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A/AC.105/705 A/CONF.184/BP/16

Office for Affairs Office at

Space Activities

of the

International Organizations

A review of the activities and resources of the United Nations, its specialized agencies and other international bodies relating to the peaceful uses of outer space

UNITED NATIONS New York, 1999 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No. E.99.1.24 ISBN 92-1-100821-2 Foreword Since the beginning of the space age, over 40 years ago, humanity has made significant progress in the development and use of space science and technology to address human needs. Many have been placed in and now provide daily data that are used for forecasting the Earth's weather and management of natural resources and disasters, as well as for environmental monitoring. Other satellites provide communication linkages that have greatly enhanced economic and social development while bringing countries closer together. Many challenges remain, however. Unsustainable patterns of production and consumption are putting increasing pressure on the Earth's environment. The physical interaction mechanisms among oceans, land, atmosphere and solar radiation are not fully understood. Natural disasters cause damage totalling billions of dollars and significantly set back development programmes. Large segments of the world population, in particular in rural areas of developing countries, are in need of education and health services. Improved space capabilities and international cooperation could assist in dealing with those and other important issues, thus promoting economic and social progress. Recognizing the need for constructing a practical, well-defined framework for future international cooperation in space activities, the United Nations decided to convene a Third Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE HI), to be held in Vienna from 19 to 30 July 1999. While UNISPACE HI will focus on promoting effective means of using to assist in solving problems of regional and global significance, as well as strengthening the capabilities of countries in using space applications for development needs, particular attention will also be given to the role that the United Nations and its agencies can play in the coordination of programmes that could utilize space technology applications for development purposes. The present edition was produced in conjunction with preparations for UNISPACE HI to provide an updated overview of organizations both within and outside the United Nations system engaged in space-related activities, their past work and events, current programmes and future plans beyond the Conference. As this publication documents, there are currently a great number of ongoing international, regional and bilateral cooperative activities serving the interests of all nations.

iii

Preface In response to a request by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, in May 1964 the Secretariat prepared a working paper reviewing the activities and resources of the United Nations, the specialized agencies and other international bodies relating to the peaceful uses of outer space. In November 1964, on the recommendation of its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, the Committee decided that the review should be issued at least once every two years. Six reviews appeared between 1964 and 1970. In June 1970, the representatives of the United Nations and the specialized agencies on the Inter-Agency Working Group on Programmes and Activities Relating to the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space of the Administrative Committee on Coordination proposed that the review should be revised and printed at least once every three years and that annual supplements should be issued to bring the information up to date. In September 1971, the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space welcomed the arrangements made by the Secretary-General to issue the review in printed form for wider circulation, with annual supplements to be issued thereafter. The first such review was published in 1972 (A/AC. 105/100) and a complete revision of the 1972 publication, covering activities up to the end of 1975, was published in 1977 (A/AC. 105/193). A revision covering activities up to the end of 1985 was published in 1986 (A/AC. 105/35 8).1 Annual reviews of the space activities of the United Nations and the specialized agencies are submitted to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in a series of documents entitled "Coordination of outer space activities within the United Nations system", the most recent of which is the report of the Secretary-General of 18 May 1998 (A/AC. 105/700). Many of the other international organizations active in space also submit annual reports on their activities to the Committee. In 1993, a further updated version of the activities of the United Nations and international organizations was issued (A/AC. 105/521).2 The present review, which is a thorough revision of the 1993 version and covers the period up to the end of 1998, is intended, like the earlier versions, to serve as a reference guide, providing a general overview of the organization, past activities, current programmes and future plans of the various international bodies involved in cooperative efforts in the peaceful uses of outer space. The review has been prepared by the United Nations with the cooperation of the other organizations covered, whose cooperation the Secretary-General gratefully acknowledges.

'United Nations publication, Sales No. E.86.I.2. 2United Nations publication, Sales No. E.92.I.30. v

CONTENTS Paragraphs Page

Chapters I. UNITED NATIONS 1-276 1 A. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1-68 1 B. Office for Outer Space Affairs 69-101 12 C. United Nations International Drug Control Programme 102-152 17 D. Secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction 153-167 24 E. Economic Commission for Africa 168-182 29 F. Economic Commission for 183-193 32 G. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 194-227 35 H. United Nations Environment Programme . 228-247 41 I. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research 248-276 46

H. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES AND RELATED ORGANIZATIONS 277-518 52 A. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 277-314 52 B. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 315-346 59 C. International Civil Aviation Organization 347-354 65 D. World Bank 355-367 67 E. World Health Organization 368-381 69 F. International Union 382-448 71 G. World Meteorological Organization 449-469 84 H. International Maritime Organization 470-496 88 I. World Intellectual Property Organization 497-506 91 J. International Atomic Energy Agency 507-518 94

HI. OTHER INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 519-681 97 A. European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ... 519-537 97 B. 538-574 99 C. European Organization 575-588 104 D. International Mobile Satellite Organization 589-624 106 E. International Organization of Space Communications 625-637 113 F. International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 638-681 115

vii Paragraphs Page

IV. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 682-902 123 A. Association of Space Explorers 682-710 123 B. International Academy of Astronautics 711-734 127 C. International Astronautical Federation 735-756 134 D. International Astronomical Union 757-773 138 E. International Council for Science 774-856 141 Committee on 832-856 151 F. International Law Association 857-863 157 G. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 864-894 162 H. International Space University 895-902 170 Annex. List of selected United Nations documents relating to outer space 173

viii I. UNITED NATIONS A. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1. History and organization

J ^0213*+ 1. In 195 8, shortly after the launching of thefirst artificial sate!1iteT the General Assembly decided to establish an aoVhoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in order to consider: (a) the activities and resources of tiie United Nations, the specialized agencies and other international bodies relating to the peaceful uses of outer space; (b) international cooperation and programmes in the field that could appropriately be undertaken under United Nations auspices; (c) organizational arrangements to facilitate international cooperation in the field within the framework of the United Nations; and (d) legal problems that might arise in programmes to explore outer space. Practical proposals for international cooperation included exchange of information on space research, coordination of national space research programmes, and assistance in the implementation of such programmes. In 1959, the General Assembly established the^pommittee as a permanent body and reaffirmed its mandate in its resolution 1472 (XIV) A of 12 December 1959. The Committee has two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee andtheLegal Subcommittee. ^ 2. The Committee currently comprises 61 member States: Albania, Argentina, Australia, , Belgium, Benin, Brazil, , Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Canada, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, ,1 , Ecuador, Egypt, , , Greece, , , Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Italy, Japan, , Kenya, Lebanon, Malaysia,1 Mexico, , Morocco, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru,1 Philippines, , Portugal, Republic of Korea,1 , Russian Federation, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, , Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, , United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Viet Nam and Yugoslavia. 3. A number of international organizations, including both intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, have observer status with the Committee and its Subcommittees. Those organizations and the year in which observer status was granted are the following: the Committee on Space Research (COSEAR) of the International Council for Science (IQ£U) (1961); the European Space Agency (1975); the International Astronautical Federation (I£F) (1976); the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSA2) (1985); the International Organization of Space Communications (INTER£PUTNIK) (1985); the International Mobile Satellite Organization () (1986); the Council on International Cooperation in the Study and Utilization of Outer Space (INTERC0SMOS) (1989); the International Law Association (1990); the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (1990), the International Academy of Astronautics (1995), the International Astronomical Union (1995), the Planetary Society and the International Space University (1997). 4. Every aspect of the work of the Committee and its Subcommittees, including the establishment of their bureaux, is agreed upon by consensus. The bureaux consist of the following five offices: Chairperson, First Vice- Chairperson and Second Vice-Chairperson/Rapporteur of the Committee, Chairperson of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and Chairperson of the Legal Subcommittee. The five offices rotate among the five regional groups, with one office being allocated to each regional group: the Group of African States, the Group of Asian States, the Group of Eastern European States, the Group of Latin American and Caribbean States and the Group of Western European and Other States. The term of each office is three years.

'Cuba and the Republic of Korea alternate membership every two years with Peru and Malaysia respectively. 1 5. The officers of the Committee are U. R. Rao (India), Chairman;2 Raimundo Gonzalez (Chile), First Vice-Chairman; the candidate of the 'Group of African States for Second Vice-Chairman/Rapporteur is Mohammed Ait Belaid(Morocco). The election of the Second Vice-Chairman/Rapporteur will be held in July 1999. The Chief of the Committee Services and Research Section of the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat serves as Secretary of the Committee. 6. The Cliairman3 of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee is Dietrich Rex (Germany) and the Chairman4 of the Legal Subcommittee is Vladimir Kopal (Czech Republic). 7. The Office for Outer^Jpace Affairs serves as secretariat for the Committee and its two Subcommittees. Other offices of the Secretariat and other organizations of the United Nations system concerned with space activities regularly participate in the meetings of the Committee and Subcommittees. 8. The Committee and its two Subcommittees meet annually to consider items put before them by the General Assembly, reports submitted to them and issues raised by Member States. In turn, the Committee and the Subcommittees, working on the basis of consensus, make recommendations to the Assembly. Detailed information on the work of the Committee and the Subcommittees are contained in their annual reports. The report on the forty- first session of the Committee (1998) is contained in document A/53/20.5 The report on the thirty-sixth session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (1999) is contained in document A/AC. 105/719. The report of the thirty-eighth session of the Legal Subcommittee (1999) is contained in document A/AC. 105/721. 9. The item on international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space has been considered by the General Assembly in its First Committee (from the thirteenth to the thirty-second sessions), the Special Political Committee

2The following have served as Chairmen of the Committee: K. Matsudaira (Japan) F. Matsch (Austria) 1961-1961959 4 K. Waldheim (Austria) 1965-1968 H. Haymerle (Austria) 1969-1970 K. Waldheim (Austria) P. Jankowitsch (Austria) 1972-1991971 0 P. Hohenfellner (Austria) 1991-1994 U. R. Rao (India) 1997-present 3The following have served as Chairmen of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: D. F. Mastyn (Australia) 1962-1967 R. S. Rettie (Canada) 1969 J. H. Carver (Australia) 1970-1995 D. Rex (Germany) 1996-present 4The following have served as Chairmen of the Legal Subcommittee: M. Lachs (Poland) 1962-1966 E. Wyzner (Poland) 1967-1982 L. Handl () 1983-1988 S. Suja (Czechoslovakia) V. Mikulka (Czechoslovakia) 1990-1991989 2 V. Mikulka (Czech Republic) 1993-1998 V. Kopal (Czech Republic) 1999 ^Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-third Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/53/20). 2 (from the thirty-third to the forty-sixth sessions) and the Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) (forty-seventh to fifty-third sessions). 2. Mandate and objectives 10. In its resolution 1721 (XVI) B of 20 December 1961, the General Assembly, believing that the United Nations should provide a focal point for international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, requested the Committee, in cooperation with the Secretary-General and making full use of the functions and resources of the Secretariat: (a) to maintain close contact with governmental and non-governmental organizations concerned with outer space matters; (b) to provide for the exchange of such information relating to outer space activities as Governments might supply on a voluntary basis, supplementing but not duplicating existing technical and scientific exchanges; and (c) to assist in the study of measures for the promotion of international cooperation in outer space activities. The Assembly also requested the Secretary-General to maintain a public registry of launchings based on the information furnished by States launching objects into orbit or beyond. Those terms of reference, along with the recommendations of the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNgJPACE), held in 1968, and the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPAC^82), held in 1982, have since provided general guidance for the activities of the Committee in promoting international cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. (a) Promotion of cooperation in space science and technology 11. A major function of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space has been to promote international cooperative programmes in the peaceful uses of outer space. In its early years, the Committee concentrated on encouraging international cooperation in scientific research programmes. Following UNISPACE and UNISPACE 82, the Committee has given priority to international cooperation in the applications of space technology for economic and social development, including applications for meteorology, communications and broadcasting, resource management and development, environmental monitoring, navigation and disaster relief. 12. Noting that the specialized agencies and other bodies of the United Nations system and other international organizations were also concerned with those applications, the Committee has emphasized the importance of coordinating space activities within the United Nations system and among international organizations and has invited other offices, agencies and organizations to provide the Committee with information on their space-related activities. With the participation (as observers) of other United Nations bodies, specialized agencies and international organizations, the Committee has provided an effective mechanism for keeping States informed of the activities of the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations involved in the field. 13. Within the United Nations system, several specialized agencies and related organizations, such as the International Labour Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the World Meteorological Organization, the International Maritime Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency, have been actively involved since the beginning of the space age in space technology and its terrestrial applications. ^-g *^B3 14. The increase in activity and the increasing number of units within the United Nations Secnftariat and in the specialized agencies involved in the use of space technology necessitated an annual |foter-AjgpHcy Meeting on Outer Space Activities to coordinate the space activities of the United Nations system, to work out joint programmes and to prepare a report on those activities and programmes for the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee. The nineteenth Inter-Agency Meeting was held in Vienna in June 1998 and its report has been issued (A/AC. 105/701).

3 15. A report on the coordination of outer space activities within the United Nations system is also issued each year (most recent document A/AC. 105/700) and contains information on seminars, training courses and activities or programmes planned by individual organizations. It also contains a matrix of outer space programmes of each participant, a summary of major activities and programmes planned for each year by the organizations of the United Nations system. 16. The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee has continued to be an important mechanism for the exchange of information on space science and technology. In addition to the annual symposium organized by COSPAR and IAF on a theme selected by the Subcommittee for special attention, technical presentations relating to items on the agendas of the Committee and the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee are also arranged by Member States. A summary of those presentations is distributed each year, most recently in the report by the Secretariat of 20 April 1998(A/AC.105/699). (b) International 17. The Committee is the only international forum for the development of international space law. Since its inception, the Committee has concluded five international legal instruments and five sets of legal principles governing space-related activities. The texts of those legal agreements and a matrix showing the participation of countries in them can be found in "United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space" (A/AC. 105/722- A/CONF.184/BP/15). 18. The international legal principles in thesefive treaties6 provide for non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of and , the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes. Each of the treaties lays great stress on the notion that the domain of outer space, the activities carried out therein and whatever benefits might accrue therefrom should be devoted to enhancing the well-being of all countries and humankind, and each includes elements elaborating the common idea of promoting international cooperation in outer space activities.

Thefive treatie s and agreements are the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "OutefcSpace Treaty") (General Assembly resolution 2222 (XXI), annex, of 19 December 1966), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 94 ratifications and 27 signatures; the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "") (resolution 2345 (XXII), annex, of 19 December 1967), opened for signature on 22 April 1968, entered mto force on 3 December 1968, 83 ratifications and 25 signatures; the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention*') (resolution 2777 (XXVI), annex, of 29 ), opened for signature on 29 March 1972, entered into force on 1 September 1972, 76 ratifications and 25 signatures; the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "") (resolution 3235 (XXIX), annex, of 12 November 1974), opened for signature on 14 January 1975, entered into force on 15 September 1976, 39 ratifications and 4 signatures; and the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the 'JMoon Agreement") (resolution 34/68, annex, of 5 December 1979), opened for signature on 18 December 1979, entered into force on 11 July 1984, 9 ratifications and 5 signatures.

4 19. The five sets of legal principles7 adopted by the United Nations General Assembly provide for the application of international law and promotion of international cooperation and understanding in space activities, the dissemination and exchange of information through transnational direct via satellites and remote satellite observations of Earth and general standards regulating the safe use of nuclear power sources necessary for the exploration and use of outer space. (c) Information exchange 20. The international dissemination of information on the peaceful uses of outer space has been one of the primary concerns of the Committee since its inception. One of the early recommendations made by the Committee was to promote exchange of information by inviting Member States conducting space activities to submit literature on space research, technology and applications of broad interest to Member States. 21. The Committee also invites Member States to provide information on their national and cooperative international space programmes, ^formation on those programmes and activities has been disseminated in annual reviews of national and cooperative international space programmes and can be found in the notes by the Secretariat entitled "Implementation of the recommendations of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space" (A/AC.105/679 and Add.l and 2). (d) United Nations Conferences on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 22. In 1959, the Committee recommended that an international scientific conference for interested Member States and specialized agencies be convened for the exchange of experience in the peaceful uses of outer space. As finally outlined by the Committee in 1966 and endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution 2221 (XXI) of 19 December 1996, the first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE) was held in 1968 in Vienna. It was conceived as an opportunity not only to exchange information on a global scale but also to examine the practical benefits of and the opportunities available for international cooperation with special reference to the needs of the developing countries. It was attended by 78 Member States, nine specialized agencies and four other international organizations. The papers presented at the Conference were published in Space Exploration and Applications: Papers Presented at the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna, 14-27 August 1968 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.69.I.16, vols. I and H) and a digest of the papers was published in Practical Benefits of Space Exploration: A Digest of Papers Presented at the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna, 1968 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.69.I.25). 23. In view of the rapid progress of space exploration and technology following the 1968 Conference, UNISPACE 82 was convened in Vienna in 1982. Its purpose was to exchange information and experience on recent developments in space and to assess such developments and the adequacy and effectiveness of institutional and cooperative means for reaping the benefits of space technology. The Conference was attended by 94 Member States, with representatives of 45 intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations attending as observers. Consideration was given to three main subjects: (a) the state of space science and technology; (b) applications of space science and technology; and (c) international cooperation and the role of the United Nations. The

7The five declarations and legal principles are the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (General Assembly resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963); the Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (resolution 37/92 of 10 December 1982); the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earthfrom Oute r Space (resolution 41/65 of 3 December 1986); the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (resolution 47/68 of 14 December 1992); the Dedaratio^n^oli International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries (resolution 51/122 of 13 December 1996). 5 recommendations and conclusions of UNISPACE 82, which were adopted by consensus, are contained in its report (A/CONF.101/10 and Corr.l and 2). 24. Specific recommendations of UNISPACE 82 that were endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution 37/90 of 10 December 1982 were: (a) that the United Nations and other organizations should conduct studies of existing and proposed space activities and their implications; (b) that the United Nations Programme on Space Applications should be strengthened, expanded and directed towards a number of objectives specified by the Conference; and (c) that an^Intemational Space Information Servicd should be established. 25. In 1987, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee established a Working Group of the Whole to evaluate the implementation of the recommendations of UNISPACE 82, in accordance with General Assembly resolution 41/64 of 3 December 1986, with a view to improving the execution of activities relating to international cooperation, in particular those included in the United Nations Programme on Space Applications, and to propose concrete steps to increase such cooperation as well as to make it more efficient. 26. The Working Group recommended that the emphasis of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications should remain on long-term and project-oriented activities, with on-the-job training in space technology and applications, while short-term seminars and workshops on advanced applications should continue to be organized regularly. The Working Group also recommended that in order to promote education in developing countries, the United Nations should lead an international effort to establish regional centres for space science and technology education in developing countries. To promote exchange of information, the Working Group recommended that Member States submit information on their space activities and that the Office for Outer Space Affairs prepare studies to demonstrate the potential of specific space technologies and applications. 27. By the 1990s, the Committee recognized that space-related activities had matured to such a point that a closer re-examination of their capabilities was required and it therefore recommended that a Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE HI) be convened at the United Nations Office at Vienna. The General Assembly, in its resolution 52/56 of 10 December 1997, agreed that it should be held from 19 to 30 July 1999 as a special session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, open to all States Members of the United Nations, international organizations and the . 28. One of the key objectives of UNISPACE HI is to identify specific areas and actions through which space technology can help solve common regional and global problems and can increase the understanding of phenomena of global characteristics, such as climate change. Another goal of the Conference is to strengthen the capabilities of Member States, in particular of developing countries, in using the applications of space research for economic, social and cultural development. 29. UNISPACE HI will identify ways and means to reinforce international cooperation in space activities further. Particular attention will be given to the role that the United Nations and its agencies can play in the coordination of programmes that utilize space science and technology applications for development purposes. 30. The General Assembly also agreed that a series of regional preparatory conferences would be held in advance of UNISPACE HI in Chile, Malaysia, Morocco and Romania to enhance awareness of the Conference and to promote discussion of issues relevant to it, for the benefit of Member States of the regions of Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific, Africa and the Arab States, and Eastern Europe, respectively. 3. Current issues (a) Consideration of scientific and technical subjects 31. In an effort to promote international scientific and technical cooperation in space activities, the Committee and its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee have over the years made a series of recommendations promoting

6 exchange of information, encouraging international programmes in space science, technology and applications, and providing opportunities for education and training in the practical applications of space technology. Some of the subjects currently of interest to the Committee and the Subcommittee are summarized below. (i) 32. The Subcommittee deliberations on space debris have been in accordance with a multi-year work plan that it adopted in 1995 following the inclusion of this topic in its agenda the previous year. At that time, the Subcommittee agreed to focus on understanding research related to space debris and to produce a technical report structured according to the specific topics addressed by the work plan during the period 1996-1998: measurements of space debris, understanding of data and effects of the space debris environment on space systems; modelling of the space debris environment; and risk assessment and space debris mitigation measures. 33. The Subcommittee has been working in close cooperation with the Inter-Agency $f$ace Debris Coordination Committee, which has presented several scientific and technical presentations on the subject at the Subcommittee's annual sessions and provided technical expertise in the drafting of the technical report. 34. At its thirty-sixth session, in 1999, the Subcommittee adopted the technical report on space debfis and agreed to continue to examine the subject in the coming years. (ii) Remote sensing activities 35. Remote sensing from outer space has proved to be a very efficient method of gathering massive amounts of information about Earth and its environment. Useful applications of remote sensing data include monitoring of the environment, studies in agriculture and forestry, geography, geology and mineral resources, hydrology and water resources, oceanography and marine resources, atmosphere, meteorology and management of natural disasters. 36. With the advent of remote sensing satellites, the Committee and the Subcommittee began to review national and cooperative programmes in remote sensing, with examples of national programmes in developing and developed countries and of international programmes based on bilateral, regional and international cooperation, including programmes of technical cooperation between developing countries being presented. Countries with advanced capabilities in remote sensing, including some developing countries, described programmes to provide assistance to developing countries. 37. Starting in 1987, the Subcommittee began considering progress in national and international space activities related to the Earth environment, in particular progress in the mterqajtional Geosphere-Biosphere (Global Change) Programme, noting that long-term variations in such factors as atmospheric carbon dioxide, solar radiation, global vegetation cover and ocean temperature patterns were important for the evolution of the global environment and that satellites provided a valuable tool for monitoring those phenomena and their environmental effects. The Subcommittee has also noted the need for further research to reduce the uncertainties in environmental parameters and climate models relating to temperature change, sea-level change, global vegetation cover and other factors related to the environment. In 1998, the Subcommittee selected as the theme for special attention "Scientific and technical aspects and applications of space-based meteorology". inqi*r 38. The Subcommittee has repeatedly stressed that remote sensing from outer space should be carried out with the widest possible international cooperation and participation and has also emphasized the importance of making remote sensing data and analysed information openly available to all countries at reasonable cost and in a timely manner. 39. At the request of the Subcommittee, the Office for Outer Space Affairs has undertaken a number of studies of remote sensing applications for development, the most important of which are described below.

7 (iii) Satellite broadcasting, communications and the a. Satellite broadcasting and communications 40. Soon after its establishment the Committee recognized the importance of satellites for communications. Believing that satellite communications should be made available to all nations of the world on a global and non• discriminatory basis, and recognizing the important role played by ITU in this area, the Committee called on States to give sympathetic consideration to requests for technical and other assistance in determining national communication needs and domestic communication facilities with a view to effective use of space communications. 41. The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee has, over the years, encouraged international cooperation in satellite communications and has followed cooperative programmes, including those of Inmarsat, and , which have participated in meetings of the Subcommittee as observers. 42. The Subcommittee has also requested the Office for Outer Space Affairs to prepare several studies on the development and use of space-based communication technology. The latest studies have covered the use of low-Earth orbit satellites for voice communications (A/AC. 105/564), satellite-based radio broadcasting (A/AC. 105/591) and use of new technologies in satellite communications and information networks (A/AC.105/665). 43. In 1993, the Subcommittee selected as its theme for special attention '^Space-based communications: the expansion of current services and increased understanding of new systems and the services they will make possible". In 1997, the Subcommittee chose "Space systenjs for direct broadcasting and global information systems for space research" as its theme for special attention. (b) The geostationary orbit 44. The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee has been examining the physical nature and technical attributes of the geostationary^fbit at the request of the Committee since 1977. In 1988, at the twenty-fifth session of the Subcommittee, the title of the agenda item relating to the geostationary orbit was reformulated to read: "Examination of the physical nature and technical attributes of the geostationary orbit; examination of its utilization and applications, including, inter alia, in thefield of space communications, as well as other questions relating to space communications developments, taking particular account of the needs and interests of developing countries". For that session, the Office for Outer Space Affairs, at the request of the Subcommittee, prepared an updated study on the physical nature and technical attributes of the geostationary orbit (A/AC. 105/404). 45. As part of its deliberations, the Subcommittee reviews national and international cooperative programmes in satellite communications, including progress in communication satellite technology that would make satellite communications more accessible and less expensive and increase the communication capacity of the geostationary orbit and the electrorgagnetic spectrum. 46. The growing use of communication satellite systems for telecommunications, television broadcasting, data networks, environmental data relay, mobile communications, disaster warning and relief, telemedicine and other communication functions, in particular in the low and medium orbit, makes possible the exploitation of new orbital resources, thereby reducing the demand for geostationary orbit slots. 47. In conjunction with this development, the Subcommittee in 1998 noted the regulations adopted by the Worlsl Radiocommunication Conference held in Geneva from 27 October to 21 November 1997, which were implemented by ITU. In particular, the regulatory period available to bring a satellite network into use had been reduced to five years (with the possibility of an extension of up to two years subject to special conditions) from six years (with the possibility of an automatic extension of up to three years). The Subcommittee noted that this

8 reduction, together with the requirement to provide detailed documentation on the proposed network, was intended to limit substantially the submission of fictional "paper" projects and to lead to more efficient and equitable use of geostationary orbital positions and frequencies. 48. Li 1998 the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space agreed that the following principles, universally accepted by the scientific and technical community, should be applied: (a) The existence of of all satellites, including geostationary satellites, depends mainly on gravitational phenomena generated by the entire body of the Earth; (b) A geostationary satellite, whether acted upon by natural forces or by man-made impulses, is not fixed over a point on Earth's Equator: between corrective impulses of its station-keeping, it is in a natural flight caused by gravitational as well as non-gravitational forces generated by the Earth, the Sun and the Moon. (iv) Nuclear power sources 49. In its resolution 47/68 of 14 December 1992, the General Assembly adopted the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, upon the recommendation of the Committee, and decided that the Principles should be reopened for revision by the Committee no later than two years after their adoption. 50. Since then, the Committee has agreed that the Principles should remain in their current form until amended and that, before amendment, proper consideration should be given to the aims and objectives of any proposed revision. 51. The Committee agreed with the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee that, while a revision of the Principles was not necessary at the current stage, it was important that States making use of nuclear power sources should conduct their activities in full accordance with the Principles. 52. In 1998, the Subcommittee adopted a four-year work plan and a proposed schedule of work for developing a framework for safety assurance processes and standards for nuclear power sources in outer space. In accordance with that agreement, Member States and international organizations will be invited to submit information to be considered in 2000 and 2001 on identifying terrestrial processes and technical standards that may be relevant to nuclear power sources, including factors that distinguish nuclear power sources in outer space from terrestrial nuclear applications and a review of national and international processes, proposals and standards and national working papers relevant to the launch and peaceful use of nuclear power sources in outer space. 53. In 2002, the Subcommittee will prepare a report containing that information and in 2003 will determine whether or not to take any additional steps concerning the information contained in the report. (v) Other items of interest 54. The Subcommittee annually reviews national and international cooperative programmes in space transportation systems, including expendable launchers, reusable space shuttles and space stations, and notes the importance of international cooperation in space transportation in order to provide all countries with access to the benefits of space science and technology. 55. The Subcommittee considers it particularly important that all countries should have the opportunity to use the techniques resulting from medical studies and other life sciences in space. The Subcommittee has noted that studies of human and animal physiology under conditions of microgravity during space flight have led to important advances in medical knowledge in such areas as blood circulation, sensory perception, immunology and the effects of cosmic radiation. Additionally, the Subcommittee has noted that applications of space technologies are demonstrating growing promise in medicine and public health on Earth and that products of space biotechnology,

9 such as pharmaceutical and medical instruments, can contribute to improved health care. The Subcommittee has also noted the importance of space technology for those purposes and has encouraged further research and exchange of information on those applications. 56. Since 1987, the Subcommittee has considered the topics of planetary exploration and astronomy, with a number of Member States providing information to the Subcommittee and making special presentations on related subjects. The Subcommittee has noted the variety of planetary exploration missions and the use of spacecraft for making astronomical observations from above the atmosphere. It has recognized the high degree of international cooperation in all of those investigations and has stressed the need to enhance international cooperation further in those fields to enable all countries to benefit from and participate in such activities. 57. In recognition of the importance of the use of space technology for navigational purposes, the Committee and Subcommittee have also heard information on various navigation satellite systems, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) of the United States of America and the Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of the Russian Federation. Since 1982, a number of Member States and international organizations have provided the Subcommittee with information on position-fmdingjnd^search and rescue satellite systems. The Subcommittee has noted in particular the international collaborative Jsearch and rescue satellite system COSPAS/SARSAT and has recommended that all Member States consider using the system for search and rescue. 5 8,. Given that satellite communications can play a significant role in distance education, the Subcommittee has been very active in promoting space applications for education in developing countries where the limited availability of resources does not permit establishment of the costly ground infrastructure needed to meet development needs. In 1995, the Subcommittee chose as its theme for special attention "Application of space technology for education, with particular emphasis on its use in developing countries" and in 1998 examined a study carried out by the Office for/Outer Space Affairs entitled "Applications of space communications technology to distance education". / „ r& . o^ (b) Consideration of legal issues 59. International space law as developed by the Committee and its Legal Subcommittee, in the form of the five treaties6 and five sets of legal principles7 on matters relating to the peaceful uses of outer space, reflects the importance that the world community has attached to international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space. 60. Currently, the Legal Subcommittee is considering the question of review and possible revision of the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space; matters relating to the definition and delimitation of outer space and to the character and utilization of the geostationary orbit, including consideration of the ways and means to ensure the rational and equitable use of the geostationary orbit without prejudice to the role of ITU; and a review of the status of the five international legal instruments governing outer space. A summary of recent debate on these topics can be found in the reports of the Subcommittee. 61. The Legal Subcommittee is constantly examining possible supplements to the existing corpus of space law. Over the last decade, commercialization and privatization of space-related activities have seen dramatic growth, leading to significant increases in the number of non-state actors involved in the use, exploration and exploitation of outer space, as well as the number of different activities in which those actors are engaged. Satellite telecommunications, and positioning, the provision of launching equipment and services, the capability for launching from platforms in the high seas, remote sensing and space science research and development are already developing into rapidly growing private industries. Similarly, activities such as , the mining of asteroids and other celestial bodies, and waste disposal in outer space are no longer matters of idle speculation, but are being seriously considered as possibilities for private space enterprise in the not too distant future, hi recent years, the increase in outer space activities has given rise to new, highly technical issues such as space debris and the use of nuclear power sources in space, as well as the need to reinforce intellectual

10 property rights. Innovations in space technology are also bringing activities geared towards the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and on the various celestial bodies within the realm of feasibility. This growing diversity of space-related activities may soon require extensive intergovernmental regulatory cooperation and the elaboration of common legal rules, standards and practices to ensure that space activities are carried out in a safe, systematic and orderly fashion. 62. Annual resolutions of the General Assembly invite States to consider ratification or accession to the existing treaties. The apparent decline in the willingness of States to bind themselves to the terms of successive treaties has tended to undermine the normative authority of the later international agreements. The Committee and the Legal Subcommittee have solicited the views of States regarding the obstacles that impede ratification of the five international legal instruments governing outer space and have begun a review of those obstacles with a view to enhancing adherence to the legal instruments. The exercise has also drawn attention to the fact that actual practical adherence by States to the provisions of the treaties to which they are parties is less than optimal and is another matter requiring immediate consideration. Such developments pose challenging legal questions for the Subcommittee in the coming years. 4, Maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes 63. Since 1983, when the General Assembly requested the Committee to consider, as a matter of priority, the questions relating to maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes, the Committee has agreed that, through its work in the scientific, technical and legal fields, it had an important role to play in ensuring that outer space was maintained for peaceful purposes and that current efforts should be continued that would strengthen the role of the Committee in maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes. The Committee had responsibilities that could cover, among other matters, further development of international space law, including, as appropriate, the preparation of international agreements governing various practical peaceful applications of space science and technology. 64. Some Member States have taken the position that the Committee should complement the work being done in bilateral and multilateral forums aimed at preventing an extension of the arms race into outer space, while other Member States have taken the position that disarmament questions do not fall within the competence of the Committee and should be left to the Conference on Disarmament. 65. In recent years, some Member States have also held the view that the Committee should contribute to maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes by strengthening the scientific and technical content of its work and by promoting broader and deeper international and regional cooperation between all countries in outer space activities. 5. Spin-off benefits of space technology 66. Spin-off benefits are products and processes that have emerged as secondary applications of space technology. Spin-offs that can be used in areas such as agricultural processes, human resource development, environmental monitoring, natural resource management, public health and telecommunications could be of particular benefit to developing countries. 67. Taking into account the growing importance of spin-off benefits, the Committee has emphasized the need for international cooperation in developing spin-off benefits of space technology and in ensuring that all countries, in particular developing countries, have access to those benefits. The Committee has also agreed that there is a need to examine ways to strengthen and enhance international cooperation in this field, through improved access to spin-offs for all countries, giving particular attention to those spin-offs which could address the social and economic needs of developing countries.

11 68. On the recommendation of the Committee, the United Nations Programme on Space Applications has held two international conferences on spin-off benefits of space technology, the goal of which is to promote interaction between industrialists, researchers, government organizations and financial institutions in order to share experiences, identify common approaches to cooperation and discuss joint follow-up activities. 8. Office for Outer Space Affairs 1. History and mandate 69. The Office for Outer Space Affairs was initially created as a small expert unit within the Secretariat to service the ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space established by the General Assembly in its resolution 1348 (XHI) of 13 December 1958. It became a unit within the Department of Political and Security Council Affairs in 1962, when the permanent Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space met for the first time, and was transformed into the Outer Space Affairs Division of that Department in 1968. In 1992, the Division was transformed into the Office for Outer Space Affairs within the Department for Political Affairs. In 1993, the Office was relocated to the United Nations Office at Vienna. At that time, the Office also assumed responsibility for substantive secretariat services to the Legal Subcommittee, which had previously been provided by the Office of Legal Affairs in New York. 70. The Office for Outer Space Affairs implements the decisions of the General Assembly and of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The office has the dual objective of supporting the intergovernmental discussions in the Committee and its two subcommittees and of assisting developing countries in using space technology for development. In addition, it follows legal, scientific and technical developments relating to space activities, technology and applications in order to provide technical information and advice to Member States, international organizations and other United Nations offices. 71. The Office is headed by a Director8 and has two sections: the Space Applications Section, which organizes and carries out the United Nations Programme on Space Applications, and the Committee Services and Research Section, which provides substantive secretariat services to the Committee, its two subcommittees and its working groups. The Committee Services and Research Section also prepares and distributes reports and publications on international space activities and on international space law. 2. Space Applications Section: the United Nations Programme on Space Applications 72. As a result of the shifting emphasis from scientific exploration of outer space to the practical applications of space technology, the Office has been increasingly involved in implementing decisions of the Committee and its subsidiary bodies related to the promotion of international cooperation in the uses of space technology for economic and social development. Beginning with the first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE) in 1968, the Office has carried out programmes designed to disseminate information and provide training in the practical applications of space technology, in particular for developing countries. 73. An Expert on Space^Applications was appointed in 1970 to the then Outer Space Affairs Division. One of the first recornmendatiorfs of the Expert to the Committee was the establishment of a United Nations Programme

y. 8The following have served as Directors of the Office for Outer Space Affairs: A. H. Abdel-Ghani (Egypt) 1960-1976 Lubos Perek (Czech Republic) 1976-1981 Marvin Robinson (United States of America), Acting Director 1982-1983 Vladimir Kopal (Czech Republic) 1983-1988 N. Jasentuliyana (Sri Lanka) 1988-1999 12 on Space Applications. Initially, the Programme was designed to create awareness on the part of policy makers and interested government agencies of the benefits that could be derivedfrom th e applications of space technology and to encourage training and education programmes to enable officials from developing countries to gain practical experience in those applications. 74. After the Second Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE 82) in 1982, the General Assembly, in its resolution 37/90 of 10 December 1982, expanded the mandate of the Programme on Space Applications to include promoting indigenous capabilities in the developing countries. (a) Training courses, workshops and conferences 75. To fulfil its expanded mandate, the Programme organizes 6-10 activities each year based on an annual programme of activities submitted a year in advance to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Committee for review and approval. The activities are planned and carried out in cooperation with national and international space agencies and host Governments. The activities of the Programme cover such subjects as applications of remote sensing, satellite communications and meteorological satellites, as well as space and atmospheric sciences. 76. Following approval of an activity by the Committee, an announcement of the activity is sent to all developing countries in the case of international activities and all developing countries of the region concerned in the case of regional activities. The announcements are distributed through the permanent missions of Member States to the United Nations, through the United Nations Development Programme offices in the countries, and through other channels appropriate to the particular activity. The United Nations selects participants on the basis of their qualifications and the resources available to support their participation. 77. Financial support for the activities comes from the regular budget of the United Nations, from voluntary contributions from Member States and international space organizations to the Trust Fund of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications, from the host country or national institution for each activity, from donor countries for particular activities andfrom th e countries and international space-related organizations that provide instructors and speakers for the activities. In general, about one third of the cost of each activity is borne by the host country or organization. 78. The Subcommittee and Committee are informed of activities as they proceed and reports on the activities are submitted following their completion. In addition to the regional and international activities organized and run in cooperation with host Governments, the Programme also co-sponsors or supports activities organized by other international governmental and non-governmental organizations. 79. Since its inception in 1971, the Programme has organized over 150 such activities, attended by more than 7,500 participants. A list of the activities sponsored by it from 1971-1997 is contained in the report by the Secretariat of 12 January 1998 (A/AC. 105/692). Information on current activities can be found on the Web site of the Office for Outer Space Affairs. (b) Education 80. The Programme administers fellowships for long-term advanced education at space-related institutions in various countries. Beginning in 1984, the European Space Agency has offered five one-year fellowships annually for the study of space antennas and propagation, remote sensing instrumentation, remote sensing information systems and satellite meteorology at the European Space Research and Technology Centre, in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, the European Space Research Institute, in Frascati, Italy, and the European Space Operations Centre, in Darmstadt, GermariyTThTGoverh of China offers fellowships in geodesy, photogrammetry and remote sensing to researchers and application scientists from developing countries. In order to expand such educational

13 opportunities, the Office has led an international initiative to establish regional centres for space science and technology education in developing countries (see paras. 97-101 below). (c) Follow-up activities and technical advisory services 81. The many activities of the Programme often yield valuable recommendations for follow-up projects where the theory and skills acquired by participants can be put into practice. The Programme has also been involved in a number of technical advisory missions carried out in several countries to assist in local programme planning and regional cooperation. 82. Projects launched in response to recommendations of meetings organized by the Programme are often of particular value to Member States. Such projects enable developing countries to put into practice the theoretical knowledge and practical skills gained through participating in workshops, expert meetings and conferences. Among them are the establishment of regional centres for space science and technology education, pilot projects in Africa, Asia and Latin America for the use of Earth observation data, the cooperative information network linking scientists, educators, professionals and decision makers in Africa (COPINE) assistance to the Asia-Pacific Satellite Communications Council, the Cotopaxi ground receiving station in Ecuador, the establishmenUrfan stronomical telescope facility in Sri Lanka, the inauguration of me^gonoinical observatory forjCejatcaLA^^c^ in Honduras, the refurbishment of the 74-inch Kottamia Observ^oryTn~E©^ranTuie operation of a radio telescope in Colombia. 3. Committee Services and Research Section 83. The Office for Outer Space Affairs provides substantive secretariat services to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and Legal Subcommittee and related working groups. The Office also provides substantive secretariat services to the Working Group of the Whole of the Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) of the General Assembly when it considers the item on international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space. The Office convenes and services the Inter- Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities. The Office provided secretariat services in 1968 and 1982 for the two first United Nations Conferences on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. For the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE HI), the Office will act as executive secretariat and service the Conference within existing resources. 84. The reports and studies prepared by the Office for the use of the Committee and its subsidiary bodies have ranged from background information to substantive studies in variousfields o f space research, including practical applications of space technology, space law and organizational questions relating to international cooperation in those fields. For UNISPACE HI, the Office prepared 12 background papers providing a comprehensive survey of the current and future state of space science, technology and applications and the promotion of international cooperation, as well as information on United Nations space-related activities (A/CONF.184/BP/1-12). 85. To support its work in servicing the Committee and its subsidiary bodies and to provide information to Member States, the United Nations Library at the Vienna International Centre maintains a small collection of books, monographs, reports, periodicals and other publications. The library is open to representatives of Member States ana! other bodies of the United Nations system and, to the extent feasible, to other interested users. (aj£/international Space Information Service ^ ^ 86. UNISPACE 82 recommended that anjinternational space information service be established within the Office for Outer Space Affairs. This service was initially to consist of a directory of sources of information and data services and to be available to all countries, in particular developing countries.

14 87. A home page for the Office was established in 1996 on the (see sect. 6 below). The site provides further information about the Office and contains relevant documents on the work of the United Nations in the peaceful uses of outer space. 88. The Office for Outer Space Affairs also publishes and periodically updates/Education. Training, Research and Fellowship Opportunities in Space Science and Technology and its Applications: A Directory. The latest edition of the Directory wa§ published in 1998 (A/AC.105/671 and Add.l). 89. Beginning in 1989, the Office has each year prepared a summary of the scientific and technical presentations made during the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, including those made during the symposium organized by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and IAF on the special theme for the session and presentations arranged by Member States. The latest is the report by the Secretariat of 20 April 1998 (A/AC. 105/699). 90. Beginning in 1990, the Office has prepared an annual publication entitled Seminars of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications: selected Papers on Remote Sensing, Space Science and Information Technology containing selected papersfrom th e seminars, workshops and training courses of the Programme, with an emphasis on space science, technology and applications in developing countries. A major purpose of this series is to improve the exchange of information between developing countries, as recommended by UNISPACE 82. 91. Other documents and publications issued as part of the International Space Information Service relating to the work of the Committee and its subsidiary bodies are listed in section 5 below and in the annex to the present publication. (b) Responsibilities under the space treaties 92. The Secretary-General has administrative responsibilities under the five major treaties6 on outer space that have been concluded under United Nations auspices. The , the Reso^&rAgreement, the ^ability Convention, the Registration Convention and the MoortAgreement call on States conducting space activities to communicate certain information to the Secretary-General. 93. The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, in its articles HI and IV, provides that States launching objects into outer space shall furnish certain information to the Secretary-General and that the Secretary-General shall maintain a register recording that information. The United Nations registry is maintained by the Office for Outer Space Affairs. The registry for States that have ratified the Registration Convention is contained in documents ST/SG/SER.E/1-346, while a collection of voluntary registrations from other States and organizations is contained in documents A/AC. 105/INF. 1-401. An electronic database containing this information has been established and is continually updated. 4. International cooperation 94. In accordance with General Assembly resolution 1721 (XVI) B of 20 December 1961, the Office maintains close contact with governmental and non-governmental space agencies and organizations. It has regular contact with the specialized agencies concerned, in particular with the International Telecommunication Union, the World Health Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the Food and AgriculturejOfganization of the United Nations, and with such scientific organizations as the International Astronomical Union, the International Society feZPhotograrnmetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS), The Planetary Society, COSFAR and IAF. Representatives of the Office often attend the meetings of those bodies when such meetings concern outer space activities, with a view to informing them of the activities of the Committee. 95. Cooperation with the interested specialized agencies has most often involved joint sponsorship of seminars and workshops on practical applications of space technology. Working arrangements relating to such joint projects as well as other matters of mutual concern are considered at the annual Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space

15 Activities, where all the United Nations organizations active in outer space are represented. The results of the inter• agency coordination of space activities are submitted to the Committee at its annual sessions. 96. In 1997, the Office for Outer Space Affairs signed a memorandum of understanding with ISPRS for a more substantial cooperative working relationship and is working with a number of other organizations on similar arrangements. The Office continues to cooperate with COSPAR in promoting the participation of developing countries in the biennial COSPAR Scientific Assemblies. Beginning in 1991 at the IAF Congress at Montreal, the Office has organized a series of workshops held just prior to each annual congress. The United Nations has also provided financial support for the participation of a number of peoplefrom developing countries at the congresses. Centres for space science and technology education 97. The centres are part of the United Nations effort to enhance the level of indigenous capabilities in space science and technology education in developing countries. A series of regional and international meetings in the late 1980s sponsored by the Office for Outer Space Affairs concluded that in order for developing countries to contribute effectively to the solution of global, regional and national environmental and resource management problems, long-term in-depth education in the relevant disciplines was needed for educators and application scientists in those countries. 98. In its resolution 45/72 of 11 December 1990, the General Assembly called on the United Nations to lead, with the active support of its specialized agencies and other international organizations, an international effort to establish regional centres for space science and technology education in existing national/regional educational institutions in the developing countries. 99. The Office for Outer Space Affairs then developed a set of project proposals for a series of centres for space science and technology education in each of the developing regions. The project proposals were intended to serve as a basis for discussion and planning of the regional centres and were made available to all Member States, the regional commissions concerned (the Economic Commission for Africa, the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia), as well as other interested governmental and non-governmental institutions. 100. In November 1995, the first centre was established in India for the region of Asia and the Pacific. Since then, it has held six nine-month courses, serving a total of 128 post-graduate studentsfrom 25 countries. In 1998 centres were inaugurated in Morocco (in the French language) and in Nigeria (in the English language) for African countries. Agreement has already been reached on establishing a centre for the Latin American and Caribbean region, co-hosted by Brazil and Mexico, as well as a seven-nation network linking space-related education and research institutions in central, eastern and south-eastern Europe. Further discussions concerning a centre for western Asia are ongoing. 101. Each centre's education curriculum will focus on remote sensing, meteorological satellite applications, satellite communications and space and atmospheric sciences. Eventually, each centre's data management unit will be linked to existing and future global databases and continuing education programmes will be made available to graduates. Additionally, awareness programmes for policy and decision makers and for the general public will be conducted to promote the benefits of space technology applications in everyday life. 5. Publications9 Report of the Secretary-General on the work of the organization: international cooperation in space activities for enhancing security in the post-cold-war era (A/48/221)

9The symbol represents the latest edition of the publication or document. 16 United Nations treaties and principles on outer space (A/AC.105/572/Rev.2) Space law: a bibliography (A/AC. 105/636) Centres for space science and technology education: education curricula (A/AC. 105/649) Note by the Secretariat on implementation of the recommendations of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space: activities of Member States (A/AC. 105/679 and Add.l and 2) Note by the Secretariat on national research on space debris: safety of nuclear-powered satellites: problems of collisions of nuclear-power sources with space debris (A/AC. 105/680 and Add. 1) Report of the Secretary-General on the coordination of outer space activities within the United Nations system: programme of work for 1998 and 1999 and future years (A/AC. 105/700) Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities (A/AC. 105/701) Highlights in Space: Progress in space science, Technology and Applications, International Cooperation and Space Law (A/AC. 105/710) (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.99.I.12) Seminars of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications: Selected Papers on Remote Sensing, Space Science and Information Technology (A/AC.105/711) (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.99.I.13) Report of the United Nations Expert on Space Applications (A/AC. 105/715) Planetarium: A Challenge for Educators (New York, 1992) 6. Point of contact Office for Outer Space Affairs United Nations Office at Vienna A-1400 Vienna Austria Telephone: + (43) (1) 26060-4950 :+ (43) (1)26060-5830 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.un.or.at/OOSA/index.html C. United Nations International Drug Control Programme 1. Mandate and objectives 102. The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNPCP) was established by the General Assembly in December 1990 to unify the United Nations structure for drug abuse control to enable the United Nations to strengthen its role as the main focus for concerted international action. 103. The mandate of UNDCP therefore includes the responsibilities and functions of three drug control entities: the secretariat of the International Narcotics Control Board (IN£B), the Division of Narcotic Drugs (E^JD) of the Secretariat and the United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC).

17 104. The first two entities have mainly normative and analytical functions relating to the implementation of international drug control conventions and are funded by the regular budget of the Organization. UNFDAC devotes its substantial extrabudgetary resources almost exclusively to operational activities by providing technical assistance in drug control mainly to developing countries. 105. The mandate of UNDCP is an integral component of the international drug control system as a whole, being derived from conventions on drug control, the results of the 1987 International Conference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking and key resolutions of the Economic and Social Council and of the General Assembly. 106. The core functions of the Programme flow directly from this mandate and are as follows: (a) To ensure greater unity of purpose and coherence of action in drug control by the international community, including coordination, complementarity and non-duplication throughout the United Nations system; (b) To increase awareness among decision and opinion makers and the general public of the problem of drug abuse and its consequences; (c) To contribute to international drug control policy- and strategy-making by meUQojnmission on Narcotic Drugs, its subsidiary bodies and intergovernmental conferences dealing with international drug control; (d) To act on behalf of the Secretary-General in discharging responsibilities entrusted to him by the drug control conventions; (e) To enable INCB to execute its treaty-based responsibilities to monitor and assess the drug control efforts of Governments in implementation of the international drug control conventions and relevant resolutions of intergovernmental bodies; (f) To assess the substances used in illicit drug rnanufacturing for possible international control under the 1988JConvention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances;! (g) To develop and disseminate international drug control technical standards and cooperation modalities; (h) To assist Governments in developing national drug control policies and plans and appropriate institutional arrangements in line with international norms to ensure effective and well-coordinated drug control efforts at the national level; (i) To identify, promote, broker and support intergovernmental subregional drug control cooperation arrangements; (j) To assist Governments in tackling acute drug control problems through targeted technical cooperation projects; (k) To mobilize resources for drug control initiatives at the international and national levels to support Governments' efforts. 107. In broad terms, UNDCP is to address all aspects of the drug control issue, ranging from supply to demand and including the linkages between the two. While by definition a United Nations programme must look at international dimensions of a given issue, the nature of the UNDCP mandate requires a combination of actions at the national and international levels.

