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The Role of Lexical Tone, Context, and Intonation in Cantonese-Chinese

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The Role of Lexical Tone, Context, and Intonation in Cantonese-Chinese Speech Comprehension in a Tone Language: The Role of Lexical Tone, Context, and Intonation in Cantonese-Chinese Catherine Carmen Kung Colofon Font: Garamond MT Std/I.Ming (I.明體) ISBN: 978-94-6284-148-2 Printed by: ProefschriftMaken || www.proefschriftmaken.nl Cover designed by Leah Harris Dutch translation by Laurence Bruggeman, and checked by Titia Benders Cantonese translation by Carmen Kung, and checked by Jacqueline Fong Speech Comprehension in a Tone Language: The Role of Lexical Tone, Context, and Intonation in Cantonese-Chinese Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken, volgens besluit van het college van decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 30 oktober 2018 om 12.30 uur precies door Catherine Carmen Kung geboren op 7 november 1984 te Hong Kong Promotor: Prof. dr. Herbert Schriefers Copromotor: Dr. Dorothee Chwilla Manuscriptcommissie: Prof. dr. Mirjam Ernestus Prof. dr. Niels Schiller (Universiteit Leiden) Dr. Yiya Chen (Universiteit Leiden) Speech Comprehension in a Tone Language: The Role of Lexical Tone, Context, and Intonation in Cantonese-Chinese Doctoral Thesis to obtain the degree of doctor from Radboud University Nijmegen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken, according to the decision of the Council of Deans to be defended in public on Tuesday, October 30, 2018 at 12.30 hours by Catherine Carmen Kung Born on November 7, 1984 in Hong Kong Supervisor: Prof. dr. Herbert Schriefers Co-supervisor: Dr. Dorothee Chwilla Doctoral Thesis Committee: Prof. dr. Mirjam Ernestus Prof. dr. Niels Schiller (Leiden University) Dr. Yiya Chen (Leiden University) 嫲嫲同大謹以此文 佬璋 獻俾 Table of contents Chapter 1 General introduction 1 1.1. The role of lexical-tone perception in on-line spoken language comprehension 3 1.2. Open questions 9 1.3. Cantonese Chinese 9 1.4. The main topics of this dissertation 12 1.5. A note on the structure of the dissertation 15 Chapter 2 The interaction of lexical tone, intonation, and semantic context in on- line spoken word recognition: An ERP study on Cantonese Chinese 17 Abstract 18 2.1. Introduction 19 2.2. Experiment 1 24 2.3. Experiment 2 36 2.4. General Discussion 42 2.5. Conclusion 46 Chapter 3 The effects of discourse context and intonation on the comprehension of pragmatic meaning: A study on the choice of sentence-final particles in Cantonese Chinese 47 Abstract 48 3.1. Introduction 49 3.2. Preview of the experiments 54 3.3. Experiment 1 57 3.4. Experiment 2 62 3.5. Experiment 3 68 3.6. General Discussion 74 Chapter 4 An investigation of the realisation of utterance-body intonation as a function of sentence-final particles (SFPs) 81 4.1. Introduction 82 4.2. Speaker 1 83 4.3. Speaker 1 compared to other speakers 87 4.4. Discussion 94 Chapter 5 Tracking pragmatic-meaning computation on-line in the pragmatic- violation paradigm: An ERP study on Cantonese sentence-final particles 95 Abstract 96 5.1. Introduction 97 5.2. Methods 105 5.3. Results 110 5.4. Discussion 111 5.5. Conclusion 117 i Table of contents Chapter 6 Summary and general discussion 119 6.1. Summary of the dissertation 120 6.2. Why is there a strong reliance on context in Cantonese speech comprehension? 123 6.3. Limitations and future questions 125 6.4. Conclusion 128 References 129 Appendices 143 Appendix A: Word and compound stimuli used in Chapter 2 144 Appendix B: Acoustic Analyses 145 Appendix C: Time-course analyses for Experiments 1 and 2 in Chapter 2 148 Appendix D: Experimental sentence stimuli used in Chapters 3 and 5 152 Appendix E: Number of lexical entries per Cantonese syllable-plus-tone combination of all possible combinations in the Cantonese phonological system 189 Nederlandse samenvatting 198 粵語概要 201 Acknoweledgement 203 Curriculum Vitae 208 Publications 209 Donders Graduate School for Cognitive Neuroscience 210 ii Chapter 1 General introduction General Introduction Chapter 1 ‘There is as much eloquence in the tone of voice, in the eyes, and in the air of a speaker as in his choice of words.’ (de la Rochefoucauld, 1871) This quote illustrates one of the many important functions of the tone of voice— and technically speaking, intonation. As suggested by its alternative name—tone of voice—intonation uses pitch variations to mark phrase structure and to express discourse meaning, and it is a universal feature in all languages (Gussenhoven, 2004). Take the following example: If a speaker says ‘all good’ with a rising pitch, it is a question inquiring whether things are fine or not. By contrast, if the speaker says ‘all good’ with a falling pitch, it is a statement indicating to the listener that everything is fine. Tying back to this example, if the speaker tries to convince the listener that things are fine using a question intonation, the speaker will probably fail his or her purpose and invite more questions from the listener. In addition to intonation, some languages use pitch variations to distinguish between words (Gussenhoven, 2004). These pitch-variation patterns are called lexical tones. For example, in Cantonese Chinese—the language investigated in this dissertation—the two words “husband” (夫/fu1/) and “wife” (婦 /fu5/) only differ by the lexical tone. Mistaking the tone of these two words can be detrimental; it can lead to very awkward situations during conversations. Languages that use lexical tones to tell words apart are referred to as tonal languages (e.g. Cantonese Chinese); they constitute 60-70% of the world’s languages (Yip, 2002, p. 1). Even though the majority of the world’s languages are tone languages, little is known about how speakers of tone languages process lexical tones during spoken language comprehension. One of the possible reasons is that most psycholinguistic studies focus on Indo-European languages, which are mostly non-tonal (see Levelt, 2012 for a history of psycholinguistics). In recent years, there is an increasing interest in the role of lexical tone in spech comprehension (Brown-Schmidt & Canseco-Gonzalez, 2004; Chandrasekaran, Krishnan, & Gandour, 2007; Cutler & Chen, 1997; Cutler, Dahan, & van Donselaar, 1997; Gandour, 1981; Khouw & Ciocca, 2007; S.-P. Law, Fung, & Kung, 2013; X. Li, Yang, & Hagoort, 2008; Liu, Chen, & Schiller, 2016; Schirmer, Tang, Penney, Gunter, & Chen, 2005; Su, Lau, Zhang, Yan, & Law, 2011; Tsang, Jia, Huang, & Chen, 2011; van Lancker & Fromkin, 1973; Xi, Zhang, Shu, Zhang, & Li, 2010; Ye & Connine, 1999; X. Zhou, Ye, Cheung, & Chen, 2009). Particularly, more recent research has focused on the neural processes underlying lexical-tone perception and processing using event-related potentials (ERPs)—a method with excellent temporal resolution that can track real-time language processing and the on- going brain activity underlying such processing (see Box 1, which is largely based on Kutas & Federmeier, 2000; Luck, 2014). Note that most of these studies focus on lexical-tone perception per se. Only very few studies investigate how lexical tone influences speech comprehension. Below, we first briefly review previous studies on how lexical tone is perceived. Then, we provide a more detailed review of the few studies on how lexical tone affects speech-comprehension processes. 2 Introduction 1.1. The role of lexical-tone perception in on-line spoken language comprehension 1.1.1. Lexical-tone perception As stated above, lexical tones are mainly characterised by pitch variations. In addition to pitch variations, lexical tones can also differ by duration and voice quality (Yip, 2002). However, the majority of research on tone perception focuses on how the variation of pitch—and more specifically, fundamental frequency (F0), which is the acoustic correlate of pitch—can alter tone perception (Gandour, 1981; Gandour & Harshman, 1978; Jongman, Yue, Moore, & Sereno, 2006; Kaan, Barkley, Bao, & Wayland, 2008; Kaan, Wayland, Bao, & Barkley, 2007; Khouw & Ciocca, 2007; Tsang et al., 2011). These studies focus on how tone perception is affected by three cues: F0 direction (the direction of F0 change), F0 shape (the magnitude of F0 change; F0 direction and F0 shape together can be referred to as F0 contour) and F0 level (the average F0 height). These three F0 cues have shown to play a role in tone perception of both tone- language and non-tonal-language listeners, but listeners of tone languages rely on different F0 cues than those of non-tonal languages (Gandour & Harshman, 1978; Guion & Pederson, 2007; Kaan et al., 2008, 2007). For example, Gandour and Harshman (1978) studied how speakers of English, Thai, and Yoruba perceive 13 types of pitch patterns. These three languages are of interest because they differ in their tone systems: English does not have any tones at all; Yoruba only has register (i.e. level) tones, whereas Thai has both contour and level tones. They found that English speakers paid attention to F0 height (and also the F0 onset and offset point), but ignore the F0 shape and F0 direction. By contrast, speakers of the two tonal languages paid attention to (almost) all three F0 cues. One exception was that Yoruba speakers did not use (or only to a small degree) F0 shape. This is presumably the case because Yoruba does not have contour tones, which are characterised by F0 shape. The role of the three F0 cues in tone perception can also vary between tonal languages. For example, Gandour (1984) tested listeners of three varieties of Chinese (all tonal languages)—Cantonese, Mandarin, and Taiwanese—on their use of F0 height, F0 shape, and F0 direction in perceiving 19 synthetic tones. The results showed that Cantonese listeners paid more attention to F0 height than the Mandarin and Taiwanese listeners.
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