: Eliza Haywood and the Progress of the Amatory Heroine………..91 Chapter 3: “A shame-faced simplicity”: The (Un)Production of Shame in Pamela, Shamela, and Anti-Pamela……........................136 Chapter 4: Shame and the Moral Novel in Charlotte Lennox’s The Female Quixote………………………….163 Epilogue ……………………………………………………………………...193 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………..197 vii Introduction VIRTUE. 1. Moral goodness. 2. A particular moral excellence. 5. Efficacy; power. 6. Acting power. 7. Secret agency; efficacy. SHAME 1. The passion felt when reputation is supposed to be lost. 2. The cause of reason of shame; disgrace; ignominy. 1. Reproach.1 -From Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language In a letter to George Cheyne, Samuel Richardson claimed that his goal in writing novels was “to make the Story rather useful than diverting” and that “the cause of Virtue and Religion was what I wish’d principally to serve.”2 Richardson’s professed aim to instruct and delight was also an attempt to “set VIRTUE in its own amiable light, to make it look lovely.”3 In making virtue look lovely, though, the novel fetishizes Pamela’s virtue. This fetishization of female virtue in the eighteenth-century novel is more about the fetishization of female shame. In calling attention to the fetishization of shame in the eighteenth-century novel, I posit that the history of the novel that circulates around Richardson’s Pamela circulates around limiting masculinist terms—virtue, domesticity, subjectivity, selfhood—all of which emphasize what women should be instead of what is realistically available to women. In using “shame” as the lens to view novelistic discourse, I argue that women’s writing of the eighteenth century records the struggle of women who are forced to internalize, create, and sustain a sense of self defined by male 1 Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1756). ECCO. 2 Selected Letters of Samuel Richardson, ed. John Carroll (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 54-55. 3 Preface to Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, ed. Peter Sabor (London: Penguin, 1980), 31. 1 sexual interest. This dialectical engagement between virtue and shame is the focus of this project. While Pamela’s matrimonial conclusion highlights the consequences of maintaining one’s virtue, it assumes that virtue exerts itself even in the most dangerous of circumstances and ignores the reality of the eighteenth-century female subject’s position in a system that simultaneously expects virtue but, through its idealization, makes it unachievable. In placing shame at the center of novelistic discourse, I argue that the conditions of female morality become much more intricate than the opposition between virtuous and shameful. In order to successfully improve readers’ morality, the moralizing novel needs its readers to possess a desire illicit thoughts and its content often encourages those thoughts in its readers in order to correct them. By inadvertently encouraging untoward thoughts and vicarious participation in illicit behavior, readers feel a sense of shame in the act of reading. This forces us to ask, though what virtue is supposed to do for the female subject. On the one hand, to be “virtuous” in novelistic terms is to carve out a specific internalized self-identity, one that is assumed self-evident, self-contained, and unassailable. However, it also establishes the female body and soul as an embattled citadel, constantly under attack and in need of protection.4 While the conduct manual might encourage virtue as a safeguard for woman’s reputation, the identity “virtuous” implies that the female body and soul are never safe from lecherous advances and that something shameful awaits every woman right around the corner.
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