18 2. Activities (a) Past activities 108. The following resolutions of the General Assembly deserve particular mention: resolution 45/179 (1990), by which it established UNDCP, and resolution 48/112 (1993), in which it requested the review and implementation of the System-Wide Plan on Drug Abuse Control. In addition, there was the decision of the Administrative Committee on Coordination to establish its Subcommittee on^Ptrg Control (1993). 109. UNDCP has entered into special agreements with other parties for cooperation in drug control matters, such as: (a) Memoranda of understanding between UNDCP and other United Nations entities such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (1993), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1994) and the Universal Postal Union (UPU) (1995); (b) Cooperation framework with the Joint and Co-Sponsored United^fations Programme on Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (UNA|p8j(1996); (c) Revised working arrangement with UNDP (1996); (d) Joint programme framework with the World Health Organization (WHO) (1996); i (e) Memoranda of understanding between UNDCP and a group of countries or between UNDCP and regional organizations: subregional drug control cooperation in central Asia (1995); Islamic Republic of Iran/Pakistan (1994); /China/Lao People's Democratic Republic/Myanmar/Thailand/Viet Nam (1995); the Organization of African Unity (QAU) (1994); the Asian Economic Cooperation Organization (1995); Argentma/Bolivia/Chile/Peru/Uruguay (1994); Mexico/Central America (1996); and the World Customs Organization (WCO) (1996). 110. UNDCP has advocated the adoption of regional and subregional plans of action for drug control, has participated in their elaboration and is committed to supporting their execution. They include the Plan of Action on Drug Control of OAU (1996); the Plan of Action for Drug Control Coordination and Cooperation in the Caribbean (1996); the Subregional Plan of Action for South-East Asia fadnpted in 1995); the Plan of Action for South American countries (1994); and the Plan of Action for Mexico and Central American countries (1996). 111. UNDCP has organized important expert group meetings such as the demandreduction forums (1993-1996) to debate the question of drug abuse on a regional basis; the World NGO Forurnforganized by UNDCP in 1994; the UNDCP/INCB workshop, to review measures to prevent diversion of precursors to illicit market (1996); and the expert group meeting to finalize a training manual and practical guidelines for use by Governments in countering illicit drug trafficking by sea (1997). UNDCP also organized the meetings of international drug control organs such as the annual meetings of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, the heads of national law enforcement agencies and INCB. Also among the projects funded or executed by UNDCP within the framework of technical cooperation was the global project on money-laundering (1996). (b) Current activities 112. UNDCP has continued to give priority to assisting Member States in applying the international drug control treaties. The assistance has included training for law enforcement personnel and national administrators, as well as for judges, magistrates and prosecutors. The Programme is also executing a global programme against

19 money-laundering, whereby it is assisting Member States in countering money-laundering and in overcoming obstacles to law enforcement cooperation in that area. 113. In demand reduction, which is one of the pillars of the UNDCP global strategy to counter illicit drugs, UNDCP currently has 80 country-level projects, compared with 31 projects for supply reduction and 72 projects for the suppression of illicit drug trafficking. To complement the national projects, UNDCP is undertaking demand reduction activities through global programmes in cooperation with other United Nations entities, in particular, UN AIDS, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), ILO and WHO. One example of this is the joint UNDCP/WHO project to mobilize local communities in the prevention of drug abuse among young people, which is valued at $5 million. 114. UNDCP is successfully acting as both catalyst and expert in efforts to eliminate the illicit cultivation of the opium poppy, as shown by the achievements in countries such as the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lebanon, Pakistan, Thailand, Turkey and Viet Nam. Currently, large-scale illicit cultivation of the opium poppy is mostly concentrated in two countries, and Myanmar. In those countries as well as in others affected by illicit crop supply in the region, the Programme provides the necessary support to government remedial efforts through appropriate alternative development programmes. The commitment of the Governments of Bolivia, Colombia and Peru is reflected in the alternative development programmes they have undertaken to eradicate illicit crops. 115. An important cornerstone of the UNDCP strategy is to promote regional cooperation as a vehicle for strengthening political commitment to counter the drug problem. UNDCP has promoted a network of memoranda of understanding, which is intended to become an effective framework of cooperation between Governments. The Programme plays the role of an "honest broker", sponsoring direct consultations between the parties concerned. This approach has been successful in strengthening cross-border cooperation at the regionaUevel. 116. In 1997, an increased number of drug control programmes were undertaken within the;xamework of regional agreements or plans of action, such as the Plan of Action on Drug Control in Africa/adopted by OAU at its Assembly of Heads of State and Government held in Yaounde from 8 to 10 July 1996; and the Plan of Action for ^Drug Control Coordination and Cooperation in the Caribbean, adopted by the Regional Meeting of Drug Control Cooperation in the Caribbean, held in Bridgetown from 15 to 17 May 1996. 117. UNDCP is strengthening ties with non-governmental organizations, in particular those directly involved in demand reduction activities at the grass-roots level. It has launched programmes to strengthen the capacity of non-governmental organizations and local communities in the field of demand reduction in, for example, eastern, southern and western Africa. To enable civil society to make substantive contributions to UNDCP activities, the budget for the biennium 1998-1999 provides for the establishment of advocacy groups composed of renowned experts from the private and public sectors in a number of selected countries. A new initiative was the participation of the Executive Director of UNDCP in the Transatlantic Drugs Conferenc^e^an informal meeting on drug control involving the European Commission and members of the European Parliament, held in Edinburgh, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, on 20 and 21 November 1997. 118. UNDCP has involved specialized agencies and other entities of the United Nations system, including the international financial institutions, in mounting a global response to the drug threat. Through the Administrative Committee on Coordination and its Subcommittee on Drug Control, UNDCP has continued to secure the commitment of United Nations entities to include, whenever appropriate, a drug control dimension in their programmes of work. (c) Special session of the General Assembly 119. At its fifty-first session, the General Assembly decided to hold a special session in June 1998 to consider the fight against the illicit production, sale, demand, traffic and distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic

20 substances and related activities. The special session presented Member States with an opportunity to reaffirm their commitment to implement the provisions of the international drug control treaties and to adopt a forward-looking strategy based on a balanced approach covering all aspects of the drug problem. The achievements of the special session were: (a) To adopt and promote programmes to reduce the illicit demand for drugs; (b) To adopt measures to counter money-laundering and ensure confiscation of assets derived from drug trafficking; (c) To endorse programmes to eliminate illicit narcotic crops, in particular illicit opium poppy cultivation and the coca bush, through alternative development programmes; (d) To adopt measures to strengthen coordination within the United Nations system. 120. A historic milestone was the adoption at the special session of the Declaration on the Guiding Principles of Drug Demand Reduction (resolution S-20/3, annex) to complement the international drug control treaties, which focus mainly on control measures and the suppression of illicit traffic. Of particular importance were the Political Declaration (resolution S-20/2, annex) and Action Plan on International Cooperation on the Eradication of Illicit Drug Crops and on Alternative Development (resolution Sr20/4 E), in which Member States renewed their commitment to drug control. The monitoring of the elimination of illicit crops, which is crucial in the Action Plan, will provide concrete opportunities for collaboration with the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space as it involves the provision of technical assistance to Governments in the surveillance by satellite of current and potential areas of illicit cultivation. 3. International cooperation (a) Institution-building 121. Services provided. Advocacy for accession to international drug control conventions, guidance for treaty compliance, national drug control legislations and mutual legal assistance arrangements, training, promoting of and support to the development and implementation of comprehensive drug control master plans. 122. Cooperating parties. Governments, intergovernmental institutions, civil society. 123. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 124. Result. UNDCP legal advice and assistance to Governments was evaluated positively during 1995. The Programme has also supported the elaboration of master plans in 24 countries. (b) Demand reduction 125. Services provided. Information gathering, forums and other workshops for experts, regional epidemiological networks, specific events such as the "youth event", international standards of good practice, model programmes for drug abuse prevention in specific groups of population, national comprehensive demand reduction strategies and programmes. 126. Cooperating parties. Governments, concerned United Nations agencies, in particular UNAIDS, UNICEF, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), FAO, ILO, WHO, UNESCO, civil society, intergovernmental organizations. 127. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions.

21 128. Result. An evaluation was completed in 1993, highlighting achievements and weaknesses and proposing new directions for the future. (c) Supply reduction 129. Services provided. Advisory services, regional law enforcement schemes, coordination of action against illicit trafficking in precursors, regional meeting of heads of national drug law enforcement agencies, joint UNDCP/WCO/International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) drug seizure data, United Nations drug law enforcement training calendar; guidance, technical assistance to support Governments, advocacy for joint efforts with concerned United Nations agencies for alternative development schemes, studies, monitoring mechanisms. 130. Cooperating parties. Governments, intergovernmental institutions, concerned United Nations agencies, civil society, Bretton Woods institutions. 131. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 132. Result. Positive evaluations of alternative development activities in South America and Thailand completed in 1993. (d) Regional and subregional cooperation 133. Services provided. Advocacy, advisory services, support to intergovernmental institutions for regional cooperation. 134. Cooperating parties. Governments, intergovernmental institutions, concerned United Nations agencies. 135. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 136. Result. UNDCP has been very active and effective in promoting and supporting regional and subregional cooperation. (e) Money-laundering 137. Services provided. Advocacy, advisory services, training, capacity-building, joint undertakings with relevant intergovernmental institutions, studies, seminars and workshops, manuals for guidance. 138. Cooperating parties. Governments, intergovernmental institutions. 139. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 140. Result. It is too early to make an evaluation of the UNDCP global project on money-laundering, which started in 1997. (f) Support to international drug control organs (the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the International Narcotics Control Board) 141. Services provided. Organization of sessions, substantive support to the work of those organs, in particular INCB, training. 142. Cooperating parties. Governments, intergovernmental institutions, members of INCB, concerned United Nations agencies, civil society.

22 143. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 144. Result. Two evaluations were conducted in 1994, concerning reporting obligations and practices to the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and INCB technical publications. They highlighted achievements and put forward recommendations for the future. (g) Inter-agency cooperation and resource mobilization 145. Services provided. Advocacy, cooperation within the United Nations system, regular contacts with the donor community. 146. Cooperating parties. Governments, organizations of the United Nations system, intergovernmental institutions, civil society. 147. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 148. Result. An evaluation of the United Nations System-Wide Action Plan of Drug Abuse Control was planned for 1998. (h) Research 149. Services provided. Contacts with individual experts and research organizations, guidance, advisory services, laboratory services, technical reports and publications. 150. Cooperating parties. Governments, individual researchers and research organizations, intergovernmental institutions, concerned United Nations agencies. 151. Duration. Short- and long-term actions, combined with ad hoc interventions. 152. Result. UNDCP publications are generally well received by experts and the international scientific community. 4. Publications "Amphetamine-type stimulants: a global review", discussion paper, Vienna, 1995. Directory of Non-governmental Organizations Working in Drug Demand Reduction (Vienna, 1996). Drug Money in a Changing World: Economic Reform and Criminal Finance (UNDCP/TS.4) (Vienna, 1996). Drugs and Development (UNDCP/TS.l) (Vienna, 1995). Economic and Social Consequences of Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking. The Social Impact of Drug Abuse (UNDCP/TS.2) (Vienna, 1996). Volatile Substance Abuse: Practical guidelines for analytical investigation ofsuspected cases and interpretation of results. Supply of and Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. World Drug Report (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997). 5. Point of contact Chief, External Relations Unit United Nations International Drug Control Programme P.O. Box 500 A-1400 Vienna, Austria Telephoned (43)(1) 26060-4266 Facsimile: +(43)(1) 26060-5931 E-mail: [email protected]

23 D. Secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction /. Mandate and objectives 153. The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was declared unanimously by the General Assembly in December 1989 as an international promotional mechanism for the period 1990-1999. In its resolution 44/236 of 22 December 1989, the Assembly encouraged all States to give special attention to fostering international cooperation in reducing the global effects of natural disasters. The international community, mobilized under the auspices of the United Nations, proclaimed the objective of the Decade to be the reduction of loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters, through concerted international action, especially in developing countries. The following goals were declared for the Decade: (a) To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters, with special attention being given to assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage potential and in the establishment of early-warning systems and disaster-resistant structures; (b) To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account cultural and economic diversity; (c) To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at addressing critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property; (d) To disseminate existing and new technical information related to measures for the assessment, prediction and mitigation of natural disasters; (e) To develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects, education and training, and to evaluate the effectiveness of those programmes. 154. Programming targets were established in 1991 as a basis for assessing the achievements of the Decade by the beginning of the twenty-first century. By the year 2000, all countries should have in place, as part of their national plans to achieve sustainable development: (a) comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards integrated into development plans; (b) mitigation plans of practical measures for application at the national and local levels that address long-term disaster prevention, preparedness and community awareness; and (c) ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems. 2. Activities (a) Past activities 155. The original aims of the Decade were defined by the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, held in Yokohama, Japan, in May 1994. These are expressed in the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation, containing the Principles, the Strategy and Plan of Action. The later emergence of public-private partnerships and the need for disaster-resistant communities have provided further impetus. 156. As regards space activities, the secretariat of the Decade has been a sponsor or involved with the following activities: (a) In May 1995, IDNDR contributed to the civilian application of satellite technology by addressing prevention of, preparedness for and relief of natural disasters at the Space Conference and Exhibition on evolving trends in the dual use of satellites, organized jointly by the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

24 and the Space and Congress Division of the Kommunikations-, Messe- und Austellungs-GmbH in Bremen, Germany. Subsequently, in the second such conference, also held in Bremen, in May 1997, IDNDR organized a seminar jointly with the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research on reducing risk-building security and conducted a workshop on the theme of Protection of the Earth: space applications for risk reduction; (b) Also in 1995 IDNDR prepared the report of the Secretary-General on early-warning capacities of the United Nations system with regard to natural disasters (A/50/526). The report provided an indication of both the opportunities and practical limitations of applying advanced technologies in the areas of earth observation, telecommunications and technology transfer pertaining to improved early-warning practices; (c) In 1996, IDNDR collaborated with the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astrophysics and the Confederation of European Aerospace Societies in a workshop on using space assets for disaster management in international space cooperation—from recommendations to actions, held in Frascati, Italy, in May 1996. A follow- on meeting on the same subject is scheduled for Bermuda in April 1999; (d) In 1997, IDNDR prepared the report of the Secretary-General on improved effectiveness of early-warning systems with regard to natural and similar disasters (A/52/561). This emphasized that facilitated access to Earth observation data is of paramount importance for the efficient education of populations at risk and the implementation of a comprehensive disaster prevention strategy, in particular at the community level and in most disaster-prone areas; (e) Completion of six international expert group reports on improved early warning, including a study entitled "Earth Observation, hazard analysis and communications technology for early warning" (an IDNDR information paper, issued at the Potsdam International Conference on Early Warning Systems for the Reduction of Natural Disasters, in September 1997 (see below)); (f) Participation in the project team for the design of a pilot project on the use of satellite techniques for natural disaster reduction, launched by the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites; (g) Active participation in activities related to remote sensing for disaster reduction as coordinated by the Commission of the . (b) Current activities 157. The 1998-1999 IDNDR Action Plan is a strategic framework for the implementation of crucial activities that exemplify the Decade's objective and goals. It is a commitment to hazard awareness and risk management practices for disaster reduction supported by institutionalized abilities within the United Nations and beyond that provide technical, material, organizational and human resources at the international, regional, national and local levels of responsibility. The Action Plan has the following objectives: (a) Consolidation. Compilation and reporting of accomplishments in hazard awareness and disaster reduction activities, internationally and within individual countries and organizations between 1990 and 1999; (b) Platform for the future. To recommend functions and institutional mechanisms needed for continued international and national commitments to risk management practices for disaster reduction into the twenty-first century; (c) Closing events. A set of recommendations will be made to the Economic and Social Council in July 1999 prior to the fifty-fourth session of the General Assembly. Concluding technical and programme issues or recommendations related to priority themes for action will be consolidated and finalized at a concurrent IDNDR programme forum, with multisectoral and regional representation, in Geneva.

25 158. Topics that are crucial to the implementation of the Yokohama Strategy and to achieve the programme targets of the Decade include the following priority themes for action: (a) Hazard, vulnerability, risk assessment; (b) Disaster prevention and sustainable development: i. Human habitat and productive environment; ii. Economic aspects; iii. Social aspects; iv. Environment and land use aspects; v. Local practices and projects; (c) Improved early warning; (d) Political and public policy commitment; (e) Knowledge and technology transfer. 159. The IDNDR secretariat sponsored the International Conference on Early Warning Systems for the Reduction of Natural Disasters, held in Potsdam, Germany, from 7 to 11 September 1998. The scientific and technical conference involved 360 participants from 86 countries and was organized in association with the GeoForschungs Zentrum and the German National Committee for IDNDR. This important intersectoral and multidisciplinary gathering represents a key thematic component within the concluding phase of the Decade as it aims at a critical assessment and discussion of successes, lessonsfrom past experiences, current potential and requirements for the effective use of early-warning systems in disaster mitigation. It displayed existing "best practice" early-warning programmes and institutional capacities, as well as state-of-the-art examples of science and technology. This specifically included space and other remote sensing technologies for early warning and a special discussion was organized by the commercial space technology enterprise Dornier-Dasa on bringing early warning to the market. The Conference produced a declaration, which promoted the ideas of partnership in the development of technological innovation and related commercial opportunities, including the expanded use of technologies related to Earth observation, telecommunications and geographic information systems. 160. The Secretariat of IDNDR organized a special session on telecommunications for disaster prevention during the Intergovernmental Conference on Emergency Telecommunications, held in June 1998 in Tampere, Finland. The session promoted the broader use of telecommunications in support of disaster reduction activities, including space technology and geographic information system applications for hazard assessment and risk management practices. It also highlighted the need for continued research and technical progress, as well as the necessity of protecting public and private telecommunication infrastructures from the impact of natural disasters. The development and coming commercial application of space-based telecommunications playing an even greater role in effective early warning and disaster prevention was widely noted, although considerable opportunity still remains to inform the public as well as official policy makers as to the relative feasibility and practical values of the technologies involved. (c) Future activities 161. Within the framework of its consolidation phase and the preparatory process towards the final evaluation and closing event, IDNDR will place further emphasis on multidisciplinary and intersectoral activities with a view

26 to introducing integrated approaches to hazard assessment, vulnerability analysis and risk reduction. In that context, space-based technology represents an integral component in the development of a disaster reduction strategy for the twenty-first century, inter alia, through enhanced partnerships with the private sector and the scientific, industrial and technological communities. 162. Improved scientific understanding of the consequences of the El Nino Southern Oscillation phenomenon and the widespread public information associated with the related events in 1997-1998 has resulted in intensified efforts for international cooperation to reduce the impact of El Nifio. In its resolution 52/200 of 18 December 1997, the General Assembly taking into account that major El Nifio events occur fairly regularly and are often preceded by a number of distinct warning signs, which, with an appropriate increase in and exchange of data and information, could assist in the modelling and prediction of its recurrence and enhance the capabilities of affected countries to mitigate the negative social, economic and environmental effects of the phenomenon, called upon States, relevant intergovernmental bodies and all others involved in the Decade to participate actively in the financial and technical support for Decade activities, including those related to international cooperation to reduce the impact of the El Nino phenomenon, in order to ensure the implementation of the International Framework of Action, in particular with a view to translating the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World into concrete disaster reduction programmes and activities; and requested the Secretary-General to facilitate, within the framework of the Decade, an internationally concerted and comprehensive strategy towards the integration of the prevention, mitigation and rehabilitation of the damage caused by the El Nifio phenomenon, including the development of long-term strategies that take into due consideration the need for technical cooperation, financial assistance, the transfer of appropriate technology and the dissemination of existing scientific knowledge, as part of the Decade's activities, the International Framework of Action for the Decade, the Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Action, and taking into account the relevant parts of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. 163. The IDNDR closing event will include the IDNDR programme forum, to be held for one week in Geneva, concurrently with the July 1999 session of the Economic and Social Council to showcase national, regional and thematic accomplishments. It will consolidate practical experience through a combined exhibition and series of topical subject presentations, events and interactive professional exchanges, organized around the five primary IDNDR themes to demonstrate practical experience in disaster reduction gained over the past 10 years. It will bring together diverse audiences engaged in hazard awareness, risk management and disaster reduction activities, drawn from the body of the International Framework of Action. This will include national authorities, regional organizations, United Nations agencies, scientific, technical and educational institutions, private commercial sectors, non-governmental organizations and the media. The procedural and political dimensions of disaster prevention will be discussed during the session of the Economic and Social Council, which will be the occasion for final intergovernmental recommendations on functional responsibilities and necessary successor arrangements to IDNDR to ensure international commitment to disaster prevention into the twenty-first century. 3. International cooperation International Framework of Action 164. In proclaiming the Decade, Member States recognized the importance for the international community to demonstrate a strong political determination to mobilize and use existing scientific and technical knowledge in order to lessen the effects of natural disasters. In addition to Member States and organizations of the United Nations system, this community comprises professional and other non-governmental organizations, educational, scientific and technical institutions, humanitarian and developmental bodies, as well as commercial and economic interests. While the United Nations system seeks to promote the international cooperation essential for disaster reduction, it is the authorities of individual countries who undertake the primary responsibility for protecting citizens, communities and social and economic assets from the adverse effects of natural disasters.

27 165. Governments are encouraged to develop national disaster reduction strategies that can provide greater public awareness of disaster preparedness and prevention and, when necessary, undertake more effective relief and recovery activities. There exist national committees (or designated focal points) in 141 countries committed to attaining the goals of the Decade. 166. An international Scientific and Technical Committee, consisting of 25 eminent scientific and technical experts, is organized as an advisory body for the Decade, entrusted with responsibility for identifying IDNDR priorities or gaps in scientific and technical knowledge. It is responsible for evaluating activities conducted during the Decade and makes recommendations on IDNDR programmes to the Secretary-General in an annual report. 167. A secretariat of IDNDR is based in Geneva, situated within the Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. The IDNDR secretariat is funded solely by extrabudgetary funds and is dependent upon seconded or externally funded Professional staff. Governments, international organizations, the private sector and other sources support a trust fund administered by the secretariat. 4. Publications Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation, World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, Japan, May 1994 (A/CONF. 172/9, chap. I, resolution 1, annex I). IDNDR Informs, Newsletter for Latin America and the Caribbean, Regional Unit for Latin America and the Caribbean of the IDNDR Secretariat (San Jose). Stop Disasters Magazine, published within the framework of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Prevention (Naples, Italy, Stop Disasters Institute). "Prevention of, preparedness for and relief of natural disasters", by IDNDR Director, Olavi Elo, in Evolving Trends in the Dual Use of Satellites, Pericles Gasparini Alves, ed., United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), United Nations publication UNIDIR/96/29 (1996). The following titles compose the series of information reports of the IDNDR Early Warning Programme: Early Warning Capabilities for Geological Hazards Early Warning for Hydrometeorological Hazards, Including Drought Early Warning for Fire and Other Environmental Hazards Early Warning for Technological Hazards Earth Observation, Hazard Analysis and Communications Technology for Early Warning National and Local Capabilities for Early Warning Guiding Principles for Effective Early Warning Report of the Secretary-General on early-warning capacities of the United Nations system with regard to natural disasters (A/50/526) Report of the Secretary-General on improved effectiveness of early-warning systems with regard to natural and similar disasters (A/52/561) Proceedings of International IDNDR-Conference on Early Warning Systems for the Reduction of Natural Disasters (in press, available December 1998 from the GeoForschungs Zentrum, Potsdam). Any of these reports may be accessed on the IDNDR Website at www.idndr.org. They and the other IDNDR publications may be obtained from the secretariat of IDNDR at the address below.

28 Annual IDNDR Public Information Campaign Documentation: Learning about Natural Disasters: Games and projects for you and your friends, A Stop Disasters Publication for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1995. Cities at Risk, Making Cities Safer before Disaster Strikes, A Stop Disasters Publication for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1996. Too little, Too Much Water, Leading cause of natural disasters (and associated press kit), IDNDR World Disaster Reduction Campaign, 1997. Prevention begins with Information (press kit), World Disaster Reduction Campaign, 1998. Solutions for Cities at Risk, Proceedings of the UN-IDNDR Internet Conference, 1998. 5. Point of contact Director Secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Palais des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 10, Telephone: +(41) (22) 798 68 94 or 740 03 77 Facsimile: +(41) (22) 788 03 91 or 733 86 95 E-mail: [email protected] URL: www.idndr.org E. Economic Commission for Africa h Mandate and objectives 168. The Economic Commission for Africa (EGA) was established by the Economic and Social Council in 1958. ECA is one of thefive Unite d Nations regional commissions under the administrative direction of the Secretariat. As the regional arm of the Secretariat in Africa, ECA has a rjrimary mandate to promote the economic and social development of its member States, foster interregional integration and promote international cooperation for Africa's development. 169. In carrying out its mandate, ECA focuses on five core programmes and two cross-cutting themes: (a) Facilitating economic and social policy analysis by producing timely, appropriate and influential information and analysis, serving the needs of member States and keeping the world up to date on African development thinking; (b) Ensuring food security and sustainable development by increasing the urgency and level of national efforts devoted to the nexus, which links food security, population and environmental sustainability; (c) Strengthening development management by strengthening national ownership of the reform programmes and creating an enabling environment for development; (d) Harnessing information for development by expediting the information revolution in Africa by helping to ensure that information services are a major focus of national attention and action with appropriate international support;

29 (e) Promoting regional cooperation and integration by supporting efforts aimed at establishing and expediting regional economic cooperation and integration. 170. The two cross-cutting themes are gender, enhancing women's participation in economic development, and capacity-building. 2. Activities 171. The main involvement of ECA in outer space-related activities is in the area of information and communications technologies such as remote sensing and telecommunications. ECA activities are oriented toward assisting member States in the development and strengthening of their institutional capacities, in streamlining policies and strategies to enhance technological and human resource capabilities for sustainable development. In order to enhance its impact at the subregional level, the ECA Conference of Ministers endorsed a resolution by which ECA would reinforce its presence at the regional level through its subregional development centres. (a) Past activities 172. The activities of ECA in the past concentrated on building up the necessary endogenous capabilities of the relatively young member States to develop, monitor and manage their natural resources by acquiring and utilizing appropriate information technologies. Moreover, ECA played an important role in the promotion of interconnectivity projects and programmes on the continent. ECA has developed a collaborative relationship with partners in order to seek possible sectoral applications. It has also contributed in the launching of the COPINE project to be executed by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 173. Those activities have consisted of: (a) The establishment of intergovernmental institutions to promote technology transfer at various levels in remote sensing and geographic information systems and their applications to environment and resource management. The first three provide training and services in distinct areas of geographic information technologies; the last acts as a policy and coordinating body: the Regional Centre for Training in Aerospace Surveys, located at He-Ife, Nigeria, was established in 1972; the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, located at Nairobi, was established in 1975; and the Ouagadougou Regional Remote Sensing Centre was set up in 1979; while the African Remote Sensing Council was founded in 1979 then merged 10 years later with the African Association of Cartography to form the African Association for Cartography and Remote Sensing, located in Algiers; (b) The organization of conferences, meetings, seminars and workshops so as to provide a regional forum for collaboration and exchange of experience and information. Among those events, one major responsibility of the Commission has been the organization, every three years, of the United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Africa, of which nine have been organized so far. The general objective of the conference is to provide a regional forum where government officials, planners, scientists and experts from both the public and private sectors, from Africa and abroad, meet to address common needs, problems and exchange experiences in the field of geo-information. It offers the best opportunity for African participants to interact with their counterparts from the developing and the developed world, and constitutes an excellent platform for establishing contacts for negotiations of bilateral and multilateral technical assistance; (c) The provision of technical and logistical support to the EGA-sponsored subregional centres and national institutions; (d) The promotion of the creation of the Regional African Satellite Communications Organization, an intergovernmental commercial satellite organization that aims to provide a wide range of telecommunications services to all African countries;

30 (e) The promotion of regional and international cooperation to mobilize multilateral or bilateral financial and technical assistance for its member States. (b) Current and juture activities 174. The current and future activities will, in line with the African Information Society Initiative, aim at promoting policies, methods and strategies for efficient utilization of modern information technologies and communications networks for the compilation, analysis and dissemination of development information, including geo-information. It also aims to support the development of Africa's role and policies in a future where information will be a crucial economic and social resource and where electronic networks and information technologies present a new venue for socio-economic and cultural activity, at both the local and global levels. 175. Through the achievement of those goals it is expected to bridge the information gap between the African region and the rest of the world. ECA will assist in the implementation of the Action Plan for building Africa's information infrastructure that was developed within the African mfirmation Society Initiative. Within that framework, ECA will organize a global connectivity for Africa conference in order to enhance African ability to enjoy the benefits of the information revolution, to reduce African isolation, African integration into and competition in the global economy and to attract foreign investment in space technologies. 176. ECA recently reaffirmed the important role that geographic information technologies play in the socio-economic development of countries by incorporating them into the programme of work of the Development Information Services Division, recently created to implement the strategic programme on harnessing information for development. 177. In geo-information, the present work programme of ECA includes technical advisory services to member States and subregional organizations in support of spatial information technologies; undertaking research and studies for advocacy and policy analysis; organizing seminars, workshops, expert group meetings and conferences for capacity-building; convening stakeholders and reaching consensus; establishing, maintaining and disseminating regional databases on the status of mapping and spatial baseline information programmes, as well as on education and training facilities in Africa. ECA will focus on encouraging the growth of the activities and elevating the quality of the services of its sponsored institutions, which will be ranked according to their viability so that they meet the most pressing and future needs of the region. 178. ECA will continue the publication of its Cartographic and Remote Sensing Bulletin, which was initiated in 1990 at the demand of member States. The electronic format and the Internet will be used, in addition to printed formats, to disseminate this and other publications and studies. 179. A Committee on Development Information was established as a subsidiary body of ECA and will meet biannually, with the first meeting scheduled for October 1998. The United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Africa will continue to be convened as a special conference or as a subcommittee of the Committee on Development Information. 3. International cooperation 180. ECA has been cooperating with the Governments of its member States through the management boards of the respective intergovernmental institutions. Within theframework of the recent reform of ECA, the Commission felt the need to redefine its current relationship with the EGA-sponsored institutions. In that regard, ECA will need to identify those institutions which it will develop in close partnership programmes in order to leverage resources and exploit synergies. Those institutions will be selected on the basis of the following key principles: the relevance of programmes to the priority needs of the region, functionality in terms of demonstrated or potential operational capacity and continued support by member States. For those institutions, ECA will seek alliances with its

31 cooperating partners in order to supplement member States' efforts to transform them into regional centres of excellence. The Executive-Secretary of ECA might continue to serve as chairman of their governing bodies. 181. ECA has been encouraging non-governmental organizations and collaborating with professional organizations and associations such as the African Association for Remote Sensing and the Environment and AFRICAGIS. 182. Inter-agency coordination and cooperation between ECA and other United Nations bodies and specialized agencies is an important vehicle for pooling financial and technical resources in support of Africa's development. The Commission has accorded great importance to the annual Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities, to which it has always contributed, and participated when financially possible. ECA expects to strengthen its relationships with other sister institutions with which it cooperates or has cooperated in the past, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research and the United Nations Environment Programme, and will seek alliances with other organizations in order to identify and initiate programmes and projects of common interest. 4. Publications African Information Society Initiative: An Action Framework to Build Africa's Information and Communication Infrastructure (Addis Ababa, ECA, 1996). Building the African Information Society with the Public and Private Sector (Addis Ababa, ECA, 1997). Cartography and Remote Sensing Bulletin, Nos. 1-6. Case Studies for 10 African countries under the African Network Initiative (Addis Ababa, ECA, 1996). Geographic Information Management: The Nature ofResource and Environment Information Data Sources and Their Organizations, a framework for the establishment and utilization of national geographic information systems (Addis Ababa, ECA, 1993). More information about ECA publications can be found at http://www.bellanet.org/partners/aisi 5. Point of contact Chief, Development Information Services Division Economic Commission for Africa P.O. Box 3001 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Telephone: (251) (1) 51-72-00 Facsimile: (251) (1)51 44 16 F. Economic Commission for Europe I. Mandate and objectives 183. The objectives of the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) are to initiate and participate in measures for facilitating concerted action for the economic reconstruction of Europe, for raising the level of European economic activity and for maintaining and strengthening the economic relations of the European countries both among themselves and with other countries of the world. After the cold war, this last objective is even more valid, with greater focus on the integration of the economies in transition into the whole region.

32 184. The main functions of ECE are: (a) The development of common legal instruments, norms and standards, and the harmonization of policies and practices. This function aims at facilitating harmonious economic relationships among the countries of the region as well as their integration into the world economy. This function applies to the fields of environment, transport, statistics, trade, industry and enterprise development, sustainable patterns of energy demand and supply, timber and human settlements. In the future, the capacity of the Commission to develop norms and standards at the pan-European and transatlantic levels could be used flexibly by member States for other domains of common concern; (b) The production of statistics and analyses in the above-mentioned areas as well as economic analyses covering the whole region with a particular focus on current developments and problems of structural change in countries with economies in transition. This function enables all member countries to share experiences and to have a sound basis for policy formulation, with a view to promoting sustainable development at the country, subregional and regional levels. 185. ECE carries out technical assistance activities, mainly in the form of advisory services and demand-driven workshops, and a few other operational activities. All of them are directly linked to the two above-mentioned functions. They primarily support countries with economies in transition for: (a) the implementation of conventions, norms and standards; (b) capacity development; (c) the participation in policy debates; and (d) the improvement of data collection and dissemination systems. The central aim of such activities is to enable countries with economies in transition, as well as countries in war-torn areas, to use fully and to benefit from the integration tools developed by ECE. 186. The activities of ECE in the area of geographic information systems (GIS) are conducted by the Statistical Division in cooperation with the Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). These activities are coordinated by the programme of work of the Conference of European Statisticians as part of its programme activity 2, "Technical infrastructure and other cross-cutting issues", and programme element 2.6, "Geographical and regional data". The objectives for the next several years in this area are to promote the development of statistical GIS, to improve the efficiency, quality and comparability of the geographical dimension of official statistics, to design and develop concepts and standards, new tools and technology, to exchange information on GIS software and to enhance further international cooperation in this field. 2. Activities (a) Past activities 187. In the early 1990s, because of the rapid growth of GIS statistical applications, the ECE member countries requested the secretariat to organize international cooperation on the subject. 188. Work sessions on GIS have so far been held in Ottawa, from 28 to 30 September 1993, in Voorburg, the Netherlands,from 2 7 to 30 September 1994, in Arlington, Virginia, United States of America, from 15 to 18 April 1996 and in Brighton, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, from 22 to 25 September 1997. 189. The issues discussed at those meetings covered a broad range of problems related to the combination of GIS and statistics. The main topics of interest can be grouped under the headings listed below: (a) Integration of statistical and geographical functionalities, possible applications of GIS in the statistical production process. Under this topic, possibilities have been considered as to how GIS can be used to improve various phases of the survey process (sampling, collection, editing and imputation, dissemination and analysis). One of the main advantages of GIS in this area is the ability to link different data sets using a spacial

33 reference. Thus, different registers can be constructed through combining various administrative sources. Integration of statistical and geographical functionalities also means that statistical data can be used for purposes other than statistics, e.g. GIS in combination with statistics are an efficient tool for addressing economic issues. It enables the use of demographic, earth science and other data to produce explanations and solutions to different kinds of economic and environmental problems, such as flood insurance, crop disaster payments and planning activities in environmental crisis areas; (b) GIS as a tool for the presentation and dissemination of statistical information, including the issues related to marketing of geo-referenced information, licensing and pricing of geographical products. Dissemination of statistical information to different users is one of the most widely spread uses of GIS in statistics; (c) Methodological aspects of GIS. Owing to the diverse applications of GIS, the associated methodological aspects cover a wide range of problems related to the use of GIS for developing and implementing criteria and definitions. Amongst them, the core issues could be considered geographical databases (including street network databases), use of GIS for delineating urban/rural areas and as a preparatory tool for censuses, use of GIS addressing economic issues connected with cartography. When integrating statistical and geographical functionalities, the main methodological problem is the use of different data models, different time handling and diverse aggregation methods in statistics and geography; (d) Standardization related to statistical GIS, that is, definition of statistical requirements for standard settings in geomatics. These requirements include features and attributes for the interchange and display of statistics; ensuring the topological integrity for the processing of statistical data; ensuring the compatibility of base mapping products so that existing data from statistical and other agencies may be accessed and integrated efficiently; geomatic standards supporting statistical functionality; need for compatibility between geomatic systems, statistical data products and standardized geographic/cartographic databases; (e) Evaluation and use of GIS software, creating a network aimed at exchanging information about specific problems in the management and use of GIS software, and also about cost structures encountered when implementing GIS (systems, procurement and maintenance costs). (b) Current activities 190. ECE is preparing for the next work session on GIS, which will concentrate on the use of GIS for statistical analysis, regional statistics and for dissemination of statistical data. In addition, countries are working on the preparation of methodological materials, namely, on guidelines for cartography for statistical purposes and relations between register-based statistics and GIS and geography. (c) Future activities 191. The next work session on GIS was scheduled to be held in Canada from 5 to 7 October 1998. The work session was to consider: (a) integration of statistics and geography; (b) progress in the GISCO and SIRE projects of Eurostat; (c) common aspects of GIS applications in different statistical domains; and (d) policy issues dealing with the implementation of GIS in statistics. 3. International cooperation 192. ECE activities on GIS are carried out in close cooperation with Eurostat and ISO and have succeeded in establishing the mechanisms for cooperation with ISO on the development of international standards in geomatics and a pool for information exchange on GIS software. 193. The ECE secretariat has liaison status with the ISO Technical Committee 211 (TC-211), which deals with geomatic standards. Experts from countries well advanced in GIS statistical applications (Finland, Canada, the

34 Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States) are participating in the working groups of TC211, either directly or through their country channels, coordinated by national standards organizations. 4. Publications The documentation and report for the 1997 work session on GIS can be found on the Statistical Division's Web page at http://www.unece.org/stats/edp/Welcome.html Documentation and reports from all the other work sessions are available from the ECE secretariat on request. 5. Point of contact Statistical Division Economic Commission for Europe Palais des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 917 4150 (Mrs. Jana Meliskova) Facsimile: +(41) (22) 917 00 40 E-mail: [email protected] G. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 1. Mandate 194. At its thirty-sixth session, in 1980, the Commission organized a mission in the middle of that year with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) support to assess member country needs and to formulate a regional programme on remote sensing. Based on the report of that mission, the Regional Remote Sensing Programme (RRSP) was initiated in 1983 by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) with funding support from UNDP. 195. During its forty-eighth session, the attention of the Commission was drawn to the issue of regional cooperation and coordination in remote sensing and geographic information systems for sustainable development and environmental management. Thus, at its forty-ninth session, in 1993, the Commission adopted resolution 49/5, entitled "Regional programme on space applications for development", which, among other things, called for the organization of a ministerial conference on space applications for development in Asia and the Pacific. The Regional Space Applications Programme for Sustainable Development (RESAP) in Asia and the Pacific was launched at the conference, held from 19 to 24 September 1994 in Beijing. RESAP, which superseded RRSP, has the following mandate: (a) To promote and coordinate regional space cooperation for development, as well as to organize and implement space applications projects of regional interest; (b) To provide policies, models, techniques, information and analyses and to conduct studies related to various issues on space applications; (c) To establish regional networks comprising of national focal points and working groups in major space technology application sectors and to initiate associations of universities and industry; (d) To promote national capacity-building in space applications through regional projects and cooperation;

35 (e) To contribute to human resource development through developing space applications-related educational facilities in the countries of the region, arranging fellowships for advanced studies and organizing workshops and seminars; (f) To provide technical assistance, such as advisory and consultancy services, on national policies programming and planning related to the establishment of space agencies/space applications centres, selection of equipment and software, acceptance testing of equipment, commissioning and operation of equipment and promotion of space applications in general; (g) To establish a computerized information database on space technology and applications, space organizations and experts; (h) To provide, on a regular basis, information materials on space applications and technology developments and on other activities in and outside the region in order to promote awareness of space technology applications for sustainable development; (i) To facilitate the resolution of issues such as standardization of equipment, data formats, continued access to data, user-friendliness of systems, launching of a geostationary satellite over the Indian Ocean and leasing of fractional transponder capacity on communication satellites; (j) To link RESAP with other programmes of ESCAP, specially those concerned with agriculture, urban and rural planning, natural resources and environmental and disaster management; (k) To establish liaison and to coordinate with countries of the region, donor countries, United Nations agencies, banking institutions and non-governmental organizations; (1) To prepare for the second ministerial conference on space applications for development in Asia and the Pacific. 2. Objectives, organization and Action Plan 196. The aim of RESAP is to assist developing members and associate members of ESCAP in addressing urgent environmental and development problems through integrated uses of space technology applications for sustainable development. The main objective of RESAP is to promote space applications for environment and sustainable development in the region by assisting the countries in the implementation of Agenda 21; promoting national capacity-building and human resource development by arranging long-term fellowships and organizing training courses and workshops; promoting knowledge transfer through seminars and conferences; coordinating and, in some cases, implementing regional pilot projects; operating regional information services; providing technical advisory services; and enhancing regional and subregional cooperation on space applications through policy studies. 197. Owing to its more than 11 years of experience in implementing RRSP and the existing network established by ESCAP within theframework of that Programme, ESCAP, through its Space Technology Applications Section, is recognized as the ideal agent to achieve the objectives of RESAP. The Intergovernmental Consultative Committee, reconstituted from the Intergovernmental Consultative Committee on RRSP, maintains its policy advisory role by advising the ESCAP secretariat on RESAP-related matters; reviewing the annual work plan and making recommendations on the medium-term work plans of RESAP; and considering and facilitating funding for projects recommended by it under RESAP. Four subsidiary regional working groups, covering major areas of space technology applications that reflect the common interest of the member countries, have been organized. Thus, there exist Regional Working Groups on Remote Sensing, GIS and Satellite-based Positioning, on Satellite Communication Applications, on Meteorological Satellite Applications and Natural Hazards Monitoring, and on Space Sciences and Technology Development. More than 40 members and associate members of ESCAP are currently participating in the network.

36 198. The Action Plan on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific was formulated in order to lay a framework for the execution of RESAP. Its aim was to enhance capacity-building in countries of Asia and the Pacific, to apply space technology in order to address urgent environment and development problems, in particular those identified in Agenda 21, and to integrate space technology with national planning for sustainable development following a regional approach. 199. Problems of regional interest that could be addressed through space applications include environmental degradation, especially that due to unsustainable development and increasing population pressure, natural calamities, lack of well-established and reliable early warning and disaster mitigation services, inadequate information for natural resource accounting, low level of education of the population, poor health care and employment opportunities and reduction in biodiversity, and navigation and search-and-rescue. A regional approach to finding solutions to these problems was needed because the similarity in the nature of the problems transcends national boundaries and could be solved through joint efforts and pooling of resources in the region, which would avoid duplication, increase cost benefits and contribute to sustainable development in the region. 200. The Action Plan identified national and regional activities to promote applications of space technology in Asia and the Pacific, taking into account major issues concerned with space applications. The key issues at the national level were cooperation and coordination among user organizations, involvement of the private sector, scientific and technological infrastructure, adoption and adaptation of rapidly developing technologies, human resource development and data and information services. 201. The key issues at the regional level, on the other hand, are cooperation and coordination among ESCAP member countries, inadequacy of resources, human resource development, changing policies, standardization of data and equipment, restriction of technology transfer and other issues related to the implementation of Agenda 21. Furthermore, the Action Plan sought to reduce duplication of effort, enhance regional coordination and cooperation, bring about harmonization initiatives, promote the concept of "application pull" rather than "technology push" and arrange collaborative projects to harness space technology and space applications. 202. The Action Plan also called for each participating member and associate member of ESCAP, through their respective national space agency or space applications centre, to address the key issues identified at the national level relating to space technology and its applications. Furthermore, the Action Plan defined the role of the Intergovernmental Consultative Committee. 203. The Action Plan proposed regional activities on satellite remote sensing, GIS, satellite communications, satellite meteorology, developments in space technology, development and launching of small satellites, satellite-based navigation and positioning, satellite-based data collection, development of scientific satellites, space science development and implementation of Agenda 21. The ESCAP secretariat would describe projects under each programme area, taking into consideration its medium-term work plan, and take the necessary action to meet the needs of the identified projects in order to ensure successful implementation. 204. The time-frame for the Action Plan was set as 1995-2000. The Action Plan would be reviewed regularly at the annual sessions of the Commission, with the second ministerial conference to be convened in 1999 serving as a final review. 3. Activities (a) Past activities 205. ESCAP has been engaged in promoting space applications since the late 1970s. RRSP started in March 1983 and the first phase was completed in March 1987. The second phase was started in April 1987 and concluded in December 1991.

37 206. At its forty-seventh session, the Commission adopted resolution 47/8, entitled "Regional cooperation and coordination in remote sensing and geographic information systems", which urged members and associate members of the Commission to continue to support the network of regional cooperation and coordination mechanisms established under RRSP and requested the Executive Secretary to incorporate remote sensing and GIS applications as a regular programme activity of the Commission. 207. In the recommendations of its forty-eighth session, the Commission reconfirmed the high priority it assigned to remote sensing and GIS and agreed mat, in order to ensure coordinated development of space remote sensing applications in the region and to sustain such activities, a space application programme should be initiated by the countries of the region under the umbrella of ESCAP. 208. At its forty-ninth session, the Commission adopted resolution 49/5, entitled "Regional programme on space applications for development", by which it decided to hold a ministerial-level meeting on space applications for development in 1994 to launch a regional space applications programme for development and also to organize a senior officials' meeting at the same forum to complete proposals for a regional space applications programme for development and to submit their recommendations to the ministerial-level meeting for consideration. 209. ESCAP's first-ever Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Development in Asia and the Pacific was held from 19 to 24 September 1994 in Beijing. The Conference was attended by nearly 300 delegates, headed by 36 Ministers from 32 members and associate members of the Commission, as well as representatives from 24 international and regional organizations. RESAP was launched at this conference. 210. The Beijing Declaration on Space Technology Applications for Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific, which endorsed RESAP, the Strategy for Regional Cooperation in Space Applications for Sustainable Development, which provided policy guidelines for the implementation of RESAP, and the Action Plan on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific, which laid down a framework for the execution of RESAP through a regional approach, were drawn up during the meeting. 211. In the ESCAP secretariat, the Space Technology Applications Unit was restructured as the Space Technology Applications Section in 1995 to act as the focal point for the implementation of RESAP. 212. One of the important achievements of RRSP was the establishment of a regional network for space technology applications, which consists of national focal points for space technology applications in participating countries and national contact points for information and educational services. This regional network was further enhanced under RESAP with the addition of national contact points for each of the four regional working groups. Presently, each regional working group is guided by its own terms of reference and has been implementing cooperative projects under technical cooperation among developing countries arrangements. (b) Current activities 213. The present activities of ESCAP are defined by the Strategy for Regional Cooperation in Space Applications and the Action Plan on Space Applications. Some of the noteworthy programmes, projects and capacity-building activities that ESCAP, through the Space Technology Applications Section, is undertaking or has undertaken through RESAP are described in the following paragraphs. 214. The four-year UNDP-funded project entitled "Integrated application of GIS and remote sensing for sustainable natural resource and environmental management" aims to assist countries in the region to establish national capacity, from the user level to the Government's planning and decision-making level, to apply GIS and remote sensing for integrated natural resource and environmental management and to ensure the sustainability of the regional network established under RRSP. Under the project, 8-10 meetings, seminars and workshops have been organized annually. Several technical cooperation among developing countries pilot projects have also been organized to develop methodologies suitable for developing countries.

38 215. A study on the harmonization of various initiatives for promoting regional cooperation in space technology applications for sustainable development in Asia and the Pacific is also under way. Three high-level dialogues have been organized for that purpose. The participating Governments have decided to establish a regional dialogue forum to continue the harmonization process and, over time, to develop a concept for the establishment of a regional space agency. 216. The ESCAP/Japanese Space Agency (NASDA) joint project on national capacity-building for sustainable environment and natural resource management through research and studies on the uses of data from Japan's Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS) aims to contribute to sustainable environment and natural resource management in the ESCAP region by building national capacity in using advanced satellite remote sensing technology and to develop a network of specialists competent in the use of ADEOS data. The project is being implemented by 20 teams of specialists from 15 developing members of ESCAP. 217. The Government of France is funding a project to promote cooperation in space technology applications with special focus on satellite-based education for human development and sustainable development in the Asia-Pacific region. Furthermore, two project proposals, on integrated rural capacity-building through development and application of the satellite-based community teleservice centre concept and to promote regional cooperation on the use of satellite-based multimedia tools for distant training for primary school teachers, have been proposed to potential donors. 218. The Government of France is also funding a project to study coastal zone environment management with emphasis on mangrove ecosystems with participation by four countries. The project aims to integrate multiple-source information on coastal zones, specially on mangrove ecosystems, in a GIS so that improved protection and use of coastal resources may be achieved and to assist participating countries in further capacity-building for the analysis of coastal zone information. 219. The pilot-scale feasibility study on an Earth-space information network for Asia and the Pacific was conducted by the Space Technology Applications Section with financial support from NASDA through the Remote Sensing Technology Centre. The study has sought to determine, through site visits to potential network participants and from other sources of information, the feasibility of an operational Earth-space information network in the region that would assist access to and distribution of data and information required for planning and implementing sustainable development. The study has included identification of data and information requirements, network design concepts, configuration and costs and issues related to policy and institutional matters. The major recommendations of the study are currently being studied for implementation under the GOIN project jointly initiated by the Governments of Japan and of the United States of America. 220. The Space Technology Applications Section has conducted a study on promotion of small satellites data applications in Asia and the Pacific with funding support from the Government of the Republic of Korea. A booklet entitled, "Small is Beautiful: Affordable Space Missions for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific", has been published as a result of the study. 221. The Section regularly prepares publications, posters and other information materials such as inventories for the promotion of research results, news and noteworthy activities in space technology in the region, as well as proceedings of meetings, seminars, workshops and dialogues on various space technology-related themes. 222. The Space Technology Applications Section also facilitates the annual meetings of the Intergovernmental Consultative Committee on RESAP and the four subsidiary regional working groups in addition to organizing regional seminars and workshops on various space technology applications. Proceedings of those meetings, seminars and workshops are published. 223. The Section actively solicits medium- and long-term fellowships for training on space technology applications for a select number of participants from member countries.

39 224. At present, the Section is preparing for the Second Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Development in Asia and the Pacific to be held towards the end of 1999 as a follow-on to the Third United Nations Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Consequently, it has organized several meetings related to this. (c) Future activities 225. The Space Technology Applications Section plans to continue implementing the Strategy for Regional Cooperation in Space Applications and the Action Plan on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific within the framework of RESAP. It is anticipated that RESAP-2 will be launched by the Second Ministerial Conference. 4. International cooperation 226. Activities of both RRSP and RESAP at the regional and subregional levels were financially supported by traditional donors, such as the Governments of Australia, Canada, France, Japan and the Netherlands, and other institutions such as UNDP and the Asian Development Bank. Non-traditional donors such as China and the Republic of Korea also provided funding support to some activities, in addition to a large number of participating Governments that provided in-kind support. ESCAP cooperated in the implementation of RESAP with a large number of organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the European Space Agency, the Asian Institute of Technology, the Asian Association of Remote Sensing, the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, the East-West Center and the International Development Research Centre. 227. An Inter-Agency Subcommittee on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific, consisting of United Nations agencies and intergovernmental organizations, was established in 1994. Its objectives were to monitor trends in space technology applications in the ESCAP region, to exchange information on the participating agencies' programmes and to identify areas requiring enhanced complementarity and study, to formulate joint project proposals and to determine funding arrangements for the selected proposals. Interested members of ESCAP are welcome to attend its sessions as observers. Since its inception, the Inter-Agency Subcommittee has conducted three meetings and jointly initiated and implemented several projects. 5. Publications The Asian-Pacific Remote Sensing Journal, renamed the Asian-Pacific Remote Sensing and GIS Journal, is published biannually with the aim of serving as a forum for the widespread sharing of research results, technological advances and professional expertise to help improve remote sensing capabilities and GIS capabilities in the region. The quarterly itemote Sensing Newsletter, renamed the Space Technology Applications Newsletter, reports on space technology applications developments in the region. Reports on the annual meeting of the four regional working groups and the Intergovernmental Consultative Committee and of various meetings organized by ESCAP have also been published. More than 100 technical publications, proceedings and reports were produced. The list of non-sales publications and publications without ST/ESCAP numbers may be obtained at http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/enrm/stas/publi-l.htm

40 6. Point of contact Space Technology Applications Section Environment and Natural Resources Management Division Economic and Serial Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Building Rajdamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200, Thailand Telephone:+(66) (2) 280-1856 Facsimile: +(66) (2) 288-1000 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/enrrn/stas/stasmam.hto H. United Nations Environment Programme 1. Mandate and objectives 228. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, convened in Stockholm in 1972, stimulated the emergence of the Action Plan for the Human Environment. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was subsequently established to embrace all activities undertaken within the United Nations system related to the environment. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, convened in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, reaffirmed the role of UNEP as an authoritative advocate for the environment committed to the principles of environmentally sustainable development. 229. UNEP's 25-year history charts the negotiation and establishment of global legal agreements and regional programmes and its achievements are manifest today in an environmental awareness that reaches beyond Governments into the business sector and civil society at large. To that end its mission, to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations, is befitting. 230. Achieving those goals is managed through a work programme that emphasizes relationships between socio-economic driving forces, environmental changes and impacts on human well-being. In particular, the UNEP programme focuses on the sustainable management and use of natural resources; sustainable production and consumption patterns; a better environment for human health and well-being; globalization of the economy and the environment; and global servicing and support. 2. Activities (a) Past activities 231. A number of case studies have been carried out by the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS)/Global Resource Information Database (GRID) pilot project to demonstrate the utility of applying geographic information systems (GIS) technology to resource management and land-use planning and to provide on-the-job training for national and agency participants. Activities utilizing satellite data were undertaken in Argentina, Costa Rica, Madagascar, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, the Philippines, Senegal, Uganda, Uruguay and Western Samoa. 232. UNEP, through its GEMS and GRID programmes, has cooperated with many agencies of the United Nations in the past, including the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), the United Nations Development

41 Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, to support environmental monitoring studies, build GIS and remote sensing capacities in developing countries and demonstrate the utility of those technologies in applied situations. 233. UNEP has also participated with numerous scientific bodies and organizations to further the application of cutting-edge remote sensing and GIS technologies to global and regional environmental problems. For example, as part of the lithosphere programme, and in conjunction with the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment of the International Council for Science and the Institute for Biogeochemistry and Marine Chemistry, Hamburg, Germany, UNEP used satellite-derived data to determine suspended matter, phytoplankton and Gelbstqff (a fraction of dissolved organic matter) in rivers, estuaries and coastal waters and surveyed the development of algal-algae blooms. The same bodies cooperated in a study of particle flux in the ocean using remotely sensed measurements to obtain data on global-scale variability in the concentration of chlorophyll in the upper ocean. The project contributed to the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. 234. UNEP has also carried out a number of Earthwatch-related activities through its desertification control programme. In association with the International Soil Reference and Information Centre and the Dutch Soil Survey Institute (STD30KA) a global assessment of soil degradation and related maps on the 1:10,000,000 scale were published. The same organizations continued cooperating to develop a world Soil and Terrain Digital Database (SOTER) on the 1:1,000,000 scale. 235. UNEP, through its International Referral System for Sources of Environmental Information (TNFOTERRA), has links to over 200 registered sources that provide information on remote sensing or use the technique in their activities relating to environmental monitoring. (b) Current activities 236. Through its GRID network, UNEP maintains its linkages with providers and users of remote sensing and information technology applications in many countries to support an assessment framework keeping under review the state of the global environment and environmental issues of international significance. 237. The GRID network now consists of 15 centres. Four of these—GRID Bangkok, GRID Geneva, GRID Nairobi and GRID Sioux Falls—have a UNEP staff presence. GRID Arendal is operated as a private foundation supported by the Government of as a direct support to UNEP in accordance with a memorandum of understanding between the partners. The remaining GRID centres forming part of the network are located in Christchurch, New Zealand (the International Centre for Integrated Antarctic Research); Tsukuba, Japan (the National Institute for Environmental Studies); Katmandu (the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development); SaS Jose dos Campos, Brazil (the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espacias); Esjberg, Denmark; Ottawa (the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing); Warsaw; Budapest (the Ministry of the Environment); the Blue Plan Office of the Regional Activity Centre of the Mediterranean Action Plan; and . Discussions are also continuing between UNEP and the World Conservation and Monitoring Centre with a view to signing a memorandum of understanding in 1998 for the Centre to join the GRID network as the topical centre for biodiversity and conservation. 238. GRID centres continue to produce, add value to and disseminate data sets useful for environmental assessment. The creation of a steering committee to oversee the development of a more integrated operation is being considered to bring the centres closer together. The centres serve as the foundation for UNEP environmental and natural resources information networking projects, which initiate cooperation agreements with governmental and intergovernmental organizations in developing countries and countries with economies in transition to form environmental assessment and reporting networks. These networks promote the flow of information for assessment between partner institutions and UNEP; provide for policy and planning consultations related to

42 international assessment and reporting; and provide a vehicle to catalyse and facilitate capacity-building in participating institutions. 239. UNEP, through GRID Geneva, has completed up-to-date databases of human population density and distribution for the Asian continent and the Russian Federation. The final gridded GIS data sets can be used for a wide number of purposes, including assessment of human impacts on the landscape. GRID Geneva is also undertaking pilot studies on the use of GIS for the prevention and resolution of environmental conflicts. 240. UNEP operates the North American of UNEP/GRID in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States of America, the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the United States Forest Service (USFS) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Through this cooperation, UNEP accesses world-class expertise and the unique facilities of the USGS Earth Resources Observation Satellite (EROS) Data Center, NASA, EPA and USFS, in applied data and information technology for the benefit of developing countries. GRID Sioux Falls has been active in the design, development and timely delivery of scientifically credible information products. It also continues to support decision-making needs in areas where the international community is actively engaged, such as the Great Lakes region of Africa, and the continuing forest fire crisis in south-east Asia. 241. UNEP, through its various GRID centres, promotes the completion of comprehensive and globally consistent data sets and databases relating to global land cover, digital elevation, drainage basins, population and forest vegetation in cooperation with agencies around the world. At GRID Bangkok, for example, cooperation with the Branch Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Nepal will result in an environmental assessment and contingency planning database for the refugee camps in eastern Nepal. GRID Bangkok and GRID Sioux Falls are also cooperating with UNDP in a GIS remote sensing assessment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea as regards agricultural relief and rehabilitation. GRID Arendal will continue to work with the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research to investigate cross-fertilization of georeferenced data applications in agriculture and the environment to strengthen the performance of both organizations. 242. A number of other cooperative ventures between UNEP and international partners are underway, including that with the International Soils Reference and Information Centre and FAO, advancing the work and coverage of SOTER. A SOTER database for Latin America on the scale 1:5,000,000 has been completed. In addition, UNEP will continue to participate actively in the work of the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites such as the development of integrated global observing strategies and data networking initiatives and the strengthening of the Global Climate Observing System, the Global Ocean Observing System and the Global Terrestrial Observing System. UNEP will also continue actively to explore means of cooperation with UNDP on ways to apply the results of a UNEP/Michigan State University (United States of America) integrated socio-economic and environmental database for Rwanda to that of other countries and to subregional groupings. 243. UNEP has also implemented a satellite-based telecommunications system known as Mercure, which is designed to improve global access to environmental information. The system was inaugurated in Geneva in November 1997 and presently comprises a configuration of 16 International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) Earth stations donated by six member States (Austria, Belgium, Norway, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom) of the European Space Agency. Mercure uses INTELSAT satellites in over the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. High-capacity Earth stations have been established in China, Costa Rica, Kenya, Norway, Switzerland and Thailand. These stations will increasingly serve the information management needs of national and regional environment authorities and UNEP headquarters and regional offices. Lower-capacity stations to meet the information management needs of national environment agencies have been established in Austria, Bahrain, Bolivia, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Nepal, Mozambique, the Niger and Viet Nam, and connectivity to Mercure is being established in the Russian Federation. 244. Consistent with Chapter 40 of Agenda 21, UNEP created UNEPnet, an international environmental Internet that will better meet the environmental information management needs of UNEP partners worldwide. Mercure

43 is essential to UNEPnet's viability in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, providing an exciting application of satellite telecommunications for global delivery of environmental information products. Modern and cost-effective data communications, both within the UNEPnet and through links to the global Internet, continue to provide access to comprehensive information on environment and sustainable development. The technology standards of the Internet, combined with flexible and adaptive access services, provide the broadest basis for information outreach today and include commonly used Internet tools such as electronic (e-)mail and World Wide Web services to improve access and exchange environmental information throughout the world (c) Future activities 245. UNEP, through its various GRID centres, will continue to promote the completion and dissemination of comprehensive and globally consistent data sets and databases in cooperation with environmental agencies and other partners around the world. Focus will increase on stimulating the creation of databases and monitoring techniques that increasingly support state of environment assessment and reporting requirements, such as UNEP's Global Environment Outlook (GEO), and assist in mitigating or minimizing the impact of environmental disasters, such as the south-east Asian forest fires. 246. UNEP also will focus considerable future energy on facilitating access to and exchange of environmental information through UNEPnet and Mercure by creating links through the Internet to its own environmental information resources for the benefit of United Nations agencies, Governments, regional and national partner organizations concerned with me environment and the public at large. 3. International cooperation 247. Beyond those agencies specifically mentioned earlier, UNEP maintains a wide range of formal relationships with partners around the globe in its role as facilitator and catalyst for environment and sustainable development. For example, there are 25 GEO collaborating centres distributed around the world that provide expert input and guidance to UNEP in the assessment of the global state of the environment. Formal memoranda of understanding exist between UNEP and Governments establishing 176 national INFOTERRA focal points that facilitate the exchange of scientific and technical environmental information within and between nations. Additional agreements are in place between UNEP and regional organizations that provide for specific exchanges of expertise or information, related to GIS/remote sensing, information management and telecommunications. 4. Publications UNEP/GRID Arendal T. Bakuradze and others, Environmental information systems in , Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP.TR/95-02) (Nairobi, 1995). Nickolai B. Denisov, Environmental information systems in the Russian Federation, Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP.TR/95-04) (Nairobi, 1995). Feasibility study for the establishment of a UNEP compatible environmental information network in Hungary (1995). Integrated Environmental Information Systems in Support of Decision-making in Countries in Transition, Moscow, 29-31 May 1995 (1995). Proceedings from Moscow Seminars, Moscow, 24 and 25 January 1995 (1995). Report of Arendal II Workshop on UNEP and CGIAR Cooperation on Data, Capacity Building and Networking Needs for the Use of GIS in Agricultural Research, 9-11 May 1995, Arendal, Norway (1995). Audrey V. Semichaevsky, Environmental information systems in Ukraine, Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP.TR/95-03) (Nairobi, 1995). Otto Simonett, ed., Proceedings from Baltic Workshop: National environmental reporting needs and capabilities in the Baltic States, 23 and 24 March 1995, Arendal, Norway.

44 UNEP/GRID Arendal/Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research GIS in Agricultural Research: Awareness package. UNEP/Central European University Environmental Reporting in Central and Eastern Europe: A Review of Selected Publications and Frameworks (1997). UNEP/Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research E. Bournay et al., Mapping Indicators of Poverty in West Africa (1997). L.Czaran et al., GIS in Agricultural Research Awareness Package (1997). Needs and Approaches to Improve Access to Environmental Information for Transboundary Decision-making in the Baltic Sea Region (1997). The Role of Information Technology in Environmental Awareness-Raising, Policy-Making, Decision-Making and Development Aid (1997). UNEP/GRID Sioux Falls Access to Environmental Data and Information Using the Internet Tools. Survey of Geographical Information System and Image Processing Software 1995. Survey of Spatial Data Handling Technologies 1997 (1997). USGS/UNEP Land cover assessment and monitoring: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Nepal, Viet Nam, Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP.TR/95-06), vol. 1A-7A (Bangkok, 1995). Spatial Data Sets for Environmental Assessment: Towards bridging the data gap (1997). UNEP/Division of Environmental Information and Assessment—Asian and the Pacific/Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Mosaic, map (Bangkok, Format Associates, 1997). Directory of Coastal and Marine Environment Institutions and Experts of the South China Sea Registered with the Coastal and Marine Environment Management Information Systems (COMEMIS). Global Environment Outlook (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997). Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring: Malaysia, Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP. TR/95-06), vol. 9-A (Bangkok, 1997). Land Cover Assessment and Monitoring: Thailand, Environment Assessment Technical Reports (UNEP/EAP. TR/95-06), vol. 8-A (Bangkok, 1997). 5. Point of contact Chief, Environment Information Networks P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya Telephone: +(254) (2) 623518 Facsimile:+(254) (2) 623783 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.unep.org/

45 I. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research 1. Mandate and objectives 248. The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), an autonomous institution within the framework of the United Nations, undertakes independent research on disarmament and related problems, in particular international security issues. The Institute is based in Geneva. 249. At the first special session of the General Assembly devoted to disarmament, held in 1978, France proposed the creation of an international institute for disarmament research. The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research started work on 1 October 1980. The Institute is financed by voluntary contributions from States and public or private organizations. A subvention towards meeting the costs of the Director and the staff of the Institute is provided from the regular budget of the United Nations. 250. The Institute's research projects are carried out by research fellows or are commissioned to individual experts or research organizations. In the latter case, UNIDIR approaches those whom it considers qualified to be engaged in the respective projects. It detennines the topic and framework of research and subsequently reviews it before completion and publication. For some major studies, multinational groups composed of persons known for their expertise and experience are established to encourage a multidisciplinary approach. UNIDIR's fellowship programme is for scholars from developing countries. Fellowships last from 3 to 12 months and are integrated into ongoing research projects. UNIDIR also has a flourishing internship programme that hosts young scholars for varying lengths of time to work on an ongoing research project with a UNIDIR research fellow. 251. According to the Institute's statute, approved by the General Assembly in December 1984, the work of the Institute shall aim at: (a) Providing the international community with more diversified and complete data on problems relating to international security, the armaments race and disarmament in all fields, in particular in the nuclear field, so as to facilitate progress, through negotiations, towards greater security for all States and towards the economic and social development of all peoples; (b) Promoting informed participation by all States in disarmament efforts; (c) Assisting ongoing negotiations on disarmament and continuing efforts to ensure greater international security at a progressively lower level of armaments, in particular nuclear armaments, by means of objective and factual studies and analyses; (d) Carrying out more in-depth, forward-looking and long-term research on disarmament, so as to provide a general insight to the problems involved, and stimulating new initiatives for new negotiations. 2. Activities (a) Past activities (i) Civil space systems: implications for international security 252. Access to outer space depends upon rocketry. The use of space depends upon a complex combination of science, technology and engineering to create, manage and operate spacecraft. This project referred to these capabilities as "technologies of astronautics". This phrase includes all the scientific, technical and engineering skills necessary to produce launch vehicles and to produce, operate and control spacecraft for their effective use in outer space. This project also referred to "space systems", which include all the operational elements of a

46 system in space or on the ground. Ground-based e ements, technologies of satellite systems operating in space and launch systems combine to make up astronautica! technology. 253. Much of today's astronautical literature focuses on a single aspect of the technology or its use, for example, communication by satellite, launch services, satellite remote sensing, treaty compliance verification or some other particular use. Few works attempt to examine the full range of interdependent actors, technologies and operational systems, and their implications for international security. This project evaluated the international security implications of relevant technologies, systems actors and assessed their implications for the international peace and security of the total development of cijvil astronautics. (ii) Building confidence in outer space activities: confidence and security-building measures and Earth-to-space monitoring 254. If Governments fail to put in motion a confidence building process in outer space now—in the rather benign conditions that exist at present—they are likely to face more severe problems later on since outer space activities are growing both in quantity and diversification, The number of space-capable States is increasing and military utilizations persist. In 1993, more than half of 300 operational satellites in orbit had military- or national security-related missions. the 255. Today, big-Power relations are more cooperative than at any time since the Second World War—and quite possibly more cooperative than they will be for a l^Hig time. In outer space, rivalries and suspicions abated as the cold war subsided. However, when circumstances grow benign in one field, there is a tendency for political attention to turn to other areas where urgent problems still loom large. Good opportunities for the solution of upcoming problems are thus sometimes lost for of ability to sustain medium- and long-term perspectives on political affairs. la:k 256. This project set out to clarify some of the prerequisites and modalities of a confidence-building process in outer space. More precisely, it examined the role of Earth-to-space monitoring in the development of a confidence-building regime aimed at enhancing the safety of outer space activities and preventing the deployment of weapons in outer space. It was inspired by the perception that this is a time of opportunity and it has been guided by the realization that, at present, space problems are not very high on the international political agenda. 257. The first cooperative steps are therefore likuly to be modest; the initial measures of a confidence-building process usually are. However, once they get going one of the beauties of such a process is that it may grow in pragmatic fashion. Thus, if at a later stage there is a broadly recognized need for more comprehensive measures, there would be some elements to build upon and some institutional procedures to guide the parties towards more significant achievements. (Hi) Evolving trends in the dual use of satellites 258. UNIDIR organized a conference in cooperation with the Space and Congress Division of the Kommunikations-, Messe- und Ausstellungs GmbH. The conference took place within the framework of a much wider event—the 1995 Space Congress and Exhibition, which is a biannual event covering various activities in the field of outer space. The primary objectives of the Conference were two-fold. First and foremost, it was intended to provide a forum for experts in different areas of satellite technology and applications to meet and debate the complex issue of dual use of satellites, While some attention was directed to a debate on the different technical and financial aspects of satellite research and development, as well as the present and prospective market for satellite data, particular emphasis was placed oh providing an understanding of the policy orientation of space agencies and private companies both in traditiona and emerging space-competent States. As Earth-observation, global-positioning, communications and other satellite data are playing increasingly important roles in international security events, it is clear that issues involving confidence- and security-building measures in outer space activities, but also other forms of cooperat on, are central to such debates.

47 259. The second objective of the Conference was to provide an opportunity for manufacturers, suppliers, users of and experts in outer space technology and applications to meet and improve their understanding of each others' capabilities and needs and also to explore possibilities for cooperation. This is particularly true as regards the need to understand better the various uses of satellite applications by different institutions both within and outside the framework of the United Nations, especially in relation to issues involving international security matters. 260. Two round tables related to issues debated at the Conference also took place, furthering discussion on the use of satellites: "Remote sensing: the need for a user-driven " and "Tomorrow's dual use of satellites." (iv) Reducing risk—building security 261. UNEDIR and the secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction hosted a seminar on "Reducing risk—building security" during the 1997 Bremen Space Congress and Exhibition, held from 14 to 17 May 1997, in Bremen, Germany. The theme of the Congress and Exhibition was the successful application of spacecraft resources in business, science and politics. Examples of these applications were presented in discussions on global communications, navigation, natural disaster reduction, environmental monitoring and international security concerns, and discussions were held concerning future developments in those areas as well as in the utilization of space and Moon stations. One session was devoted to space flight-related activities in the Bremen region. 262. The UNIDIR seminar explored the technologies available today to help prevent natural disasters and human conflict. This was done by examining early warning systems designed to prevent or minimize the impact of various natural occurrences and the use of remote sensing technology as a means of regional confidence-building between States and their peoples. A case study was presented focusing on the Middle East peace process. (b) Current activities (i) Transfer of dual-use outer space technologies: confrontation or cooperation 263. The right of any State to develop outer space technologies, be they launching capabilities, orbiting satellites, planetary probes or ground-based equipment, is, in principle, unquestionable. In practice, however, problems arise when technology development approaches the very fine line between civil and military applications, largely because most of the technologies can be used for dual purposes. This dichotomy has raised a series of political, military and other concerns that affect the transfer of outer space technologies in different ways, in particular between established and emerging space-competent States. Accordingly, for many years several States have sought ways to curb the transfer of specific dual-use outer space technologies, specifically launcher technology, while still allowing some transfer of those technologies for civil use. 264. Controlling outer space technologies has never been an easy task and it has become increasingly complex with the recent fundamental changes in international relations. Indeed, the nature and potential use of outer space and related technologies are such that, collectively or individually, States are often faced with having to determine what could be an illegal transfer and what can be permitted, between what could be a genuine civil use application at a certain point in time—but could be used for military purposes in another, and applications that are overtly or implicitly militaristic in character. 265. Currently, the relationship between the suppliers and the recipients of such technologies is based on selective control regimes, which, in many instances, give rise to conflicting political situations. Control regimes have mainly been established to curb the development of ballistic missiles, military reconnaissance satellites and other weapons and weapon systems. The argument could also be made, however, that economic considerations have stimulated those control regimes. Polemics aside, the problems inherent in these regimes are such that there is an

48 urgent need to rethink their mode of implementa ion, added to which is the fact that control regimes have also hindered, both directly and indirectly, the development of certain civil-oriented space programmes. 266. The project scrutinizes ways of creating new relationships between suppliers and recipients in technology transfer, which can easily be a zero-sum endeavour The challenge is to instigate impartial and innovative tliinking. Moves favouring cooperation simply for the sake of ensuring the transfer of dual-use technologies are not the answer. Moreover, while international organizations have their role, they are also not a panacea. 267. The quest for improved relationships with lespect to technology transfer and dual use must start with an assessment of the political, military, technical and economic implications of outer space technologies, as well as their relevance to different geopolitical situations Only through cooperation can the supplier/recipient relationship be established in a sound, durable manner, but any such cooperation must be reinforced by agreements to ensure transparency and predictability on issues that directly affect the security and development of individual States or groups of States. (ii) The Middle East viewed from space: a atlas of the peace process 268. In the Middle East, conflict and hostility continue to divide Israel and its Arab neighbours. The peace talks are in a very fragile state and are in constant need of reinforcement. Several initiatives have been undertaken to begin to build confidence between Israel and its neighbours. Those initiatives range from research projects to informal settings for discussion. 269. UNIDIR is currently developing The Middle East Viewedfrom Space: A Satellite Imagery Atlas of the Peace Process in close cooperation with the Institute of Global Mapping and Research in Salzburg, Austria. UNIDIR is designing the volume and producing the texts, and the Institute is processing the satellite data and producing the maps for the atlas. The atlas will be primarily an educational tool designed to introduce the reader to the Arab-Israeli peace process. The goal of the atlas is to provide a fresh perspective on the process by focusing on current or potential cooperation between Israel and its neighbours. The atlas will also seek to explain the reasons for disputes over issues ranging from arms build-up and access to water resources, to the preservation of archaeological monuments. Each issue will be illustrated using maps based on satellite images. These maps have the benefit not only of being extremely appealing visually, but also of containing a degree of accuracy and an amount of information not available on conventional maps. As a result, the atlas will raise interest and awareness among the general public about the ongoing difficulties in the region and it will also serve as a useful reference tool for the diplomatic and academic communities. 270. The atlas will be divided into four main sections. The first section will introduce and define the concept of confidence-building in the Middle East and the remote sensing technology that gives the atlas such importance. The second section will describe the security issues that exist in the region. This part of the atlas will illustrate the military potential and strategic depth of the countries, the locations of United Nations peacekeeping operations and the influence and reach of various regional organizations, peace talks and bilateral and multilateral agreements. The third section will focus more on the non-military aspects of the region. Geography, population, transportation, natural resources, economy and cultural heritage will all be described with images and texts by experts in these fields. The fourth section will present Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey individually, describing in detail their political, social, economic and military structures. 271. The final pages of the volume will include a list of acronyms, a glossary, a list of references used in the atlas as well as those recommended for further reading, an annex containing international resolutions and declarations and an index. The atlas will be produced as a large-format book (approx. 27 x 35 cm) in two bilingual editions (English/German and French/Arabic). A CD-ROM version of the atlas will be included. The CD-ROM will contain the same number of images as the bound version of the atlas, but the user will have the ability to focus

49 in on particular areas of interest and "cut and paste" selections into other applications. A teacher's guide will also be made available for use in the classroom. (Hi) Middle East meeting on uses of satellite imagery 272. UNIDIR and the Cooperative Monitoring Center (United States of America) will co-host a meeting on the potential uses of commercial satellite imagery for promoting peace and development in the Middle East. The participants will explore three main areas where remote sensing technology might be employed: arms control, environmental and natural resources and economic development. 273. The meeting will bring together 30-35 experts in remote sensing technology and Middle Eastern security and development. The majority of the participants will be from the region. Participants not from the region will bring expertise in the current and probable future capabilities of commercial satellite technology. The hope is that those familiar with the needs of the region will be able to learn about and discuss the tools available to serve those needs and to make an assessment of the utility and cost-effectiveness of the technology. As arms control, environmental and natural resources and economic development are all issues with regional importance and impact, this will also be an opportunity for individuals from various Middle Eastern countries to discuss common approaches to those problems. (c) Future activities Hyperspectral imaging for United Nations activities 21 A. As part of its ongoing research, UNIDIR has investigated the uses of space-based remote sensing. Its interests in such data are quite varied and include non-military-related work in natural disaster response and preparation, monitoring of environmental concerns and ecological studies to support natural resource allocations between member nations. UNIDIR also uses satellite data in projects related to United Nations peace operations and the Israeli/Arab peace talks. UNIDIR's data to date have been those commonly available from SPOT, Landsat and other commercial sources. 275. This general assessment of the utility of space-based remote sensing includes an effort to look at emerging technologies and their possible applications. One of the more interesting new technologies is hyperspectral imaging from space-based platforms. The Air Force Research Laboratory sponsored the MightySat n.l Hyperspectral Imaging payload, which is being built under a joint use, military and civilian, technology demonstration effort as part of an extension to a small business innovative research contract. The MightySat n. 1 Hyperspectral Imager's technical performance is particularly well suited to supplying data tailored to UNIDIR's proof of principle application demonstrations. The wide variations in spectral and spatial resolution offer enticing experimental variables that have never been available in a space-based platform. Coupled with the projected sensor , the payload may have unique capabilities in helping UNIDIR to understand the uses of advanced space-based remote sensing in vegetation and land-use applications. 276. UNIDIR is aware of the experimental nature of the MightySat programme and the uncertainties that it entails. However, such programmes may be well suited to UNIDIR's research goals. UNIDIR will work in close cooperation with the Air Force Research Laboratory. 3. Publications Stephen E. Doyle, Civil Space Systems: Implications for International Security (Aldershot, Dartmouth, 1994). Pericles Gaspanni Alves, Access to Outer Space Technologies: Implications for International Security, UNIDIR Research Paper No. 15 (United Nations publication, Sales No. GV.E.92.0.30).

50 Pericles Gasparini Alves, ed., Building Confidence in Outer Space Activities: CSBMs and Earth-to-Space Monitoring (Aldershot, Dartmouth, 1996). Pericles Gasparini Alves, ed., Evolving Trends in the Dual Use of Satellites (United Nations publication, Sales No. GV.E.96.0.20). Pericles Gasparini Alves, Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space: A Guide to the Discussions in the Conference on Disarmament (United Nations publication, Sales No. GV.E.91.0.17). Bhupendra Jasani, ed., Peaceful and Non-Peaceful Uses of Space: Problems of Definition for the Prevention of an Arms Race (New York, Taylor & Francis, 1991). Bhupendra Jasani, Verification of a Comprehensive Test Ban Treatyfrom Space - A Preliminary Study, UN1DIR Research Paper No. 32 (United Nations publication, Sales No. GV.E.94.0.30). 4. Point of contact Head, Political Affairs United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research Palais des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 917 4253 Facsimile: +(41) (22) 917 0176 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.unog.ch/unidir

51 H. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES AND RELATED ORGANIZATIONS A. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1. Mandate and objectives 277. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was founded in October 1945 with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productivity and to better the conditions of rural populations. Today, FAO is the largest autonomous specialized agency within the United Nations system, with 174 member countries and the European Union as a member organization. 278. Since its inception, FAO has worked to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved nutrition and the pursuit of food security—the access of all people at all times to the food they need for an active and healthy life. The Organization offers direct development assistance, collects, analyses and disseminates information, provides policy and planning advice to Governments upon request and acts as an international forum for debate on food and agriculture issues, including forestry and fisheries. 279. FAO is active in land and water development, plant and animal production, forestry, fisheries, economic and social policy, investment, food standards and commodities and trade. It also plays a major role in dealing with food and agricultural emergencies. 280. A specific priority of the Organization is encouraging sustainable agriculture and rural development, a long-term strategy for the conservation and management of natural resources. It aims to meet the needs of both present and future generations through programmes that do not degrade the environment and are technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. 281. In November 1996, FAO convened the first World Food Summit, which resulted in a comprehensive Action Plan aimed at reducing the present number of malnourished people in the world by half by 2015. One of the Action Plan's key instruments is the FAO Special Programme on Food Security, which draws in its defined overall objective of improving food security in low-income food-deficit countries from Agenda 21, adopted unanimously by the countries of the world at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. 282. FAO consists of eight Departments: Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, Economic and Social, Sustainable Development, Technical Cooperation, General Affairs and Information, and Administration and Finance. The space-related activities of FAO are primarily, although not exclusively, located in the Sustainable Development Department's Research, Extension and Training Division, and specifically in the Environment and Natural Resources Service. 283. FAO employs some 1,500 Professional staff at its headquarters in Rome and its decentralized offices around the world, with regional offices being located in Accra, Bangkok, Barbados, Budapest, Cairo, Harare, Samoa, Santiago and Tunis. FAO liaison offices are located in Brussels, Geneva and Washington, D.C., and the Organization has country representatives in 78 countries. The Organization's budget for the biennium 1998-1999 is set by its governing body, the FAO Conference, at $650 million and FAO-assisted projects attract more than $3 billion per year from donor agencies and Governments for investments in agricultural and rural development projects.

52 2. Activities (a) General information 284. FAO started using remote sensing technologies in its projects and programmes in the early 1970s when the Organization formally created a Remote Sensing Unit. In 1980, following a recommendation from the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, endorsed by the General Assembly, the FAO Remote Sensing Centre was formally established with responsibility within the United Nations system for remote sensing applied to renewable natural resources. 285. In 1990, the FAO Agrometeorology Group joined the Remote Sensing Centre and in 1996, as part of a major restructuring of FAO, the Centre became the Environment and Natural Resources Service, which contains the Organization's remote sensing, geographic information system (GIS), agrometeorology, environment and energy activities. This Service, located at FAO headquarters in Rome, supports a wide variety of activities related to environment and natural resource management, both through headquarters as well as field programmes. (b) Major activities 286. FAO is orienting its efforts to optimize the use of remote sensing, GIS and agrometeorological technologies towards effective transfer of the technology and is integrating its use into the activities of its member States for enhancing the timeliness and cost-effectiveness of data collection, inventory, monitoring and management of the environment and natural resources at various levels, including early warning for food security and natural disaster mitigation. 287. In environmental monitoring, FAO has operated since 1988 the Africa Real-Time Environmental Monitoring Information System (ARTEMIS), which was developed with financial support from the Government of the Netherlands and is now fully supported by the FAO regular programme. ARTEMIS supports the operational monitoring of seasonal growing conditions and vegetation development over Africa, based on hourly Meteosat data and daily advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States of America for use in early warning for food security and desert locust control. This includes routine distribution of ARTEMIS images, containing information about rainfall and vegetation activity, by electronic means to users at FAO headquarters and at the regional and national levels. FAO continues to support the establishment, or improvement, of local reception and/or processing systems using low-resolution environmental satellites, including the development of improved interpretation techniques and user-friendly analysis software. The ARTEMIS system was significantly upgraded in 1996 to better satisfy the expanding needs of its users, as well as those of the scientific community, coordinated by the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. The rainy season performance assessment capability of the system, based on the use of global monitoring system data, was expanded to cover eastern Asia in 1996. During 1998, its NOAA- AVHRR-based vegetation index coverage has been expanded to include south and central America, through cooperation with the Goddard Space Flight Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States of America. 288. An ARTEMIS website, as an integral part of the Sustainable Development Department's website, SD-Dimensions, has been available since mid-1998. For expanding the capabilities of the ARTEMIS system in support of food security, locust control, animal health and forestry applications, FAO is currently negotiating with the European Union and NASA access to the forthcoming VEGETATION and MODIS data from the Systeme pour 1'observation de la Terre (SPOT)-4 and Earth Observing System (EOS)-AM 1 satellites, respectively. In addition, the future ENVISAT and Meteosat second-generation satellite missions of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), respectively, are being studied as potential data sources for ARTEMIS.

53 289. In June 1998, FAO completed Phase II of its Regional Remote Sensing Project (RRSP) for the member States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) with funding since 1994 from the Government of the Netherlands. This has resulted in an advanced SADC capacity for handling and analysis of ARTEMIS data, direct reception and processing of Meteosat data and communication of various information products by electronic means to the SADC regional and national early warning systems as well as other users. A three-year follow-on project for consolidation and strengthening of the SADC technical and institutional capacities for satellite-based environmental monitoring to support food security early warning is currently being negotiated between FAO and the European Union. This project is designed to develop and implement food security-related environmental monitoring activities at regional, national and subnational levels and, in addition to government agencies, will involve non-governmental organizations as well as the private sector. 290. FAO has also completed a similar regional project for the countries in the region of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) in cooperation with the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and with funding from the Governments of France and Japan. This has resulted in a fully operational capacity in the Regional Centre for Meteosat and NOAA-AVHRR global and local area coverage (GAC/LAC) data processing and information product generation, including the preparation of food security early warning bulletins for the countries of the IGAD region. A similar project for West and Central Africa has also been formulated. 291. FAO, in the context of its Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) on Food and Agriculture, operates the GIEWS integrated computer workstation, developed with financial support from the European Union and capable of integrating remote sensing, agrometeorological, socio-economic and statistical data on a common geographical basis. The use of this enabling facility has been transferred for use at the regional level in the SADC region. 292. FAO contributes, with the use of remote sensing and GIS technology, to the development of schemes to control transboundary livestock diseases under the FAO Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases (EMPRES) programme. Earlier studies relating normalized difference vegetation index data sets from ARTEMIS to tsetse distribution and land utilization types in Nigeria and Togo led to the establishment of an operational information system to define policies for African animal trypanosomiasis control. This regional project in Burkina Faso and Togo was supported by the Government of Belgium. Remote sensing is used to define technical concepts for tsetse control in countries where high-resolution satellite imagery is available to discern types of land utilization. A project is currently being prepared to design maps and GIS to assist 11 western African countries affected by onchocerciasis. GIS also plays a central role in the establishment of a global livestock geography, comprising the production of 10-kilometre-resolution maps showing the distribution, over time, of the different livestock species worldwide. 293. With supportfrom th e Government of Belgium, FAO is implementing the Reconnaissance and Management System of the Environment of Schistocerca (RAMSES) system within the framework of its EMPRES programme. The objective of RAMSES is to improve the use of Meteosat and NOAA-AVHRR data for the early detection of locust-breeding areas in Africa in association with locally collected, georeferenced field data and the historical desert locust database. This data covers the period from the late 1920s to the present and resides at FAO in a dedicated GIS called SWARMS. 294. The 1990 Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) project of FAO, a global survey of forest resources, demonstrated that with the help of remote sensing, information on changes in forest and land use could be obtained on a global basis in a cost-effective, timely and statistically sound manner. FAO concluded that such surveys, if continued over time, would lend factual support to global environmental researchers and policy makers by providing detailed descriptions of the processes of change and the quantification of essential parameters on a reliable basis.

54 295. In view of the information needs of the international community, in particular the need for studies on global changes, FAO intends to continue to build consistent and reliabletime-series observation s of forest and land use. FAO is currently preparing for a global forest resource assessment for the year 2000, FRA 2000, which will make intensive use of remote sensing and GIS, ranging from coarse-resolution global coverage for land cover mapping to high- and very-high resolution multi-date satellite imagery for surveying global and regional changes in forest and land cover. FRA 2000 includes a major country capacity-building component, allowing countries to participate actively in the assessment process. 296. With the Government of the Netherlands, FAO is participating in a new major programme, the Forest Assessment and Monitoring Environment (FAME) concept. This programme aims at defining, developing and utilizing an operational end-to-end satellite remote sensing capacity dedicated to providing real-time access to appropriate remote sensing data in support of forest management at the subnational level. During 1998, FAO contributed to a comprehensive FAME user requirement study, undertaken on behalf of the Government of the Netherlands by the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, through the implementation of five country studies and participation in FAME user requirement study workshops. 297. FAO operates the AFRICOVER project, which started in 1995 and will continue through 1999, establishing a digital land-cover database for and by each competent national and regional African body and producing land-cover maps on the scale 1:250,000 (1:1,000,000 and 1:100,000 in certain cases), using the same geographical references and projection system in Africa, as well as a common harmonized legend, with updated information on drainage, toponyms, roads and land-cover features, to list a few. It will be implemented in African regional and national remote sensing centres and mapping agencies under the supervision of FAO. Two workshops, held in Addis Ababa and Dakar in 1996 in cooperation with ECA, defined a harmonized land-cover classification system and geometrical parameters. The east African component of AFRICOVER was started in 1995 with a contribution of $5.47 million from the Government of Italy and became fully operational at the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing in Nairobi in January 1997. In addition, preparatory and methodological work has resulted in a number of publications on mapping guidelines and standards. 298. Since 1996, the World Bank, together with FAO, has been designing a major project in central Africa, the Regional Environmental Information Management Project (REIMP). The project aims at improving and strengthening the planning and management of natural resources in the Congo Basin by providing the various stakeholders with appropriate environmental information. The project involves some 100 organizations from the public and private sectors, as well as non-governmental organizations, working in a national and regional network structure. FAO is the lead agency for the normative as well as the technical control activities of the project, which is supported by a multidonor fund involving Belgium, Canada and France, as well as the World Bank, the European Union and the Global Environment Facility. 299. In cooperation with a number of partners and with financial support from the European Union, FAO has designed an Integrated Coastal Assessment and Monitoring System (ICAMS), which became operational in late 1997. ICAMS will support the management of coastal zone ecosystems through the generation of water quality and coastal zone resource maps, based on time series of oceanographic satellite data from the SeaWifs and ENVISAT satellites. 300. Following the successful completion of Phases I and II of the FAO/United States Agency for International Development (USAID) project on the monitoring, forecasting and simulation of the Nile River, FAO is implementing Phase IE of the project during 1997-1999 to assist the Government of Egypt in consolidating the results achieved in the earlier phases. Phase III of the project will further consolidate the Nile River Monitoring and Forecasting System; the related system of decision and control has been approved and implementation began in 1998. 301. Within the framework of its inputs to ongoing and planned global environmental programmes such as the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS), FAO is cooperating with organizations within the United Nations

55 system and other international organizations. The primary objective of GTOS is to provide policy makers, resource managers and researchers with access to the data needed to detect, quantify, locate, understand and warn of changes (especially reductions) in the capacity of terrestrial ecosystems to support sustainable development. GTOS focuses on five issues of global concern: changes in land quality, availability of freshwater resources; loss of biodiversity; pollution and toxicity; and climate change. It aims to provide guidance in data analysis and to promote integration of bio-physical and socio-economic georeferenced data; interaction between monitoring networks, research programmes and policy makers; data exchange and application; and quality assurance and harmonization of measurement methods. 302. GTOS, through its secretariat at FAO headquarters and its Steering Committee, is actively developing a Global Terrestrial Observing Network (GT-Net), the Terrestrial Ecosystem Monitoring Sites meta-database and plans for joint regional workshops with the Global Climate Observing System (CGCOS) for formulation of regional activities. Closer cooperation is also envisaged with the Committee on Earth Observing Satellites within the framework of the Integrated Global Observing Strategy. FAO also cooperates with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) by participating in working groups on the harmonization of land-use and land-cover classification and provides technical support for the follow-up to the Conference of the Parties for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa. 303. Under the coordination of its central GIS unit and in cooperation with the relevant technical divisions, FAO is supporting a number of projects with a major GIS component: (a) Preparation of the GIS vector and raster versions of the FAO/UNESCO soil map of the world; (b) Interpretations of the world soil map; (c) Preparation of the map of agro-ecological zones of developing countries; (d) Study on crop and pasture zones for the IGAD countries; (e) Development of maps of forest and wildlife reserves and other protected areas in the developing world; (f) Estimation of available arable lands for the major FAO study, Agriculture Towards 2010; (g) Analysis of the suitability for fish farming of inland aquaculture sites in Africa and south and central America; (h) Statistics of the continental shelf and fishing areas of the oceans; (i) Studies on soil suitability analysis for certain crops in Africa; (j) Development of a pilot GIS database for evaluation of marine resources; (k) Site suitability and other analyses at the country level; (1) Preparation of a subnational boundaries map of Africa; (m) Preparation of a soil map on the 1:1,000,000 scale of north-east Africa; (n) Study on coastal lowlands in the developing countries;

56 (o) Preparation of fish distribution maps for the Mediterranean; (p) Preparation of maps for the World Food Summit; (q) Analysis of water resources; (r) Preparation of soil maps on the 1:1,000,000 scale of Angola, Botswana and Namibia, on the 1:2,500,000 scale of Mongolia and on the 1:5,000,000 scale of Paraguay has been completed. Other maps, of Mozambique, the Russian Federation and the United Republic of Tanzania, are in preparation; (s) Study of potential food self-sufficiency at high- and low-input levels; (t) Preparation of a dominant land resource type map for Africa; (u) Preparation of a nutrition profile map. 304. FAO field projects with a major GIS component are located in Afghanistan, Albania, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burundi, Eritrea, Lithuania, Malta, Pakistan, Peru and Tunisia. 305. FAO envisages the increasing use of global positioning systems (GPS) in surveys and the integration of remote sensing data into GIS-based land resource information systems. FAO is considering using remote sensing to assess and monitor the progress of soil and water conservation works carried out in the field within the framework of national programmes assisted by the World Food Programme (WFP). 306. As regards the diffusion of information about remote sensing and GIS technology, FAO has developed, in addition to its technical publications, an extensive series of brochures for decision makers and is planning the preparation of additional issues in cooperation with national remote sensing institutions. Two new brochures, prepared in cooperation with the Royal Centre for Spacebourne Remote Sensing (CRTS) of Morocco, are on aquaculture development and forest management applications and several others are envisaged. 3. International cooperation 307. The overall mission of the Environment and Natural Resources Service in the Sustainable Development Department of FAO is to contribute to and promote environment and natural resource management and conservation in the context of sustainable agriculture and rural development. The Service provides technical support in the fields of remote sensing, agrometeorology, GIS, environment and energy, including advisory services and the formulation, backstopping and evaluation of field projects, to about 50 developing countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean and central and eastern Europe. In addition, FAO provides support to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and WFP for their field project activities and to the World Bank in relation to guidelines, harmonization and standardization. In addition to cooperating with Governments, FAO cooperates increasingly with non-governmental organizations in the development process. 308. FAO cooperates with the regional commissions and regional and national remote sensing centres in the development and efficient use of remote sensing and GIS technology for the mapping, assessment and monitoring of renewable natural resources and natural disasters. The priorities of this assistance, which focuses on capacity- building, follows the recommendations of Agenda 21 and of the World Food Summit, held at Rome in November 1996, as well as the international conventions on desertification, biodiversity and climate change. 309. In the context of GTOS, FAO cooperates actively with UNESCO, UNEP, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the International Council for Science (ICSU) and, through those organizations, with GCOS and the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). The three observing systems are actively linked

57 through four joint expert panels in the areas of space observations; data and information management; terrestrial observations for climate; and coastal area management. 310. FAO cooperates actively with the European Union, ESA, NASA, NOAA and EUMETSAT on the development of new data sources for the ARTEMIS system with a view to improving its information services and to broadening the group of users of the system, both at FAO headquarters and in thefield. I n that connection, FAO is developing cooperation with ITC with the objective of responding to training needs of developing countries in relation to natural resource management and environmental monitoring. 311. In March 1998 FAO and ESA signed a general framework agreement in the context of the ESA Data User Programme. Under the agreement the two organizations are cooperating on the development and implementation of Data User Programme projects relating to developing countries, with particular emphasis on the sustainability aspects of successful projects. 312. FAO is contributing to the programme of work of the Observatory of the Sahara and Sahel through the assessment and monitoring of land degradation and desertification in countries in northern Africa, with the Centre regional de teled&ection des Etats de PAfrique du Nord (CRTEAN); the harmonization of the uses of NOAA-AVHRR and Meteosat data for environmental monitoring; participation in AFRICAGIS, the main international forum on GIS and environmental information system technologies in Africa; and the establishment of a long-term ecological observatory network in Africa within the framework of GTOS activities. 313. FAO cooperates with UNDCP on pilot projects to determine the location of narcotic crop cultivation sites using satellite remote sensing data. Implemented and planned studies use high-resolution data from new optical and microwave Earth observation satellite systems. 314. FAO provides assistance to countries in central and eastern Europe with a view to increasing their capacities for agricultural and environmental applications of remote sensing and GIS. In particular, FAO offers advice on the use of remote sensing and GIS in planning and implementing agricultural land reform and in assessing and monitoring environmental damage. At present, such assistance is being provided to Albania, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. 4. Publications FAO publications related to remote sensing, GIS, agrometeorology, environment and energy can be found on the website of the Sustainable Development Department, SD-Dimensions, at http://www.fao.org/sd 5. Point of contact Chief, Environment and Natural Resources Service Sustainable Development Department Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Rome 00100, Italy Telephone:+(39)(6) 5705.5583 Facsimile: +(39)(6) 5705.3369 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.fao.org

58 B. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 315. The mandate of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is to foster international cooperation in thefields of education, science, culture and communication and to assist in narrowing the gap in those areas between the developed and developing countries. UNESCO promotes the free flow of ideas by word and image and, as a strategy, focuses on the application of communication and information technologies for development, democracy and peace. 316. The use of satellites for communication is dealt with by the Communication, Information and Informatics Sector. The Communication Division is concerned with the implementation of projects, feasibility studies and training in the use of space technology, and is responsible for all aspects of international news and information exchange, television and radio news and programmes via communication satellites. In particular, the mtemational Programme for the Development of Communication examines and supports projects concerning the utilization of communication satellites within and between countries. The Information and Informatics Division deals with policies, applications and services for the exploitation of telematics for development, including the applicability and feasibility (in particular the cost) of employing satellite channels. 317. The Education Sector, in particular the Division of Higher Education and Research, provides assistance to member States, principally in the form of expert advice, on the use of space communication for education and national development. The Section of Educational Innovations, Technologies and Research carries out training programmes on educational technologies and media, including satellites, for programme production and for distance learning, as in the framework of the "Learning without frontiers" programme. Pilot projects using interactive television for education are also implemented by the Education Sector in cooperation with the Communication, Information and Informatics Sector. 318. The primary interest of the Science Sector in remote sensing and other spacecraft is related to the study of the natural environment and its resources. The application of advanced remote sensing techniques, together with a geographic information system (GIS), is carried out for environmental monitoring, mitigation of natural hazards, ocean and sea monitoring, sustainable exploration and management of non-renewable resources and management of biosphere reserves. Pilot projects and research activities are carried out by the Division of Earth Sciences, the Division of Ecological Sciences, the Division of Water Sciences and the Unit on Coastal Areas and Small Islands and by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC). 319. The Culture Sector and the World Heritage Centre use remote sensing data and techniques in their projects related to the preservation of important historic and cultural monuments. 1. Past activities 320. For the last 25 years, UNESCO activities in thefield o f space applications have consisted of research studies, publications, meetings and seminars on the use of space communication for education, information, culture and development. 321. In 1974, UNESCO adopted the Declaration of Guiding Principles on the Use of Satellite Broadcasting. In the same year, UNESCO and the World Intellectual Property Organization convened an international conference of States to discuss the distribution of programme-carrying signals transmitted by satellite and to finalize an international convention, the result of the work of three committees that had studied the problems raised by communication satellites concerning copyright and the protection of broadcasting organizations, performers and producers of phonograms. The Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (which does not cover direct broadcasting by satellite) came into force on 25 August 1979 and stipulates that each contracting State should undertake to take adequate measures to prevent the distribution on or from its territory of any programme-carrying signal by any distributor for whom the signal is not intended.

59 322. From 1978 to 1997, UNESCO co-sponsored post-graduate training courses in digital image processing and remote sensing related to environmental monitoring, held at the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences in Enschede, the Netherlands. Remote sensing techniques were used in hydrology projects to determine parameters such as zones of groundwater discharge into the atmosphere and into the sea and phreatophyte-covered areas. Remote sensing data was used in oceanography and coastal zone monitoring projects with a view to determining the requirements of the scientific community regarding operational physical remote sensing observation data. Remote sensing techniques and GIS were used in the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme from 1989 to 1996 to manage biosphere reserves. 323. In 1983, UNESCO supported a global satellite experiment on the exchange of television news and programmes between 25 countries in different regions. In 1984, it assisted in setting up the Asiavision system and a similar system in the Arab States in 1985. In collaboration with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), UNESCO assisted members in developing approaches to the reduction of telecommunication tariffs, in particular for satellite communications and for the exchange and distribution of news and broadcasting programmes. 324. The BILKO project was launched in 1987 with a view to promoting the use of coastal and marine remotely sensed image data. A special educational image-processing software for personal computers called BILKO was designed by UNESCO and includes five self-tutoring packages of computer-based lessons. 2. Current activities 325. UNESCO provides expert communication services on all questions related to the use of satellites for broadcasting services, data transmission and distance learning and for transmission of news agency materials. 326. In cooperation with ITU and other international partners, UNESCO initiates and/or carries out pilot projects concerning the exploitation of satellite channels for telematics services for development, in particular concerning multi-purpose community telecentres in Benin and Mali, the use of interactive television in education in India and Morocco, and telematics access in the public service sector in Ghana, Palestine and central Asia. As part of the Organization's contribution to the African Information Society Initiative and the United Nations System-wide Special Initiative for Africa, studies are being undertaken on ways to reduce the cost of access to Internet services in Africa, including liberalization of laws and promotion of appropriate satellite facilities. 327. UNESCO will continue to support the following training courses: (a) Post-graduate course on integrated study and rational use of natural resources at the Universities of Montpellier, Paris and Toulouse; (b) International post-graduate training courses on remote sensing applications in earth sciences, digital image processing and mineral exploration at the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, Enschede, the Netherlands; (c) Short courses in remote sensing, geomatics, geological hazards and exploration at the Aerospace Remote Sensing Development Group (GDTA), France; (d) Post-graduate training course on the use of remote sensing images in water resource studies in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 328. UNESCO will organize training activities in remote sensing and geographic information system technologies for environmental monitoring as contribution to the Southern African Network for Training on the Environment project in Africa.

60 329. The Unit on Coastal Regions and Small Islands will produce the fifth computer-based learning module, "Some marine applications of satellite and airborne remote sensing", to strengthen international satellite oceanography training and education through the creation of a network of users and producers. IOC makes use of the learning modules by organizing regional training courses on the applications of satellite remote sensing to marine studies. 330. UNESCO strengthened working relations with the International Space University in 1998, opening doors for scientists, especially those from developing countries, to attend special summer courses and/or to obtain a master's degree in space studies. 331. Within the framework of the Geological Applications of Remote Sensing (GARS) programme organized jointly with the International Union of Geological Sciences, UNESCO will implement the following activities: (a) The third phase of the GARS-Africa project concerning the development of a regional remote sensing user network in Africa in cooperation with the Royal Museum of Central Africa (MRAC) of Belgium. This activity is linked with the Pan-African Network for a Geological Information System (PANGIS) project, to which remote sensing data interpretation capabilities have been added. The Centre international pour la formation et les echanges geologiques of France and MRAC cooperate with UNESCO in the PANGIS project, which presently has 33 African member countries; (b) The final phase of the GARS-Latin America project, which focuses on mountain hazard and landslide mapping of the Andean subregion using microwave space-borne sensor data and GIS technology. The results of the project will be published in 1998-1999; (c) The operational phase of the GARS-Asia project on the monitoring of four volcanic test sites in the Philippines. The aim of the project is to develop a new methodology for volcanic hazard assessment and prediction using multisatellite data and GIS technology. 332. In 1998, UNESCO and UNDP will launch a three-year remote sensing/GIS programme entitled "Sustainable development of the South Valley and Sinai", in collaboration with the Geological Survey of Egypt and the Egyptian National Authority for Remote Sensing. 333. UNESCO will co-organize a conference on space techniques for the management of major risks and their consequences—initiatives in the Euro-Mediterranean region in April 2000, within the framework of the Space Techniques for Major Risks Management (STRIM) programme of the Council of Europe, the European Commission and the European Space Agency. 334. Within the framework of cooperation between IOC and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), a rapporteur was appointed to maintain, coordinate and improve marine observing system components for ocean remote sensing systems in response to requirements for marine data to support the World Weather Watch, the World Climate Programme, marine meteorological and oceanographic services, the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) and the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). The terms of reference for the rapporteur are: (a) To review and update the report on polar-orbiting oceanographic satellites and their applications to marine meteorology and physical oceanography; (b) To review and report on other developments in satellite- or aircraft-based ocean remote sensing relating to marine meteorology and physical oceanography; (c) To review and analyse requirements of marine meteorological and physical oceanographic services for remote sensing data and information, and to prepare assessments of current techniques to meet those requirements;

61 (d) To review requirements for and provide technical advice on the applications of remote-sensed ocean data to the provision of marine services; (e) To maintain liaison with the Working Group on Satellites of the WMO Commission for Basic Systems, the Global Observing Systems Space Panel (GOSSP) and other bodies of WMO and IOC dealing with environmental satellites and remote sensing; (f) To contribute to the development of training courses and training material on the remote sensing of the marine environment, through appropriate WMO and IOC mechanisms. 335. The Joint IOC/WMO Committee for the Integrated Global Ocean Services systems (IGOSS) is at present studying the operational exchange of remotely sensed oceanographic data as part of the IGOSS data-processing and services system. Archiving and the exchange of non-operational remotely sensed oceanographic data are being studied by the IOC Commission on International Oceanographic Data and mformation Exchange. The remote sensing data subset of the Marine Environmental Data Information catalogue has been published. The Marine Environmental Data Information systems operated by IOC are currently being revised, taking into account the growth in the volume and variety of oceanographic data holdings, recent advances in computer technology and the changing requirements of the scientific community. Within the framework of the IOC Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment programme, the possibility of using remotely sensed data to monitor marine pollution is being studied through groups of experts and case studies. Studies will be carried out on applications of remote sensing in coastal zones and dynamic studies of shelf seas. IOC has initiated consultations on the oceanography potential of satellite observing systems in the 1990s and their future role. 336. WMO and representatives of the International Council for Science (ICSU), IOC and other international organizations and representatives of contributing space agencies are discussing a GCOS. Conceived at the Second World Climate Conference and discussed at the Eleventh World Meteorological Congress, the system is expected to be developed in an evolutionary way to provide a bridge from the present array of operational systems and research observing programmes to a better coordinated and more effective combination of efforts of agencies with active programmes for observing the global environment. The GCOS, in the case of atmospheric analyses, would depend on existing and upgraded WMO World Weather Watch global observing systems and further development of the Global Atmosphere Watch. For the oceans, the programme would look to current scientific ocean observing programmes to develop a GOOS. An additional goal would be to integrate and improve existing national and regional observing networks as well as global data collection and analysis activities, including the World Climate Research Programme, the WMO Global Runoff Data Centre and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme plan to map the properties of terrestrial vegetation and ecosystems on a global scale from remote sensing data. 337. GOSSP and the Working Group on Satellites of the WMO Commission for Basic Systems held a joint meeting in Paris from 27 to 30 May 1997. The objectives of the joint session were to develop a mutual approach to problems and to obtain coordinated solutions. After the opening joint session, the two groups met separately to deal with their particular agenda. One major aim of the GOSSP meeting was to discover overlap or conflicting data requirements. It was expected that the GCOS, GOOS and the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) would define and clarify their input to the database and discuss a suggested review methodology. 338. Recognizing the need for a comprehensive approach to the various space-based observational activities for the global observing systems, the Joint Scientific and Technical Committee of GCOS, the Joint Scientific and Technical Committee for GOOS (J-GOOS)l and the Steering Committee for GTOS have established GOSSP. Based on guidance from the three Committees, the primary tasks of the Panel are: (a) To maintain and develop further the plan for the space-based observation components of the global observing systems considering the requirements from the scientific panels;

62 (b) To develop, integrate and promote the space-based observational requirements of the user communities carrying out global studies and providing related advice and services; (c) To recommend to the space agencies how these requirements may be met (e.g. through such bodies as the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites or the Coordination Group on Meteorological Satellites); (d) To facilitate the participation of global observing communities, in particular in developing countries, through regional activities. 339. GOSSP will be the focus for exploiting space systems in meeting the objectives of the global observing systems. The Panel must continually refine, update and interpret the implications of the requirements of the user communities carrying out global studies and provide related advice in terms of space instruments and satellite payloads flown by the data-providing agencies. 340. The Man and Biosphere (MAE) programme of UNESCO contributes actively to the development of GTOS. The MAB World Network of Biosphere Reserves has been officially included in the Global System of Terrestrial Observation Networks, so that the biosphere networks will be used as locations for ecological monitoring, testing and calibration of remote sensing data and models. 341. Also in the framework of the MAB programme, a research project with a strong remote sensing and GIS component on the underlying causes and impacts of forest fires in Asia was launched by UNESCO in 1998 in cooperation with the FAO Centre for International Forestry Research and the International Council for Research on Agroforestry. 3. Cooperation with other organizations 342. Characteristic of UNESCO programmes is the active participation of professional broadcasting and information organizations, in particular the regional broadcasting unions, as well as regional or international initiatives related to the promotion of the use of telematics. 343. Following the interest shown in 1984 by 228 non-governmental organizations and research institutions throughout the world, UNESCO is carrying out a collaborative research programme on the socio-cultural impact of new communication technologies, including satellites. 344. UNESCO cooperates with FAO, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WMO and ICSU in the development of the global observing systems and actively participates in GOSSP. 345. UNESCO and IOC cooperate closely with the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites and with space agencies concerning issues such as integration of space and in situ observing systems, information systems and services, initiatives for developing country access to and use of Earth observation data, frequency allocation and educational outreach. 346. UNESCO cooperates with research institutes such as MRAC of Belgium, the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (Netherlands), the Centre international pour la formation et les echanges geologiques and the groupement pour le developpement de la teledetection aerospatiale (both of France); with space agencies such as the European Space Agency, the and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan; with non-governmental bodies such as the European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories, and with space associations such as the European Association for the International Space Year, for the implementation of pilot projects, organization of training courses and workshops, laboratory and field work, and technical expertise and advice.

63 4. Publications and documentation The Communication, Information and Informatics Sector maintains a currentfile o n developments in satellite communication and this, together with publications and reports held in the Communication Documentation Centre, is accessible to visitors on application. Annotated bibliographies of UNESCO and United Nations publications and documents dealing with space communication as well as a selective list of studies and reports on communication satellite projects have been published (e.g. the World Communication Report). Frequent articles on space-related issues have appeared in the UNESCO Courier and UNESCO Sources. A number of articles on copyright problems raised by satellite broadcasting have been published in the Copyright Bulletin. Other relevant publications are: Environment and Development Brief No. 3 (1992) "New Technologies - Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems" UNESCO/IOC Manuals and Guides No. 24 (1992) "Guide to Satellite Remote Sensing of the Marine Environment" MAB Digest No. 12(1992) "Advanced Data Acquisition and Analysis Technologies for Sustainable Development" MAB Digest No. 14(1993) "Towards a Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) - Detecting change in terrestrial ecosystems" "ITC/UNESCO - GISSIZ - Training Package for Geographic Information Systems in Slope Instability Zonation" (1993) "ITC/UNESCO Introduction to the Use of Geographic Information Systems for Practical Hydrology" (1994) Science and Technology in Latin America and the Caribbean - Cooperation for Development (1996) - "The Geological Applications of Remote Sensing (GARS) programme, Colombia" Nature and Resources, vol. 32, No. 4 (1996) "Tracking the Earth's surface at the centimetre level: an introduction to radar interferometry", Space Newsletter (1996) "Communication satellites for education, science and culture" (1967) "The S.I.T.E. experience" (1981) "International flow of information: a global report and analysis" "International flow of television programmes" (1985) "Communication, technology and development" (1988) "New communication technologies: research trends" (1991) "TV transnationalization: Europe and Asia" (1994)

64 "Public service broadcasting: the challenges of the twenty-first century" (1997) "The right to communicate: at what price?" (1995, joint publication ITU/UNESCO) Review of the "Geological Applications of Remote Sensing" (GARS) programme activities in Africa, Latin America and Asia (in press). 5. Point of contact Division of Earth Sciences United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1 rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France Telephone: +(33)(1) 45 68 41 17 or 45 68 41 71 Facsimile: +(33)(1) 45 68 58 22 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.unesco.org C. International Civil Aviation Organization 1. Organization 347. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), created in 1944 to promote the safe and orderly development of civil aviation worldwide, is a specialized agency of the United Nations. Headquartered in Montreal, Canada, ICAO develops international air transport standards and regulations and serves as the medium for cooperation in all fields of civil aviation among its 185 contracting States. 348. ICAO has a sovereign body, the Assembly, and a governing body, the Council. The Assembly meets at least once in three years and is convened by the Council. At that session, the complete work of the Organization in the technical, economic, legal and technical assistance fields is reviewed in detail and guidance is given to the other bodies of ICAO for their future work. The Organization's interest in space affairs was first expressed by the Assembly at its 22nd session, in 1977, when it was resolved, inter alia, that international civil aviation positions and requirements should be made known to all organizations dealing with relevant space activities and that the Organization should be represented at appropriate conferences and meetings. Later, at its 29th session, held in 1992, the Assembly adopted resolution A29-11, in which it reiterated the same points while emphasizing the role of ICAO in the monitoring and coordination of the work performed by States (on regional and global planning) on those matters. 349. The Council is a permanent body responsible to the Assembly and is composed of 33 contracting States elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. The Council, assisted by the Air Navigation Commission, the Air Transport Committee, the Committee on Joint Support of Air Navigation Services and the Finance Committee, provide the continuing direction of the work of the Organization. 350. One of the major duties of the Council is to adopt international standards and recommended practices and to incorporate them as annexes to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. Often, standards and recommended practices for new systems are first developed by groups of experts nominated by a number of contracting States and international organizations. Work of technical panels is first submitted to the Air Navigation Commission, which is the technical body of the Council and made up of 15 technical experts.

65 2. The use of space technology for air navigation 351. In the early 1980s, the Council of ICAO determined that a thorough analysis and reassessment of the procedures and technologies that had so successfully served international civil aviation over the many years was needed. The Council, therefore, established the Special Committee on Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS). 352. One of the most important conclusions that was soon reached by the FANS Committee was that the satellite technology offered a viable solution to the problems caused by shortcoming of conventional ground-based systems. It was also concluded that future growth and needs of international civil aviation could only be met through the use of global systems, of which satellite technology was an important factor. 353. The work of the FANS Committee (1983-1988) was followed by the Special Committee for the Monitoring and Coordination of Development and Transition Planning for the Future Air Navigation System (FANS Phase H) (1988-1993) and resulted in a system concept that was widely accepted by the international civil aviation community. That concept, which is now turning into reality, is called communications, navigation and surveillance/air traffic management (CNS/ATM) systems. 354. CNS/ATM systems are largely global in nature; they therefore depend largely on the use of satellites for communication and navigation. In order to develop the necessary provisions for the use of available as well as future satellite technologies for air navigation, the following panels have been established in ICAO: (a) Aeronautical Mobile Communications Panel. This panel, which was established in 1991, developed, inter alia, standards and recommended practices for the use of geostationary satellites for aeronautical voice/data communications. The panel is currently considering non-geostationary satellites (in low and middle Earth orbit) and will develop the appropriate technical provisions as necessary; (b) Global Navigation Satellite System Panel. This panel was established in 1993. It is currently developing technical provisions for the use of existing satellite navigation systems (i.e. the global positioning system and the Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)) and possible ground- and satellite-based augmentation systems. The panel is also looking into possible future (longer-term) navigation satellite systems and will develop technical provisions as required; (c) Aeronautical Telecommunication Network Panel. This panel was established in 1995. Its mandate is to consider different types and forms of the long-term legal framework for the Global Navigation Satellite System and to develop the legal framework that would respond to certain fundamental principles. The panel has prepared the text of the draft charter of the rights and obligations of States relating to Global Navigation Satellite System services, which will be submitted to the next session of the Assembly for adoption. 5. Publications There are many meeting reports and working papers in ICAO that contain material relating to the use of space technology for international civil aviation. However, those which have been published and are, therefore, available to the public are: Annex 10 (to the Convention on International Civil Aviation), vol. HI. This document contains standards and recommended practices and guidance material on the aeronautical mobile-satellite service. Guidelines for the Introduction and Operational Use of the Global Navigation Satellite System (Circular 267). Furthermore, the ICAO Journal occasionally contains articles on various aspects of space technology and its use for international civil aviation.

66 4. Point of contact International Civil Aviation Organization 999 University Street Montreal, Quebec H3C 5H7, Canada Telephone: +(1)(514) 954 82 19 Facsimile: +(1)(514) 954 60 77 URL: http://www.icao.int D. World Bank 1. Mandate and objectives 355. The World Bank has been utilizing remote sensing and geographical information technologies for roughly 20 years, since the earliest days of the Landsat programme. As early as 1974 the Bank in its rural development sector policy paper recognized the need to have information about natural resources in order to improve the design and implementation of its projects for the benefit of the rural poor. The paper indicated that the Bank would finance resource inventory and evaluation work based on field surveys and remote sensing. The Bank is committed to exploiting the potential of remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies. 356. Most of the Bank's activities are at the project level; some are directed to sectoral-level activities in the fields of agriculture, energy and forestry. The Bank supports remote sensing and GIS activities at the regional level as long as they channel that support to national- and project-level activities. 357. Typically the Bank's remote sensing and GIS activities have been pursued through three interrelated activities: (a) incorporating remote sensing and GIS technology as subcomponents of Bank-funded projects; (b) promoting the technology internally through workshops, seminars and training programmes; and (c) pursuing research programmes and developing guidelines and policy papers aimed at the use of remote sensing information and GIS technology in Bank programmes. 358. The World Bank has assisted in developing and implementing remote sensing and GIS programmes in projects and at the national level in many developing countries. It has utilized satellite remote sensing technology in the preparation, implementation and supervision of more than 100 individual projects in virtually all development fields. 359. The Bank's earliest experiences with satellite imagery focused on the preparation of image base maps, usually on relatively small scales suitable for general reconnaissance (e.g. 1:250,000). The typical output products were illustrative planimetric maps. Such base maps were prepared for Bangladesh, the Indian state of Orissa, Nepal, Peru and the Philippines, to name a few. Selective experiments were also carried out in the mid-1970s, focusing on numerous specific project activities, including rangeland assessments, deforestation studies, soil surveys, land resource inventories and groundwater assessment. The Bank has used most forms of remotely sensed images but has tended to focus on the use of the higher-resolution imaging systems such as the Land Remote Sensing Satellite (Landsat) and the Systeme pour robseryation de la Terre (SPOT). 2. Current remote sensing and Geographic Information System activities 360. While remote sensing and GIS activities in the World Bank continue to have a strong operational focus, programmes also include the development of collaborative programmes with other international organizations, public interest groups, non-governmental organizations, scientific bodies and the private sector; provision of technical assistance to World Bank member Governments in the design and implementation of remote sensing

67 and GIS applications; provision of training for Bank and member countries' staff; and development of research programmes on remote sensing applications. 361. Geographic information and GIS tools, combined with current Internet capabilities, are being closely integrated with the World Bank's knowledge management system. This information not only provides decision makers with basic background data, but it also offers an online, interactive spatial gateway into other statistical and textual information. 362. Geographic information and remote sensing techniques are increasingly becoming common components of Bank-funded development projects. This is particularly true in environmental, natural resource, urban and infrastructure projects. The Bank's role in supporting such project activities is to provide financial resources and to ensure technical quality. 3. Future of satellite remote sensing in the World Bank 363. As the Bank's environmental initiatives place more pressure on project design teams to characterize regional as well as local impacts of projects, the demand for remote sensing and natural resource information management technology will surely grow. The higher spatial resolution of the imagery coupled with the rapidly decreasing costs of investment in image-processing equipment have given remote sensing a new value. 364. Recent radar imagery is proving very valuable in areas normally obscured by cloud cover and haze to evaluate land use change and economic policy impacts. Also, the new high-resolution data (i.e. 1-10 metres) promise major advances for applications in the urban and mfrastructure sectors. 365. There are also indications that lower-resolution imagery such as the advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) will be utilized more extensively, in particular as it relates to the rapid assessment of dynamic situations such as drought and pest infestation. The temporal advantages of AVHRR (repeat coverage) have made that imagery attractive in a number of application areas, which will be explored for further use. 366. Of growing importance to Bank operational work will be the implementation of the rapidly evolving GIS technology. The Bank is slowly building a track record in the application of GIS to a wide range of problems. The results have been promising especially in the area of natural resource accounting and regional planning. 367. The Bank will continue to promote the integration of spatial information into development decision-making processes and will continue to strengthen institutional capacity within agencies in client countries to collect, manage and analyse such data. It will also continue to promote and support appropriate levels of technology, such as the integration of GIS and the Internet, for disseminating spatial information and for mainstreaming its application in project planning and monitoring and in policy analysis. While most of the GIS and remote sensing activities supported by the World Bank will continue to be integrated with broader sector programmes and projects, such as environmental management, poverty alleviation and infrastructure development, there is beginning to emerge an interest on the part of client countries to develop national and regional information initiatives, for example, the Regional Environmental Information Management Project in the Congo Basin of Africa. This will lead to more projects in the future that will focus specifically on informatics as a core component. 4. Point of contact World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C., 20433, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (202) 477-1234 : RCA 248423, ITT 440098, WUI64145 Telegram: INTBAFRAD WASHINGTON

68 E. World Health Organization 1. General 368. The World Health Organization (WHO) endeavours to keep abreast of developments in space research since the results of such research can have a bearing on certain of its programmes, in particular when they relate to the environment. 369. The main fields of WHO interest are telecommunications, communicable diseases, environmental health, epidemiology (of communicable diseases), occupational health, cardiovascular diseases, radiation health, nutrition, mental health, human genetics, organization of medical care, training and education in medicine and health education. Space activities are relevant to particular interests, including techniques for determining vector habitats in relation to malaria, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis and trypanosomiasis, as well as early detection of environmental change (related to climate, land use, land cover) that could be relevant for the emergence of new and resurgent communicable diseases. 2. Activities (a) Past activities 370. WHO has over the past few years been very interested in remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques for identifying areas with air and water pollution or other threats to environmental health. 371. Studies in the field of air and water pollution have been conducted in connection with WHO collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the International Labour Organization in the context of GEMS. Remote sensing of air pollution has made it possible to detect such pollutants as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and particulates. 372. WHO has been interested for quite some time in remote sensing applications in detecting potential breeding and resting sites of vectors of major importance. Work that has been done by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States of America in collaboration with several universities and mosquito abatement districts in the United States have successfully used this technology in mosquito abatement management. 373. The NASA Life Sciences Directorate has initiated a programme to investigate the value of remote sensing and associated data management technologies to the field of public health. The multidisciplinary programme will be phased over a three- to five-year period with a focus on utilizing remote sensing in the study and control of malaria. The first phase was concerned with an evaluation of the use of remote sensing data in the prediction or identification of environmental parameters that determine the occurrence and distribution of malaria. This was carried out in California. 374. The second phase of the programme is being conducted in an area of active malaria transmission, the Pacific coastal plain of Chiapas, Mexico, where malaria transmission involves two species of mosquitoes An. albimanus and An. pseudopunctipennis, whose habitats are at distinctly different altitudes. Research in Phase II will build on the findings from California and include the following objectives: (a) To characterize and map the habitats of anopheline larvae using remote sensing data; (b) To measure the spatial and temporal patterns of rainfall that affect the probability that anopheline larval habitats are significant producers of malaria vectors;

69 (c) To develop a model to predict the spatial and temporal changes in anopheline populations and their interactions with humans that lead to malaria transmission. 375. The Malaria Action Programme is also closely interested in the UNEP Global Resource Information Database. 376. By the mid-1980s the Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa had completed pilot trials for the teletransmission of hydrological data. Those trials clearly demonstrated the great value of the teletransmission technique in refining the quantities of different insecticides to be applied to rivers to control the aquatic stages of the blackfly vector of onchocerciasis. Subsequently, in 1987, the Control Programme adopted the ARGOS system, established two teletransmission receiving stations (Kara in Togo and Odienne in Cote dTvoire) and installed 86 platform transmitter terminals in rivers throughout the 11-country programme area. The fullest utilization of the platform transmitter temiinal network has resulted in significantly increased efficiency of vector control operations and appreciably reduced costs of insecticides and aircraft flying time. 377. Through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, satellite studies are being undertaken of the resettlement and recultivation of river valleys in the Control Programme area following the effective control of the vector and disease. This is for comparison with baseline data collected by a similar method in 1973, prior to the beginning of the Programme. (b) Future activities 378. With the rapid development of communications, especially television, and possible increases in coverage, further thought should be given to the use of modem communication media in health and medical education. A first step in that direction was taken at the First International Training Seminar for Television Producers on the Subject of Health Messages on Television Screens, held in Moscow in September 1984. At that time an attempt was made to reorient the programming of such messages towards primary health care and community concerns. The latent danger of "hi-tech" messages beamed into developing countries from outside via satellite and monopolizing the small amount of time usually set aside for health messages should be borne in mind. Also, remote sensing merits further study in connection with health factors affecting primary health care, such as desertification, availability of water and crop assessment. 379. The WHO Division of Control of Tropical Diseases has recently engaged a full-time specialist in GIS, which includes use of remote sensing data. Activities will be directed at improving data analysis using those techniques for the control of malaria, schistosomiasis and trypanosomiasis. The United States Navy Environmental Preventive Medicine Unit has received a copy of the Atlas of the Global Distribution ofSchistosomiasis to compare the actual distribution of schistosomiasis with their remote sensing data. 3. International cooperation 380. WHO has sought close relations with the various organizations concerned with space studies. It has cooperated with the International Astronautical Federation and the International Academy of Astronautics and has sent a four-member mission to NASA in order to draw up an inventory of present possibilities and future prospects offered by space technology. 381. In partnership with the World Meteorological Organization and UNEP, WHO intends to build closer relationships with the Global Climate Observing System and its subsidiaries, the Global Terrestrial Observing System and the Global Ocean Observing System, in order to develop integrated health and global change monitoring systems to detect early signals of human health impacts and to investigate the feasibility of early- warning systems.

70 4. Publications WHO published special issues of World Health devoted to (1969), telecommunications and health (1981) and informatics and telematics in health (1989) for general information purposes. A concise report on the Third International Symposium on Basic Environmental Problems of Man in Space (WHO, May 1968) was published in the WHO Chronicle, vol. 23, No. 3 (March 1969). Three documents were presented to the WHO Executive Board in 1997 and 1998: documents EB99/30 and EB99/INF.DOC/9 (1997) contain a brief analysis of recent developments and uses of informatics and telematics in health, including telemedicine; and document EB101/INF.DOC/9 (January 1998) considers a health for all policy for the twenty-first century. A publication recently issued, entitled "A Health Telematics Policy in support of WHO's Health-for-All Strategy for Global Health Development", contains the report of the WHO Group Consultation on Health Telematics, held in Geneva from 11 to 15 December 1997. 5. Point of contact World Health Organization 20, avenue Appia CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 791 21 11 Telex: 41 54 16 Facsimile: +(41) (22) 791 07 46 Telegram: UNISANTE GENEVA F. International Telecommunication Union 1. Mandate 382. The basic instruments of the International Telecommunication Union are the Constitution and Convention, as adopted by the Plenipotentiary Conference in Nice (1989) and modified by the Additional Plenipotentiary Conference in Geneva (1992) and the Plenipotentiary Conference in Kyoto (1994). As of September 1998 there were 188 Union Members. 383. The purposes of the Union are: (a) To maintain and extend international cooperation between all Members of the Union for the improvement and rational use of telecommunications of all kinds; (b) To promote and to offer technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications, and also to promote the mobilization of the material and financial resources needed for implementation; (c) To promote the development of technical facilities and their most efficient operation with a view to improving the efficiency of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making them, as far as possible, generally available to the public; (d) To promote the extension of the benefits of the new telecommunication technologies to all the world's inhabitants;

71 (e) To promote the use of telecommunication services with the objective of facilitating peaceful relations; (f) To harmonize the actions of Members in the attainment of those ends; (g) To promote, at the international level, the adoption of a broader approach to the issues of telecommunications in the global information economy and society, by cooperating with other world and regional intergovernmental organizations and those non-governmental organizations concerned with telecommunications. 384. To that end, the Union shall in particular: (a) Effect allocation of bands of the radio-frequency spectrum, the allotment of radio frequencies and registration of radio-frequency assignments and any associated orbital positions in the geostationary satellite orbit in order to avoid harmful interference between radio stations of different countries; (b) Coordinate efforts to eliminate harmful interference between radio stations of different countries and to improve the use made of the radio-frequency spectrum and of the geostationary satellite orbit for radiocommunication services; (c) Facilitate the worldwide standardization of telecommunications, with a satisfactory quality of service; (d) Foster international cooperation in the delivery of technical assistance to the developing countries and the creation, development and improvement of telecommunication equipment and networks in developing countries by every means at its disposal, including through its participation in the relevant programmes of the United Nations and the use of its own resources, as appropriate; (e) Coordinate efforts to harmonize the development of telecommunication facilities, notably those using space techniques, with a view to full advantage being taken of their possibilities; (f) Foster collaboration among its Members with a view to the establishment of rates at levels as low as possible consistent with an efficient service and taking into account the necessity for maintaining independent financial administration of telecommunication on a sound basis; (g) Promote the adoption of measures for ensuring the safety of life through the cooperation of telecommunication services; (h) Undertake studies, make regulations, adopt resolutions, formulate recommendations and opinions, and collect and publish information concerning telecommunication matters; (i) Promote, with international financial and development organizations, the establishment of preferential and favourable lines of credit to be used for the development of social projects aimed, inter alia, at extending telecommunication services to the most isolated areas in countries.

2. Organization 385. The Union is comprised of the following organs: (a) The Plenipotentiary Conference, which is the supreme organ of the Union; (b) The Council, which acts on behalf of the Plenipotentiary Conference; (c) World conferences on international telecommunications;

72 (d) The Radiocommunication Sector, including world and regional radiocommunication conferences, radiocommunication assemblies and the Radio Regulations Board; (e) The Telecommunication Standardization Sector, including world telecommunication standardization conferences; (f) The Telecommunication Development Sector, including world and regional telecommunication development conferences; (g) The general secretariat. 386. The Plenipotentiary Conference is composed of delegations representing Members and is convened every four years. It determines the general policies for fulfilling the purposes of the Union as prescribed by the Constitution. 387. The Council is composed of 46 Members of the Union, meets annually and acts on behalf of the Plenipotentiary Conference within the limits of the powers delegated to it by the latter. 388. The conferences on international telecommunications are convened to consider specific telecommunication matters. The decisions of such conferences must in all circumstances be in conformity with the provisions of the Constitution and the Convention. The administrative regulations adopted by the conferences have treaty force at the international level. 389. The functions of the Radiocommunication Sector are to fulfil the purposes of the Union relating to radiocommunication: (a) by ensuring the rational, equitable, efficient and economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum by all radiocommunication services, including those using the geostationary satellite orbit, subject to the provisions of article 44 of the Constitution; and (b) by carrying out studies without limit of frequency range and adopting recommendations on radiocommunication matters. 390. The Radiocommunication Sector works through world and regional radiocommunication conferences; the Radio Regulations Board; radiocommunication assemblies, which shall be associated with world radiocommunication conferences; radiocommunication study groups; and the Radiocommunication Bureau, headed by the elected Director. 391. The Radiocommunication Sector has as members of right the administrations of all Members of the Union and any entity or organization authorized in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention. 392. The functions of the Telecommunication Standardization Sector are to fulfil the purposes of the Union relating to telecommunication standardization, by studying technical, operating and tariff questions and adopting recommendations on them with a view to standardizing telecommunications on a worldwide basis. 393. The functions of the Telecommunication Development Sector shall be to fulfil the purposes of the Union and to discharge, within its specific sphere of competence, the Union's dual responsibility as a specialized agency of the United Nations and as executing agency for implementing projects under the United Nations development system or other funding arrangements so as to facilitate and enhance telecommunications development by offering, organizing and coordinating technical cooperation and assistance activities. 394. The general secretariat is directed by the Secretary-General, who takes all the actions required to ensure economic use of the Union's resources and is responsible to the Administrative Council for all the administrative and financial aspects of the Union's activities. He is assisted by the Deputy Secretary-General.

73 395. The Radio Regulations Board consists of elected members thoroughly qualified in the field of radiocommunications and possessing practical experience in the assignment and utilization of frequencies. Each member shall be familiar with the geographical, economic and demographic conditions within a particular area of the world. They shall perform their duties for the Union independently and on a part-time basis. 396. The duties of the Radio Regulations Board consist of: (a) The approval of rules of procedure, which include technical criteria, in accordance with the Radio Regulations and with any decision that may be taken by competent radiocommunication conferences. These rules of procedure shall be used by the Director and the Bureau in the application of the Radio Regulations to register frequency assignments made by Members. These rules shall be open to comment by administrations and, in case of continuing disagreement, the matter shall be submitted to a forlhcoming world radiocommunication conference; (b) The consideration of any other matter that cannot be resolved through the application of the above rules of procedure; (c) The performance of any additional duties, concerned with the assignment and utilization of frequencies, in accordance with the procedures provided for in the Radio Regulations, and as prescribed by a competent conference or by the Council with the consent of a majority of the Members of the Union, in preparation for, or in pursuance of the decisions of, such a conference. 3. Past and future administrative conferences related to space communications 397. During the 1990s many new satellite system applications have been conceived and are under active development. Activities in ITU have supported these developments by ensuring that the necessary allocations of spectrum/orbit resources as well as the appropriate international regulatory regimes become available. These new systems, as well as the more traditional geostationary satellite systems, both of which are benefiting from new technology, will offer a wide range of telecommunication services at reasonable cost. In addition they potentially offer the possibility for a leapfrogging of telecommunication development for developing countries with system solutions not necessarily depending on major infrastructure investments. (a) 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference 398. The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference was the first of several ITU conferences to deal with these new developments. The 1992 Conference decided on frequency allocations for the new personal mobile satellite communication systems in frequency bands below 1 GHz (for small non-geostationary satellite systems that will offer low data rate communications, such as simple electronic mail and facsimile facilities as well as data collection/positioning information), as well as in bands between 1 and 3 GHz (for systems that will offer personal telephony via satellite as well as provision of telephony services to remote villages and communities). These frequency ranges were chosen for the mobile satellite service (MSS) in order for the terminal equipment to be suitable for portable personal use. As these bands are also heavily used by other radiocommunication services it was necessary to develop regulatory provisions and technical sharing criteria in order that systems could co-exist. These provisions and criteria are found (in the main) in annexes to resolution 46 of the Radio Regulations. 399. As the non-geostationary constellations being considered for these new applications created complex sharing scenarios, the regulatory procedures developed could not benefit from an ITU agreed method for the determination of inter-system interference levels and, in consequence, these procedures are open as to which systems need to be coordinated. Administrations of ITU member States have thus to react in this inter-system coordination procedure by a process of self-identification and they cannot depend on their being identified by the Radiocommunication Bureau as is the case for inter-system coordination between geostationary satellite networks. With respect to the interference into terrestrial radiocommunication systems caused by transmitting space stations in these non-geostationary satellite orbit (NGSO) networks, trigger levels for power flux density have been agreed

74 and once these are exceeded coordination is required with the administrations responsible for the terrestrial systems concerned. (b) 1995 World Radiocommunication Conference 400. The 1995 World Radiocommunication Conference consolidated these developments and added others. The resolution 46 procedure used for the coordination and notification of these systems was refined and extended. Some technical limits were revisited and values were confirmed or modified. The Conference also addressed the issue of allocations for feeder links for these new MSS systems, which connect them back to gateway and control Earth stations and hence into the public switched telephone network. Some new bands were allocated and portions of existing allocations to the fixed-satellite service (FSS), which is the service used for these feeder links, were also identified for this use. Technical limits, both soft (to be used as trigger levels for coordination) and hard (not to be exceeded), were established and the resolution 46 procedure was expanded to cover such cases. 401. An important new type of application was addressed by the 1995 Conference when it considered low Earth orbit multi-satellite NGSO systems offering high data rate digital communications on demand to individual and grouped users on a worldwide basis. Two blocks of400 MHZ of spectrum resource were identified in the 19 and 29 GHz frequency bands for such systems and the associated technical limits and regulatory procedures were agreed. The resolution 46 procedure applies for the coordination and notification of this new type of system. 402. The Conference also drafted resolution 531, which laid down the detailed requirements for the revision of the plans for the broadcasting satellite service and its associated feeder links contained in appendices 30 and 30A to the Radio Regulations. This revision was included on the agenda of the 1997 Conference. (c) 1997 World Radiocommunication Conference 403. The 1997 World Radiocommunication Conference continued in the same vein. It established further, limited, frequency allocations for MSS in bands below 1 GHz. It also decided to change to generic MSS allocations in the 1.5/1.6 GHz bands, that is, to not restrict the type of mobile satellite service (e.g. only to the maritime mobile-satellite service) but to allow all types of mobile communications by satellite in those frequency bands. Thus system operators can operate flexibly and offer a wider range of services. MSS allocations around 2 GHz were confirmed, with some change in availability of the specific allocations in ITU region 2 (North and South America). The Conference also identified in the 19/29 GHz bands an extra 2 x 100 MHZ of frequency spectrum for the NGSO FSS systems first considered at the 1995 Conference as well as for feeder links for NGSO MSS systems. 404. Important decisions for NGSO FSS systems were also taken with respect to other frequency bands in the 11 to 14 GHz, 18-20 GHz and 28-30 GHz frequency ranges. Rather than the operational restrictions previously applying by which NGSO FSS systems should not cause harmful interference to GSO FSS systems, it was decided that provisional power limits would apply in those bands to NGSO FSS systems. Those limits, when met, were considered sufficient to allow co-frequency operation with acceptable levels of interference without the need for coordination between NGSO and GSO systems. The limits established are provisional and are subject to review by the 1999 Conference. Inter-system coordination between NGSO systems will use the resolution 46 procedure. Thus new possibilities for systems offering high data rate, on-demand communications have been established and it is now likely that a number of competing systems will be developed to provide those new telecommunication services on a global basis. 405. The 1997 Conference successfully carried out the BSS/feeder link re-planning exercise for ITU regions 1 and 3 (Europe, Africa, Asia, Oceania) using the revised up-to-date technical characteristics. All new ITU member countries received assignments in the plans. Typically each country in the two regions received a "package" of five channels with national coverage. Large countries obtained multiple coverages each with five channels. The plans also include other types of system (typically with a higher number of channels) that had been treated by the

75 ITU Radiocommunication Bureau as modifications to the original plans of 1977 and 1985. The 1997 Conference also decided to study the possibility of extending the number of assignments to up to 10 channels. These studies will commence immediately and the 1999 Conference will review the results of the studies and may decide on further replanning as a result. 406. Frequency allocations to science services (typically the Earth exploration-satellite, meteorological-satellite and space research services) were rationalized by the 1997 Conference to a large extent with primary worldwide frequency allocations being agreed in most cases. This more stable and preferred regulatory situation should facilitate the development of the related scientific satellite systems of which the benefits to mankind are many and varied. (d) 2000 World Radiocommunication Conference 407. The next Radiocommunication Conference will be held in the year 2000. A number of issues relating to space radiocommunications are on the agenda of the Conference. 4, Studies by the Radiocommunication Sector 408. Six Study groups have a major involvement in space radiocommunication studies: (a) Study Group 4. Fixed-satellite service; (b) Study Group 7. Science services; (c) Study Group 8. Mobile, radiodetermination, amateur and related satellite services; (d) Study Group 9. Fixed service; (e) Study Groups 10 and 11. Broadcasting-satellite service (sound and television). 409. In addition, Study Group 1 (Spectrum management) and Study Group 3 (Radiowave propagation) have significant activities related to space radiocommunications. (a) Study Group 4 410. Study Group 4 studies questions relating to systems and networks for the FSS and inter-satellite links in the FSS (including the associated tracking telemetry and telecommand functions). The main topics with which Study Group 4 deals with are discussed further below. 411. Study Group 4 deals with the application of satellite links in the integrated services digital network (ISDN). Its studies include error performance objectives, which are designed to meet fully the specified end-to-end performance of a 64 kbit/s circuit-switched ISDN connection regardless of the service carried on that connection. They also include performance objectives for satellite systems carrying pulse code modulated telephony in a non-ISDN connection. 412. The use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT) systems is increasing very rapidly, in particular in the field of business communications. The unique characteristics of such systems necessitate a certain degree of harmonization to avoid possible harmful interference. Study Group 4 covers many of the technical characteristics as well as the control and monitoring functions of very small aperture terminals.

76 413. When considering the significance of synchronous digital hierarchy as the transport network of the future, it is important to develop a framework for integrating satellites into the hierarchy. Study Group 4 has studied the network architecture and equipment functional aspects of digital satellite systems forming part of synchronous digital hierarchy transport networks as well as management aspects. These include the network element management architecture for the satellite-specific functions and network management functionality, which is a significant enhancement to transmission systems. 414. Study Group 4 is considering the various technical factors influencing the efficiency of use of the geostationary orbit as part of the processes involved in technical coordination for fixed-satellite networks. Efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum is another important aspect, especially for frequency sharing among different radio services. 415. Study Group 4 also studies the design and performance objectives for various Earth station characteristics, such as Earth station antenna side-lobe and off-axis radiation, interference protection limits, polarization discrimination and so on. 416. Study Group 4 prepared a handbook on satellite communications (fixed-satellite service) in 1985. The handbook provides the technical basis for the fixed-satellite service and summarizes the fundamentals of the main technologies and equipment, including digital communication techniques and network architecture. The second edition, published in 1988, is based on new technological developments. Three supplements have since been published and a further one is in preparation. The third edition of the handbook is due to be published around the end of 1998. This revised and updated version, which corresponds to a well-defined demand from users of the handbook, will take into account the evolution of technologies, in particular as concerns the current pre-eminence of digital communications. (b) Study Group 3 417. Study Group 3 addresses propagation in both non-ionized and ionized media. A knowledge of the propagation characteristics is fundamental to the effective design of space telecommunication systems. A number of Radiocommunication Sector recommendations ("P" series) and a handbook provide information and reference data on Earth-space path propagation, as well as prediction methods for the assessment of signal reliability and for the evaluation of potentially interfering signals when frequencies are shared. Recommendations have been developed that contain: (a) Prediction methods for evaluating the propagation effects of the neutral atmosphere on an Earth-space path; such effects include absorption by atmospheric gases, absorption, scattering and depolarization by hydrometeors (e.g. rain), and signal fluctuations due to changes in refractivity of the clear atmosphere; (b) Information and prediction methods for evaluating the propagation effects of the ionosphere on an Earth-space path; such effects include Faraday rotation, group delay, dispersion and rapid signal fluctuations (scintillation); (c) Information and prediction methods for evaluating the propagation effects, additional to those in (a) and (b), associated with broadcasting-satellite systems; such effects include those due to the local environment of the receiver, for example, absorption, reflection and scattering by buildings; (d) Information and prediction methods for evaluating the propagation effects, additional to those in (a), (b) and (c), associated with mobile-satellite systems usually employing low Earth orbiting satellites; such propagation effects include signal shadowing by roadside trees and buildings (for the case of land mobile-satellite systems) and signal fading due to land or sea reflection (for the cases of aeronautical and maritime mobile-satellite systems); the prediction methods take account of the varying geometry between a moving satellite and a moving receiver;

77 (e) A detailed method for predicting potential interference signals between stations on the surface of the Earth. This is particularly important in assessing the interference to an Earth station by a terrestrial station in shared bands and covers propagation modes such as super-refraction and ducting within the troposphere, and scattering from rain; (f) A method providing the propagation bases for determining the coordination area around an Earth station; (g) Methods to evaluate the interference between terrestrial and space stations, with consideration of the combined effects of absorption, rain attenuation, scatter and depolarization. (c) Study Group 7 418. Study Group 7 studies are related to the following radiocommunication services, which are using, or can use, the geostationary-satellite orbit: (a) The space operation service is a support service intended primarily to facilitate the necessary tracking, telemetry and command functions of any space service involving satellites in all kinds of orbits, including the geostationary-satellite orbit. Although space operation functions are often provided within the allocation in which the is operating, the Radio Regulations designate several specific allocations for "space operations"; (b) The Earth exploration-satellite service includes satellites used to collect information about the Earth and its phenomena. The information is obtained by radio transmissions from platforms on the Earth's surface or in its lower atmosphere or by remote sensing from space, either active or passive; (c) The meteorological-satellite service is a subset of the Earth exploration-satellite service. Many of the observation and data transmission techniques are common to both meteorology and the study of Earth resources. The objectives of meteorological satellites differ from other Earth exploration-satellites, and apart from some sensing functions that are carried out in the Earth exploration-satellite service allocations, they operate in bands specifically allocated for the service; (d) Space research service satellites are constructed to meet the special needs of scientific research, the needs of data relay between other space research satellites (including near-Earth and deep-space) and their corresponding Earth stations, and the needs of experimental testing of new technology. Many space research service satellites have carried manned or unmanned experiments intended to advance the state of communications technology in non-space research servicefrequency bands. The parameters of space research service satellites are generally designed to maximize experimental flexibility and as such vary widely from satellite to satellite; (e) The radioastronomy service is a passive service concerned with the measurement of extremely low power levels. It is very susceptible to harmful interference from spurious and adjacent band emissions from satellites. To study radiation from space,frequency bands are used between 1.5 MHZ and 350 GHz, where current research is concentrated; (f) The standard frequencies and times signals satellite service considers the use of satellites, including geostationary satellites, for dissemination of standard frequencies and time signals. Time transfer via satellite demonstrates a potential capability for time transfer with a precision of a few nanoseconds and an accuracy of about 50 nanoseconds.

78 (d) Study Group 8 419. Study Group 8 studies technical and operation aspects relating to mobile-satellite services, radicdeterrnination-satellite services and amateur-satellite services. The mobile-satellite service can include any one of the land mobile-satellite service, the aeronautical mobile-satellite service and the maritime mobile-satellite service, or any combination of them. Many studies have been conducted on modulation techniques and voice processing, the overall transmission quality of telephone circuits, quality objectives and interface requirements for telegraph transmission, link power budgets, effects of multipath, reference radiation pattern for ship Earth stations and other characteristics of maritime mobile-satellite service. 420. Considerable effort has been made in the study of distress and safety systems using satellite techniques. Two recommendations were prepared concerning transmission characteristics of satellite emergency position-indicating radio systems operating through geostationary satellites in the 1.6 GHz band and a low polar-orbiting satellite system in the 406 MHZ band. Satellite emergency position-indicating radio will play a key role in the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System at present being developed by IMO. 421. ITU has been promoting the development of Global Mobile Personal Communications via Satellite (GMPCS), which is an application of the mobile-satellite service being extensively studied in Study Group 8. In order to facilitate worldwide circulation of handset GMPCS terminals, studies on their essential technical requirements are well advanced. A recommendation has already been established for GMPCS tenninals operating in the 1-3 GHz frequency range. Several recommendations have also been developed on frequency sharing between GMPCS systems and other systems operating in the same service or other radiocommunication services. 422. International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 refers to a satellite component of a possible scenario for the evolution and implementation of personal mobile communications. Further studies on satellite interworking are being undertaken at present and Radiocommunication Sector recommendations have been established on this matter. (e) Study Groups 10 and 11 423. Study Groups 10 and 11 continue their work on new technologies and applications and improved sharing criteria related to the broadcasting-satellite service. This work has included the development of recommendations for both Earth and space station antenna patterns and studies relating to interference assessment, in particular for use in ITU planning activities. 424. For the immediate future, studies will also address interactive television using the broadcasting-satellite service, followed up by studies on evaluation of propagation information for digital sound broadcasting. (j) Study Group 9 425. Study Group 9 is increasingly involved with frequency sharing between space services and systems in the fixed service. Sharing studies fall into a number of areas. These include sharing between the fixed service and the FSS, which covers interference and related technical studies concerning both geostationary and non-geostationary satellite systems. In addition, since 1990, considerable effort has been devoted to sharing aspects between the fixed service and satellite services other than the FSS. These studies have resulted in general recommendations on sharing principles and methodology for interference assessment. Other studies cover sharing between the fixed service and the mobile-satellite service, space science services and the broadcasting-satellite service.

79 (g) Study Group 1 426. Study Group 1 is preparing draft recommendations on coordination techniques between Earth stations operating with geostationary and non-geostationary satellites and terrestrial stations in the frequency range 100 MHZ-100 GHz. 427. The efficient utilization of the geostationary-satellite orbit and the radio-frequency spectrum has been the subject of work over many years, but much more needs to be done to ensure that the telecommunications "capacity" of the orbit is not eroded by improper use. To that end, several extensive computer programs for interference analysis have been implemented and certain administrations and other entities have developed analytical methods using sophisticated algorithms to optimize the use of the orbit/spectrum by judicious choice of orbit position, frequency and other technical characteristics of the emission. (h) Implementation of Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite 428. The new developments in personal communications using mobile terminals communicating with satellite systems offering services on a worldwide basis has given rise to the need to discuss the policy and regulatory issues associated with those systems and services. ITU organized a World Telecommunication Policy Forum in October 1996 to consider global mobile personal communications by satellite (GMPCS) and the following issues: (a) the resulting globalization of telecommunication services and the scope for international cooperation in that context; (b) the role of such systems in the provision of basic telecommunication services in developing countries, least-developed countries and rural and remote areas; (c) measures to achieve transborder use of such mobile terminals; and (d) policy and regulatory issues relevant to such systems and services, in particular those relating to interconnections with a view to achieving equitable and standard conditions of access. 429. The Forum issued a report in which five opinions, which were adopted by consensus, were presented. Opinion 2 called for administrations to facilitate the early introduction of GMPCS services and to cooperate internationally in developing and harmonizing policies to facilitate that introduction. Opinion 4 recognized that urgent action was needed to facilitate the global circulation and transborder roaming of terminals (because some GMPCS systems were already in operation and others would be brought into operation as early as 1998) and that this could be based on a framework of a commonly agreed GMPCS memorandum of understanding. An informal group of administrations, GMPCS operators, service providers and manufacturers met in February 1997 and finalized the memorandum. 430. A further meeting was held in October 1997 and administrations and competent authorities, ITU sector members, GMPCS system operators, GMPCS service providers and manufacturers of GMPCS terminals developed GMPCS arrangements pursuant to the memorandum of understanding. The objective of the arrangements is to provide a framework for the introduction of GMPCS, including (a) the permission to carry a terminal into a visited country and to use it, within the framework of a licensing scheme (i.e. without the need for obtaining individual authorization for the terminal in the visited country); (b) the permission to carry the terminal into a visited country but not to use it; and (c) the technical conditions for placing terminals on the market. Under the provisions of the arrangements, the participants will be able to cooperate in the development of GMPCS to the benefit of users worldwide. The benefits of GMPCS will be fully realized when a significant number of administrations and competent authorities offer the necessary authorization for service provision and access to spectrum. As of December 1997, 74 entities (administrations, organizations and companies) had signed the GMPCS memorandum of understanding. 5. Studies by the Telecommunication Standardization Sector 431. The Telecommunication Standardization Sector is studying the integration of telecommunication satellites in the general network, the fixed-satellite and mobile-satellite services, which form part of public service telecommunications, have evolved radically in recent years. Today, the fixed-satellite service is the most widely

80 used for all the space services and, along with the mobile-satellite service, is probably undergoing the most rapid development. 432. To coordinate studies on satellite matters an Intersector Coordination Group created by the 1996 World Telecommunication Policy Forum has assisted in clarifying the role of the Telecommunication Standardization and Radiocommunication Sectors in their respective field of competence and assisted in some cases in the transfer of work. 433. The Intersector Coordination Group on satellite matters has established the following work programme: (a) To ensure that remaining issuesfrom th e Joint Ad Hoc Group on ISDN/Satellite Matters are taken into account; (b) To monitor the work programme of the relevant study groups in relation to the use of satellites in order to identify inconsistent target dates, areas of possible duplication and areas missing from the studies; (c) To draw attention of the relevant study groups to emerging technologies and elements of public networks, for example, on-board processing, application of VSATs, non-geostationary-satellite systems and mobile-satellite systems; (d) To draw the attention of the relevant study groups of plans for handbooks related to satellite matters; (e) To ensure, through coordination that recommendations being produced by relevant study groups allows the continuing full integration of the satellite transmission medium in public networks. 434. The Intersector Coordination Group on satellite matters has reported on the activities of the Radiocommunication Sector on satellite systems that might have an impact on the work of Telecommunication Standardization Sector. 435. Several Telecommunication Standardization Sector study groups (1,2,4,7-9 and 11-15) are concerned with the integration of telecommunication satellites in the general network. Study Group 13 (general network aspects) has acted as leading group in the Sector for the Intersector Coordination Group on satellite matters. 436. The Sector's studies consider the use of telecommunication satellites for a whole range of transmissions: telephony, television, teleconference, data transmission, business services, communication between computers, aeronautical mobile and maritime mobile communications, telecommunication services to remote regions, weather forecasting and so on. Where necessary, it also investigates the signalling associated with those various types of information. 437. Specific satellite system issues, such as the VSAT interworking with packet switched public data networks, with ISDN, with public switched telephone networks and with future public land mobile telecommunication systems have been considered. Other specific satellite system issues will be studied further such as non-geostationary satellite systems encoding, fixed systems extension to future public land mobile telecommunication systems, non-geostationary systems networking with terrestrial and in particular with ISDN and public switched telephone networks. 438. With regard to signalling, the Sector has established recommendations on interworking between Signalling Systems Nos. 5, 7 and R2 and Inmarsat's Standard B maritime system. It has also approved recommendations on the Inmarsat aeronautical mobile-satellite system and interworking between the above-mentioned systems standardized by the Sector and Inmarsat's aeronautical system (for Signalling System No. 7, also with the telephone user part). Other recommendations provide for all types of mobility for users and user terminal

81 equipment in all mobile networks. The Sector has also published a recommendation on maritime mobile telecommunication store-and-forward services (packet mode) via satellite. 439. A recommendation deals with a signalling interface between an international switching centre and an ISDN satellite subnetwork; in the recommendation a new Signalling System No. 7 Satellite ISDN User Part is defined. Other recommendations were developed providing operational guidelines and quality of service requirements both for an international point-to-multipoint telecommunication service via satellite and for international two-way multipoint telecommunication via service satellite. 440. A recommendation covers the framing structure, channel coding and modulation for digital multi-programme signals for television, sound and data services received from a satellite system and distributed in a transparent way through satellite master antenna television networks. 441. Recommendations have been developed on the service provisions for aeronautical public correspondence supported by mobile-satellite systems and on traffic engineering aspects of mobile networks, including satellite. Studies are progressing on performance for satellite connections, on signal processing, on the different technique of echo protection and control and in speech and video encoding on asynchronous transfer mode with the aim to achieve a full integration of satellite with terrestrial networks and systems. 6. Assistance to developing countries 442. In the planning of telecommunication networks for developing countries, the satellite communication possibilities for telephone, telex or television and sound programme distribution have to be taken into account. In that regard the ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau continues to provide technical assistance by way of advisory services as and when required. 443. Assistance is given in various phases of the planning, procurement or maintenance of Earth stations in intercontinental, regional or domestic satellite systems. Services for periods of up to one month are provided free of charge. 444. Seminars and training courses are organized from time to time for the planning and utilization of satellite communication systems or the operation and maintenance of Earth stations. Assistance is also provided to research and development centres in developing countries and in the introduction of space communication techniques through the implementation of pilot projects. 445. ITU is playing a leading role in the conduct of feasibility studies concerning new satellite communication systems. An example was the Regional African Satellite Communication System, whose aim is to provide an efficient and economical means of telecommunication, including the requirements for transmission of sound and television broadcasting and community reception by satellite, to all areas in African countries, using a regional satellite communication system. 446. Technical assistance provided in the framework of ITU/United Nations Development Programme projects is continuing in the different fields of space applications within different countries. 7. Cooperation with other organizations 447. ITU is cooperating on a regular basis with a number of international organizations concerned with space matters. The Union participates in meetings of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its two Subcommittees and continues to collaborate with the other specialized agencies, in particular with the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, as well as with other regional telecommunication organizations.

82 448. In addition to its relations with other specialized agencies, ITU cooperates closely with many international organizations concerned with space matters, including the International Telecommunication Satellite Organization, the International Organization of Space Communications, the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization, the International Mobile Satellite Organization and the International Search and Rescue Satellite System (COSPAS-SARSAT), with a view to exchanging technical data and documentation. 8. Publications The list of ITU publications concerning space matters or having reference to them is given below. They may be obtained from the ITU Sales Section. International Telecommunication Constitution and Convention, Geneva 1992, as amended by the Final Acts of the Plenipotentiary Conference (Kyoto, 1994). Radio Regulations, 1994 and 1996 editions. Final Acts of the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-97) (Geneva, 1997). Final Acts of the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-95) (Geneva, 1995). Manual for use by the maritime mobile-satellite services 1997 Volumes of ITU-R recommendations These volumes of recommendations of the Radiocommunication Sector were approved by the 1997 Radiocommunication Assembly in 1997. They are divided into series according to the subject areas covered, as follows: SM Series (SG 1): Spectrum management IS Series (SG 1): Inter-service sharing and compatibility P Series - Part 1 (SG 3): Radiowave propagation P Series - Part 2 (SG 3): Radiowave propagation S Series (SG 4): Fixed-satellite service SNG Series (SG 4): Satellite news gathering TF Series (SG 7): Time signals and frequency standards emissions SA Series (SG 7): Space applications and meteorology RA Series (SG 7): Radioastronomy M Series - Part 1 (SG 8): Land mobile service excluding IMT-2000 M Series - Part 2 (SG 8): International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) M Series - Part 3 (SG 8): Maritime mobile service and aeronautical mobile service M Series - Part 4 (SG 8): Radiodetermination service M Series - Part 5 (SG 8): Mobile satellite services and radiodetermination satellite service M Series - Part 6 (SG 8): Amateur service and amateur-satellite service F Series - Part 1 (SG 9): Fixed service - radio-relay systems F Series - Part 2 (SG 9): Fixed service - frequency sharing aspects F Series - Part 3 (SG 9): Fixed service - HF systems SF Series (SG 4-9): Frequency sharing between the fixed-satellite service and the fixed service BS Series (SG 10): Broadcasting service (sound) Rec. ITU-R BS.705-1 and Rec. ITU-R BS.1195: HF transmitting and receiving antennas characteristics and diagrams - Transmitting antenna characteristics at VHF and UHF BT Series (SG 11): Broadcasting service (television) BO Series (SG 10-1 IS): Broadcasting-satellite service (sound and television)

83 BR Series (SG 10-11R): Sound and television recording V Series (CCV): Vocabulary and related subjects Volumes of ITU-T recommendations The volumes of recommendations of the Telecommunication Standardization Sector relating to satellite communications are divided into series according to the subject areas covered, as follows: E Series Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors F Series Non-telephone communication services G Series Transmission systems and media, digital systems and network H Series Audiovisual and multimedia systems I Series Integrated services digital network J Series Transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals M Series Maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits, , facsimile and leased circuits Q Series Switching and signalling T Series Terminals for telematic services V Series over the telephone network X Series Data networks and open system communication Y Series Global information infrastructure Reports of various seminars organized by ITU, which, even when they do not deal specifically with space, often take into account the use of space technology. 9. Point of contact International Telecommunication Union Place des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 730 51 11 Telex: 421000 UTTCH Telegram: ITU GENEVE E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.itu.int G. World Meteorological Organization /. Mandate and objectives 449. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. The purposes of the Organization include: (a) Facilitating worldwide cooperation in the establishment of networks for making meteorological, hydrological and other geophysical observations and centres to provide meteorological services and observations; (b) Promoting the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological and related information; (c) Promoting the standardization of meteorological observations and ensuring the uniform publication of observations and statistics;

84 (d) Furthering the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agriculture and other human activities; (e) Promoting activities in operational hydrology and furthering close cooperation between meteorological and hydrological services; (f) Encouraging research and training in meteorology and other related fields as appropriate. 2. Activities (a) Organizational structure 450. The World Meteorological Congress, the supreme body of the Organization, brings together the delegates of all members once every four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization, to adopt technical regulations relating to international meteorological and hydrological practices and to determine the WMO programme and budget for the next four years. 451. The Executive Council is composed of 36 directors of national meteorological and hydrological services and meets at least once a year to review the activities of the Organization and to implement the decision of the Congress. 452. The six regional associations (Africa, Asia, South America, North and Central America, South-West Pacific and Europe), composed of the members of the organization, coordinate meteorological and hydrological activities within their respective regions and examine, from a regional point of view, all questions referred to them. 453. The eight technical commissions, composed of experts designated by members, are responsible for studying basic systems, instruments and methods of observation, atmospheric sciences, aeronautical meteorology, agricultural meteorology, marine meteorology, hydrology and climatology. 454. The secretariat, in Geneva, is composed of an international scientific, technical and administrative staff under the direction of the Secretary-General. It undertakes technical studies and is responsible for numerous technical cooperation projects in meteorology and operational hydrology throughout the world aimed at contributing to economic development of the countries concerned. It also publishes specialized technical notes, guides, manuals and reports and in general acts as the link between the meteorological and operational hydrological services of the world. The secretariat works in close collaboration with the United Nations and with other specialized agencies. (b) Programmes World Weather Watch 455. The possibilities opened up by the new satellite technology led to the adoption of the World Weather Watch (WWW) programme by the fourth World Meteorological Congress, held in April 1963. The programme is a worldwide system composed of the coordinated facilities and services provided by the members of WMO and supplemented by international organizations. 456. In accordance with the WWW Plan and Implementation Programme, environmental satellites constitute the space-based subsystem of the Global Observing System for augmenting the information provided by the surface-based subsystem in order to accomplish complete global coverage. Current environmental satellites are of two types: near polar-orbiting satellites and geostationary satellites. To a very large extent, the two types of environmental satellites are complementary. The geostationary satellites provide almost continuous measurements and surveillance in tropical and temperate latitudes, while the near polar-orbiting satellites perform similar

85 functions for higher latitudes and over polar regions. The satellites are described in detail in WMO Publication No. 411. 457. Polar-orbiting satellites, at 800-1,000 km altitude, include the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) series of TIROS-N satellites and the Russian Federation's Meteor 2/3 satellite series. Each of these systems provides two operational satellites in orbit at any time. 458. The third generation of United States' operational polar-orbiting satellites provides data for operational and research purposes. The sensors on the satellites are the TIROS operational vertical sounder (TOVS) and the advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR). TOVS is composed of the high-resolution infra-red sounder, the stratospheric sounding unit and the microwave sounding unit. Data from TOVS and AVHRR are made available to all members with satellite-receiving equipment through direct sounding transmission, automatic picture transmission and high-resolution picture transmission services. In addition, the TIROS satellite is used in the ARGOS data-collection and location missions. Satellite data are distributed over the Global Telecommunications System of WWW. Future plans for the United States polar-orbiting system include a continuation of the advanced TIROS-N/NOAA series (NOAA-K, L and M, N, N' and NPOESS) into the next millennium. 459. The Meteor 2/3 meteorological satellite system forms the basis of the Russian Federation's operational polar-orbiting satellite service, providing visible and infra-red images of clouds, as well as of snow and ice cover. The system also provides data on cloud temperatures and heights, temperatures and intensities of outgoing long-wave radiation and reflected solar radiation. These data are processed and distributed over the Global Telecommunications System in pictorial and other forms. 460. Geostationary satellites comprise five satellites at the following locations over the Equator: 140° E, operated by Japan, 76° E, operated by the Russian Federation, 0°, operated by EUMETSAT, and 75° W and 135° W, operated by the United States. (c) Capacity-building activities and assistance to developing countries 461. In addition to providing hydrological services with published WMO guidance material, WMO gives special attention to transfer of available technology through the hydrological operational multipurpose subprogramme. The subprogramme now has over 24 components dealing with remote sensing and data transmission that have been requested by at least 32 users, mainly from developing countries. That assistance is accelerating rapidly, especially through various technical assistance projects implemented by WMO. 462. The success of the WMO programmes depends to a large extent upon the strengthening of national meteorological, hydrometeorological and hydrological services, in particular in the developing countries. For that reason, WMO education and training activities continue to be a matter of high priority. 463. The transfer of knowledge in the management and use of satellite data is part of the education and training programme, which includes international training events in all regions. Training courses on the use and applications of satellite data and remote sensing in various fields of meteorology and operational hydrology are conducted, many of which are implemented in close collaboration with other United Nations agencies and international organizations. WMO is also engaged in the preparation of syllabuses and training materials for the education of meteorological personnel in satellite meteorology, in the provision of fellowships for training in meteorology and operational hydrology and in the organization of regional training events. 464. Each year, several projects are carried out under the WMO voluntary cooperation programme for the provision of APT/WEFAX equipment, and supplementary WEFAX equipment is also provided to existing APT stations. Support is also given under the programme for training personnel in the operation and maintenance of APT stations.

86 3. International cooperation 465. Resolutions relating to WMO were adopted at the sixteenth and seventeenth sessions of the General Assembly, in 1961 and 1962, respectively, in the context of international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space. The General Assembly recommended that WMO study how the development of space activities could be used to advance the state of atmospheric science and technology. The WMO responses to those resolutions led to the establishment of WWW, also identified conditions for the optimum use of meteorological systems and considered various proposals for atmospheric research, to which satellite data were expected to contribute. 466. WMO continuously maintains a synthesis of its operational requirements for satellite data, both those which can be met in the near future and those requiring significant development efforts that cannot be expected to be fully met until well into the twenty-first century. There is a continuing dialogue between space research organizations and WMO, which helps to ensure that future needs will be met by their emerging and planned systems. 467. Emphasis is placed on the close involvement of satellite operators in the WMO mechanisms. Two specifically mentioned international groups are the Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS). 468. CGMS started as an informal group in 1972 to coordinate the first global geostationary system amongst satellite providers. The European Space Research Organization, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States of America and the Japan Meteorological Agency were founder members. The current members of CGMS include the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (the European Space Agency is also represented), China, India, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United States and WMO. EUMETSAT currently acts as the secretariat for CGMS. The CGMS recommendations are non-binding on members and are implemented on a voluntary basis. 469. CEOS was created at the suggestion of the Group of Seven major industrialized countries (G-7) at its economic summit in 1984 and has since grown to encompass all the world's civil agencies responsible for Earth observation space programmes, along with agencies that receive and process data acquired remotely from space. The intergovernmental user organizations, in particular WMO, together with international scientific programmes (the International Council for Science (ICSU) for the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programmes and WMO and ICSU for the World Climate Research Programme), have become affiliate members of CEOS in order to enhance their cooperation with space agencies in order to develop global change data requirements and to participate actively in the definition of future Earth observation mission concepts. 4. Publications Information on Meteorological and Other Environmental Satellites, WMO publication No. 411. 5. Point of contact Secretary-General World Meteorological Organization 41, avenue Giuseppe Motta Case postale 2300 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 730 81 11 Telex: 414199 OMMCH Facsimile: +(41) (22) 734 23 26 Telegram: METEOMOND GENEVA URL: http://www.wmo.ch

87 H. International Maritime Organization 1. Organization 470. Since 1966, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has taken part in the development and application of satellite technology at sea. The units dealing with space affairs within IMO are the Assembly, which consists of all members, the Council, composed of 32 members elected by the Assembly, and the Maritime Safety Committee, consisting of all members, as well as its Subcommittees on Radiocommunications and Search and Rescue and on Safety of Navigation. 471. The Assembly normally meets biannually. Its functions affecting space affairs include: (a) Approving the work programme of the Organization; (b) Providing, through the Council, for the drafting of conventions, agreements or other suitable instruments, recommending them to Governments and intergovernmental organizations, and convening such conferences as may be necessary; (c) Recommending to members the adoption of regulations and guidelines concerning maritime safety, the prevention and control of marine pollution from ships and other matters concerning the effect of shipping on the marine environment assigned to the Organization by or under international instruments, or amendments to such regulations and guidelines as have been referred to it. 472. The Council, among other functions, receives the reports of the Maritime Safety Committee and other organs of the Organization and transmits them to the Assembly together with its comments and recommendations. The Council normally meets at six-month intervals. 473. The Maritime Safety Committee, inter alia, considers any matter directly affecting maritime safety, performs duties assigned to it by the IMO Convention, the Assembly or the Council, and maintains close relations with such other bodies as may further the purposes of the Organization. The Maritime Safety Committee normally meets three times during a biennium. 474. The Subcommittee on Radiocommunications and Search and Rescue considers and makes recommendations on any matter in the fields of maritime radiocommunications and search and rescue that may be assigned to it by the Maritime Safety Committee. The Subcommittee normally meets annually. 475. The Subcommittee on Safety of Navigation considers and makes recommendations on any matter affecting the safety of maritime navigation that may be assigned to it by the Maritime Safety Committee. It normally meets annually. 2. Past activities (a) International Mobile Satellite Organization 476. In view of the possible contribution of satellite technology to maritime distress and safety systems and to marine communications, IMO submitted a coordinated maritime view on the use of space technology to the 1971 World Administrative Radio Conference for space telecommunications organized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 477. Following the 1971 Conference and noting the frequencies allocated to maritime mobile-satellite services, the Maritime Safety Committee initiated the preparation of a plan for establishing an international maritime satellite system. An IMO panel of experts was established to study the technical and economic aspects of such

88 a system. IMO convened an International Conference on the Establishment of an International Maritime Satellite System to consider proposals and comments relating to the system. The Conference met in three sessions, the first in April/May 1975, the second inFebruary 1976 andJae-ihirdin^ the Conference adopted th^Ohvenn'ononthe International Maritime Satellite Organ^tio^|^r|jajsj^^m an annex on procedures for the settlement of" dispruTSs^ Inmar&at' Opciatfligl^p^emen^wrm^ annex on investment shares prior to the first determination on the basis of utilization. 478. The Conference also adopted recommendations on the following subjects: (a) Worldwide minimum technical and operational standards as a basis for specifications for ship Earth stations; (b) The need to establish worldwide technical and operating standards to facilitate communication between ships and subscribers on shore; (c) The use of ship Earth stations within harbour limits and other waters under national jurisdiction; (d) The use by Inmarsat of mullJ^jufpose^sltelli^sT^" 479. In July 1979, the Inmarsat Convention and the associated Operating Agreerjp^sl^ntered into force and Inmarsat became establishe^>asjispecialized organization prOYJdfMjj IIMII lllirHTmiiimnii ilimi services for the maritime community. Amendments tdlfie ^marsa^ and the Operating Agreement adopted in 1985 and 1989 opened the maritime satellite system for aeronautical and land mobile communications and an amendment adopted in 1994 changed the namefrom International Maritime Satellite Organization to International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat). 480. Inmarsat provides communication services to ships equipped with Inmarsat-A, Inmarsat-B, Inmarsat-C and Inmarsat-M ship earth stations capable of operating through Inmarsat satellites and also to ships equipped with Inmarsat-E emergency position-indicating radio beacons. 481. IMO has accepted an Inmarsat satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacon using geostationary satellites and the 1.6 GHz frequency band (Inmarsat-E), which also carries Inmarsat distress signals from ships to coast Earth stations. Since a geostationary satellite covers a third of the Earth's surface, four of these are able to provide continuous service for all navigable waters, except for the northernmost parts of the Arctic and the southernmost parts of the Antarctic. 482. Receiving stations for Inmarsat-E are in operation at Reisting, Germany; Perth, Australia; and Niles Canyon, United States of America. 483. Inmarsat has taken steps to prepare a process of restructuring, which should enable it to retain and expand its position in a highly competitive environment, while maintaining its obligation to provide maritime distress and safety services. IMO is following this development closely and has submitted its general position on the issue to Inmarsat. (b) COSPAS-SARSAT 484. The COSPAS-SARSAT satellite system, jointly designed by Canada, France, the Russian Federation and the United States to assist search and rescue operations uses distress beacons operating on 406 MHZ with a homing capability on 121.5 MHZ to provide distress alerts and location data to rescue coordination centres for the conduct of search and rescue operations, whether at sea, in the air or on land. There are at present three types of distress beacons: emergency locator transmitters for use in aviation; satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacons for maritime use; and personal locator beacons for use on land. These distress beacons transmit

89 signals that are detected by COSPAS-SARSAT ground receiving stations, called local user terminals, which process the signals to detennine the location of the distress beacon. Alerts are then relayed, together with location data, via a mission control centre, either to another mission control centre or to the appropriate search and rescue point of contact to initiate search and rescue. 485. Operational use of COSPAS-SARSAT by search and rescue agencies started with the crash of a light Cessna aircraft in Canada, in which three people were rescued, on 9 September 1982. 486. In addition to the four COSPAS-SARSAT parties who provide the space segment (Canada, France, the Russian Federation and the United States), a number of other countries are also participating in the COSPAS-SARSAT system, some of them as providers (local user terminals and mission control centres) and others as user States. (c) The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 487. As a result of MO studies conducted in close cooperation with ITU, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), Inmarsat and the satellite system for search and rescue operations (COSPAS-SARSAT), which together developed the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS), the 1988 Conference of Contracting Governments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea adopted the amendments to the 1974 Convention concerning radiocommunications for the GMDSS, which entered into force on 1 February 1992. 488. The above amendments also require each contracting Government to make available, as it deems practical and necessary, either individually or in cooperation with other contracting Governments, appropriate shore-based facilities for space and terrestrial radiocommunication services. Among others, those services include a radiocommunication service utilizing geostationary satellites in the maritime mobile satellite service, and a radiocommunication service utilizing polar-orbiting satellites in the mobile satellite service. 489. IMO member Governments were requested to provide MO with pertinent information concerning the shore-based facilities in maritime mobile, mobile satellite and maritime mobile satellite services, established for sea areas that they have designated off their coasts. On this basis the GMDSS master plan was developed and circulated to member Governments, ITU, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), WMO, Inmarsat, COSPAS-SARSAT and others. 3. Current activities 490. Following the 1988 Conference, the amendments to the 1974 Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea entered into force on 1 February 1992. GMDSS will be introduced in stages until the full implementation date of 1 February 1999. Satellite communications form a major part of the GMDSS and ships are being encouraged to fit satellite equipment. The Organization is also continuing the development of a master plan of shore-based facilities for the GMDSS. The further development of the GMDSS will continue, also after 1 February 1999, in close cooperation with ITU, WMO, IHO, Inmarsat and COSPAS-SARSAT. 491. MO has undertaken studies on a worldwide radionavigation system and has adopted a policy for recognition and acceptance of such systems (MO resolution A.815(19)). On the basis of that policy, amendments to the 1974 Convention are considered. The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian Federation's Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), each providing worldwide coverage, were recognized in May and December 1996, respectively. The systems are suitable for worldwide navigation and are available to international shipping. Performance standards for shipborne GPS receivers were adopted in December 1995 and performance standards for shipbome GLONASS receivers in May/June 1996. Performance standards for combined shipborne GPS/GLONASS receivers have been developed and are expected to be adopted in May/June 1998.

90 492. IMO, in close cooperation with IHO and Inmarsat, is undertaking a study of a system for remotely updating electronic navigational charts for use in electronic chart display and information systems by broadcasts through the Inmarsat SafetyNET service (enhanced group call) and equipment has been developed and is being tested. 493. IMO has developed a maritime policy for a future global navigation satellite system, which was adopted by the Assembly in November 1997. In connection with frequency allocation, the Organization submitted its position on the need for protection of the frequency bands used for maritime distress and safety radiocommunication and for maritime radionavigation purposes to the ITU 1997 World Radiocommunication Conference. 4. Future activities 494. IMO will continue its study of a global navigation satellite system in close cooperation with IHO, ICAO and other intergovernmental organizations. 495. IMO will also continue further development of the means of updating electronic navigational charts for electronic chart display and information systems based on the review of results from trials. 496. IMO will continue to keep developments in maritime satellite communications under consideration. 5. Point of contact International Maritime Organization 4 Albert Embankment London SE1 7SR, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Telephone: +(44) (171) 735 7611 Telex: 23588 imoldn g Facsimile: +(44) (171) 587 3210 E-mail: [email protected]

I. World Intellectual Property Organization 1. General 497. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is an intergovernmental organization and, since 1974, has been one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations system. Its origins, however, go back to 1883 and 1886 when the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, respectively, were adopted. Both Conventions provided for the establishment of a secretariat. Those secretariats were united in 1893 and were replaced in 1970 by the International Bureau of WIPO. 498. WIPO is responsible for the promotion of the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation among States and for the administration of various multilateral treaties dealing with the legal and administrative aspects of intellectual property.

91 2, Activities 499. The Organization's main activities consist of the establishment of international norms and standards for intellectual property, especially through international treaties; the administration of treaties that embody such norms and standards, as well as others that facilitate the filing of applications for the protection of inventions, trademarks and industrial designs; and the provision of industrial property information, espwaajfly^l^ lejjal^echnica^ $VJEQ also carries out a substantial programme of legal and technical assistance to developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 500. The number of States members of WIPO was 171 as at 21 September 1998. In addition, six States were party to treaties administered by WIPO but had not yet become members of the Organization. 501. As at 16 November 1998, WIPO administered the following Unions or treaties (listed in chronological order of their adoption): (a) For industrial property, the Paris Union (for the protection of industrial property), the Madrid Agreement (for the repression of false or deceptive indications of source on goods), the Madrid Union (for the international registration of marks), the Hague Union (for the international deposit of industrial designs), the Nice Union (for the international classification of goods and services for the purposes of the registration of marks), the Lisbon Union (for the protection of appellations of origin and their international registration), the Locarno Union (for the establishment of an international classification for industrial designs), the Patent Cooperation Treaty Union (for cooperation in the filing, searching and examination of international applications for the protection of inventions where such protection is sought in several countries), the International Patent Classification Union (for the establishment of worldwide uniformity of patent classification), the Vienna Union (for the establishment of an international classification of the figurative elements of marks), the Budapest Union (for the international recognition of the deposit of micro-organisms for the purposes of patent procedure), the Nairobi Treaty (on the protection of the Olympic symbol), the Trademark Law Treaty (for the simplification of formalities before trademark registries); (b) For copyright or neighbouring rights, the Berne Union (for the protection of literary and artistic works), the Rome Convention (for the protection of performers, producers of phonograms and broadcasting organizations; administered in cooperation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Labour Office), the Geneva Convention (for the protection of producers of phonograms against unauthorized duplication of their phonograms), the Brussels Convention (relating to the distribution of programme-carrying signals transmitted by satellite), the WIPO Copyright Treaty (for the protection of certain rights in certain works) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (for the protection of the rights of performing artists in their live performances and in the aural fixations of their performances and the protection of the artists of producers of phonograms in their phonograms). 502. As far as the Organization's status as a specialized agency of the United Nations is concerned, under article 1 of its Agreement with the United Nations, WIPO is responsible for taking appropriate action in accordance with its basic instrument and the treaties and agreements administered by it, inter alia, for promoting creative intellectual activity and for facilitating the transfer of technology related to industrial property to the developing countries in order to accelerate their economic, social and cultural development, subject to the competence of the United Nations and its organs and of other agencies within the United Nations system. 3. International cooperation 503. WIPO has been bound, since 1 January 1996, by an Agreement with the World Trade Organization (WTO), which is not a member of the United Nations system. The Agreement provides for cooperation between the International Bureau of WIPO and the secretariat of WTO with respect to assistance to developing countries, the

92 notification and collection of the intellectual property laws and regulations of WTO members and the notification of emblems of States and international organizations. International protection for intellectual property is also provided for by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, including Trade in Counterfeit Goods (the "TRIPS Agreement"), concluded in 1994 and administered by WTO. 4. Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (1974) 504. Among the treaties administered by WIPO of special relevance for space activities is the Brussels Convention, which obliges each contracting State to take adequate measures to prevent the unauthorized distribution on or from its territory of any programme carrying signal transmitted by satellite. The distribution is unauthorized if it has not been authorized by the organization—typically a broadcasting organization—that has decided what the programme consists of. The obligation exists with regard to organizations that are nationals of a contracting State. The provisions of ^he Convention are not applicable, however, where the distribution of signals is made from a direct broadcasting satellite. 505. The following 22 States were parry to the Convention on 25 May 1998: Armenia, Australia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Germany, Greece, Italy, Kenya, Mexico, Morocco, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Russian Federation, Slovenia, Switzerland , the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Trinidad and Tobago, United States of America and Yugoslavia

5. Activities related to space 506. m 1997, the International Bureau of WIPO conducted a study, with the help of consultants from the National Space Development Agency of Japan, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the European Space Agency, on the desirability and feasibility of adopting rules and/or recommending principles common to all countries and interested intergovernmental organizations for the intellectual property protection of inventions that were made or were used in outer space. The study led to the conclusion that there was no need for special legislative provisions concerning the protection of inventions made or used in outer space, but that it was desirable for the International Bureau to give information on the existing protection of such inventions to interestei d States and organizations.

6. Publications The International Bureau centralizes information of various kinds relating to the protection of intellectual property. Some of the information is furnished direct to member States at their request. Much of the information is collated and published in a monthly review in English and French, and, every second month, in Spanish, entitled Industrial Property and Copyright/La Propriete industrielle et le Droit d 'auteur and Propiedad Industrial y Derecho de Autor, respectively. This review contains information on membership in WIPO and the various Unions and on the activities of WIPO in various fields. It also contains the texts of industrial property and copyright and neighbouring rights laws and treaties (in English and French only).

7. Point of contact World Intellectual Property Organization 34, chemin des Colombettes CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 338 91 11 Telex: 412 912 ompi ch Facsimile: +(41) (22) 733 54 28 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.wipo.int (also http://www.ompi.int)

93 J. International Atomic Energy Agency 1, Organization 507. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957. Its statutory objective is to seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. One of the Agency's functions is to establish or adopt, in consultation and, where appropriate, in collaboration with the competent organs of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned, standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property (including such standards for labour conditions), and to provide for the application of those standards to its own operations as well as to the operations making use of materials, services, equipment, facilities and information made available by the Agency or at its request or under its control or supervision; and to provide for the application of those standards, at the request of the parties, to operations under any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or at the request of a State, to any of the State's activities in the field of atomic energy. 508. With respect to any Agency project, or other arrangement where the Agency is requested by the parties concerned to apply safeguards, the Agency has the right and responsibilities, to the extent relevant to the project or arrangement, to require the observance of any health and safety measure prescribed by the Agency and to send into the territory of the recipient State or States inspectors to determine whether there is compliance with such health and safety measures. 509. The policy making organs of the Agency are the General Conference and the Board of Governors. Working jointly, the two organs decide the Agency's programme and budget and appoint the Director General of the Agency. The General Conference is composed of representatives of the Agency's entire membership of 127 member States. The Board of Governors has 35 members, of whom 13 are designated by the Board and 22 are elected by the General Conference. 510. The Agency operates the world's only international inspectorate in the nuclear field, applying safeguards under agreements in force with nearly 120 countries, supports nearly 1,300 projects to promote the effective use of nuclear technologies in food and agriculture, nuclear power, medicine and health care, industry, science and the environment, and also ensures radiation protection and the safety of radiation sources. 511. Within a few decades, space has become an essential resource for science and for public and commercial use. In that framework, the use of nuclear power sources in space needs to be considered. For a satellite with a nuclear power supply,risks can emerge for the global population through radioactive fragments that reach Earth. To prevent uncontrolled re-entry, safety devices are installed in the satellite and are programmed to start automatically. However, those devices can fail, as has happened in the past. The danger from radiation following an accident involving a satellite with a nuclear reactor on board heading towards Earth over inhabited areas lies essentially in the nuclear fuel itself, the fission products in the nuclear fuel and activated products in the reactor components. The exposures to radiation would depend on the cause and the course of the event. 512. Any manned space travel will necessarily involve exposing astronauts to levels of background radiation higher than normally found on Earth. In extraordinary circumstances, the levels can even be life-threatening. In any event, both these issues are a matter of potential health concern and there is a need to consider safety measures. Therefore, the Agency is concerned with the legal, environmental and health safety problems that have a bearing on its activities and may arise in connection with the peaceful uses of outer space. 513. Although several organizations within the United Nations system are involved in the international harmonization of radiation protection and safety, the Agency is the only one authorized under the terms of its Statute to establish standards of safety for the protection of health from exposure to ionizing radiation. In compliance with this statutory function, the Agency, jointly with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Nuclear Energy Agency of the

94 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD/NEA), the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), issues the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources (BSS). The purpose of the Standards is to afford basic requirements for protection against the risks associated with exposure to ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources that may deliver such exposure. 514. The Agency has specific responsibilities under two international conventions relating to nuclear accidents or radiological emergencies. The Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, the scope of which explicitly refers to the use of radioisotopes for power generation in space objects, places a responsibility on the Agency to inform State parties, member States, other States and relevant international intergovernmental organizations forthwith of a notification received of an accident likely to occur and that has resulted or may result in an international transboundary release of radiological significance. The Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency places responsibility on the Agency to respond to a requesting State Party's or member State's request for assistance in the event of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency. 515. To fulfil those obligations the Agency maintains an emergency response centre, with 24-hour response capability, trained staff and necessary communications capability to 220 contact points worldwide. It also acts as the secretariat for the Inter-Agency Committee on the Response to Nuclear Accidents, which is the focal point in the United Nations System for coordination of response to nuclear accidents and radiological emergencies. 516. The Agency has been encouraged by its member States to prepare guidance to assist States in planning for possible future re-entry events and to provide international consensus guidance for responding to such a situation. Based on that, the Agency published, in 1996, in its Safety Series, a document on emergency planning and preparedness for re-entry of a nuclear-powered satellite. The purpose of the document is to provide a general and comprehensive overview of the management of incidents or emergencies that may be created when nuclear-power sources employed in space systems accidentally re-enter the Earth's atmosphere and impact on its surface. It is intended primarily for governmental organizations that have the responsibility to plan for potential radiological emergencies and, in the case of an impending event where there has been little planning, the document could serve as a valuable reference for prompt action. 517. Given its statutory and legal obligations, its experience and well-tested infrastructure, it is appropriate that the Agency should be a point of reference in all activities relating to radiation safety within the United Nations system, including those relating to outer space activities. Moreover, within the framework of its role under the Assistance Convention and its own statute, the Agency is committed to use its resources to promote, facilitate and support the cooperation between State parties. Therefore, the Agency is prepared to do the following: (a) To collect and disseminate to State parties and member States information concerning: (i) experts, equipment and materials that could be made available in the event of a nuclear accident or a radiological emergency; and (ii) methodologies, techniques and available results of research relating to response to nuclear accidents or radiological emergencies; (b) To assist a State party or a member State when requested in any of the following or other appropriate matters: (i) preparing both emergency plans in the case of nuclear accidents and radiological emergencies and the appropriate legislation; (ii) developing appropriate training programmes for personnel to deal with nuclear accidents and radiological emergencies; (iii) transmitting requests for assistance and relevant information in the event of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency; (iv) developing appropriate radiation monitoring programmes, procedures and standards; and (v) conducting investigations into the feasibility of establishing appropriate radiation monitoring systems; (c) To make available to a State party or a member State requesting assistance in the event of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency appropriate resources allocated for the purpose of conducting an initial assessment of the accident or emergency;

95 (d) To offer its good offices to State parties and member States in the event of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency; (e) To establish and maintain liaison with relevant international organizations for the purposes of obtaining and exchanging relevant information and data, and make a list of such organizations available to State parties, member States and the aforementioned organizations. 518. The Agency will continue to follow the work of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and in particular, to offer its technical expertise and continued cooperation with the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and in the eventual reviewing of the safety principles in order to ensure their adherence to current international principles on radiation protection and nuclear safety. 2. Publications Safety Series No. 115—International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources: A Safety Standard (1996), Vienna, FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and WHO. Safety Series No. 119—Emergency Planning and Preparedness for Re-entry of a Nuclear Powered Satellite (1996), Vienna, IAEA. 3. Point of contact Coordinator, Emergency Assistance Services Division of Radiation and Waste Safety International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria Telephone: +(43) (1) 2600 22026 Facsimile:+(43) (1)26007 E-mail: [email protected]

96 m. OTHER INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS A. European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 1. General 519. The European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) is an intergovernmental organization with 17 European member States represented by their national meteorological services. The Convention for the Establishment of a European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites entered into force on 19 June 1986 and was amended by a resolution in June 1991 currently undergoing ratification. 520. The primary objective of EUMETSAT is to establish, maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites taking into consideration as far as possible the recommendations of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). A further objective in the amended Convention is to contribute to the operational monitoring of the climate and the detection of global climatic changes. 521. In addition to meteorological and climate monitoring, which are priority activities, EUMETSAT intends to expand its range of operational services to associated environmental monitoring activities. 522. EUMETSAT is funded through contributions from its member States based on their gross national product. The member States of EUMETSAT include Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 2. Organizational structure 523. The headquarters of EUMETSAT are located in Darmstadt, Germany. The organs of EUMETSAT are the Director and the Council, which is composed of not more than two representatives of each member State, one of whom is a delegate of his country's meteorological service. The Director is responsible for the implementation of the decisions taken by the Council and for the execution of the tasks assigned to EUMETSAT. He is the legal representative of EUMETSAT and in that capacity he signs international agreements and contracts. He is supported by a secretariat of 154 staff members (as of 1998). 5. Programmes (a) First generation ofMeteosat satellites 524. EUMETSAT has a long-term commitment towards its member States to perform meteorological observation from the geostationary orbit at 0° longitude. This is achieved through the Meteosat satellite system developed by the European Space Agency (ESA). There have been a total of seven Meteosat satellites since the first satellite's launch by ESA in 1977. The last satellite of the first generation of European geostationary meteorological satellites is Meteosat-7, launched in September 1997. 525. The satellite system consists of one operational satellite and one back-up satellite. It acquires images of Europe, Africa and the Atlantic Ocean in the visible, infra-red and water vapour bands. The images are pre-processed in real-time and rebroadcast by the satellite. The main meteorological product is wind information derived from cloud motion detected from imagery. This is used for numerical weather prediction models run by meteorological services all around the world. Other meteorological products concerning, for example, cloud cover, precipitation rate or sea surface are also derived several times a day and made available to the global meteorological community via the WMO Global Telecommunication System.

97 526. Meteosat also transmits meteorological datafrom automatic or semi-automatic weather or environmental data collection platforms. The meteorological data distribution mission transmits meteorological data and products via Meteosat to user communities in Africa that have insufficient access to the WMO Global Telecommunication System. 527. The first generation of Meteosat satellites will continue to provide geostationary observations until 2003. (b) Meteosat second generation 528. A second generation of Meteosat satellites is being developed in cooperation with ESA. This will offer considerably enhanced imaging capability with 12 spectral channels (instead of 3) and a scanning period of 15 minutes (rather than 30 minutes). The first of the three Meteosat second-generation satellites is scheduled for launch in 2000. Discussions on a third generation of Meteosat satellites beyond 2014 have already started. (c) EUMETSAT polar system 529. In parallel to the geostationary satellite programme, EUMETSAT is developing the EUMETSAT Polar System based on Metop-1, -2 and -3 spacecraft. The System will provide operational observation from the morning polar orbit, while satellites of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States of America will cover the afternoon polar orbit, together forming the Initial Joint Polar System. Metop-1 is slated for launch in 2003. The spacecraft will orbit at an altitude of about 840 km, circling the planet 14 times a day. The EUMETSAT Polar System will supply global temperature and humidity data, monitor the ozone, map changing vegetation, snow and ice cover and provide data on ocean surface temperatures and low-level wind vectors over the oceans. (d) Ground segment activities 530. Each satellite programme includes a ground segment component to operate the satellite and deliver the required imagery and products in real time and off-line. In addition to the central ground segment facilities, EUMETSAT is introducing satellite application facilities. These are application programmes in areas such as numerical weather prediction, snowcasting, ocean ice, ozone monitoring, climate monitoring and land surface surveillance. They are developed and implemented by consortia of institutes of national meteorological services and coordinated by EUMETSAT. The satellite application facilities will be distributed elements of the future EUMETSAT ground systems. A network of six such facilities is expected to be completed by 2003. 4. Data dissemination 531. The dissemination of data from EUMETSAT satellites is based on user requirements and is subject to the Organization's data policy. The objective of the data policy is to enable full and non-discriminatory access by the global user community worldwide, while affinriing the value of the data and monitoring the access to the data on a fair basis compatible with a commercial environment. By asking users to make a financial contribution to EUMETSAT in return for access to data, long-term sustainability of the satellite systems should be secured. Data are provided free of charge to users requiring them for scientific research and educational purposes. A set of data is also made available free of charge to all national meteorological services in the world for official use. 5. International cooperation 532. EUMETSAT contributes to the global meteorological satellite observing system. It has close relations with the meteorological community worldwide, in particular on a multilateral basis with WMO; WMO assists in defining the requirements for meteorological satellite data and EUMETSAT takes its recommendations in its policy-making into account. Furthermore, EUMETSAT exchanges information on its programmes, instruments

98 and products, and sets standards in transmission formats within the Coordination Group of Meteorological Satellites, to which all operational meteorological satellite operators belong. 533. Cooperation agreements on a bilateral level have also been established with the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NOAA) (United States), the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (ROSHYDROMET), the Japan Meteorological Agency and the China Meteorological Administration. 534. EUMETSAT maintains a strong interaction with the African user community through biannual user forums and supports a large training programme to promote the use of satellite data. Bilateral agreements have been concluded with the African Centre for Meteorological Applications for Development and the Agency for the Safety of Aerial Navigation in Africa and Madagascar, an intergovernmental agency active in air traffic security in Africa. 535. Central and Eastern European countries are other key partners of EUMETSAT and are able to join the organization as a cooperating State. This gives them the same rights and obligations as member States with respect to access to and use of EUMETSAT data and allows them to be represented as an observer in the Council via a EUMETSAT Advisory Committee of Cooperating States, with significantly reduced financial contributions. 536. Through enhanced data availability with future EUMETSAT Polar System and Meteosat second-generation satellite programmes, EUMETSAT will contribute considerably to the efforts to set up a global Earth observation system. Together with other space organizations and users of Earth observation data, EUMETSAT is working on the development and implementation of the International Global Observing Strategy, as well as on other issues such as harmonization of data formats and calibration and validation in the framework of the Committee of Earth Observation Satellites. 537. EUMETSAT develops its strategy in the framework of a European Earth Observation Strategy, jointly defined with ESA and the European Union, and is thus concentrating on operational weather- and climate-related applications. 6. Point of contact Head, Information Division EUMETSAT Am Kavalleriesand 31 D-64295 Darmstadt, Germany Telephone: +(49) 6151 807-7 Facsimile: +(49) 6151 807-555 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.eumetsat.de B. European Space Agency 1. Mandate and objectives 538. The European Space Agency (ESA) was formed by an intergovernmental convention in 1975 to provide for and promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, European cooperation in space research, space technology and applications. It replaced the European Space Research Organization and the European Launcher Development Organization.

99 539. ESA has 14 member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Canada has an agreement for close cooperation. 540. The Agency is directed by a Council composed of the representative of the member States, and the chief officer is the Director-General. ESA's 1997 budget was about 3 billion ECU ($3.5 billion). The number of staff employed was some 1,750. 541. Members have to subscribe to the mandatory science and basic technology programme, but decide their own contribution to the various optional programmes in Earth observation, telecommunications, space transportation systems, space station and microgravity. 542. ESA has the following establishments: (a) Its headquarters in Paris, where the political decisions are taken; (b) The European Space Research and Technology Centre, in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, is the principal technical establishment of the Agency in which the majority of project teams, together with the space science department and technological research and support engineers, are housed. The Centre also provides the appropriate testing facilities; (c) The European Space Operations Centre, located in Darmstadt, Germany, is in charge of all satellite operations and the corresponding ground facilities and communication networks; (d) The European Space Research Institute, in Frascati, Italy, whose main task is the exploitation of Earth observation data from space; (e) The European Astronauts Centre, in Porz-Wahn, Germany, coordinates all European activities, including the training of the future European astronauts. 543. The Agency also contributes to the Guyana Space Centre, Europe's in Kourou. 2. Activities (a) Science 544. The ESA space science programme has carried out a series of very successful projects such as the Giotto mission and its encounters with Halley's Comet in 1986 and the Grigg-Skjellerup Comet in 1992, the star-mapping mission Hipparcos, which has measured the distance and position of over 1 million stars with very high precision; or ESA participation in the Hubble of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States of America, with the faint object camera and solar arrays. 545. Satellites in orbit include the Ulysses probe, which for the first time ever explored the poles of the Sun, the Infrared Space Observatory and the Solar Heliospheric Observatory, which are part of the Solar Terrestrial Science Programme, both launched in 1995. Ulysses and the Solar Heliospheric Observatory are collaborative ESA/NASA missions. 546. On 15 October 1997, the Huygens was launched by a Titan IV B in the joint NASA/ESA Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn and its largest moon, Titan. 547. Major projects under development include the X-Ray Multimirror Mission, to be launched in 1999; the reflight of Cluster, Cluster-2, which is scheduled for launch on a rocket in 2000; the International Gamma

100 Ray Laboratory, to be launched in 2001 on a Proton; Rosetta, a comet rendezvous and in situ sample analysis mission, to be launched in 2003; and the Far Infrared Space Telescope, to be launched in 2005-2006. 548. Currently, the Agency is redesigning the Horizons 2000 space science programme to make it possible to include projects using new technologies such as electric propulsion for solar system missions and participation in future international space efforts such as the NASA Next Generation Space Telescope and Mars exploration projects. 549. The revised plan foresees the introduction of a Small Mission for Advanced Research and Technology (SMART-1) to an asteroid or the Moon in 2001 and a small mission to Mars called "Mars Express" to be launched in 2003 (the final decision was to be taken in 1998). (b) Observation of Earth and its environment 550. ESA has launched six Meteosat first-generation spacecraft into the geosynchronous orbit over the Gulf of Guinea, which have provided continuous meteorological data since the end of 1977. The last in the series, Meteosat-7, launched by Ariane from Kourou on 3 September 1997, will allow this coverage to be extended until the availability of the first spacecraft of the Meteosat second generation, which is being prepared in cooperation with the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), to provide geostationary data coverage beyond the year 2000. 551. ESA and EUMETSAT are also planning the METOP/EPS programme to provide observation from a polar orbit. 552. ESA will continue to play a major role in Earth observation, building on the experience gained with its ERS-1 and ERS-2 spacecraft, which were launched in July 1991 and April 1995, respectively. Operations are planned to be extended until the in-orbit availability of ENVISAT, which is due for launch on Ariane 5 in 1999. 553. As regards European remote sensing satellites, the Agency has agreements with about 20 national and foreign ground stations allowing acquisition and distribution of data from such satellites. These stations, together with the ESA ground stations, provide quasi-global coverage. 554. The ENVISAT mission addresses a set of objectives in the Earth sciences, ranging from climate and environment, chemistry, oceanography and glaciology to the impact of human activities (land processes, coastal processes, atmospheric and marine pollution) to the monitoring of exceptional natural events (floods and volcanic eruptions, for example). 555. Currently, ESA is working in close cooperation with representatives of the main Earth observation actors in Europe, such as the European Commission, EUMETSAT, users and industry, to prepare a proposal for a strategy for the future ESA Earth observation programme. 556. On the worldwide scene, the Agency intends to pursue and strengthen its relations, in particular with China, India, Japan, the Russian Federation and the United States of America. (c) Telecommunications 557. ESA has developed two series of operational satellites: the European Communications Satellites (ECS), which have been leased to the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization and the Maritime Communications Satellites, which have been leased to the International Mobile Satellite Organization (formerly known as the International Maritime Satellite Organization). In 1989, the Agency also launched the Olympus experimental to demonstrate new applications in communications and broadcasting.

101 558. The Agency's current space telecommunications programme has two basic objectives: to put European industry in a position to acquire as large a share as possible of the world market; and to promote and demonstrate new applications and technologies in mobile communications, satellite navigation, multimedia and inter-satellite links. 559. The Advanced Relay and Technology Mission Satellite is in the final development stage. It will carry a land mobile and navigation payload, plus a data relay payload allowing communications with low-Earth orbit satellites in optical and radio frequency bands. The satellite is scheduled for launch in 2000 on a Japanese H2A launcher in the framework of a cooperation agreement with the National Space Development Agency of Japan, to which, in exchange for the launch, ESA will provide data relay capability. 560. In satellite navigation, ESA is closely working with the European Commission and Eurocontrol in the development of a European satellite navigation system that will complement the existing Global Positioning System and the Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System. 561. ESA has also initiated, in cooperation with the European Union, industry, operators and service providers, a programme intended to place Europe in a favourable position in the fast-developing multimedia market, which presents one of the greatest opportunities for the European satellite industry and operators. (d) Launchers 562. The Ariane launcher has provided Europe with independent access to space, which is an essential objective of a comprehensive European strategy that includes the supply by Europe of satellites, ground stations, high-tech services and other applications. Moreover, Ariane has become Europe's most visible space success in terms of business volume and has given it a world commercial market share of about 60 per cent. Its economic benefit in production and launch activities represent more than three times the investments made by Governments in the development of the Ariane 1-4 family. 563. Europe's launcher strategy is centred on the successful completion of the Ariane-5 development programme and on the preparation of a future-generation launcher. 564. With respect to the Ariane-5 programme, the main aim is to secure the qualification of the launcher and to achieve an efficient and competitive Ariane-5 operation and exploitation until 2015-2020 through: (a) The completion of the Ariane-5 development with the Ariane 502 and 503 launches in 1997-1998. Flight 502 was carried out successfully on 30 October 1997 following the failure of Ariane-5's maiden flight on 4 June 1996. One further test flight was planned for the first quarter of 1998; (b) The setting up and execution of the Ariane-5 production programme and the exploitation and commercialization of the new launcher; (c) The implementation of the Ariane-5 complementary programmes, which accompany the launcher throughout its operational life and prepare its evolution to meet evolving market needs. 565. These include: (a) The Ariane-5 ARTA programme to maintain and consolidate Ariane-5' s reliability; (b) The Ariane-5 infrastructure programme to maintain the Ariane-5 infrastructure as a strategic European asset;

102 (c) The Ariane-5 evolution programme to improve the launcher's performance and bring it to 7,400 kg in geostationary transfer orbit. 566. Work on the preparation of a future-generation launcher has already been under way for a few years in some ESA member States. Those activities are complemented by the Agency's Future Space Transportation Investigation Programme, which was initiated in 1994. The Programme covers system studies and technology activities for a future reusable or expendable launcher. (e) Manned and microgravity 567. ESA has contributed to the United States Space Shuttle programme with Spacelab, a laboratory in space to perform research in life and materials sciences. First through Spacelab, and more recently through joint missions on with the Russian Federation (the 30-day Euromir 94 and the 180-day Euroniir 95), European astronauts and scientists have gained access to space. 568. The Agency is now getting ready for a new challenge: the International Space Station. Europe's programme in manned spaceflight consists of four elements: (a) A pressurized laboratory, the Columbus orbital facility, to be launched in 2002, as an essential contribution to the in-orbit infrastructure, thereby guaranteeing Europe the right to use and exploit the overall facility; (b) The automated transfer vehicle, to support the routine operations of the space station, and to be launched by Ariane 5. The first operational flight of the vehicle with Ariane 5 is planned for early 2003; (c) Definition studies for a crew rescue vehicle in the context of the X-38 cooperation with NASA; (d) The preparation for the use of the multidisciplinary in-orbit infrastructure, through promotion, early utilization and other preparatory activities. 569. The Agency's microgravity programme consists of two elements: (a) A basic research programme, covering the continuation of studies, sounding rocket activities, parabolic flights, the re-flight of existing facilities on precursor missions and the flight of payloads on retrievable satellites; (b) A programme to develop the facilities required for microgravity experiments to be carried out in the Columbus orbiting facility, known as the microgravity facilities for the Columbus programme. This programme started in 1997 and is dedicated primarily to the development of three multi-user laboratories to be used in the pressurized volume of the orbiting facility, the provision of two furnaces in a materials science laboratory and the user support for the development of cartridges, test containers and others. 3. International cooperation 570. International cooperation is one of the central elements of Europe's space policy for accomplishing its space goals. ESA cooperates not only with the traditional space-faring nations such as the United States, the Russian Federation and Japan, but also with emerging space Powers and developing countries. 571. By far the most important and long-lasting cooperation has been that with NASA. More recently, ESA has been involved in collaborative projects with the Russian Federation and the Russian Space Agency, such as in the Euromir flights in 1994-1995. Furthermore, a major concrete cooperative relationship has been established with Japan, notably in the field of data-relay satellites and exchange of hardware for the International Space Station.

103 572. The Agency has also concluded cooperation agreements with the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Poland and Romania. Training at the technical level and joint projects are being pursued with those countries in space science, Earth observation and telecommunications. 573. With emerging space Powers and developing countries ESA has developed and run projects of mutual interest by assisting them in the development of their space activities. ESA also organizes regional training courses related to space applications on an ad hoc basis. 574. ESA works closely with other international organizations in Europe, especially the European Union, which is becoming more active in space, and with EUMETSAT on future meteorological programmes. Furthermore, it follows the work of many specialized agencies of the United Nations. An important forum for ESA is the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, where ESA has observer status. The Agency also has close links with the Office of Outer Space Affairs; following a recommendation of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the two entities established an important training and fellowship programme. 4. Publications ESA annual report Europe in Space 1960-1973, by John Krige and Arturo Russo, ESA SP-1172,1994. Periodicals: Earth Observation Quarterly ESA Bulletin (Issue dates: February, May, August and November) European Centre for Space Law News (4 issues per year) Microgravity News (3 issues per year) Preparing for the Future (4 issues per year) Reaching for the Skies (4 issues per year) Conference proceedings and ESA special publications All periodicals are also available on the Internet at URL http://esapub.esrin.esa.it/esapub.htrnl 5. Point of contact Head of the Director General's Cabinet European Space Agency 8-10, rue Mario Nikis F-75738 Paris Cedex 15, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 53 69 74 00 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 53 69 74 24 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.esa.int C. European Telecommunications Satellite Organization 1. Organization 575. The main purpose of the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization () is the design, development, construction, establishment, operation and maintenance of the space segment of the European

104 telecommunications satellite system or systems. In that context, EUTELSAT has as its prime objectives the provision of the space segment required for international public telecommunications services in Europe and for domestic public telecommunications services. 576. EUTELSAT was created in May 1977 by 17 European telecommunications administrations or recognized private operating agencies of the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT). The Organization attained its definitive form on 1 September 1985 upon the entry into force of an International Convention and an Operating Agreement signed by 26 European States. The Organization's headquarters are in Paris. 577. EUTELSAT now has 47 member countries: Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, , , Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Holy See, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Yugoslavia. Estonia is in the process of finalizing the procedure for acceding to the EUTELSAT Convention. 578. The Organization has three official organs: the Assembly of Parties (government-level representation); the Board of Signatories (signatory representation, that is, recognized telecommunications operating entities who are the Organization's shareholders); and the Executive Organ, headed by the Director-General, which runs the Organization on a day-to-day basis. 579. EUTELSAT is currently engaged in a process of transformation of its structure in order to adapt to the new competitive environment of telecommunications. Under the new structure a national law company will be created under the supervision of an intergovernmental organization, which will ensure that the company carries out its activities in accordance with four basic principles, namely, pan-European coverage, universal/public service obligations, non-discrimination and fair competition. 2. Satellites and services 580. The Organization now operates a fleet of 11 satellites (2 of the first-generation EUTELSAT I satellites, 5 of the second-generation EUTELSAT II satellites, 3 of the third-generation Hot Bird, dedicated to audio-visual services at 13° E, and the TDF 2 satellite, acquired in-orbit from TDF in 1997), offering a capacity of around 150 transponders. Seven other satellites are currently under construction and will be launched between October 1998 and 2000. The Organization's geographical coverage is being extended to cover a significant part of the Russian Federation, central Asia and the Middle East, as well as sub-Saharan Africa, via fixed and steerable beams. 581. EUTELSAT offers space segment capacity for a complete range of telecommunications services, comprising trunk and light telephony; business and multimedia services (including Internet by satellite); land and maritime mobile services; and broadcasting and distribution of radio and television services. The European Broadcasting Union uses the EUTELSAT system for its Eurovision and Euroradio networks. 582. EUTELSAT turnover in 1997 was ECU 376 million, and total surplus for the year amounted to ECU 128 million. 3. International cooperation 583. A report on the activities of EUTELSAT is provided annually and distributed for information to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

105 584. EUTELSAT participates in the activities of CEPT, in particular in groups of the European Radiocommunication Committee, as well as in the CEPT preparatory work for the next Plenipotentiary Conference of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 585. EUTELSAT is a member of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, the Digital Videobroadcasting Group, the Digital Audio-Visual Council and the International Astronautical Federation. 586. EUTELSAT cooperates in the regulatory policy activities of the European Commission in the satellite communication field and also participates actively in the work of ITU and its regulatory and standardization bodies. 587. EUTELSAT runs research and development projects in cooperation with the European Space Agency, defining and developing new applications in the domain of satellite telecommunications, and also participates in many of the telecommunications research and development programmes of the European Commission. Furthermore, EUTELSAT takes part in a number of international forums involved in the development of the global information society. 4. Other information 588. The Organization has become active in the field of assistance to developing countries. Technical and legal assistance has been provided to the ITU Regional African Satellite Communications System project. The EUTELSAT assistance and sponsorship programme provides extensive technical, operational and financial assistance to countries developing their telecommunications infrastructure using the EUTELSAT system. 5. Publications The Organization issues an annual report, a quarterly Newsletter, regional trade newsletters, general information material and press releases, available upon request. 6. Point of contact Office of the Director-General European Telecommunications Satellite Organization 70, rue Balard F-75502 Paris Cedex 15, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 53 98 37 83 Telex: 203823 EUSAT Facsimile: +(33) (1) 53 98 37 88 On-line EUTELSAT: (33) (1) 53 98 45 67 URL: http://www.eutelsat.org D. International Mobile Satellite Organization 1. Organization and purpose 589. The International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat), known until 1994 as the International Maritime Satellite Organization, was established to meet the needs of international shipping for reliable communications. Conventional maritime radio communications had long been subject to delays and interference resulting from atmospheric conditions or congestion of frequencies. The development of satellite communication technology in the 1960s provided an opportunity to overcome those limitations and to improve safety of life at sea and shipping communications generally. On the initiative of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), an International

106 Conference on the Establishment of an International Maritime Satellite System was convened in 1975-1976. Two interdependent international instruments, the Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization and the Operating Agreement related thereto, were adopted by the Conference in London in September 1976 and entered into force in July 1979. 590. Amendments to the constituent instruments to extend the Organization's competence to enable it to provide aeronautical and land mobile satellite communications entered into force on 13 October 1989 and 26 June 1997, respectively. 591. Under the Convention, as amended, the purpose of the Organization is to make provision for the space segment necessary for improving maritime communications and, as practicable, aeronautical and land mobile communications and communications on waters not part of the marine environment, thereby assisting in improving communications for distress and safety of life, communications for air traffic services, the efficiency and management of transportation by sea, air and on land, maritime, aeronautical and other mobile public correspondence services and radiodetermination capabilities. Inmarsat may own or lease the space segment and seeks to serve all geographical areas where there is a need for maritime, aeronautical and other mobile communications. 592. Inmarsat is required to act exclusively for peaceful purposes. Its space segment is open for use by ships, aircraft and land mobile users of all nations, without discrimination on the basis of nationality. 593. Inmarsat has legal personality and is responsible for its own acts and obligations. It has its headquarters in London and, by Agreement with the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, has been accorded the legal capacities of a body corporate, together with appropriate privileges and immunities in the United Kingdom. The 1981 Protocol on the Privileges and Immunities of Inmarsat provides for similar rights to be accorded in other member States. 594. Inmarsat possesses distinctive characteristics as an intergovernmental organization. It is managed through the interrelated responsibilities of public and private entities and it has an international obligation to provide a public telecommunications system while also operating as an economically viable organization. Its structure represents a permanent working relationship on the international level between Governments and technical commercial corporations. Those characteristics are similar to those of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization and the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization, but differ considerably from most other international organizations. 595. The Convention on Inmarsat is open for accession by all States. The entry into force of the Convention for a State is conditional upon the signature of the Operating Agreement either by the State itself, or by a competent entity, public or private, subject to the jurisdiction of that State and designated by it. The signatories of the Operating Agreement are mostly the national telecommunications operators for their respective States. Some are government departments or agencies, while others are commercial corporations owned by the private sector. 596. As of May 1998, the following 83 States were Parties to the Convention: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, Latvia, Lebanon, Liberia, Malaysia, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Mozambique, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Viet Nam and Yugoslavia.

107 597. The member States are not liable for the financial obligations of Inmarsat, which are the responsibility of the signatories. However, the member States are required to ensure that signatories fulfil their obligations under the Convention and the Operating Agreement. 598. Inmarsat operates through three organs: (a) The Assembly is composed of all parties and meets once every two years. Its functions include the review of Inmarsat activities, purposes, general policy and long-term objectives and the making of recommendations thereon to the Council. Each party has one vote; (b) The Council normally consists of 22 representatives of signatories or groups of signatories: 18 with the largest investment shares and 4 elected by the Assembly on the principle of just geographical representation and with due regard to the interests of the developing countries. Policy-making in Inmarsat is primarily the responsibility of the Council. Having due regard to the views and recommendations of the Assembly, the Council is required to provide for the space segment necessary for carrying out the purposes of Inmarsat in the most economic, effective and efficient manner. The Council is therefore responsible for all main financial and operational decisions. The Council meets at least three times a year. Signatories on the Council have a voting power equivalent to their investment shares, except that no signatory may cast more than 25 per cent of the total voting participation; (c) The Directorate is headed by the Director-General, who is the chief executive and legal representative of the Organization and is responsible to, and under the direction of, the Council. The Director-General is appointed by the Council for six years, subject to confirmation by the parties. The Directorate carries out the day-to-day activities of the Organization. 2. Programmes (a) The Inmarsat system 599. The Inmarsat system provides high duality telephone, telex, facsimile and data communications between ships, aircraft and land mobile users and fixed points on land, via satellites. The essential components of the system are: (a) The Inmarsat space segment, which consists of the satellites and support facilities leased or purchased by Inmarsat. The space segment at present comprises operational and spare second- and third-generation satellites in geostationary orbit over each of the four main ocean regions (Atlantic Ocean region-W; Atlantic Ocean region-E; Indian Ocean region; and Pacific Ocean region), giving full global coverage, with the exception of the polar regions beyond 75° latitude, which cannot be seen by geostationary satellites. The new satellites are more powerful and will use spot-beam technology to provide enhanced capacity for voice and data communications worldwide to small mobile terminals on ships, aircraft and vehicles. They also provide more efficient use of the spectrum; (b) The land Earth stations (LESs), which provide the connection between the space segment and the national and international fixed telecommunications networks and are owned and operated by individual signatories; (c) The network coordination stations (NCSs), which are leased by Inmarsat in each ocean region and which assign space segment capacity to mobile Earth stations and LESs as required; (d) The mobile Earth stations (MESs), satellite communication terminals, which are purchased or leased by the users of the system, that is, individual ship, aircraft and land-based owners or operators, and others;

108 (e) The network operations centre at Inmarsat headquarters, which monitors and coordinates all operational activities in the Inmarsat network; (f) The satellite control centre at Inmarsat headquarters, which performs station-keeping functions and other operational control functions for the third-generation satellites. 600. Ground-to-mobile communications are in the 6 GHz band from LES to the satellite and in the 1.5 GHz (L-band) from satellite to mobile. Mobile-to-ground communications are in the 1.6 GHz band from mobile to satellite and in the 4 GHz band from satellite to LES. (b) Utilization of the Inmarsat system 601. Inmarsat determines the criteria and performance standards that LESs and MESs must satisfy in order to utilize the system. In respect of MESs, each new design is type-approved by Inmarsat to ensure that it meets the technical requirements necessary for operation in the system and will not cause harmful interference to other users. 602. The Inmarsat system supports telephony, telex, facsimile, electronic mail and data services for commercial and public correspondence, distress and safety communications, as well as navigation and two-way paging. Other special uses include high-quality audio, compressed video, video conferencing and slow-scan television. 603. At sea, the system was used on board more than 50,000 ships as of May 1998. Current maritime users include oil tankers, liquid natural gas carriers, offshore drilling rigs, seismic survey ships, fishing boats, cargo and container vessels, passenger liners, ice-breakers, tugs, cable-laying ships and luxury yachts and fishing vessels, for commercial, safety and crew communications. 604. Aeronautical voice and data services have grown rapidly in recent years. The new spot-beam Aero-I service developed for short- and medium-haul aircraft, which will begin service in mid-1998. More than 1,500 aircraft Earth stations had been commissioned for use on commercial, corporate and government aircraft for passenger and operational communications, as of May 1998. By the end of the decade, the services are expected to become the basis of trans-oceanic air traffic control. 605. On land, over 50,000 terminals had been commissioned as of May 1998. They are used extensively by land transport fleet operators, businessmen, journalists, heads of State, diplomats, field engineers, law enforcement agencies, environmentalists and global travellers to remote areas or to those without a reliable terrestrial telephone network. (c) Distress and safety services 606. One of the main purposes of Inmarsat is to provide satellite facilities that will improve distress and safety communications to assist in search and rescue. The existing Inmarsat system already interconnects with rescue coordination centres and carrier distress and safety traffic, providing priority access for distress calls. As provided under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, of 1974, as amended, the IMO Global Maritime Distress and Safety System relies on the Inmarsat system to a major extent. Inmarsat also provides administrative and technical assistance to Canada, France, the Russian Federation and the United States, which operate the polar- orbiting International Search and Rescue Satellite System (COSPAS-SARSAT) for the search and rescue of ships and aircraft in distress. The Inmarsat-E emergency position-indicating radiobeacon service is another service contributing to safety of life at sea. (d) Disaster and emergency communications 607. Inmarsat systems are used extensively by disaster and emergency organizations around the world, including major international agencies like the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United

109 Nations Children's Fund, the United Nations Development Programme, the International Committee of the Red Cross and national civil defence organizations, in mitigation of disasters. In addition, free use of the Inmarsat space segment in major natural disasters has been offered under certain conditions. (e) Navigation services 608. Inmarsat also provides navigation services through special transponders aboard the third generation satellites which will provide monitoring and integrity signals to enhance the position accuracy of the United States Global Positioning System and the Russian Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System. (f) Development of small terminals 609. A special feature of the evolution of Inmarsat has been the development of smaller, less expensive terminals. Of particular significance is the recent introduction of the Inmarsat-phone, a digital phone, facsimile and data system with terminals smaller than a laptop, weighing as little as 2 kg and as easy to use as a hand-held cellular mobile phone. They can be easily carried by hand to a remote site and deployed quickly by untrained personnel. (g) Future services 610. Looking to the future, Inmarsat has under consideration its fourth generation of products and services for new markets such as broadband, navigation, broadcast, multimedia and rural and remote communications. 3. Regulatory barriers and market access 611. From the outset of its operations, Inmarsat was confronted with the fact that national regulations in many countries forbade the use of MESs in areas subject to national jurisdiction. Such restrictions often flowed from national legislation governing the use of radio transmissions that predated the availability of global mobile satellite systems. In order to ensure unrestricted access to its system, Inmarsat has sought the modification of national regulations so as to permit the use of Inmarsat MESs in national territory. In 1985, the Inmarsat Assembly of parties adopted the International Agreement on the Use of Inmarsat Ship Earth Stations in the Territorial Sea, open for signature by all States. The Agreement entered into force on 12 September 1993. 612. Inmarsat has also cooperated closely with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in its consideration of the use of aircraft Earth stations on board aircraft flying in national airspace. 613. On land, many countries retain regulatory barriers for using MESs for economic, security and other reasons. This prevents the effective and rapid deployment of mobile satellite services, often when there are no alternatives, and denies those countries a powerful engine of economic growth. 614. Inmarsat has for years cooperated with intergovernmental regional organizations to encourage the transborder use of land mobile Earth stations. Progress was made at a recent ITU World Telecommunications Policy Forum, which agreed upon a memorandum of understanding and related arrangements on the circulation of global mobile personal communications by satellite terminals (which include Inmarsat MESs). The World Trade Organization (WTO) has also taken steps to reduce regulatory barriers by the adoption of agreements aimed at abolishing import duties on telecommunications equipment and liberalizing market access for basic telecommunications services, including satellite services. 4. Peaceful purposes 615. Under its Convention, Inmarsat is required to act exclusively for peaceful purposes. Over the years, requests have been made to equip naval and other armed forces and law enforcement agencies, including United Nations peacekeeping forces, with terminals. In practice, and after legal analysis, Inmarsat has interpreted the peaceful

110 purposes requirement to mean that a ship involved in armed conflict could not use the system except for distress and safety and other humanitarian purposes, for example, saving life at sea. In addition, use of the system would be allowed by peacekeeping forces acting under the auspices of the Security Council, even if engaged in armed conflict to accomplish their mission. Use for legitimate individual or collective self-defence against armed attack consistent with Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations would also be permitted. 5. International cooperation 616. Under a programme of cooperation with developing countries, Inmarsat approved a budget of $500,000 in 1998 for the following purposes: (a) To provide training about Inmarsat and its services to members and to telecommunications organizations in selected non-member countries to help them expand the Inmarsat business in their countries; (b) To develop pilot projects in selected developing countries that will serve as models for the application of Inmarsat to meet particular needs in other countries; (c) To provide technical assistance as the resources of the programme of cooperation allow in order to help developing countries to become active participants in Inmarsat. 6. Relations with other international organizations 617. Inmarsat has an institutional obligation to cooperate with the United Nations and other international organizations on matters of common interest. It consults with the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and has signed cooperation agreements with IMO, ITU, ICAO and the International Organization of Space Communications. Inmarsat is required to observe the relevant provisions of the ITU Constitution and Convention, including the Radio Regulations. It has concluded memoranda of understanding with regional intergovernmental bodies, such as the Arab Satellite Communications Organization, the Asia-Pacific Telecommunity and the Pan- African Telecommunications Union. 7. Regional developments 618. Inmarsat has initiated several regional programmes in recent years with emphasis on developing countries and emerging markets. Regional directors were appointed for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, the Arab States, central and eastern Europe and Asia, and regional offices have been established in Beijing, Dubai and Singapore. & Research and development 619. Inmarsat supports an active programme of research and development, including projects in areas that promise to improve the efficiency of mobile satellite communications, reduce the cost of equipment in the space segment, as well as MESs and LESs, and allow the introduction of new services, improve the distress and safety capabilities of the Inmarsat system and widen its coverage area. 620. Under its policy on the free use of space, Inmarsat has authorized a number of trials, demonstrations and experiments in various countries, covering a range of Inmarsat service and applications. 9. The restructuring of Inmarsat 621. Since the early 1990s, the institutional and business structures of Inmarsat, along with the other intergovernmental satellite operators, have been under review, owing to such factors as the trend towards

111 privatization of national telecommunications operators, the appearance of competing systems and increased user demand for readier access to space segment capacity. 622. At its eleventh session, in February 1996, the Inmarsat Assembly laid down basic principles and public service obligations for the future structure, which would remain subject to intergovernmental oversight, namely, the maintenance of maritime distress and safety services; non-discriminatory access to services; service to all geographical areas where there is a need; peaceful purposes; and fair competition. 623. At its twelfth session, in April 1998, the Assembly adopted far-reaching amendments to the Convention and Operating Agreement for the restructuring. Under the new structure: (a) All of the Inmarsat assets and commercial business would be transferred to a company registered under national law, probably that of the United Kingdom. Investors will have limited liability; (b) The company would have no privileges and immunities; (c) The company would have the same status under national regulation, in WTO and in ITU as any private competitor; (d) Signatories will receive ordinary shares in the company in a cash-free exchange for their current investment shares; (e) The fiduciary board of directors of the company would have 15 members, of whom 3 would be elected in a way that ensured representation of the interests of smaller shareholders and those of developing countries, and there would also be independent directors not affiliated with any shareholder representatives; (f) It will be possible for the company to issue shares to multiple investors from any country, to strategic investors, and on public stock exchanges. The company will make an initial public offering on appropriate stock exchanges within approximately two years after restructuring; (g) The intergovernmental organization would continue to exist, with an amended Convention, but its only organs would be the Assembly and a small secretariat. The purpose of the intergovernmental organization would be to ensure that the company continued to provide the space segment for the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System and met the other basic principles and public service obligations referred to. The intergovernmental organization would continue until there were alternative providers of such services; (h) The intergovernmental organization will own a special share in the company, entitling it to veto changes to specified parts of the memorandum and articles of association that relate to the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System and the other public service obligations. There will also be a contract, called the public services agreement, between the intergovernmental organization and the company, enabling the organization to oversee the company's performance of the basic principles and public service obligations and, if necessary, to take certain enforcement action. 624. Once amendments to the Inmarsat Convention and Operating Agreement are adopted by the Assembly, they enter into force only after acceptance (ratification) by two thirds of the parties and signatories representing two thirds of the total investment shares at thetime of their adoption. This process normally takes several years. Owing to the commercial necessity of implementing the new structure urgently, to allow large investments in future systems to take place, an extraordinary session of the Assembly was held in September 1998 to decide on a form of provisional application of the amendments in early 1999.

112 10. Publications and documentation Basic information on the Inmarsat institutional provisions and its activities can be obtained from a series of publications, including Inmarsat basic documents (available in English, French, Russian and Spanish), the Inmarsat annual report, user manuals for certain services, other maritime, aeronautical and land mobile journals, and periodical news releases from the Inmarsat press office. 11. Point of contact International Mobile Satellite Organization 99 City Road London EC1Y 1AX, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Telephone: +(44) (171) 728 1000 Facsimile: +(44) (171) 728 1044 £. International Organization of Space Communications 1. Mandate and objectives 625. The International Organization of Space Communications (INTERSPUTNIK) was established in 1971 according to an intergovernmental Agreement of 15 November 1971. At that time INTERSPUTNIK had nine member countries. At present the INTERSPUTNIK membership includes 23 States: Afghanistan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, , Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Poland, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Syrian Arab Republic, , , Ukraine, Viet Nam and . The Governments of a number of other States are examining the possibility of membership. 626. The basic regulatory documents of INTERSPUTNIK are the Agreement on the Establishment of the INTERSPUTNIK International System and Organization of Space Communications of 15 November 1971 and the Protocol thereto of 26 November 1982, and the Agreement on the Legal Capacity, Privileges and Immunities of the INTERSPUTNIK International Organization of Space Communications of 20 September 1976. Two new fundamental regulatory documents will be approved in the very near future: the Operating Agreement of INTERSPUTNIK and the Protocol on Amendments to the Agreement on the Establishment of INTERSPUTNIK. 627. As provided for in the regulatory documents, the main INTERSPUTNIK bodies are the Board, the Committee of Plenipotentiaries, the Auditing Committee and the Directorate. The Board is the main governing body comprising one representative from each member State with one vote regardless of the investment share in the share capital. The Board considers and decides on matters of crucial importance; this may be any issue affecting the long-term goals, general policy and prospects of the Organization's activity. Sessions of the Board are held at least once a year. 628. The Committee of Plenipotentiaries is the body of INTERSPUTNIK, which promptly considers current issues related to the Organization's activity and decides on them. The Auditing Committee exercises control over the Organization's financial activity. 629. The Directorate is the standing executive and administrative body of the Organization. The Directorate deals with current matters directly related to the system's operation and implementation of the decisions taken by the Board and the Operations Committee. The Directorate consists of the Director-General, his/her deputy and staff members. The Director-General is the chief administrative officer of the Organization, performing his/her functions within the terms of reference as set forth in the Agreement on the Establishment of INTERSPUTNIK and according to decisions of the Board. The Directorate has its headquarters in Moscow.

113 630. After the approval of the Protocol on Amendments to the Agreement on the Establishment of INTERSPUTNIK and the Operating Agreement, the structure of INTERSPUTNIK will be considerably modified: the institution of signatories will be introduced (they will be duly licensed telecommunications organizations appointed by corresponding Governments); the Operations Committee, composed of 15 members, will be formed instead of the Committee of Plenipotentiaries; a weighted voting procedure will be introduced in the Operations Committee; and the terms of reference will be redistributed between the Board and the Operations Committee. 2. Current activities 631. Ihn^RSPUTNIK was formed to provide cooperation and coordinate efforts in the design, establishment, operation and development of an international satellite communications system. The INTERSPUTNIK system consists of a space segment, which includes communications satellites owned by the Organization or leased from member countries, and a terrestrial segment composed of Earth stations, which are the property of countries or recognized operators. 632. In the late 1980s INTERSPUTNIK started commercial operation of its global satellite system. INTERSPUTNIK has been leasing - and Express-series communications satellites and Gals DBS from the Russian Federation. At the end of 1997 the Organization used 31 transponders on seven geostationary satellites located in the orbital arc from 14° W to 142.5° E. INTERSPUTNIK provides a complete range of satellite services: television, voice traffic, data, video conferencing, very small aperture terminals and others. The system's capacity is used by more than 100 state and private companies in various regions of the world. South and south-east Asia, the Federation and the Commonwealth of Independent States, central and eastern Europe are major markets for INTERSPUTNIK. Intensive marketing is expected in Africa, the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America. The terrestrial segment includes 79 duly certified receive/transmit stations and a large number of receiving stations in Asia, Europe, North America and Africa. 633. The stage of commercial operation brought a steady increase in the load and growth of traffic, which was accounted for by such favourable factors as the launch of new-generation Express and Gals satellites, relatively low tariffs, standard terrestrial equipment in use and equal and direct access to the satellite by all users. As a result, the efficiency of the Organization has grown considerably: INTERSPUTNIK's profitability increased 4.3 times from 1992 to 1996. 3. New programmes 634. Changes in the world telecommunications market include further deregulation and liberalization, the emergence of a large number of domestic and regional satellite operators and, consequently, tough competition, which makes it imperative to introduce new, highly efficient commercial mechanisms. In that context, in 1994, at its twenty-third session, the Board determined a general line to procure INTERSPUTNIK's own new-generation satellites and form a strategic partnership for that purpose. After much groundwork, the Lockheed Martin-INTERSPUTNIK (LMI) joint venture was formed in mid-1997 with INTERSPUTNIK and Lockheed Martin (United States) as partners. The new joint venture covers the whole technological cycle of satellite services, ranging from satellite manufacture and launching to long-term in-orbit satellite operation. As agreed with Lockheed Martin, the roles of the partners will be distributed as follows: Lockheed Martin will raise financing and provide logistic support to LMI, whereas INTERSPUTNIK will ensure the operation, marketing and sales of capacity on future satellites. 635. Taking into account current and expected requirements, the launching of the first geostationary LMI satellite to 75 ° E was planned for late 1998. A plan of development until the end of 2000 schedules the launch of four new-generation satellites. To deploy a new global satellite communications system, INTERSPUTNIK has filed 15 geostationary orbital slots with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) through INTERSPUTNIK administrations. This allows an adequate frequency/orbital resource for the prospective INTERSPUTNIK networks.

114 636. Successful implementation of the LMI project will make it possible for INTERSPUTNIK to become one of the leading operators in the sector of satellite communications capable of providing its users with a full range of competitive telecommunications services at an advanced technological level. 4. International cooperation 637. IOTERSPUTNIK has permanent observer status with the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, ITU and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and takes part in their activities. INTERSPUTNIK is a party to the Asia-Pacific Satellite Communications Council and is a member of its Board (headquartered in Seoul) and Telecom-Forum (Moscow). INTERSPUTNIK maintains contact and develops cooperation with other international, regional and private satellite communications organizations, including the Arab Satellite Communications Organization, the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization and the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization. Agreements on cooperation have been signed with most of them. 5. Point of contact Director-General International Organization of Space Communications 121099 Moscow, 2nd Smolensky per., 1/4, Russian Federation Telephone: +(7) (095) 244 03 33 Facsimile: +(7) (095) 253 99 06 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.intersputnik.com F. International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 1. General (a) Mandate and services 638. The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) was created in 1964 on an mterim basis by 11 nations who joined together to establish a global commercial communications satellite system that would be available to all nations for expanded telecommunications services on a non-discriminatory basis. In 1973, INTELSAT members adopted a permanent agreement to replace the interim arrangements and decided to pool their resources and work together to achieve numerous political, financial and operational benefits made possible by the INTELSAT system. The Organization's mission then has continued today, that is, to provide expanded telecommunications on a non-discriminatory basis to all areas of the world to contribute to world peace and understanding. 639. INTELSAT was the first organization to provide global satellite coverage and connectivity for a comprehensive range of telecommunications services. Its global satellite system brings telephone, television and data transmission services to billions of people on every continent. 640. Today, INTELSAT owns and operates a global satellite system that provides two major types of service to users in more than 200 nations, territories and dependencies on every continent. These service categories are voice/data and video. Voice/data services include public switched telephone networks (intermediate data rate (IDR), Internet, time division multiple access (TDMA), thin route-on-demand (DAMA)) and private network services (INTELSAT Business Service (IBS), very small aperture terminals (VSAT) business services and private point-to-point and multi-point networking services). Video services include broadcast distribution, satellite news- gathering, special event services, direct-to-home broadcast and telemedicine/distance education.

115 641. INTELSAT resources are also used to meet requirements for cable restoration services needed as a result of interruptions in transoceanic fibre optic cables. These services include single-, multiple-, and secondary-cable restoration and cable-circuit restoration. 642. In addition, INTELSAT provides customized launch support services (CLASS) to external customers. CLASS services include transfer orbit support services, commanding services, telemetry and beacon signal strength, track and range services, voice and data communication between the customer's mission control centre and the INTELSAT Satellite Control Center and flight dynamics support services. 643. Membership is open to any State that is a member of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). All nations—members and non-members—may use the INTELSAT system. The members/owners contribute capital in proportion to their relative use of the system and receive a return on their investment and all users pay utilization charges for INTELSAT services. The charges vary depending on the type, amount and duration of the service. In this manner, INTELSAT distributes capacity to its users, who in turn offer INTELSAT services to end- users within their service areas. Some nations have chosen to authorize more than one organization to provide INTELSAT services within their countries. 644. Apart from enjoying the advantages of modern communications provided by the INTELSAT system, members also enjoy associated rights and benefits. These include the right to representation in all INTELSAT conferences and meetings and participation in the INTELSAT decision-making process; the right to INTELSAT documentation; the opportunity to use the INTELSAT assistance, training and development programmes; consultation with the Organization's skilled international staff on technical and policy issues being considered by ITU and its sectors—Radiocommunication, Telecommunication Standardization and Telecommunication Development, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and other international forums; the use of the expertise of the management staff of INTELSAT, which is at the disposal of INTELSAT member countries to resolve technical, operational, financial, planning and service development issues; and transfer of technology through INTELSAT research and development activities. (b) Structure 645. The Organizations's structure balances the principles of commercial operation with those of international cooperation. INTELSAT has a dualistic framework with specific roles for both Governments and telecommunications entities, which consists of two separate but interrelated agreements, the INTELSAT Agreement—concluded among Governments—which sets forth general principles; and the Operating Agreement—concluded among Governments or their designated telecommunication entities—which sets forth more detailed technical, operational and financial guidelines. 646. Each member nation participates in INTELSAT governance through the Organization's three decision• making organs: the Assembly of Parties, the Meeting of Signatories and the Board of Governors. Most of the decisions by INTELSAT member nations are taken by consensus. 647. The Assembly of Parties is composed of representatives of all of the Governments that have signed the INTELSAT Agreement and meets ordinarily once every two years to consider general policy and long-term objectives for the Organization. The Meeting of Signatories is composed of representatives of all of the signatories to the Operating Agreement (member Governments or their designated telecommunications entities) and meets once each year to consider financial, technical and operational aspects of the system. The INTELSAT Board of Governors is composed of representatives of signatories whose investment shares either individually or as a group meet the minimum share for membership on the Board as determined annually by the Meeting of Signatories. They meet on a quarterly basis to decide on matters concerned with the design, development construction, establishment, operation and maintenance of the INTELSAT space segment and other business affairs. The Board

116 of Governors is assisted by its Advisory Committee on Technical Matters, Advisory Committee on Planning, Budget and Finance Committee and Audit Committee. 648. The day-to-day management and operation of INTELSAT is handled by the INTELSAT management, composed of over 600 staff members from more than 90 nations under the leadership of the Director-General and Chief Executive Officer. The INTELSAT management is responsible to the Board of Governors. (c) Space and ground segments (i) Space segment 649. INTELSAT has a fleet of over 20 high-powered, technically advanced spacecraft in geostationary orbit, deployed at four service regions with overlapping coverage: the Atlantic Ocean region, the Indian Ocean region, the Asia-Pacific region and the Pacific Ocean region. The INTELSAT fleet includes the INTELSAT V/V-A, VI, VH/VII-A and VHI series of satellites. In addition, INTELSAT has a single all Ku-band satellite in service known as INTELSAT K. Two INTELSAT VHI-As will be launched in 1998. (ii) Ground segment 650. The Earth stations accessing the system are the essential links to the Organization's global connectivity and service. Earth stations are owned and operated either by the government entity in each country, or by other entities and businesses. INTELSAT establishes technical and operating standards for Earth stations with which any INTELSAT user must comply. 651. The different types of Earth stations are as follows: (a) Standard A, B and C are used for all INTELSAT services: voice/data and video services with antenna sizes ranging from 15 to 18 metres, 10 to 13 metres and 11 to 14 metres in diameter, respectively; (b) Standards Dl and D2 for the visual-talking satellite (VISTA) low-density telephone service, have antennas ranging from 4.5 to 11 metres in diameter; (c) Standards El, E2 , E3, Fl and F2 are used for IBS and IDR services with antennas ranging from 3.5 to 4.5 metres, 5.5 to 7 metres, 8 to 10 metres, 4.5 to 5 metres and 7 to 8 metres in diameter, respectively. Because of operational constraints, the use of standard El and Fl Earth stations for IDR carriers will only be possible in a limited number of cases; (d) Standard F3 is used for international voice and data, including IBS and IDR, with antenna sizes of 9 to 10 metres in diameter; (e) Standard G is used for international and domestic lease services using all antenna sizes; (f) Standards H2, H3 and H4 are used for DAMA and VSAT business services with antennas of 1.8, 2.4 and 3.7 metres in diameter, respectively; (g) Standards K2 and K3 are used for VSAT business services with antennas of 1.2 and 1.8 metres, respectively; (h) Standards A, B, Dl, D2, Fl, F2, F3, G, H2, H3 and H4 employ the 6/4 GHz frequency band. Standard C uses the 14/11 GHz frequency band, while standards El, E2, E3, G, K2 and K3 use both 14/11 and 14/12 GHz frequency bands.

117 (d) Support for telecommunications development 652. INTELSAT maintains special programmes to provide experience and training in the operation and management of satellite communications systems. The programmes benefit the individual, the sponsoring signatory and INTELSAT. 653. The INTELSAT assignee programme was created to give technical personnel nominated by signatory organizations the opportunity to gain experience at INTELSAT headquarters and a different perspective on the management of the INTELSAT system. The young professional programme helps those who are beginning their careers to gain valuable experience in a multicultural business environment. The INTELSAT intern programme is designed to give undergraduate and post-graduate university students an opportunity to acquire practical work experience in the different departments of the Organization. 654. The INTELSAT advantage programme provides INTELSAT customers with a full range of technical, operational and financial assistance, which, depending on the level of assistance required, is available at no charge to the customer. These programmes include the INTELSAT assistance and development programme, its signatory training programme and digital equipment loan programme. Under the first two programmes, signatories and users can receive technical and operational assistance and training related to their use of the INTELSAT system. Under the INTELSAT digital equipment loan programme, signatories may borrow funds for procurement of digital equipment for use on the INTELSAT system. 655. In addition to the above assistance programmes, Project Access, an INTELSAT initiative begun in 1977, encourages the use of satellite technology for developmental projects by providing free use of INTELSAT space segment capacity for health, education or closely related social services demonstrations to those users who have operational and financial plans to implement a regular commercial service. Project Access is intended for areas where communications are limited or where access to new communications can be developed. (e) Facilities 656. INTELSAT has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., with regional service centres in Singapore; Mumbai, India; and London. In addition, INTELSAT has spacecraft programme offices in California and East Windsor, United States; Toulouse, France; and Portsmouth, United Kingdom. 657. INTELSAT maintains six telemetry, tracking, command and monitoring stations around the world to monitor the satellites in orbit, check their positions and constantly relay vital information on their operations. These sites are in Perth, Australia; Beijing; Raisting, Germany; Fucino, Italy; and Clarksburg and Paumalu, United States. These stations provide upgraded network capability in telemetry, tracking, command and monitoring, streamlined operations and reduced operating costs. 2. Activities (a) Past activities (i) Policies 658. The Organization's vision of the future is a reflection of the joint efforts of its parties and signatories. Those efforts are mirrored in the deliberations and decisions of the Assembly of Parties, the Meeting of Signatories and the Board of Governors and in their implementation by the INTELSAT management. Over the years, INTELSAT members have considered and acted upon a variety of matters to ensure that the INTELSAT vision of the future reflects new competitive realities and successful competitive strategies.

118 659. To adapt to the changing telecommunications environment, the INTELSAT decision-making bodies have addressed key issues relative to the Organization's future and structure and the development and implementation of an effective strategic plan to guide the Organization while it undergoes change. INTELSAT had changed its basic design philosophy for spacecraft, implemented innovative alternatives to finance its satellite procurements, adapted access arrangements to accommodate varying regulatory approaches among its Signatories, and eliminated the article XIV (d) economic harm coordination requirements for members who wish to use separate satellite systems for public switched network services. In April 1997, the Assembly of Parties took important decisions relating to the future of the Organization. Those decisions relate to the establishment of a commercial affiliate for video and new services on pro-competitive terms and conditions. Some outstanding issues are still being resolved prior to the establishment of the affiliate. A final text was to have been provided on the decision on the final restmcturing recommendations after the Extraordinary Assembly of Parties in March 1998. (ii) The system, services and contribution to development 660. Over the past 30 years, the INTELSAT satellite system has evolved significantly in terms of capacity and satellite life, allowing INTELSAT to offer continuously new and expanded service capabilities aligned with market demand. Exploring new innovative methods of spacecraft design to satisfy increasing demand for space-based telecommunications services is ongoing. 661. Today, powerful and versatile INTELSAT satellites such as the INTELSAT VII/VII-As and Vm/VEI-As have exhibited improved coverage, improved redundancy and reliability and improved signal performance. INTELSAT VIIs have the capacity for 18,000 telephone circuits (up to 90,000 with the use of digital circuit multiplication equipment) and three television channels simultaneously, while the enhanced VILA satellites are able to carry 22,500 telephone circuits (up to 112,500 with digital circuit multiplication equipment (DCME)). The INTELSAT Vn/VQ-A satellites have a lifetime of from 10 to 15 years and the real-time ability to reconfigure the satellite's coverage capabilities in-orbit to match the different and changing traffic patterns and service requirements in each ocean region. They are also compatible with access by VSATs and offer increased C and Ku-band capacity. 662. The INTELSAT VHWIII-As have 22,500 two-way telephone circuits and three television channels (up to 112,500 with DCME). These satellites, with a lifetime of from 14 to 18 years, incorporate six-fold C-band frequency reuse, two-fold frequency reuse of expanded C-band capacity and the highest on-ground C-band power levels ever achieved in an INTELSAT satellite. The INTELSAT VDIs have two independently steerable Ku-band spot beams that can reach any point on the Earth's surface visible from the spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit; interconnected operation between C and Ku-bands; and expanded satellite news-gathering service provided by the capability to connect spot beams to global beams, including a return path for small Ku-band transportable satellite news-gathering stations for voice/data communications. 663. The INTELSAT VIII-As, known as the "landmass" satellites, will employ orbital locations over continental masses to provide greater connectivity and flexibility for regional and international applications. 664. Since it first started providing commercial communications satellite services in 1965, the Organization's service offerings have been continually enhanced and advanced to meet the competitive challenges of the market place. Redefinition of INTELSAT voice and data service offerings facilitated the introduction of new and flexible services such as thin route-on-demand assignment multiple access (DAMA), low-cost time division multiple access (TDMA), a new VSAT service for Internet and other data networking applications, and the Internet product line. In addition, new video services, two offering price discounts based on frequency of use, event service and recurring service, and one capitalizing on the Organization's leadership role in digital compression technology. Digital C-band satellite news-gathering has also been introduced. 665. In the fulfilment of its goals, INTELSAT has continued to streamline its processes and strengthen its regional presence. In 1996 INTELSAT introduced a Customer Service Center, a dedicated single point of contact for

119 service bookings and customer inquiries. In the same year, INTELSAT moved closer to its signatories and customers in key parts of the world with the establishment of regional service centres in India (Mumbai), Europe (London) and Asia and the Pacific (Singapore). In 1997, to improve service to the African region, INTELSAT and the Regional African Satellite Communications Organization established a joint programme to promote telecommunications services in Africa. 666. In 1996, a major accomplishment under the INTELSAT advantage programme was the establishment of the Practical Regional Training Centre in Lome. The Centre is a joint collaboration with the Regional African Satellite Communications Organization, the Economic Community of West African States and ITU. The Centre will be used for practical training on satellite and other telecommunications equipment for engineers and technicians from Africa and other nations. 667. In October 1997, through its Project Access, INTELSAT provided free global live coverage of Telefood, the first ever worldwide telethon organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to raise awareness, encourage global solidarity in the fight against hunger and raise financial contributions from Governments, businesses and individuals for an action programme oriented to rural people in developing areas. More than 70 broadcasting companies were connected from over 60 countries around the globe. The free INTELSAT capacity allowed countries with high food deficits access to the programming. In 1996, Project Access was used by several organizations such as the World Bank for the African Virtual University project, and the Japanese INTELSAT signatory, Kokusai Denshin Denwa, for scientific testing activity. (b) Current activities 668. INTELSAT is continuing to focus its resources on marketing and customer services, developing innovative spacecraft assets, collaborating with other institutions in telecommunications development, and pursuing the restructuring process. Its goal is to remain committed to its mission and its fundamental principles of universal service and non-discriminatory pricing while achieving service excellence and customer satisfaction in the changing global market place. 669. INTELSAT has awarded two contracts for new types of spacecraft to meet the increasing demand of its customers—INTELSAT DC and K-TV. Two INTELSAT DC spacecraft are being procured for the Indian Ocean region to replace the INTELSAT VI satellites and to serve the growing requirements of INTELSAT customers in Asia and the Pacific. Each of the new spacecraft will have 44 C-band and 12 Ku-band transponders and an orbital manoeuvre life of from 13 to 15 years, with capacity of 32,000 circuits or up to 160,000 circuits using DCME, making them the largest capacity INTELSAT satellites ever built. Two additional INTELSAT DC spacecraft with Atlantic Ocean region configuration and one additional set of Indian Ocean region hemi/zone feed arrays are under procurement to ensure continuity of services in those regions. The first INTELSAT DC satellite is scheduled for delivery in 2000 for deployment to the Indian Ocean region. 670. K-TV, a new type of INTELSAT satellite with high-power video capacity, will enhance INTELSAT ability to offer the newest video contribution and distribution service applications such as direct-to-home and other VSAT video products. The K-TV satellite, scheduled to begin service early in 1999, will have 30 Ku-band transponders and will be able to carry up to 210 television programmes. 671. Currently, INTELSAT service and development activities relate to the potential commercial offerings of several key service areas such as Internet, multimedia services in Ku and Ka bands, direct-to-home, broadband services (e.g. air-traffic management and TDMA) and rural telephony via combined and VSAT technologies. INTELSAT initiatives on enhancements of existing services are also in place to enable signatories to extend their services' reach or customer base, for example, the extension of INTELSAT-delivered Internet services through the use of terrestrial network technology and through the use of the direct-to-home and video distribution systems and the extension of the INTELSAT business service to VSAT antennas.

120 (c) Future activities 672. In the fulfilment of its mission, INTELSAT will continue to play a role in bridging the telecommunication gap between the developed and developing world. Satellites will certainly play an increasingly key role in global communications and the development of the global information infrastructure. The biggest challenge to the Organization in the developing world, which will continue into the next century, will be to provide ubiquitous and affordable voice and data services and reliable backbone connections to the developed world. 673. INTELSAT future service development and technology programmes will continue to take into account the fast-paced technological and market developments in the following service or technology areas: Internet service, video, personal communication services, Ka-band multimedia services and voice/data service for public switched networks. The new satellites under procurement will expand the range of present system architectures, add new flexibilities to the global network and provide innovative spacecraft options that would diversify INTELSAT service offerings over the next several years while ensuring that core businesses remain covered. 3. International cooperation United Nations 674. The Director-General of INTELSAT, pursuant to article XXI (c) of the INTELSAT Agreement, submits to the Secretary-General of the United Nations and to other concerned specialized agencies an annual report on the activities of INTELSAT. INTELSAT also participates and provides contributions to the meetings of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and supports the United Nations Programme on Space Applications. International Telecommunication Union 675. In the design, development, construction and operation of the INTELSAT system, INTELSAT observes, in accordance with article 13 of its Operating Agreement, the relevant regulations of ITU and gives due consideration to the relevant recommendations and procedures of the ITU Radiocommunication and Telecommunication Standardization Sectors. 676. In addition, INTELSAT cooperates with ITU on activities of mutual interest to the organizations, in particular in telecommunication development. INTELSAT participates in the numerous ITU international and regional conferences and forums (the World Radiocommunication Conference, the World Telecommunication Policy Forum, the World Telecommunication Standardization Conference and the World and Regional Telecommunication Development Conferences and the various TELECOM events, that, is, global and regional trade shows and conferences). INTELSAT contributes actively to the work of the relevant study groups of the ITU Radiocommunication, Telecommunication Standardization and Telecommunication Development Sectors and is a member of the Advisory Bodies of the Radiocommunication Advisory Group, Telecommunication Standardization Advisory Group and Telecommunication Development Advisory Board. 677. INTELSAT is a signatory to the memorandum of understanding to facilitate arrangements for the introduction of global mobile personal communications by satellite (GMPCS), including regional systems. By definition, a GMPCS system includes any satellite system, that is, fixed or mobile, broadband or narrow-band, global or regional, geostationary or non-geostationary, existing or planned, providing telecommunication services directly to end users from a constellation of satellites, which may include one or more satellites, geostationary or non-geostationary, operated as a system. The GMPCS memorandum of understanding emanated from the first ITU World Telecommunication Policy Forum, held in October 1996. Though non-binding, the memorandum of understanding would facilitate the free circulation of GMPCS terminals among signatory countries. Signatories to the memorandum included administrations, ITU sector members and GMPCS system operators, service providers and terminal manufacturers.

121 European Telecommunications Standards Institute 678. In 1994, INTELSAT became an associate member of ETSI. INTELSAT participates in the activities of ETSI, in particular in the working group on satellite Earth stations. International Organization for Standardization 679. Since 1988, INTELSAT has been following and participating in the activities of two subcommittees of the Joint Technical Committee 1 of IOS. They are Subcommittee 6, responsible for the standardization (layer 1-4 protocols) services for information technology and Subcommittee 21, responsible for the standardization (layer 5-7 protocols, services and architecture) for open systems interconnection, data management and open distributed processing. Recently, Subcommittee 21 has been disbanded and its work has been moved to Subcommittee 32 (data management services) and Subcommittee 33 (distributed application services). Internet Engineering Task Force 680. INTELSAT participates in the work of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), whose parent organization is the Internet Society. IETF is responsible for the development of protocols for the Internet and for facilitating technology transfers from the Internet Research Task Force. 681. INTELSAT has established formal as well as informal relations with other international and regional organizations. These organizations include: International Maritime Organization; African Postal and Telecommunications Union; Arab Satellite Communications Organization; Arab Telecommunications Union; the Asia Pacific Telecommunity; Caribbean Telecommunication Union; Central African Customs and Economic Union; Commonwealth Telecommunications Organization; Economic Community of West African States; European Conference Postal and Telecommunications Administrations; European Telecommunications Satellite Organization; Hispano-American Association of Telecommunications Research Centers and Enterprises; Inter- American Telecommunications Commission; Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics; International Mobile Satellite Organization; International Organization of Space Communications; Pacific Telecommunications Council; Pan-African Telecommunication Union; Regional Commonwealth in the Field of Communications; South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation and Technical Commission for Telecommunications in Central America. 4. Publications and databases INTELSAT publishes a variety of public information material on its activities, products and services, technical information on its satellite system, including an annual report in its three official languages (English, French and Spanish). This information can also be accessed on the INTELSAT home page. Official documentation for the various organs and advisory committees of INTELSAT are also distributed in the official languages to all INTELSAT members. 5. Point of contact Vice-President, External Affairs International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 3400 International Drive, N.W. Washington, D.C., 2008-3098, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (202) 944-7011 Facsimile: +(1) (202) 944-7661 and (1) (202) 944-7890 URL: http://www.intelsat.int

122 IV. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS A. Association of Space Explorers /. History and activities 682. In July 1982, former NASA astronaut Rusty Schweickart met informally with cosmonauts Alexei Leonov, Vitaly Sevastianov and Georgi Grechko and several key Soviet officials in Moscow to explore the idea of establishing an organization of space explorers and found interest in and support for the idea. 683. In April 1983, a follow-on ad hoc working group of astronauts and cosmonauts laid out a set of guiding principles that would govern such an organization and set plans in motion for the establishment of an annual meeting. A final astronaut/cosmonaut planning meeting took place near Paris in September 1984. 684. The First Planetary Congress of the Association of Space Explorers opened in Cemay, France, on 2 October 1985. Twenty-five astronauts and cosmonauts from 13 nations participated. At the April 1983 planning meeting, the participants had realized that they shared an enhanced appreciation for the Earth as a result of their space flight experience, and decided that the theme of the first meeting should be "The Home Planet". In that spirit, they also decided to present an award to an individual whose life demonstrated a commitment to the Earth's environment and unanimously selected Jacques-Yves Cousteau. Cousteau made the keynote presentation at the Congress, saying to those present: "You help us contemplate the stars. You have changed the views of mankind toward the outside, toward the cosmos, toward the unknown." Among other things accomplished at the Congress, the members drafted an international charter, laid out an organizational purpose and goals and selected a seven-member international executive committee. 685. In its first year the American members of ASE set up a non-profit corporation, office and staff in San Francisco, established an electronic-mail network for its members that included a cosmonaut account in Moscow, initiated work on the Association's first book, The Home Planet (published in 1988), and participated in young astronaut/cosmonaut exchanges and a school hook-up. 686. The Second Congress took place in Budapest in 1986, drew 32 flyers from 12 countries, and the theme was "Toward Space Civilization". The members honoured Oleg Gazenko, the foremost Soviet expert in space biomedical problems, and Gerard O'Neill, the visionary. In their official statement, the group called for a continuation of the cooperative spirit of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in future space exploration. ASE members reported on recent developments in their space programmes, made a series of community appearances, finalized the ASE charter and approved a programme of joint astronaut/cosmonaut lecture tours. 687. In 1987, work on The Home Planet continued and joint astronaut/cosmonaut lecture tours took place in the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Third Congress, held in Mexico City in 1987, drew 31 members from 11 countries, and the theme was "The Next Generation in Space: People and Technology". The members honoured the former Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States, Thomas Paine. The Congress featured a space art exhibit, a day for community lectures and space programme updates. ASE ratified its charter, met with the publishers of The Home Planet and previewed the film "For All Mankind". 688. In Mexico, ASE for the first time explicitly endorsed steps for the world's space programmes to take to build international cooperation. Specifically, the members resolved to encourage the exchange of experienced crews between the national space programmes and the development of mutually compatible training and operation procedures, advocate the conducting of joint international experiments and operations with existing capabilities on upcoming flights, support the study of the feasibility of establishing permanent international rescue capability for all flight operations and promote the conduct of joint projects required for the establishment of the feasibility of a manned Mars mission.

123 689. In early 1988 ASE sent a letter to United States President Ronald Reagan with copies to Congressional committees urging that space rescue be considered in the expanding dialogue with the at both the presidential and agency levels. That year the United States Congress asked NASA to prepare a report on space docking and crew rescue. 690. The year 1988 also saw the publication and promotion of The Home Planet, another round of US and Soviet lecture tours and the Fourth Congress, in Sofia. The theme of the Fourth Congress was "Space Evolution" and pioneering Soviet space engineer Boris Raushenbakh was honoured by the membership. Members continued the tradition of space programme updates and community appearances and ASE decided to move forward with its promotion of an international space rescue capability and laid plans to discuss its associated challenges at the next Congress. 691. In 1989, ASE expanded its lecture tour programme to Japan, sponsored visits by Soviet cosmonauts to NASA facilities, participated in meetings of the Committees on Safety Rescue, and Quality and on International Space Policies and Plans of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), provided members for openings of Home Planet exhibits, sent member John Fabian to the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) meeting in Malaga, Spain, to deliver a paper on the history of space rescue and prepared for an international conference on space rescue at its Fifth Congress, to be held in Riyadh. 692. The theme of the Fifth Congress, which brought together 50 astronauts from 12 countries, was "Space for Earth" and Yash Pal was honoured for his work in harnessing the power of satellites for the benefit of rural communities in India. The members also presented a special award to author/inventor Arthur C. Clarke. The Congress again featured space programme updates, community appearances and an art exhibit. Also, several members granted interviews to a film crew commissioned by the United Nations as part of ASE cooperation in the production of the film "Our Planet Earth". In a general statement, ASE members called for the expanded application of space resources for the benefit of Earth. Finally, after hearing from a series of invited experts on the subject of space rescue, the members issued a statement calling on the space programmes to move forward with space rescue and ASE subsequently prepared detailed proceedings of the rescue conference, which were widely distributed to international government officials. 693. 1990 was a banner year for ASE: United States membership tripled and the Association sponsored a visit by NASA astronauts to Soviet space facilities and a cosmonaut's visit to NASA facilities. Forty ASE members participated in an Earth Day ceremony at the United Nations and ASE joined the Smithsonian resident associate programme and NASA in organizing a lecture series at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The astronaut/cosmonaut lecture programme was then expanded to Germany. The IAA Committees on International Space Policies and Safety, Rescue and Quality invited ASE-USA leaders John Fabian and John-David Bartoe to participate in their work. The latter delivered an ASE-sponsored paper on international cooperation on space stations at the IAF meeting in Dresden, Germany. 694. The Sixth Congress, held in the Netherlands and attended by 53 astronauts from 11 countries, had as its theme "Space Brings People Together". The members honoured Netherlands astronomer Hendrick van de Hulst for his pioneering efforts in promoting international cooperation in space research and issued a statement outlining the ways space had drawn people together and the promise international space cooperation held for the future. At the subsequent meeting of the Committee on Space Research in The Hague, ASE sponsored a symposium of laboratory scientists and astronauts on "Human Performance in Space"from bot h the biomedical and operational perspectives. 695. The level of ASE activity remained high in 1991. ASE-USSR hosted a thirtieth anniversary celebration of Yuri Gagarin's flight that featured visits to Soviet space facilities, with 19 ASE-USA members participating. ASE and the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University launched a series of high-level invitational dinner discussions on international cooperation in space. ASE members participated in environment-focused programming at the NEC company's pavilion at the Telecom 91 exposition in Geneva. ASE entered into a

124 partnership with the Groupe Bull, Spot Image and the World Wide Fund for Nature to bring together information and human resources for forest conservation, the Arbour Project. Astronauts and cosmonauts teamed up for joint appearances before high school audiences. 696. ASE sponsored a 1992 space explorers calendar, signed a publishing contract for a book of astronaut and cosmonaut essays, enrolled international ASE members in a United States space trading card project and provided members for interviews with a British playwright researching his next work, "The Blue Ball". 697. The Seventh Congress, held in Berlin, brought together 57 astronauts from 10 countries; the theme was "Space Has No Boundaries" and the members honoured German Foreign Minister Hans Dietrich Genscher for his work in breaking down barriers to international space cooperation. The Congress featured space programme updates, theme addresses and a special conference on human exploration of the solar system with invited experts among the speakers. Members participated in video interviews to be used in the PBS International Space Year documentary series "Space Age". 698. In 1992, ASE sponsored United States members' attendance at a Russian , sent members to Japan, Mexico and Kent State University, Ohio, United States, for speaking engagements and arranged members' participation in several international space conferences, including one on legal aspects of manned space flight in Germany and the United States Space Foundation's Eighth National Space Symposium in Colorado Springs. 699. ASE continued its sponsorship of international cooperation dinner discussions and published a paper calling for a new approach to international cooperation. In the area of environmental activity, ASE distributed the Earth Pledge to its United States members to sign in support of the process begun at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, worked to coordinate members' participation in an Intemational Space Year Mission to Planet Earth stamp inauguration ceremony and continued its partnership in the Arbour Project. 700. ASE-USA's largest undertaking ever, the Eighth Congress, held in Washington, D.C., in August 1992, drew 99 astronauts from 18 countries. The theme of the Congress was "To Mars Together" and members honoured both author Isaac Asimov and the Challenger Center for Space Science Education. Discussions ranged from space programme updates to new ideas and initiatives and the future of the space agencies. Members made community appearances at Georgetown University, held a joint public session with Carl Sagan and the Planetary Society and helped build a simulated "Marsville" settlement with Challenger Center students. 701. In 1993, ASE published and distributed the proceedings of the Eighth Congress to space policy makers and leaders of the intemational space community. On Earth Day ASE sent a representative to participate in a United Nations ceremony marking the permanent emplacement of the Crystal Treaty presented to the United Nations by members in 1990. Preparatory work on the book of astronaut essays, The Greatest Adventure, was completed. ASE continued its collaboration on the Arbour Project and its sponsorship of the George Washington University international cooperation discussions. The ASE-USA board of directors issued a statement in support of the Intemational Space Station and board member John Fabian testified before a United States Congressional panel in support of the proposed collaboration with the Russian Federation on the station project. 702. The Ninth ASE Congress, held in Vienna, gathered 81 astronauts from 16 nations. The theme of the Congress was "Space for Life" and the members honoured Hermann Bondi for his many contributions to international space scientific research. At the Congress, the members discussed the contributions that space biomedical research has made to the understanding of life's biological processes as well as the future challenges and opportunities presented by an extended . The Congress programme included space programme updates, a special session on space and the environment and community appearances throughout Austria.

125 703. The year 1994 marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of the landing on the Moon. To commemorate the event, ASE members from five countries gathered in Washington to participate in a number of events designed to raise awareness of space exploration and of man's first steps on another world. The Association's second book, The Greatest Adventure, was published and enjoyed great initial success. 704. Also in 1994, ASE addressed the theme "Space and Ecology" at its Tenth Congress, held in Moscow and Ulan-Ude, Russian Federation. Over 100 astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 countries attended the Congress to discuss ways space-based observation platforms help protect Earth from further ecological damage. Of particular concern was the long-term health of Lake Baikal in Siberia. ASE members travelled from Moscow to Lake Baikal in order to gain an understanding of the environmental issues surrounding the unique ecosystem and to exchange ideas with local scientists, political leaders and residents of the area. Members also presented a special award to the widow of Yuri Gagarin to honour the world's first man in space on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of his birth. 705. In 1995, ASE relocated from San Francisco to Washington, D.C. Ongoing activities included ASE co-sponsorship of occasional dinner symposia with the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University and representation of ASE on the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Under the auspices of the ASE Intemational Standing Committee on Ecology, the Earth education exhibit was commissioned for display at the United Nations Office at Vienna. ASE initiated a corporate sponsor campaign; charter corporate sponsors of ASE include ANSER, the Computer Sciences Corporation, INTEC, McDonnell Douglas and the Calspan Corporation. 706. The Eleventh Annual Planetary Congress in Warsaw and Krakow, Poland, drew 50 astronauts and cosmonauts from 12 countries. The theme of the congress was "Space and Contemporary Society". writer Stanislaw Lem was honoured with the ASE Planetary Award, the Crystal Helmet. The President of the Republic of Poland and Pope John Paul II were presented with special ASE awards, produced by ASE member Alexei Leonov, for their contributions to the development of civil society in Poland. At the Congress, participants discussed the role and impact of space exploration and technology on contemporary and future society. Members also attended international space programme update sessions and visited several notable Polish educational and scientific institutes. 707. In 1996, ASE convened its Twelfth Planetary Congress in Ottawa, Montreal and Quebec City, Canada, with 48 astronauts and cosmonauts from 14 nations attending. The theme of the Congress was "Cooperation in Space—Progress for Humanity". Canadian scholar Nicolas Mateesco Matte was awarded the ASE Planetary Award for his pioneering work in the field of space law. ASE also participated in the christening of the Canadian Space Agency as the John H. Chapman Space Centre. Congress sessions included discussions on space and life sciences, advanced aerospace and space propulsion technology, updates on United States, Russian and Canadian activities in space and talks on future cooperation in building and operating the International Space Station. 708. Also in 1996, ASE participated in a variety of activities in concert with other professional and educational organizations. ASE and its members supported and participated in the official debut of the X Prize Foundation in St. Louis, appeared at schools, universities and community events nationwide, assisted with the Challenger Center's Marsville and Space Shuttle simulation projects, participated at the United States Space Foundation's National Space Symposium and co-sponsored the von Braun Exploration Forum. Internationally, ASE member Dorin Prunariu (Romania) represented ASE as an observer-member of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in Vienna and ASE-USA member John Fabian convened a member panel at the LAF Congress in Beijing. In 1996, ASE corporate membership grew with the addition of Lockheed Martin Information Systems and the United Space Alliance. 709. In 1997, ASE and its members engaged in a number of activities designed to increase public support for human space exploration. In addition to ongoing astronaut visits to various scientific and educational institutions, the Association continued its participation in the round tables at the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University and in the United States Space Foundation's National Space Symposium; assisted with astronaut

126 participation in the Planetary Society's Planetfest 97; and became a member of the Space Awareness Alliance, a consortium of space advocacy organizations and aerospace companies chartered to actively promote the benefits of space research and development to life on Earth. 710. The Thirteenth Planetary Congress of the Association was held from 12 to 19 September 1997 in San Jose. Hosted by astronaut Franklin Chang-Diaz, the theme of the Congress was "Space Technology for Sustainable Development", reflecting the Association's belief that space technologies can significantly enhance efforts to monitor and characterize the impact of human development on the Earth's environment. During the Congress, ASE members participated in working sessions focused on crew safety, ecology and space research and applications and travelled throughout Costa Rica to meet with children, teachers and community leaders. 2. Point of contact Executive Director Association of Space Explorers-USA 1150 Gemini Avenue Houston, TX 77058, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (281) 280-8172 Facsimile: +(1) (281) 280-8173 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://explorer.csc.com/ASE/ASE.html B. International Academy of Astronautics 7. Organization 711. The International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) was founded in Stockholm on 16 August 1960. Since that time, the Academy has brought together the world's foremost experts in the disciplines of astronautics on a regular basis to recognize the accomplishments of their peers, to explore and discuss cutting-edge issues in space research and technology, and to provide direction and guidance in the non-military uses of space and the ongoing exploration of the solar system. The purposes of IAA, as stated in the Academy's statutes are : (a) To foster the development of astronautics for peaceful purposes; (b) To recognize individuals who have distinguished themselves in a branch of science or technology related to astronautics; (c) To provide a programme through which the membership can contribute to international endeavours and cooperation in the advancement of aerospace science, in cooperation with national science or engineering academies. 712. The Academy's beginning was led by Theodore von Karman, one of the most important figures in the evolution of rocketry and the first President of IAA. The Academy is based on the tradition of the great classical scientific academies of the seventeenth century in London, Paris and Rome, which fostered scientific inquiry and the exchange of ideas and new information in the earliest days of modern science. In the words of the second President, Frank J. Malina, "the classical academies ... served in a remarkable manner the phenomenal advance of man's new method of understanding nature and of applying this understanding for the benefit of mankind". The third President, Charles Stark Draper, gave strategic impulses for its development and maturity. 713. The Academy is a preeminent proactive proponent of a reasoned and rational international space exploration programme while providing in its execution the maximum benefits to the people of Earth. As pointed out by its

127 past President, George E. Mueller, for many years the Academy has sought to enunciate and to define such a vision for the people and the Governments of the world. It has recognized that exploration of the solar system attracts and inspires the imagination and intellect of people from all nations. Such an endeavour has the potential not only to reveal many of the mysteries of creation, to make further progress in a large number of science areas and to augment the natural resources of our planet, but, ultimately, to form a focus for international cooperation on a scale that few can even imagine. 714. Because of the wide contacts of its 1,136 members throughout all of the space-faring nations, the nations newly accessing space and the developing nations, and because of the leadership positions that many of them hold, the Academy is in a unique position to translate that vision into reality. 715. IAA is international in membership (approximately 65 countries are represented) and recognizes the global significance of astronautics and space exploration. Recent developments such as the restructuring of the aerospace industry, the easing of East-West tensions, the progressive integration of European economies exemplified by the euro money unit and the emergence of the Asian economies, have enhanced the political prospects for international cooperation in space. Cost, scope, complexity and other pragmatic considerations associated with space exploration dictate cooperation among nations and it is probable that such twenty-first century initiatives as a manned lunar base and the first manned mission to Mars will be international ventures. (a) Membership 716. The Academy total membership is 1,136 members in four trustee sections: the Basic Science Section includes 87 members and 182 corresponding members, the Engineering Science Section 367 members and 111 corresponding members, the Life Science Section 165 members and 55 corresponding members and the Social Science Section 128 members and 36 corresponding members. The Academy also has five honorary members. 717. IAA membership consists of individuals who have distinguished themselves in one of the fields of astronautics or one of the of fundamental importance for the exploration of space. Election to the Academy is a recognition of an individual's record of service and achievement, and members are leaders in space and aeronautical activities in their own countries. New members are elected by their peers in the Academy; full members are elected for life, while corresponding members are eligible for full membership after two years, but retire after five. Membership brings with it the commitment to work with fellow members for the betterment of mankind through the application of the art and science of astronautics. (b) Awards and prizes 718. The Academy administers seven awards, which are given by the Board of Trustees on the recommendation of the Awards Subcommittee of the Awards and Membership Committee in recognition of excellence in the fields of science and technology. These awards have been instituted at various times since 1961. Theodore von Karman Award 719. This award is the premier award of the Academy. It is given annually to recognize outstanding lifetime achievements in any branch of science without limit of nationality or sex. The award honours the memory of the Academy's founder and first President, a scientist of the highest international reputation. Science Section Awards 720. These awards are given annually for outstanding achievement in basic science, engineering science, life science and social science. They are given by the Board of Trustees on the recommendation of the Section Chairman through the Awards and Membership Committee.

128 Luigi Napolitano Award 721. This award is given annually to recognize excellence in recent publication (less than three years) made by an individual or a group non-member of the Academy in any field related to space. The award is given by the Board of Trustees on the recommendation of the Awards Subcommittee through the Awards and Membership Committee. 2. Scientific programmes 722. The governing body of the Academy is the Board of Trustees, which includes the President, the past President and four Vice-Presidents, the four section chairs and six trustees from each section. The Vice-Presidents are chairpersons of the four IAA standing committees: the Scientific Programmes Committee, the Publications Committee, the Awards and Membership Committee and the Finance Committee. The standing committees are responsible for policy recommendations and guidance of operations in particular areas of IAA affairs. The presidents of associated organizations also serve on the Board, as does the Legal Counsel and the Secretary- General. The Board of Trustees meets two or threetimes yearly. A regular general meeting of the full IAA is held every two years. 723. IAA scientific committees (as well as task forces and study groups) are formed to carry out intensive examination of specific,timely problems and topics in the peaceful use of space. Symposia and specialist meetings organized under the auspices of the committees are interactive debates on areas of intemational importance, often conducted in affiliation with other international societies and academies. Through their definition, analysis, critique and unbiased presentation of facts, the scientific committees support the world leaders who will decide upon, sponsor and implement space initiatives. The transactions of their proceedings are generally published for use by the world space community. 724. At present, the Academy encourages international scientific cooperation through the work of 30 specialized scientific committees, subcommittees and working groups: Committee on Space Sciences Committee on International Space Policies and Plans Subcommittee on Universal Use Systems Working Group on Cooperation and Competition Working Group on Advanced Propulsion Committee on Life Sciences Subcommittee on Space Physiology and Medicine Subcommittee on Human Factors Subcommittee on Space and Planetary Biology and Biophysics Subcommittee on Biotechnology and Life Support Committee on Space Activities and Society Subcommittee on Art and Literature Committee on Economics and Commercialization of Space Activities Subcommittee on Launcher System Economics

129 Committee on Interstellar Space Exploration Committee on Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Committee on Safety, Rescue and Quality Subcommittee on Space Programmes Quality Subcommittee on Space Debris Committee on Small Satellite Missions Subcommittee on Planetary Missions Subcommittee on Small Satellites for Developing Nations Committee on the History of Astronautics Scientific Legal Liaison Committee Committee on EVA [] Protocols and Operations Committee on the Multilingual Terminology Database Committee on Advanced Material Science Committee on Moon-Mars Exploration Subcommittee on Lunar Development Subcommittee on Mars Exploration 725. With those 30 groups, the Academy has a large programme totalling more than 2,000 papers a year from about 30 conferences or symposia, including those entitled: "Man in Space", "Low-Cost Planetary Missions", "Realistic Near-Term Advanced Scientific Space Missions", "History of Astronautics" and "Small Satellites for Earth Observation". In March 1997, the new President of the Academy, Michael Yarymovych, organized a first strategic planning meeting hosted by the French company Aerospatiale, to initiate a revitalization process of the Academy's programmes. Over the last 10 years the Academy has produced position papers, which are of a more limited scope than a cosmic study, which is a comprehensive work in which members and experts from all four sections of the Academy participate. (a) Internet Web site 726. With the equivalent of 2,500 typed pages as of June 1998, the IAA Web site (see below) is designed primarily for the improvement of the Academy's activities among its members and also to allow better levels of exchange with national academies and other scientific organizations. The Web site provides better visibility outside the community, and the "News and Future Events" section, updated weekly, gives information on location, date and subject matter of all future events of the Academy. 727. A key database centre for space publications is also available, the list of all IAA papers presented from 1995 to 1998 (around 2,000 titles) from about 130 different IAA sessions or symposia. 728. The "Call for Papers" section provides the entire programme of future symposia such as the Third IAA International Conference, on low-cost planetary missions, several symposia within the framework of the 48th International Astronautical Congress or the 32nd Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research

130 (COSPAR). It is also possible to obtain information on topical subjects (how to submit a paper), on location, accommodation, registration fees or the programme for accompanying persons. 729. A recently updated history of the Academy is now fully available (over 50 pages) and contains many articles, including: "The Role of History in the Academy", "Conception, Birth and Childhood of IAA", "Building the Organization: Structure, Programmes and Activities", "Evolution of the Statutes and Membership of IAA", "Reasons for Reshaping the Academy" and "Securing the Future of the Academy". (b) Future events 730. The following symposia were planned at the 49th IAF Congress, held in Melbourne, Australia, in 1998: 28th Symposium on Economics in Space Operations 32nd History of Astronautics Symposium 12th International Space Plans and Policies Symposium 12th Interstellar Space Exploration Symposium Multilingual Astronautical Terminology Symposium 31st Safety, Rescue and Quality Symposium 18th Scientific-Legal Round Table on the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence and Society (with the International Institute of Space Law) 10th Space Activities and Society Symposium 27th Review Meeting of the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence EVA and Space Suits Symposium Small Satellite Missions Symposium Advanced Science Materials Symposium 731. In addition, the IAA Conference on small satellites for Earth observation will be held in Berlin from 12 to 16 April 1999. 732. In the framework of the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the Academy will sponsor or co-sponsor symposia on small satellites at the service of developing countries, preservation of the (space debris) and international Mars exploration. 3. Cooperation with national academies 733. IAA coordinates closely with national academies to foster a spirit of cooperation and progress that transcends national boundaries, cultures and institutions. In recent years the Academy has held an impressive series of joint meetings with the Swedish Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the Finnish Academies of Sciences and Letters, the Indian National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Academy of Sciences of Spain, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Art and Sciences, the Royal Society of Canada, the US National Academy of Sciences, the US National Academy of Engineering, the US Institute of Medicine, the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Turin Academy of Sciences, the Lincei Academy of Sciences, the Pontifical Academy, the Australian Academy of Sciences and the Australian Academy of Technological Science and Engineering. 734. The Academy continues to enjoy and appreciate its close relations with IAF and COSPAR, and its participation in the IAF and COSPAR congresses by sponsoring and co-sponsoring sessions, symposia, round tables and outlook papers.

131 4. Publications (a) Cosmic studies As world leaders discuss a future in space that includes ambitious multinational projects such as a lunar base and the eventual colonization of Mars, the Academy has embarked upon a series of cosmic planning studies to provide decision makers an unbiased scientific and technological basis for their commitment to those programmes. These multidisciplinary cosmic studies, reviewed by 1,000 academicians from 60 countries, are examining alternatives for international cooperative ventures and their probable impact on the economic and social life of the nations involved. The Case for an International Lunar Base (Paris, November 1989), 64 pp. The study concludes that development of an international lunar base would occur in four phases: phase 1 (1992-2004) would focus on lunar exploration culminating with the construction and operation of a manned lunar orbit station by the year 2004; phase 2 (2005-2010) would involve the establishment of a lunar research laboratory; phase 3 (2011-2025) would deal with the development of a major production facility and phase 4 (2026-2100) would witness the evolution (possibly through commercial backing) of the Moon base into a complete lunar settlement with a high degree of self-sufficiency by the end of the twenty-first century. The study also proposes a memorandum of understanding on the establishment of an international lunar planning office. International Exploration of Mars: A Mission Whose Time Has Come (Paris, April 1993), 133 pp. The study concludes that international space exploration is unique in offering humanity access to an exciting frontier of new knowledge. Instead of a race between two space Powers, it can now be a cooperative effort. Discoveries on new worlds in new environments by robotic explorers add to our knowledge of the solar system, but they also explore the possibilities of extension of human life beyond our fragile Earth. Subsequent visits by astronauts to those other worlds will provide real data on the feasibility of such dreams. " believe that demonstration of the reality or, conversely, the impossibility of human habitation of other planets will have a profound influence on the nature of international regimes for safeguarding our own planet in the twenty-first century." Travel to Mars is technically challenging and operations on its surface are difficult. A comprehensive programme of Martian exploration must therefore include both robotic and human missions. Robotic precursor missions and ongoing robotic exploration will collect data both for basic science and for establishing human presence. A principal issue of programmatic strategy is a proper balance between automated and crewed missions. The study recommends a focused robotic precursor effort with an ongoing effort of robotic missions to assist the choice of the emplacement of human outposts in order to continue human scientific exploration. The form of the Mars exploration programme will be influenced by the nature of the organization created to implement it. In this cosmic study the Academy has argued strongly for an international effort. Although the current programmes of Mars exploration are already international in character, the level of cooperation and coordination should be increased for future missions. A world that is being drawn together ever more closely by advances in communication and transportation needs consensus on visions of a future accessible to all. (b) Position papers While the cosmic studies are comprehensive works done by a large group of persons, position papers are limited efforts to emphasize important messages of smaller scope. Both are pursued gradually through various meetings and are reviewed several times by all the Academy members, thus providing unique indisputable, and unbiased scientific and technological references to humankind produced by the most prestigious scientists and decision makers from 60 countries.

132 "Inexpensive Scientific Satellite Missions" (Paris, June 1990), 23 pp. The position paper concludes that "inexpensive" scientific satellites, despite the non-precise definition of that notion, must fill the gaps between the major programmes of the great space agencies, that they can be developed with short lead times and that the rules of management and technical implementation differ considerably from those applied in the major programmes. The advantage of such a class of satellites is obvious: it allows for higher flight frequencies and shorter times in implementing new technological developments. Ideally the lead times can be made to correspond to the educational cycle of space science students. For many countries, no other than "inexpensive" satellites in this sense are conceivable because of budgetary constraints. Hence there is a commonality between the programmes of such nations and those which have the possibility of sending men into space and exploring other planets. This position paper was intended to contribute to the creation of an awareness that other, more cost-effective ways are still possible, that they coexist with methods developed for big programmes and that they are highly recommended for the implementation of the many more modest objectives that exist in great abundance in the scientific community. "The Case For Small Satellites" (Paris, March 1993), 44 pp. The position paper concludes that there is a rationale for considering small satellite missions as a means of satisfying the needs of developed as well as developing countries. Governments and research institutions of all countries are urged to study, undertake and support small satellite programmes for research, educational and application purposes in accordance with their current technical and financial capabilities. The industrialized countries should take the lead in gathering and disseminating information, the developing nations should undertake to accede to and to increase such information. Particular encouragement should be given by the industrialized countries to projects that provide education motivation and launch opportunities should be made available by the operators of launch systems at reasonable conditions; raw data from Earth observation should be made available on a non-discriminatory basis for research and civilian applications to all countries. "Position Paper on Orbital Debris" (Paris, May 1993), 22 pp. The position paper concludes that space has become an essential resource for science as well as for public and commercial utilization. Human activities in space are, however, increasingly at risk as a result of earlier uncontrolled production of artificial debris. Being concerned about this problem, which constitutes a growing threat for the future of spaceflight, the paper elaborates on the need and urgency for action and describes ways of implementing such action. The following actions are recommended for immediate application: no deliberate break-ups of spacecraft that produce debris in long-lived orbits; minimization of mission-related debris; procedures for making safe all rocket bodies and spacecraft that remain in orbit after completion of their mission; selection of transfer orbit parameters to insure the rapid decay of transfer stages; reorbiting of geostationary satellites at end-of-life; separated apogee booster motors used for geostationary satellites should be inserted into a disposal orbit; and upper stages used to move geostationary satellites from geostationary transfer orbit to geosynchronous Earth orbit should be inserted into a disposal orbit at least 300 kilometres above the geostationary orbit and freed of residual propellant. "Position Paper on Declaration of Principles Concerning Activities Following the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence" (Paris, April 1989), 2 pp. This declaration, endorsed by more than 15 international organizations, is available on the IAA Web site (see below).

133 (c) Journals/newsletters The dissemination of current information on developments in astronautics and related science and technology has been a primary function of the Academy since its establishment. The journal Acta Astronautica first appeared in 1959 and is published monthly by Elsevier Science Ltd. in London under the auspices of the IAA Publications Committee. The journal covers developments in space science technology related to peaceful scientific exploration of space and its exploitation for human welfare and progress, and the conception, design, development and operation of space-borne and Earth-based systems. In addition to the regular issues of contributed papers and transaction notes, the journal publishes selected proceedings of the international astronautical congresses, the IAA Man in Space symposia and other Academy symposia. The Academy produces (in cooperation with Elsevier) a quarterly newsletter, along with the proceedings of symposia, technical reports, cosmic planning studies and press releases. The compilation of a multilingual database of space terminology is a continuing project of the Academy. Dictionaries of2,500 terms related to space are available in Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Czech, English, French, German, Hindi, Hungarian, Japanese, Polish, Rumanian, Russian and Spanish. Other dictionaries are being prepared in Dutch and Portugese. The first step was to publish lexicons in various language combinations; a personal computer database (the equivalent of 91 bilingual dictionaries) is now available. An order form is available on the IAA Web site at the "Publications" section. 5. Point of contact International Academy of Astronautics 6 rue Galilee 75116 Paris, France Mailing address: B.P. 1268-16 F-75766 Paris Cedex 16 Telephone: +(33) (1) 47 23 82 15 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 47 23 82 16 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.iaanet.org

C. International Astronautical Federation L Organization 735. The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) encourages the advancement of knowledge about space and the development and application of space assets for the benefit of humanity. It plays an important role in disseminating information and in providing a significant worldwide network of experts in space development and utilization. 736. IAF is a non-profit, non-governmental organization founded in 1951 and its members are drawn from government organizations, industry, professional associations and learned societies from all over the world. At present the Federation has 137 members from 45 countries.

134 737. Together with its associates, the Intemational Academy of Astronautics (IAA) and the Intemational Institute of Space Law (IISL), it organizes an international astronautical congress, held each year in a different country. Selected papers of the congresses are published in Acta Astronautica. 738. IAF also organizes other symposia, workshops and events around the world. In close cooperation with the United Nations, it organizes an annual space workshop for developing nations and seminars on space activities at meetings of the United Nations. 739. Together with the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and IISL, IAF produces an annual survey publication, Highlights in Space, for the United Nations. 740. The initiative leading to the establishment of IAF was taken in 1949 by the Stuttgart-based Gesellschaft fur Weltraumforschung, which proposed to other astronautical societies that a conference should be arranged to establish mutual cooperation. That initiative led to the First Intemational Astronautical Congress, held in Paris in October 1950, which was followed in 1951 in London by the Second Intemational Astronautical Congress, during which IAF was officially founded. 741. The signatories to the establishment of IAF were: Argentina Sociedad Argentina Interplanetaria Austria France Groupement astronautique francais Germany Gesellschaft fur Weltraumforschung—Hamburg Gesellschaft fur Weltraumforschung—Stuttgart Italy Associazione Italiana Razzi Spain Asociacion Espanola de Astronautica Sweden Swedish Interplanetary Society Switzerland Swiss Astronautics Association United Kingdom of Great Britan and Northern Ireland British Interplanetary Society United States of America American Rocket Society Detroit Rocket Society Pacific Rocket Society Reaction Research Society 2. Activities 742. The annual international astronautical congress, organized jointly by IAF, IAA and IISL, is an occasion for the whole space community to gather each year for one week in a different country. The congress is a combination of more man 100 technical sessions dedicated to the various aspects of space activities, 9 or 10 high-level plenary sessions, social events of an important outreach programme and a large exhibition. The attendance generally exceeds 1,000 participants. It is a unique opportunity for people involved in space activities to see how their field of expertise fits into the global scene, to network and promote their achievements and products, to become better acquainted with today's space projects and trends. For each congress, a specific theme is chosen in order to focus more closely on topics related to that theme. 743. The 43rd IAF Congress and the 29th COSPAR plenary meeting were, for the first time, held jointly in 1992 as the World Space Congress in Washington, D.C., and commemorated the Intemational Space Year. In addition to the regular sessions, there were distinguished lecturers and panels to discuss the prospects for future space programmes, plans, cooperation and competition.

135 744. The 44th IAF Congress was held in Graz, Austria, in 1993 and focused on the theme "Challenges of Space for a Better World". The 45th Congress was held in Jerusalem, Israel, in 1994 and had as its theme "Space and Cooperation for Tomorrow's World". The 46th Congress (Oslo, 1995) focused on the theme "Benefits of Space for Humanity". The 47th Congress (Beijing, 1996) studied the theme "Enlarging the Scope of Space Activities". The 48th Congress (Turin, Italy, 1997) had the theme "Developing Business from Space" and the 49th Congress (Melbourne, Australia, 1998) the theme "Pacific Rim: A Rapidly Expanding Space Market". 745. The 50th IAF Congress will be held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, from 4 to 8 October 1999 and will be entitled "Space—An Integral Part of the ". The 51st IAF Congress will be held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The precise dates and theme have not been determined. 746. IAF is preparing a specialist symposium to be held in Los Angeles, United States of America, from 19 to 21 April 1999 on novel concepts for smaller, faster and better space missions. Another specialist symposium will be organized in Toulouse, France, in November 1999 on management and implementation of satellite constellations. 747. IAF has long worked closely with the United Nations and its Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Since 1986, IAF and COSPAR have organized joint symposiums at the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The 1993 symposium focused on space-based communication: the expansion of current services and increased understanding of new systems and the services they will make possible. Subsequent topics have been space applications for disaster prevention, warning, mitigation and relief (1994); application of space technology for education, with particular emphasis on its use in developing countries (1995); utilization of micro- and small satellites for the expansion of low-cost space activities, taking into particular account the special needs of developing countries (1996); space systems of direct broadcasting and global information systems for space research (1997); and scientific and technical aspects and applications of space-based meteorology (1998). 748. Since 1991, a special workshop on various themes has been organized each year by the United Nations and IAF immediately preceding the IAF congress of that year. The workshops have been designed to expose developing nations to the practical application potential of space technology for development. The workshops have contributed to creating awareness of a broad spectrum of space technologies that could spur further development. 749. The subjects of the workshops have been space technology for development (Montreal, Canada, 1991); space technologies in developing countries: making it happen (jointly with COSPAR, Washington, D.C., 1992); organizing space activities in developing countries: resources and mechanisms (Graz, Austria, 1993); benefits of space technology for the developing world: from economic growth to environmental protection (Jerusalem, Israel, 1994); space technology for health care and environmental monitoring in the developing world (Oslo, 1995); education and awareness: space technology and applications in the developing world (Beijing, 1996); space technology as a cost-effective tool to improve infrastructures in developing countries (Turin, Italy, 1997); and expanding the user community of space technology in developing countries (Melbourne, Australia, 1998). 750. The activities of IAF have grown with the evolution of astronautics itself and its committees have been enlarged and changed to keep pace with its goals in the international space community, m 1983 IAF restructured its committees, which are responsible for the organization of the scientific programme of the annual congresses. The technical committees currently deal with the following topics: astrodynamics, satellite communications, space and education, student activities, supervised youth rocket experiments, materials and structures, space power, space propulsion, space exploration, microgravity sciences and processes, the space station, space systems, space transportation and life sciences (joint with IAA).

136 751. IAF is also concerned with the education and training of young people who will be responsible for the progress of astronautics in the future. Student conferences are organized regularly and have been held during the annual congresses since 1970. Prizes are awarded for the best student papers presented. 752. Every year since 1977IAF has presented the Allan D. Emil Memorial Award for international cooperation in astronautics, sponsored by the family of the late Allan D. Emil. The award is given at the annual congresses to leaders who have made an outstanding contribution to space science, space technology, space medicine or space law involving the participation of more than one nation or which furthered the possibility of greater international cooperation in astronautics. 753. As regards IISL, the annual colloquium on the law of outer space examines problems of international law that appear with the development of space activities. A large part of the colloquium is directed toward legal questions relating to the theme of the annual IAF congresses. Since 1992, IISL has organized the annual Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court Competition among students from universities in Europe and the United States of America. The finals have been judged each year by members of the International Court of Justice in The*Hague. 3. International cooperation 754. All meetings are open to participants from all nations. Participation in the activities of IAF by scientists and experts from developing nations is the responsibility of the IAF Committee for Liaison with Intemational Organizations and Developing Nations, which was established to see how this objective could best be attained. 755. IAF has observer status with the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and participates in its meetings and those of its two Subcommittees. IAF and its associated bodies have been supported at different times by other agencies of the United Nations system, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Intemational Telecommunication Union, with all of whom IAF has consultative status or a working relationship. 756. IAF and COSPAR cooperate closely: both organizations have reciprocal representation at their respective meetings and frequently organize joint symposia. 4. Publications The proceedings of IAF congresses are published regularly in Acta Astronautica, the journal of IAA. A special issue is devoted to each congress and some other issues are devoted to specific subjects covered during the congresses. A detailed list of the IAF proceedings can be obtained from the secretariat in Paris. IAF has also published a brochure describing its aims and activities, which can be obtained from its secretariat. IISL regularly publishes the proceedings of its annual colloquium on the law of outer space and is preparing a new brochure on IISL giving a brief history of the Institute. The proceedings are available from the publisher and can be obtained from the AIAA/Tasco, 9 Jay Gould Court, P.O. Box 753, Waldorf, Maryland, United States of America; facsimile: +(1) (301) 843-0159. 5. Point of contact Secretariat of the International Astronautical Federation 3-5 rue Mario-Nikis 75015 Paris, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 45 67 42 60 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 42 73 21 20 and +(33) (1) 42 73 75 37 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.iafastro.com

137 D. International Astronomical Union 757. The Intemational Astronomical Union (IAU), founded in 1919 as one of the original union members of the International Council for Science (ICSU), is the international non-governmental organization uniting professional astronomers worldwide. Its mission is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through intemational cooperation. IAU currently has 60 member States, including most countries in which professional astronomical research is conducted at a significant level. A key feature of the Union is the direct involvement of the over 8,000 individual members working in all ground- and space-based disciplines of astronomy. 758. Responsibilities of IAU range from the definition of fundamental astronomical and dynamical constants and unambiguous astronomical nomenclature, via rapid dissemination of new discoveries, organization of high-profile international scientific conferences and observing campaigns, and promotion of educational activities in astronomy, to early informal discussions of possible future international large-scale scientific facilities. IAU is also the sole internationally recognized authority for giving designations and names to celestial bodies and their surface features. 759. The scientific activities of IAU are structured in 11 scientific divisions and through them in 40 commissions, covering the full spectrum of astronomy. Whether due to the nature of their scientific subjects per se (e.g. studies in the solar system) or because modem astrophysical studies require access to the whole electromagnetic spectrum, observations with a wide variety of spacecraft are an integral part of the scientific research of all divisions. 760. The IAU divisions and commissions are the following: Division I. Fundamental Astronomy Commission 4. Ephemerides Commission 7. Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy Commission 8. Positional Astronomy Commission 19. Rotation of the Earth Commission 24. Photographic Astrometry Commission 31. Time Division n. The Sun and Commission 10. Solar Activity Commission 12. Solar Radiation and Structure Commission 49. Interplanetary Plasma and the Heliosphere Division in. Planetary Systems Sciences Commission 15. Physical Study of Comets, Minor Planets and Meteorites Commission 16. Physical Study of Planets and Satellites Commission 20. Position and Motions of Minor Planets, Comets and Satellites Commission 21. Light of the Night Sky Commission 22. Meteors and Interplanetary Dust Commission 51. Bioastronomy: Search for Extraterrestrial Life

138 Division IV. Stars Commission 26. Double and Multiple Stars Commission 29. Stellar Spectra Commission 35. Stellar Constitution Commission 36. Theory of Stellar Atmospheres Commission 45. Stellar Classification Division V. Variable Stars Commission 27. Variable Stars Commission 42. Close Binary Stars Division VI. Interstellar Matter Commission 34. Interstellar Matter Division VH. Galactic System Commission 33. Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System Commission 37. Star Clusters and Associations Division VIE. Galaxies and the Universe Commission 28. Galaxies Commission 47. Cosmology Division DC. Optical and Infrared Techniques Commission 9. Instruments Commission 25. Stellar Photometry and Polarimetry Commission 30. Radial Velocities Division X. Radio Astronomy Commission 40. Radio Astronomy Division XI. Space and High-Energy Astrophysics Commission 44. Space and High-Energy Astrophysics Interdisciplinary commissions Commission 5. Documentation and Astronomical Data Commission 6. Astronomical Telegrams ' Commission 14. Atomic and Molecular Data Commission 38.Exchange of Astronomers Commission 41. History of Astronomy Commission 46. Teaching of Astronomy Commission 50. Protection of Existing and Potential Observatory Sites

139 Space-related working groups of the Executive Committee Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature Working Group for Future Large-Scale Facilities 761. The relevance to space activities of the divisions, commissions and working groups will be evident from their names. IAU does not operate space experiments of its own but, for example, the Working Group for Future Large- Scale Facilities is responsible for assigning names to newly discovered planetary satellites and any surface features on them. Similarly, the joint IAU/International Union of Radio Science Inter-Union Commission for Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science works to achieve viable compromises between the competing needs for radio frequency space for scientific and other, mostly telecommunications, activities. Further descriptions are available from IAU Publications and links to the Web pages of the divisions, commissions and working groups are provided from the IAU Internet Web page. 762. An urgent concern for IAU is the increasing threat to the viability of astronomical observational research owing to other activities in space. In addition to ground-based light pollution, spectacularly visible from space, astronomical observations are suffering increasingly from interference from illuminated space debris at optical wavelengths and from dramatically increasing intensity from satellite transmissions at radio wavelengths, which threaten to obliterate the extremely faint signals from objects in the universe. Space is a new, dramatic threat looming on the horizon; several recent initiatives have been averted, but some form of international regulation is needed before it is too late. IAU will be working closely with the United Nations to resolve such issues, which respect no national borders. 763. A key activity of IAU is the organization of high-profile, international scientific meetings covering all areas of space- and ground-based astronomy. Typically, some six symposia and six colloquia are sponsored annually by IAU; in addition, IAU regional astronomy meetings and co-sponsored meetings organized jointly with other scientific unions are held on a regular basis. 764. General Assemblies of IAU are held every three years. The XXIErd IAU General Assembly was held in August 1997 in Kyoto, Japan; the two next Assemblies will take place in August 2000 in Manchester, United Kingdom, and in July 2003 in Sydney, Australia. In addition to the necessary administrative business, IAU General Assemblies offer rich scientific programmes: the Kyoto meeting included 3 invited discourses, 6 symposia, 23 joint discussions, 3 special scientific sessions and well over 100 commission and working group meetings. Overall, nearly 800 oral and 1,100 poster papers were presented. 765. IAU works to promote astronomical education and research in countries where astronomy is not yet fully developed. Major activities are the international schools for young astronomers and the teaching for astronomy development and exchange of astronomers programmes. Partial support for those activities from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, ICSU, and other sources is received regularly through ICSU. 766. The long-standing series of IAU international schools for young astronomers offers intensive three-week courses for 30-50 university students at the undergraduate or graduate levels from the host and neighbouring countries, with strong emphasis on practical, hands-on experimental activities in addition to lectures. Faculty are encouraged to stay for the duration of the course to promote the development of personal contacts and the future careers of students are monitored as far as possible to ascertain the effects of the schools. The last one was held in 1997 in Iran; another is under consideration for Romania in 1999. 767. The recently instituted teaching for astronomy development programme provides flexible, more long-term support to the training of future high-school science teachers. Depending on local conditions, support may be given to lecture courses by experienced foreign teachers, travel to local or regional meetings, purchase of educational materials and instruments, or other needs. Current programmes are conducted in Central America (based mainly in Honduras) and in Viet Nam. Initiatives in other countries are in preparation.

140 768. A long-standing programme of exchange of astronomers is conducted by IAU Commission 38, supporting travel by scientists for training and research stays of at least three months. Travel may be to or from a developing country and the specific objective is that candidates return to enrich the scientific environment in their home countries after the visit. Fifteen such visits were supported in 1997. 769. New initiatives are being planned in concert with other ICSU bodies and United Nations organizations. Specific objectives are to coordinate activities within a broader spectrum of pure and applied space sciences and to ensure that the persons trained will be usefully employed for the benefit of the development of their home countries. 770. In order to highlight the contributions and concerns of astronomers to issues of global significance, IAU is preparing to organize, jointly with other organizations, satellite meetings on capacity-building in astronomy and basic space science and preserving the astronomical sky in connection with the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. IAU hopes that the meetings will help foster long-term, concerted initiatives to address such issues constructively on an international basis. 771. News on current and future IAU activities is conveyed to the membership through the Information Bulletin, normally published in January and June of each year. An IAU home page provides on-line access to a wide variety of information on the scientific and organizational activities of the Union, links to its Divisions, as indicated above, as well as links to cooperating organizations. 772. Triennial reports on the scientific and organizational activities of IAU are published before each General Assembly in the series Reports on Astronomy. The scientific and administrative results of the Assemblies are recorded in the series Highlights of Astronomy and Transactions of the IAU, respectively. Proceedings of the symposia are published as a series by the Union's publisher; proceedings of colloquia and other IAU meetings are published as decided by the organizers. IAU publications are listed at the Web site. 773. For the period 1997-2000, the President of IAU is R. P. Kraft (United States of America) and the General Secretary is J. Andersen (Denmark); designated President and General Secretary for the period 2000-2003 are F. Pacini (Italy) and H. Rickman (Sweden), respectively. Point of contact Secretariat of the International Astronomical Union mstitut d'Astrophysique 98 bis Bd. Arago F-75014 Paris, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 43 25 83 58 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 43 25 26 16 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.iau.org/ E. International Council for Science L Organization 774. The International Council for Science (ICSU), previously called the International Council of Scientific Unions, was established in 1931, as a direct successor to the International Research Council (founded in 1919), to provide a central body through which the world scientific community could deal with problems of common interest and encourage international scientific cooperation.

141 775. The membership of ICSU is composed of two categories: international scientific unions, and academies and research councils. The scientific members are the adhering scientific unions, each representing one branch of science. The national members are the national academies of science, national research councils or equivalent bodies of the countries adhering to the Council. There are at present 68 national members and 7 national associates. 776. The subjects of the 25 adhering international scientific unions are as follows: anthropology and ethnology, astronomy, biochemistry and molecular biology, biological sciences, pure and applied biophysics, brain research, pure and applied chemistry, crystallography, food science, geodesy and geophysics, geography, geological sciences, history and philosophy of science, immunology, mathematics, theoretical and applied mechanics, microbiology, nutritional sciences, pharmacology, pure and applied physics, physiological sciences, psychology, radio science, soil science and toxicology. 777. There are 28 scientific associates: Academia de Ciencias de America Latina Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources Federation of Asian Scientific Academies and Societies International Association on Water Quality International Cartographic Association International Cell Research Organization International Council for Scientific and Technical Information International Council of Laboratory Animal Science International Dairy Federation International Federation for Information and Documentation International Federation for Information Processing International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions ^—v International Federation of Science Editors. — — International Federation of Societies for Electron Microscopy International Federation of Surveyors International Foundation for Science International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis International Life Sciences Institute International Radiation Protection Association International Society for Endocrinology International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing International Union Against Cancer International Union for Physics and Engineering Sciences in Medicine International Union for Quaternary Research International Union for Vacuum Science, Technique and Applications International Union of Forestry Research Organizations Pacific Science Association Third World Academy of Sciences 778. The objects of the Council are: (a) To encourage, for the benefit of humankind, international scientific activity that will serve scientific and technological development and so help to promote the cause of peace and international security throughout the world; (b) To facilitate and coordinate the activities of its member unions and national members;

142 (c) To stimulate, design and coordinate international interdisciplinary scientific research projects and scientific education; (d) To act as a consultative body on matters of concern to the international scientific community. In order to further the attainment of those objectives the Council may: (a) Enter, through the intermediary of the national adhering organizations, into relations with the Governments of their respective countries in order to promote scientific research in those countries; (b) Maintain relations with the United Nations and its agencies, and with other international intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations. 779. In pursuing its objectives the Council shall observe the basic policy of non-discrimination and affirm the rights of scientists throughout the world to adhere to or to engage in international scientific activity without regard to such factors as race, religion, creed, political stance, ethnic origin, colour, citizenship, language or sex. The Council shall recognize and respect the independence of the internal scientific planning of its national members. 2. Programmes 780. The interest of ICSU in space research goes back to 1919 when the Intemational Research Council accepted a proposal from one of its scientific union members, the Intemational Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), to cooperate with the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in order to investigate the relations between solar phenomena and terrestrial magnetism and electricity. One result of this cooperation was the creation in 1925 of the Commission for the Study of the Relations between Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena. 781. ICSU first became involved in research with satellites following the adoption in 1954 by its Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year of a recommendation that thought be given to the use of satellites. The first Sputnik was launched in 1957 as part of the programme of studies of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in connection with the Year. 782. The experience gained in developing the programme for the Intemational Geophysical Year showed the value of continued cooperative rocket and satellite research and, in October 1958, ICSU created the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) to provide the world's scientific community with a means of exploiting the capabilities made available by the new "space" techniques and to stimulate the participation of scientists not actively engaged in the rocket and satellite programme of the Year. Currently, 12 of the 25 intemational scientific unions within ICSU are participating actively in the work of COSPAR. Those with a wide range of space research activities are described in detail below. 783. In addition to the unions and COSPAR, there are four committees that undertake space research activities or that use observation from satellites: the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) and the Scientific Committee on Solar Terrestrial Physics (SCOSTEP). SCOPE is concerned primarily with the use of space techniques for monitoring and for surveying natural resources. In addition, it has carried out some studies on the possibility of monitoring a number of environmental parameters from space platforms. 784. The Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries (COSTED) was created in 1966 to provide assistance to developing countries. In 1984, the Committee, in cooperation with the United Nations and COSPAR, organized a workshop on the promotion of space research in developing countries. 785. The Inter-Union Commission for Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science (IUCAF) is active in encouraging studies using a variety of space techniques.

143 786. Resolutions promoting international cooperation in space research were adopted at the 1982 and 1984ICSU general assemblies. In 1982 ICSU adopted a resolution recommending close cooperation between COSPAR, SCAR and SCOR in planning the operation of ocean and ice-scanning satellites and in studies of the dynamics of sea ice and the west Antarctic ice cap. This has led to much greater cooperation between those ICSU bodies. 787. The total income of ICSU union members and the interdisciplinary bodies is around $18 million. An annual subvention of about $500,000 is received from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for the support of the scientific activities of the unions, committees and services. 788. The Council cooperates with a number of intergovernmental organizations, including the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Intemational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the Intemational Telecommunication Union (ITU), UNESCO, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and with a wide range of non-governmental organizations in developing international scientific cooperation. 789. News about ICSU is published in the ICSU Year Book, the annual report and the ICSU newsletter, Science International. 3, Point of contact The President of ICSU is W. Arber (Switzerland). The Secretary-General is H. Mooney (United States of America). The Executive Director is: J.-F. Stuyck-Taillandier Secretariat of the Intemational Council for Science 51 Bd de Montmorency 75016 Paris, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 45 25 03 29 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 42 88 94 31 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http//www.icsu.org 4. International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics 790. IUGG was formed in 1919 to promote the study of problems relating to the shape and physics of the Earth. It was then composed of six international associations, one of which, the Association of Geodesy, founded in 1867, is one of the oldest international scientific organizations. 791. IUGG is still concerned with promoting the study of problems relating to the figure and physics of the Earth, including the oceans and the atmosphere, that require international collaboration. The Union has seven international associations, five of which have specific interests in space science: International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans International Association of Geodesy Intemational Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy International Association of Hydrological Sciences International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences 792. The activities of the Union and of the above associations in the space field include the holding of symposia, the issuance of publications, the maintenance of committees or commissions to deal with specific topics, the

144 adoption of resolutions or recommendations and the participation in the planning of the major research programmes of ICSU. 793. The Union has long recognized the importance of knowledge of the space surrounding the Earth to the understanding of the Earth's environment. The introduction of the word "aeronomy" to describe the study of the high atmosphere, where ionization processes play a dominant role, was first made at the IUGG General Assembly of 1954. The use of and satellites for the study of space data from the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) was first proposed at the General Assembly of 1951. The Union was responsible for the ICSU Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, which prepared the original plan for the Global Atmospheric Research Programme, a joint activity of ICSU and WMO, which began in 1967 and was phased into the World Climate Research Programme (see sect. 10 below) in 1980. 794. The Committee on Remote Sensing and Data Transmission was established by the International Association of Hydrological Sciences to prepare guidelines for the use of remote sensing techniques and for satellite transmission of on-site instrumentation data. 795. News about the Union is published in the IUGG Chronicle. Several of the associations also have their own newsletters. 796. The President of IUGG is P. J. Wyllie (United States of America) and the Secretary-General is: G. Balmino International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics Bureau gravimetrique international 18 Avenue E. Belin 31401 Toulouse Cedex 4, France Telephone: +(33) (5) 61 33 28 89 Facsimile: +(33) (5) 61 25 30 98 E-mail: balmino.uggi@.fr URL: http://www.omp.obs-mip.fr/uggi 5. International Union of Radio Science 797. The International Union of Radio Science (URSI) had its origin in 1913. In 1919, it was established as a union and was one of the founding members of the International Research Council (now ICSU). The member committees of URSI, of which there are at present 47, are formed under the auspices of the academies of science, or the corresponding organizations, in their respective territories. 798. Within the Union there are nine commissions, each dealing with a particular branch of radio science: electromagnetic metrology, fields and waves, signals and systems, electronics and photonics, electromagnetic noise and interference, wave propagation and remote sensing, ionospheric radio and propagation, waves in plasmas, radio astronomy and electromagnetics in biology and medicine. 799. mformation on URSI activities is published in the Radio Science Bulletin. 800. The President of URSI is T. B. A. Senior (United States of America) and the Secretary-General is: P. Lagasse Secretariat of the International Union of Radio Science c/o University of Gent (INTEC) Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41 B-9000 Gent, Belgium 145 Telephone: +(32) (9) 2 64 33 20 Facsimile: +(32) (9) 2 64 42 88 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.intec.mg.ac.be/Rese 6. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 801. SCAR was set up by ICSU in 1958 and is charged with furthering the coordination of scientific activity in the Antarctic. The Committee immediately assumed responsibility for the international cooperative scientific programmes in the Antarctic initiated by the International Geophysical Year. In fostering programmes of circumpolar scope and significance in all appropriate scientific disciplines, SCAR works closely through ICSU bodies. In the field of space research, SCAR maintains liaison with COSPAR. SCAR membership is comprised of interested international bodies and nations actively engaged in research in the Antarctic. 802. Any ground-based observations in Antarctica that are related to space research are of general interest to SCAR. Among the disciplines involved are magnetospheric, ionospheric and atmospheric physics, geomagnetism, meteorology, geodesy and cartography, and glaciology. Studies related to space research are included in the programme of each of the disciplines, the major interests lying in magnetospheric and ionospheric physics and physics of the atmosphere. Activities in each of the disciplines listed are coordinated by permanent working groups. The Working Group on Solar-Terrestrial and Astrophysical Research is concerned with a wide programme of research covering investigations in magnetospheric convection, aurora, geomagnetism, ionospheric physics, cosmic rays and astronomy. The techniques employed include high-frequency radar, ionosondes, all-sky cameras, photometers, very low frequency receivers and imaging riometers. There is an extensive network of stations covering the continent and operating throughout the year, and the observations obtained from them are regularly combined with satellite observations of energetic particles, magnetic fields and waves. Telemetry for obtaining data from various satellites exists at a number of stations in Antarctica. There is a Working Group on Physics and Chemistry of the Atmosphere whose atmospheric work in Antarctica involves a network of observatories. Apart from meteorological work, such observatories are important, for example, in providing ground truth observations for ozone mapping satellites. 803. Use is made of data from geodetic satellites recorded at some Antarctic stations. The global positioning system is crucial for a variety of scientific programmes and the associated logistics. Most ships operating in Antarctic waters use satellite navigation systems and the pictures of the distribution of ice and cloud cover obtained from meteorological satellites greatly aid the planning of ship and aircraft movements. Glaciological studies include analysis of extraterrestrial material in ice cores. News about the Committee is published in the SCAR Bulletin. 804. The President of SCAR is R. H. Rutford (United States of America) and the Executive Secretary is: P. D. Clarkson Secretariat of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research Scott Polar Research Institute Lensfield Road Cambridge CB21ER United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Telephone: +(44) (1) (223) 362061 Facsimile: +(44) (1) (223) 336549 E-mail: [email protected]

146 7. Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research 805. SCOR was created by ICSU in 1957 to continue the cooperative work on ocean research begun during the International Geophysical Year. Several major SCOR activities—especially two global change research programmes, the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study and Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics—rely heavily on remote measurements of the ocean from satellites, especially the observations of "ocean colour", that is, of the amount of photosynthetic activity in the surface layer of the ocean, which is a key indicator of oceanic productivity. 806. The International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group of the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) is an affiliated programme of SCOR. The Coordinating Group will plan the CEOS ocean biology project. It conducts scientific workshops on topics of concern to the ocean colour community such as minimum requirements for ocean colour sensors, complementarity of sensors, data issues and so on. The Coordinating Group also organizes training courses on topics related to the interpretation and use of satellite ocean colour data. Detailed information about its activities may be found on its home page at http://www.ioccg.org 807. Further information about SCOR and its activities is available from: Elizabeth Gross, Executive Director Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD 21218, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (410) 516-4070 Facsimile: +(1) (410) 516-4019 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.jhu.eduTscor 8. Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics 808. In September 1978 ICSU adopted a resolution changing the Special Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics (SCOSTEP) into a scientific committee with the same acronym. Extensive information about SCOSTEP is available on its Web site (see below). 809. SCOSTEP exists to provide a framework within which interdisciplinary international scientific programmes are planned, promoted, organized and conducted. Such programmes are normally of finite duration. SCOSTEP also provides guidance to the ICSU World Data Center for Solar-Terrestrial Physics as to the importance of retaining, processing, safe keeping and dissemination of key solar-terrestrial physics data collected by international campaigns and monitoring systems. 810. Four programmes implemented as follow-up to the Solar-Terrestrial Energy Programme (STEP) have been approved and have begun operation. They will carry SCOSTEP into the next decade. The STEP Results, Applications, and Modelling Phase (SRAMP) was created to consolidate observational results from analysis of data collected by STEP campaigns. It was expanded to cover continued application of the data collected by the ongoing satellite constellation. SRAMP expanded again to take responsibility for international organization of a programme to cover the newly important theme, "". The interdisciplinary programme will examine evidence of solar energy releases and energy coupling with near-Earth space that causes satellites to fail or malfunction in orbit and adversely affects the operation of technological systems on Earth's surface. 811. The other Post-STEP programmes concern equatorial processes, including coupling; a planetary-scale observing system; and an international solar cycle study. Each is described in SCOSTEP publications (see Web site or request from secretariat). They run from 1998 to 2002. All involve observations by satellite.

147 812. The President of SCOSTEP is Prof. C. H. Liu (Taiwan Province of China) and the Scientific Secretary is: J. H. Allen Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics c/oNOAA-NGDC 325 Broadway Boulder, CO 80303, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (303) 497-7284 Facsimile: +(1) (303) 497-6513 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/SCOSTEP/scostep.html 9. Inter-Union Commission on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science 813. The Commission was formed in 1960 to take all appropriate steps to secure protection from interference for radio frequencies required and allocated for radio astronomy and research in space science. IUCAF operates under the auspices of ICSU and is sponsored by URSI, IAU and COSPAR. 814. The Commission comprises representatives from the three sponsoring unions and is supported by two independent advisers from the ITU Radiocommunications Sector. At regular meetings and by correspondence, the Commission discusses the technical merits of protection requirements and submits proposals to the Radiocommunications Sector with a view to securing adequate frequency allocations suitably distributed throughout the spectrum. 815. For radio astronomy, a series of frequency bands at approximately harmonic intervals is required to determine the spectral properties of celestial sources. In addition, a number of discrete frequency bands are needed centred on the characteristic frequencies of important atomic or molecular constituents of celestial sources. Similarly the Earth exploration-satellite service requires dedicated bands that facilitate narrow- and wide-band spectral studies of the Earth's environment. Space research also requires data link frequencies suitable for transferring the measurement data from the satellite to Earth and determining the continuously changing position of the spacecraft. 816. For both radioastronomy and space research, the experimental techniques used today are extremely sensitive to radio interference. Every effort is being made to allocate frequency bands on an exclusive basis to scientific facilities, so far as may be practicable, while taking into consideration the needs of other users of the frequency spectrum. The protection from interference from spectrum users in adjacent or even far-removed spectrum bands is an important issue for all terrestrial or space-bome scientific uses of the radio spectrum, these being radioastronomy, Earth exploration and meteorological applications, medical research, but also safety-of- life services. 817. The Commission's present view is that it should address a wider range of topics covered by scientific use of the spectrum, even if they do not fall strictly within the radioastronomy or space research service. This approach is helping to raise awareness of the interference problems facing the scientific (and often passive) users of the spectrum. Only with sufficient protection can radio-based research be turned into practical applications. 818. This policy involves consultations with several organizations besides the three sponsoring bodies. IUCAF maintains intense contact with regional organizations working on similar issues and with the Space Frequency Coordination Group, a forum for discussions among space agencies. Links have also been established with the commissions of the Intemational Association of Geodesy. IUCAF is a sector member of ITU and participates actively in all forums of the ITU Radiocommunications Sector and its study groups.

148 819. The Chairman of IUCAF is Willem A. Baan, who can be reached at the following address: Secretariat of the Inter-Union Commission on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Science Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy P.O. Box 2 7990 AA Dwingeloo, Netherlands Telephone: +(31) (521) 585 128 Facsimile: +(31) (521) 597 332 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.nfra.nl/iucai7 10. World Climate Research Programme 820. The main objectives of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) are to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of man's influence on climate. The primary approach for achieving these objectives is based on the use of physical-mathematical models capable of simulating and eventually predicting climate changes over a wide range of space and timescales. Advances in the knowledge of many different physical processes that occur in the atmosphere-ocean-ice system are needed in order to develop such climate models. An especially large observation effort is required for the oceans since the descriptions of large-scale dynamic events in the oceanic circulation are not yet based on synoptic observations with appropriate time and space resolution. 821. The goals of WCRP can be formulated in terms of three specific objectives or areas of climate research, each corresponding to different timescales and each of which will necessitate important and extended observations using space platforms. 822. Research in the first area aims at establishing the physical basis for the prediction of weather anomalies on timescales of up to several months. This goal requires observing the initial values of the upper ocean and sea ice fields and developing the ability to predict the relatively rapid changes of land-surface boundary conditions such as the amount of stored soil water and the rate of evaporation. Further improvements are also needed in the prediction of precipitation and extended clouds and in the modelling of radiative transfer in the presence of such clouds. 823. The second area of research is concerned with predicting the variations of the global climate over periods of up to several years. These are particularly evident in the tropical regions. The largest contribution to the variations of the global atmosphere that are predictable on seasonal and annual timescales is due to the oceans, and especially the tropical oceans, where large-scale circulation and temperature anomalies can be forced by remote atmospheric events and propagate along the equator. The scientific strategy for research in this area is therefore based on observing and modelling the coupled atmosphere-ocean system with emphasis on the tropical part of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Other physical factors, for example, inter-annual variations of sea ice, must also be taken into consideration. 824. Finally, the third type of research aims at characterizing variations of climate over periods of several decades to a few centuries and assessing the response of climate to either natural or man-made influences, such as the increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. The global ocean is a key element in the response of the climate system on such timescales. Therefore, a major oceanographic experiment has observed the world ocean circulation and tests of models of the coupled global atmosphere and ocean system can now be performed. 825. From a methodological standpoint, the definition of the three different areas of climate research constitutes a step-by-step approach to the climate problem. Activities in the first area are essential to the achievement of objectives of the second, and both the first and second areas are essential to achieving the objectives of the third.

149 826. WCRP will require a special effort in the study of a wide range of processes, both atmospheric and oceanic, using both meteorological and oceanographic satellites and other remote sensing platforms. It will also require the use of satellites for the collection of data from buoys and other automatic systems and for navigational and positioning purposes. 827. Secretariat: H. Grassl, Joint Planning Staff Director World Climate Research Programme c/oWMO Case postale 2300 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland Telephone: +(41) (22) 730 82 46 Facsimile: +(41) (22) 734 03 57 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.wmo.ch/web/wcrp/wcrp-home.html 11. Panel on World Data Centres 828. The world data centres were established in 1957 as part of the Intemational Geophysical Year. Although they originally collected, distributed and archived data from programmes connected with the Year, their success led ICSU to extend the data exchange programme on a continuing basis. Today there are 47 centres around the world and they are responsible for data and publications from a wide range of disciplines, including polar, atmospheric, solid-Earth, ocean and space science, rockets and satellites, solar-terrestrial physics, marine geology and geophysics, paleoclimatology, terrestrial ecology and the environment, and socio-economics. These data cover timescales ranging from seconds to millennia and provide baseline information for research in many ICSU disciplines, especially for monitoring changes in the geosphere and biosphere—gradual or sudden, foreseen or unexpected, natural or man-made. The centres are supervised by the ICSU Panel on World Data Centres. 829. Each centre is responsible for (a) acquiring and storing data from the relevant ICSU programmes or monitoring activities; (b) making information about their holdings freely available; (c) exchanging data with other centres as appropriate; and (d) providing data to scientists in any country at a cost not to exceed the cost of copying and sending the requested data. Operating expenses for the centres are met by the sponsoring national institution in each host country. 830. The geographical regions of the world data centre system are as follows: WDC-A United States of America WDC-B Russian Federation WDC-C1 Europe WDC-C2 Japan and India WDC-D China 831. The locations, data and services of the world data centres, as well as the ICSU principles according to which they operate, are set forth in the 1996 Guide to the World Data Center System, which was issued by the ICSU Panel on World Data Centres in 1996.

150 12. Point of contact Secretary: A. M. Linn National Academy of Sciences National Research Council HA 372 2101 Constitution Avenue N.W. Washington, D.C., 20418, United States of America Telephone: +(1) (202) 334-2744 Facsimile: +(1) (202) 334-1377 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/wdc/wdcmain.html

Committee on Space Research 1. Organization 832. The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established by ICSU in October 1958 to continue the cooperative programmes of rocket and satellite research undertaken during the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958). COSPAR is an interdisciplinary scientific committee concerned with scientific research. Its objective is to further, on an international scale, progress of all kinds of scientific research in which space vehicles, rockets and balloons are used. It is not normally involved in such technological problems as propulsion, construction of rockets, guidance and control. 833. In accordance with its charter, COSPAR aims to achieve its purposes through the maximum development of space research programmes by the international community of scientists working through ICSU and adhering national scientific institutions and international scientific unions. Any arrangements involving national territories shall be made by bilateral or multilateral discussion between the nations concerned. As a non-political organization, COSPAR shall not, as a matter of policy, recommend any specific assistance to one nation by another. It will, however, welcome information concerning such arrangements and provide a convenient assembly in which such arrangements may be proposed and discussed informally. 834. The present membership of COSPAR is: (a) National scientific institution members Argentina Comision Nacional de Actividades Espaciales, Buenos Aires Australia Australian Academy of Science, Canberra Austria Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Belgium Academie royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux Arts de Belgique/Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Belgie, Brussels Brazil National Institute for Space Research, Sao Jose dos Campos Bulgaria Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia Canada National Research Council, Ottawa China Centre for Space Science and Applied Research, Beijing 1 2 g f £ If- O Academy of Sciences, Taipei, Taiwan Province of China Czech Republic Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague Denmark Royal Danish Academy of Sciences, Copenhagen £ / £ g/\

151 Finland Finnish Academy of Sciences, Helsinki France Academie des Sciences, Paris Germany Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn Greece Academy of Athens Hungary Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest India Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi Indonesia National Institute of Aeronautics and Space, Jakarta Iran (Islamic University of Tehran, Office of International Relations, Tehran Republic of) Iraq Space Research Centre (suspended) Israel Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem Italy Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome Japan Science Council of Japan, Tokyo Mexico Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia, Mexico City Netherlands Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences, Utrecht Norway Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, Oslo Pakistan Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission, Karachi Poland Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw Romania Academia Romana, Bucharest Russian Federation Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow Slovakia Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava South Africa Foundation for Research Development, Pretoria Spain Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Madrid Sweden Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm Switzerland Swiss Academy of Sciences, Bern Thailand National Research Council, Bangkok Turkey Scientific and Technical Research Council, Ankara Ukraine National Space Agency, Kiev United Kingdom The Royal Society, London United States National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. of America (b) Intemational scientific union members Intemational Astronomical Union International Mathematical Union International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry Intemational Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology International Union of Biological Sciences International Union of Crystallography International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics International Union of Geological Sciences International Union of Physiological Sciences International Union of Pure and Applied Physics Intemational Union of Radio Science Intemational Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics 835. During the period between Council meetings, COSPAR is administered by its Bureau, which is composed of the President, two Vice-Presidents and six members. The two Vice-Presidents and six members are elected from among national representatives to the Committee. COSPAR also has an Executive Director. 836. The most important part of COSPAR activities is conducted within its scientific commissions and panels:

152 Scientific commissions Scientific Commissions A on Space Studies of the Earth's Surface, Meteorology and Climate Subcommission Al on Atmosphere (including Troposphere and Stratosphere), Meteorology and Climate Subcommission A2 on Ocean Dynamics and Productivity Subcommission A3 on Land Processes and Morphology Scientific Commissions B on Space Studies of the Earth-Moon System, Planets and Small Bodies of the Solar System Subcommission Bl on Space-Related Studies of Small Bodies in the Solar System Subcommission B2 on Intemational Coordination of Space Techniques for Geodesy and Geodynamics (a joint subcommission with Intemational Union of Geodesy and Geophysics/International Association of Geodesy Commission VIII) Scientific Commissions C on Space Studies of the Upper Atmospheres of the Earth and Planets, including Reference Atmospheres Subcommission CI on the Earth's Upper Atmosphere and Ionosphere Subcommission C2 on the Earth's Middle Atmosphere and Lower Ionosphere Subcommission C3 on Planetary Atmospheres and Aeronomy Task Group on the International Reference Atmospheres of Trace Species Task Group on Reference Atmospheres of Planets and Satellites Task Group on Reference Atmospheres of Planets and Satellites/Venus International Reference Atmosphere Task Group on Reference Atmospheres of Planets and Satellites/Mars International Reference Atmosphere Task Group on Reference Atmospheres of Planets and Satellites/Outer Planets and Satellites International Union of Radio Science/COSPAR Task Group on the Intemational Reference Ionosphere Subcommission C5/D4 on Theory and Observations of Active Experiments Scientific Commissions D on Space Plasmas in the Solar System, including Planetary Subcommission Dl on the Heliosphere Task Group on the Intemational Heliospheric Study Subcommission D2/E3 on the Transition from the Sun to the Heliosphere Subcommission D3 on Magnetospheres Subcommission C5/D4 on Theory and Observations of Active Experiments Scientific Commissions E on Research in Astrophysics from Space Subcommission El on Galactic and Extragalactic Astrophysics Subcommission E2 on the Sun as a Star Subcommission D2/E3 on the Transition from the Sun tot he Heliosphere Scientific Commissions F on Life Sciences as Related to Space 153 Subcommission Fl on Gravitational Biology Subcommission F2 on Radiation Environment, Biology and Health Subcommission F3 on Planetary Biology and Origins of Life Subcommission F4 on Natural and Artificial Ecosystems Scientific Commission G on Materials Sciences in Space Scientific Commission H on Fundamental Physics in Space Technical Panel on Satellite Dynamics Panel on Technical Problems Related to Scientific Ballooning Panel on Potentially Environmentally Detrimental Activities in Space Panel on Space Research in Developing Countries Panel on Standard Radiation Belts Panel on Space Weather 2. Programmes 837. The Committee's scientific programme activities have a consultative and coordinating character. They are based on existing national programmes and joint international endeavours. By creating the forum for discussion of existing programmes and exchange of information on future plans and directions in space investigations, CpSPAR is able to formulate important recommendations that contribute to the strengthening of international scientific cooperation in the field. 838. COSPAR activities also provide a forum for presentation of the most significant scientific results in space research. Regular scientific sessions of the COSPAR scientific commissions, held during its Scientific Assembly, allow scientists from all over the world to exchange results and help define the state of knowledge in specific fields of research. Further discussions in the context of working sessions of the scientific commissions permit evaluation of the information and formulation of recommendations regarding future investigations, which, if approved by the COSPAR Council, are then disseminated to national and international agencies and organizations and often result in the establishment of specific research and observation programmes. 839. COSPAR is often requested by other international bodies to conduct specific studies on defined subjects or to contribute directly to the information exchange process. COSPAR has contributed directly to and participated in such programmes as the International Magnetospheric Survey, the Solar Maximum Year, the Middle Atmospheric Programme, the Middle Atmosphere Cooperation, the Solar-Terrestrial Energy Programme and the International Space Year. 840. In 1983 COSPAR, in cooperation with the International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, and with the sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, in the frame of the World Climate Programme, started the International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project, phases 1 (completed in 1984) and 2 (completed in 1986) of which contributed to the assessment of socio-ecological impacts of climate change. 841. In order to mark the International Space Year, COSPAR, together with the International Astronautical Federation (IAF), organized the first World Space Congress. This important event was held in Washington, D. C, in 1992 and attracted close to 5,000 participants, making the Congress the world's largest ever gathering of persons (scientists, engineers, industrialists, politicians, students and the media) involved in space activities. More importantly for COSPAR and IAF, the Congress was the first international attempt to bring together on such a scale the scientific and engineering communities working in the domain of space. 842. At present, COSPAR is pursuing a number of projects, including the International Heliospheric Study begun in 1988 and the International Reference Ionosphere, the latter in collaboration with URSI. Other ongoing projects include the establishment of reference atmospheres for trace species, Venus, Mars, other planets and satellites.

154 Just launched is a project to develop new standard radiation belt models for mission planning, spacecraft engineering, use in scientific studies of the and in promoting the safety of crew members in manned spacecraft. 843. COSPAR also organizes with other competent international bodies specialized symposia and workshops. Such meetings are not restricted to the presentation of results of space experiments, but also include the results of ground-based experiments and theoretical considerations. For 1998 COSPAR organized a series of symposia and meetings in the framework of its 32nd Scientific Assembly that covered the entire spectrum of scientific research. In addition, the Committee in 1997 organized a colloquium entitled "Microsatellites as Research Tools", which was part of the Committee's series of colloquiums, launched in 1989 as a means of addressing in-depth topics of special interest to different groups in the COSPAR community. 844. As part of its efforts to encourage wide participation in meetings of interest to it, the Committee continues to provide a substantial amount of funding to scientists from developing countries and countries with economies in transition. In that regard, the support of many organizations, particularly ICSU and UNESCO, is gratefully acknowledged. 845. The COSPAR secretariat maintains a database of active associates and other persons holding interorganizational or governing functions within the Committee's structure. The status of associate is attributed to participants of COSPAR Assemblies and colloquia and is retained for five years. Thus the number of persons included in the database, which contains contact information and COSPAR scientific commission affiliation when known, varies from year to year, but generally runs around 4,000. The database is distributed to all associates in the form of the COSPAR Directory of Organization and Associates (see under "Publications" below). Under certain conditions the database may also be made available to outside concerns. 846. In recent years the space science community has witnessed a growing understanding of the societal importance of coupling space science to technology and of deploying its efforts in order to aid the development of human potential in the wide sense of the term. COSPAR has responded to that growing awareness in several ways. 847. Firstly, the Committee has strengthened its traditional cooperation with IAF. In addition to the series of joint symposia that IAF and COSPAR have organized for over 10 years during sessions of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, new forums for cross- pollination between the scientific and technical communities will be created. In particular, IAF and COSPAR jointly organized a symposium on science and engineering aspects of solar system exploration as part of the programme of the 32nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly, held in Nagoya, Japan, in July 1998. Similarly, COSPAR and IAF have already begun making plans for a second World Space Congress, which will be held in Houston, Texas, United States of America, in 2002. 848. Secondly, to help develop space research in developing countries, the Committee's Panel on Space Research in Developing Countries initiated a programme to identify ground-based measurements for global and regional change studies. This identification will help support satellite-based research and at the same time can be carried out by developing countries with limited resources. It is hoped that such activities will help train manpower and increase awareness of the value of space research among academic groups. 849. Thirdly, recognizing the paramount importance for science to invest in the development of human potential, COSPAR plans to launch a series of specialized workshops whose aim will be to contribute to the general programme of capacity-building in science that is currently being discussed with the Committee's umbrella organization, ICSU. Specifically, COSPAR action will be aimed at reducing the isolation of scientists in countries where the scientific infrastructure is not greatly developed by helping to integrate local research activities into the mainstream of space science currently being conducted elsewhere.

155 850. Fourthly, COSPAR envisages closer association of the world's industrial space sector with the community of space scientists regrouped in COSPAR in order to better exploit the penchant for innovation so natural to the scientist with the understanding of market forces so pre-eminent in industry. In particular, members of the Committee are considering creating within COSPAR a mechanism by which the views and needs of industry can be better understood and acted upon by scientists in their efforts to elaborate successful research programmes. 3. International cooperation (a) International non-governmental organizations 851. Twelve of the international scientific unions federated in ICSU are members of COSPAR and each is represented on the Council, ensuring them a voice in Committee affairs, including scientific policy and general administration. In addition, several unions participate actively in the work of the COSPAR scientific commissions, ensuring close interaction in areas of mutual interest. COSPAR also maintains close contacts with a number of other ICSU bodies, such as SCOSTEP, SCOPE and SCOR. 852. There is a continuing exchange of information between COSPAR, IAF and the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). Representatives of the three organizations attend COSPAR Scientific Assemblies, and COSPAR representatives are present at the annual IAF Congresses. COSPAR is currently focusing on strengthening interaction between the scientific and engineering/industrial communities involved in space. Much of the work to be accomplished in that sphere will be carried out in collaboration with IAF, as noted above. (b) Intergovernmental organizations 853. COSPAR provides expert technical advice to the United Nations and has observer status with the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. COSPAR is represented at the annual sessions of the Committee and its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and furnishes those bodies with annual reports on progress in space research. Upon request, COSPAR also furnishes reports on specific topics. 854. The European Space Agency (ESA) continues to maintain close links with COSPAR, taking an active part in the Committee's Scientific Assemblies and in the deliberations of its scientific commissions. Indeed, ESA scientists make important contributions to the scientific programmes of COSPAR symposia, workshops and meetings organized within and outside the framework of its Scientific Assemblies. 855. In 1997 COSPAR was invited to become a co-organizer of the continuing series of United Nations/ESA workshops on basic space science. The series promotes education and research in space science and technology on a worldwide basis but in particular in developing countries, and COSPAR contributed its expertise for this purpose beginning with a workshop held in 1997 in Brazil on data analysis techniques. 856. COSPAR collaborates closely with WMO on the joint organization of a number of scientific symposia and meetings and through WMO participation in the COSPAR Scientific Assemblies. COSPAR also cooperates with the joint WMO/ICSU Scientific Committee for the World Climate Research Programme, most recently by sponsoring several meetings of its project entitled Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate. COSPAR maintains contacts with ITU through its membership in the Inter-Union Commission on Frequency Allocations for Radio Astronomy and Space Sciences (IUCAF). IUCAF transmits to ITU all information relating to the needs for frequency allocations in space research. 4. Publications The publications of COSPAR that appear regularly are as follows:

156 Advances in Space Research is the official COSPAR journal and contains the proceedings of the Committee's Scientific Assemblies, with an occasional special issue of papers from other meetings. Volume 20, with proceedings from the 31st COSPAR Scientific Assembly (Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1996), is currently being printed. Two, 12-issue volumes are now published each year by Elsevier Science Ltd. The COSPAR Information Bulletin is the Committee's tri-annual newsletter, providing reports on COSPAR and other meetings, scientific space mission news, articles from space organizations and associates, a survey of satellite and space probes and book reviews. The Bulletin is distributed free of charge to all persons holding interorganizational or governing functions within the Committee and to all associates (any scientists having attended a COSPAR Scientific Assembly or colloquium within the past five years). It is also available by subscription from Elsevier Science Ltd. The COSPAR Colloquia Series contains proceedings from the Committee's colloquiums, which have been held irregularly since late 1989. Seven volumes have appeared to date and are also availablefrom Elsevie r Science Ltd. The COSPAR Directory of Organization and Associates is published every two years and provides information on the Committee's members, scientific structure, commission membership and complete contact information, when available, on individual associates. It is distributed free of charge to all COSPAR associates and persons holding an administrative or governing function within the Committee. A limited number of extra copies are available from the COSPAR secretariat for a small fee to cover production and mailing costs. The newsletters International Reference Ionosphere and International Heliospheric Study are published primarily for participants in those projects. On occasion COSPAR publishes other material resulting from specific projects undertaken by its members and/or associates. Information on the first three publications listed may be obtained over the Internet (see below). 5. Point of contact Secretariat of the Committee on Space Research 51, Bd de Montmorency 75016 Paris, France Telephone: +(33) (1) 45 25 06 79 Facsimile: +(33) (1) 40 50 98 27 Telex: ICSU 645554F (COSPAR) E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://cospar.itodys.jussieu.fr

F. International Law Association 1. History and objectives 857. In October 1873, the Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations was founded in Brussels. Two years later its name was changed to the International Law Association. Its headquarters are in London and at present comprise 50 national branches and an Executive Council under the chairmanship of the Rt. Hon. The Lord Slynn of Hadley. Its objectives are the study, elucidation and advancement of public and private international law; the study of comparative law; the proposal of solutions to conflicts of law; the unification of law and the furthering of international understanding and goodwill.

157 858. A recent feature of the Association is the organization of regional seminars in between the biennial conferences. Those meetings work on a more limited agenda and usually contribute to the research of topics on which the international committees will be reporting at the conferences. After each conference, a report is published containing the work of the committees, the summary of discussions at working sessions during the conference and the resolutions adopted by the plenary meeting at the end of the conference. Those reports, and the work of the committees, have been quoted widely around the world, by public and private bodies, ILA work is also referred to in decisions of the International Court of Justice and the International Law Commission of the United Nations. 859. Many of the 67 international conferences to date have resulted in historic advancements in intemational law: the York-Antwerp Rules of General Average (Antwerp, 1877); a draft convention for the protection of property belonging to foreigners (Oxford, 1932); the first general codification of the law of international rivers (1966 Helsinki Rules); the draft convention on diplomatic and territorial asylum (New York, 1972); the draft articles for a convention on state immunity (Montreal, 1982); the international instrument on damage caused by space debris (Buenos Aires, 1994); and many other achievements. 2. Activities of the Space Law Committee 860. Through its Space Law Committee ILA has contributed to the codification and progressive development of the international law of outer space. The Committee was established shortly after the launching of the first Sputnik and met for the first time in 1958 in New York during the 48th Conference of ILA. In the following conferences the Committee was mainly concerned with the legal status of outer space and the question of liability arising from activities in outer space. 861. Among the most important landmarks in the work of the Space Law Committee are the following: (a) 53rd Conference, Buenos Aires, 1968. Resolutions adopted on the meaning of the term "outer space" (all space at and above the lowest perigee achieved by 27 January 1967); telecommunication satellites, and registration of spacecraft; (b) The Present State ofInternational Law and Other Essays, 1973. The book was published in honour of the centenary of ILA. The Rapporteur of the Space Law Committee contributed a chapter on the present state of space law; (c) 56th Conference, New Delhi, 1974. The Committee addressed the problem of direct broadcast satellites; (d) 57th Conference, Madrid, 1976. Reports were presented and discussions held on direct broadcast satellites and on remote sensing satellites. Resolutions were adopted on both topics; (e) 58th Conference, Manila, 1978. A report was presented on the demarcation of air space and outer space, including discussion of the geostationary orbit in the light of the 1976 . A questionnaire was circulated to Committee members in advance and answers were analysed at the working session in Manila. A resolution was adopted by consensus declaring that space at and above the altitude of 100 kilometres above sea level had been increasingly acknowledged, by States as well as by experts in the field of outer space activities, as constituting outer space. The Conference, in addition, recommended the study of the settlement of space law disputes; (f) 59th Conference, Belgrade, 1980. Two topics were dealt with, the demarcation of air space and outer space, including a questionnaire where emphasis was given to the elucidation of the legal nature of the geostationary orbit, and the settlement of space law disputes, which consisted of a working paper and a questionnaire;

158 (g) 60th Conference, Montreal, 1982. Part of the working session on space law was devoted to the discussion of a report dealing with conflicts in the interpretation of the leading principles of the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979. As was customary, a questionnaire had been previously sent out to the members and the replies were included in the report. The questions focused mainly on the interpretation of the concepts of "common heritage of mankind" and of "weapons of mass destruction", and of whether there existed a moratorium on the exploitation of the Moon's resources before the international regime provided for in the Agreement had been implemented. The questionnaire also contained a number of basic questions concerning a draft convention on the settlement of space law disputes. Special attention was given to the question of compulsory jurisdiction and the enforcement of decisions and awards. The answers to these questions were published in the report of the Conference; (h) 61st Conference, Paris, 1984. The first draft of a convention on the settlement of space law disputes was examined in detail, as was, in particular, the possibility of having an annex to the convention with a dispute settlement clause and of establishing, within the text of the instrument, both binding and non-binding procedures for dispute settlement. The Chairman of the Committee submitted a report on the military uses of outer space, in which he included the answers to the questionnaire submitted by members. This working document was circulated prior to the Conference; (i) 62nd Conference, Seoul, 1986. The Chairman of the Committee prepared a discussion paper on latest efforts to strengthen the present rules aimed at arms control in outer space, which was followed by a talk on the latest developments. At the 62nd Conference the idea of the Committee taking up the study of the legal aspects of space debris began to gain ground; (j) 63rd Conference, Warsaw, 1988. The Chairman of the Committee submitted a report on the interpretation of the legal rules governing military space activities, which contained answers to the questions he had previously circulated to members. The Rapporteur presented a report entitled "Environmental aspects of activities in outer space—state of the law and measures of protection", dealing with the present state of treaty law; the present state of customary law and general principles of law; suggestions for the future; and suggestions for the future work of the ILA Space Law Committee. As on previous occasions, comments on the report were included. Resolutions were adopted on both topics. One of the resolutions proclaimed the urgent need for a definition of impermissible categories of military uses of, or on, space stations, while the second entrusted the Committee with the task of exchanging views in order to draw up principles and guidelines on the legal aspects of space debris, to be discussed at the following Conference, and of considering the possibility of starting work on a draft convention. It also suggested that the subject could be considered for inclusion on the agenda of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space; (k) 64th Conference, Queensland, Australia, 1990. The Space Law Committee was involved in the task entrusted by the Warsaw Conference in its resolution. Shortly after that meeting the Chairman and the Rapporteur of the Committee submitted a list of questions to members concerning clarification of the present state of the law and suggestions for the future. On the basis of the replies received and with comments from the Chairman and of her own, the Rapporteur submitted her report to the 64th Conference. A resolution was passed recommending that work be started on an international instrument on space debris, to be considered at the 1992 Conference, and that the following principles and guidelines should be taken into account in the work: (i) A general obligation to cooperate in the field of environmental risks arising from space activities and to negotiate in good faith; (ii) An obligation to ensure that space activities do not cause damage to persons, objects or the environment of other States, or to the environment in areas beyond national jurisdiction;

159 (iii) An obligation to exchange information, to consult and to cooperate with other States and international organizations in order to reduce existing and prevent future space debris as much as possible; (iv) An obligation to make every effort to settle eventual disputes in a prompt and amicable manner and, failing this, to resort to arbitration or adjudication to achieve a final and binding settlement; (1) 65th Conference, Cairo, 1992. The Rapporteur presented her final report and third draft of an international instrument concerning the protection of the environment from damage caused by space activities, containing "The Pillars of the Proposed Instrument" and "Principles and Guidelines" along the lines suggested in the resolution adopted at the Queensland Conference. Part A of the draft instrument included a number of definitions, part B dealt with the scope of application, part C with the compatibility of the international instrument with other agreements and part D with a series of obligations (general and particular) relating to the prevention of space debris. Part E concerned dispute settlement and provided for the application of the ILA Convention on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes (Paris, 1984) in a number of assumptions. The report was adopted by consensus and the ensuing resolution recommendedthat work proceed on the basis of the draft with a view to concluding a final text for presentation to the 66th Conference; (m) 66th Conference, Buenos Aires, 1994. After two readings following the Cairo Conference, both a report and the final text of the international instrument on the protection of the environment from damage caused by space debris were adopted by the Conference. The term "space debris" in the title replaced that of "space activity", which had been used until the Cairo Conference and was thought to be too wide. The final text embodied the principles and guidelines adopted at the previous Conferences and added rules on international responsibility and liability. It reflected the thinking of the Space Law Committee, which, during the drafting process, had exchanged views among its members on a continuing basis as well as with other specialists in the law of outer space, both in the legal and scientific fields. Bearing in mind the interdisciplinary nature of the topic, the Space Law Committee relied on the assistance of three scientific consultants. The Conference adopted the international instrument by consensus and requested the Secretary-General of the United Nations to communicate both the instrument and the report to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and to other appropriate governmental and private institutions for further consideration; (n) 67th Conference, Helsinki, 1996. The draft report on dispute settlement related to space activities was circulated twice before the 67th Conference and took into account the responses received to a questionnaire previously sent to members. The Rapporteur submitted a report focusing on the developments in the 10 years since the adoption of the draft Convention on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes by the ILA Conference in Paris in 1984. The report included comments by the Chairman of the Committee, the Director of the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations, noted law professors and the Rapporteur. The report also included a chapter on space debris, since the Space Law Committee had agreed to keep the matter under permanent review. The chapter contained contributions from noted law professors and comments thereon by the Rapporteur. The report included further remarks on space debris based on the Chairman's presentation to a colloquium celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the International Court of Justice, held in April 1996, and remarks by the Rapporteur. In a final resolution, the Helsinki Conference requested the Space Law Committee, taking into account the report submitted and discussion on it, to prepare a revised draft convention on the settlement of disputes related to space activities and to submit that draft, with a commentary, to the 68th Conference, to be held in Taipei, Taiwan Province of China, in 1998. A revised draft text was subsequently circulated to Committee members and scientific consultants in October 1997 for a first round of comments, together with a chapter on the legal aspects of space debris.

160 3. International cooperation 862. The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space of the United Nations accorded the ILA Space Law Committee permanent observer status in 1990. Since that time a representative of the ILA Committee has attended the meetings of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Legal Subcommittee and explained ILA work on the subject. One of the scientific consultants of the Space Law Committee, Dietrich Rex, is presently Chairman of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Some members of the Space Law Committee are or have been delegates of their countries to the Legal Subcommittee. Members of the ILA Space Law Committee have attended the colloquiums organized by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in Vienna. 863. The ILA Space Law Committee has held a number of meetings in cooperation with other institutions, generally on extremely topical matters where the existing rules and principles of international law needed further elaboration. On most occasions a publication followed. The following are some notable activities: (a) 1979 Munich International Colloquium on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes, in cooperation with the Space Law Committee and the Intemational Institute of Space Law (IISL). Published by Carl Heymanns Verlag; (b) 1979 Cordoba, Argentina, Seminar on the Settlement of Space Law Disputes, in cooperation with the Council of Advanced International Studies of Argentina. Published in 1981 by the Council; (c) 1987 Buenos Aires Regional Seminar of ILA, where one of the topics concerned environmental risks arising from space activities. The proceedings were published in a special number of the Revista del Colegio deAbogados de Buenos Aires, vol. 48, No. 1, March 1988; (d) 1988 Cologne International Colloquium on the Environmental Aspects of Activities in Outer Space, in cooperation with the Space Law Committee and IISL. Published by Carl Heymanns Verlag; (e) 1988 Asuncion. The Rapporteur of the Space Law Committee was invited to serve as Rapporteur to the Ibero-American Meeting on Air and Space Law on the subject of delimitation of outer space with special reference to the legal regime of the geostationary orbit. The meeting unanimously agreed on the need to study the legal aspects of space debris; (f) 1992 Cologne International Colloquium on Manned Space Flight, in cooperation with the German Space Agency and the German Aerospace Research Establishment. Members of the Space Law Committee and of IISL took part in discussions, which included the analysis of a joint project that had led to a draft convention on the subject. Published by Carl Heymanns Verlag; (g) 1995 Cologne International Colloquium to celebrate 70 years of the Institute of Air and Space Law of the University of Cologne and 20 years of the Chair of Intemational Business Law, on perspectives of air law, space law and international business law for the next century. A number of members of the Space Law Committee were invited as speakers, as well as the Chairman of the Executive Council of ILA. Published by Carl Heymanns Verlag; (h) Colloquiums of the International Institute of Space Law. A number of members of the Space Law Committee play an active role in the activities of DSL; (i) 1993 and 1997 Darmstadt. The First and Second European Conferences on Space Debris were attended by the Chairman and some members of the Space Law Committee, who made contributions reflected in the ILA space law reports;

161 (j) Ibero-American Institute of Air and Space Law. Some members of the Institute also belong to the Space Law Committee. The 1998 meeting, held in Lisbon in October, included the settlement of space law disputes as one of the topics and invited the Rapporteur of the Space Law Committee to act in that capacity at the forthcoming Lisbon meeting; (k) The University of Buenos Aires is sponsoring a three-year programme on environmental risks: space debris under the direction of the Rapporteur of the Space Law Committee (Proyecto DEOOl, Secretaria de Ciencia y Tecnica; e-mail: [email protected]. See also the Internet home page of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space). 4. Publications In addition to the conference reports, please see the publications list above. 5. Point of contact Enquiries may be sent to the office of the Chairman or the Rapporteur of the ILA Space Law Committee, as follows: Chairman Mr. Karl-Heinz Bockstiegel Director, Institute of Air and Space Law Cologne University Albertus-Magnus-Platz D-50923 Cologne, Germany Telephone: +(49) (0221) 470 2337 Facsimile: +(49) (0221) 470 4968 Rapporteur Ms. Maureen Williams Migueletes 923 (1426) Buenos Aires, Argentina Telephone: +(54) (1) 772 3662 Facsimile: +(54) (1) 772 3662 E-mail: [email protected]

G. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 1. Mandate and objectives 864. The International Society of Photogrammetry (ISP) was founded in 1910 under the leadership of its first President, Edouard Dolezal, from Austria. After 70 years of functioning under its original name, the Society changed its name in 1980 to the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS). 865. Photogrammetry and remote sensing are the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information from non-contact imaging and other sensor systems about the Earth and its environment and other physical objects and processes, through recording, measuring, analysing and representation. The term "photogrammetry" was first used in published work in 1867, when the art and science of photography itself was still in its infancy. Over the last 80 years the principal application of photogrammetry has been the compilation of maps from aerial

162 photographs. During the most recent decade photogrammetry and remote sensing has provided the primary source data for geographic information systems. There has been in addition a continuing development of applications of photogrammetric close-range techniques to many other fields—engineering, architecture, archaeology, medicine, law and machine vision. Surveillance and environmental imaging and interpretative studies from aircraft and Earth satellites, using sensors that operate in the various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum—ultraviolet, visible, infrared, thermal and microwave—have come to be called "remote sensing". There is no special significance, however, in the degree of "remoteness" of the sensor from the object surveyed and any form of non-contact observation can be regarded as remote sensing. Major applications of remotely sensed images include studies for mapping, agriculture, forestry, sustainable development, environmental and global monitoring, non-renewable and renewable resources and geotechnics. There is no clear distinction between photogrammetry and remote sensing and it is for this reason that the Society changed its name in 1980. 866. ISPRS is a non-governmental organization devoted to the development of international cooperation for the advancement of photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems and their applications. The Society operates without discrimination on grounds of race, religion, nationality or political philosophy. The official languages are English, French and German. 867. ISPRS is a society of members comprising ordinary members, countries or regions of countries having an independent budget, which represent the whole community of photogrammetrists, remote sensing and/or spatial information system experts in the country or region; associate members, organizations that represent a community of photogrammetrists, remote sensing experts and/or spatial information system experts in a country and are not represented by the ordinary member organization of the country; regional members, multinational associations of photogrammetry, remote sensing and/or spatial information systems, organizations established for the purpose of considering issues of common interest, promoting regional cooperation, convening regional conferences and the like; sustaining members, individuals, organizations, institutions or agencies that manufacture or distribute instruments, equipment or supplies, operate or provide services in the fields of photogrammetry, remote sensing and/or spatial information systems or are engaged in research and/or education and contribute to the financial support of the Society; and honorary members, individuals whose efforts in photogrammetry and remote sensing are exceptionally distinguished and who are duly nominated and elected. 868. The principal activities of the Society are: (a) Stimulating the formation of national or regional societies of photogrammetry and remote sensing; (b) Initiating and coordinating research in photogrammetry and remote sensing; (c) Holding international symposia and congresses at regular intervals; (d) Ensuring worldwide circulation of the records of discussion and the results of research by publication of the International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; (e) Encouraging the publication and exchange of scientific papers and journals dealing with photogrammetry and remote sensing. 869. The principal elements for directing and managing the work of the Society are: (a) The General Assembly, which determines the general policy of the Society and is the supreme authority for all decisions; (b) The Council, which includes the President, the Congress Director, the First Vice-President, the Second Vice-President, the Secretary-General and the Treasurer. The Council conducts the normal

163 administrative affairs of the Society in the interval between meetings of the General Assembly in accordance with the statutes and by-laws, and the directives of the Assembly and the Congress; (c) The Congress, which consists of all the photogrammetrists and remote sensing specialists present who are affiliated with a member organization and others who have been invited. The Congress convenes every four years. The most recent ISPRS Congress was held in Vienna in July 1996; (d) The scientific and technical work of ISPRS, which is accomplished by seven technical commissions that organize working groups to undertake studies, investigations and research and to prepare reports on topics within the scope of ISPRS. Each commission holds a symposium between Congresses to present details of its work. The culmination of the technical commissions' operations is the selection of papers to be presented at the Congress held at the conclusion of their four-year period of tenure of the Commission. 2. Activities (a) Organizations 870. During the 18th ISPRS Congress and General Assembly, held in Vienna in July 1996, scientific and technical sessions were held, a technical exhibit was organized and meetings of the General Assembly were convened. At the Assembly, new members were admitted, changes of membership category took place, a new category of membership, associate member, was approved, the Council and Presidents of the technical commissions were elected and the location of the 19th Congress was determined (Amsterdam, the Netherlands), with the theme "Geo-Information for All". The new Council for the period 1996-2000 was appointed at the Congress as follows: President: Lawrence W. Fritz, United States of America Secretary-General: John C. Trinder, Australia Congress Director: Klaas Jan Beek, The Netherlands Treasurer: Heinz Ruther, South Africa First Vice-President: Shunji Murai, Japan Second Vice-President: Marcio Barbosa, Brazil The new Technical Commissions Presidents for the period 1996-2000 are: Commission I: George Joseph, India Commission II: Ian Dowman, United Kingdom Commission HI: Toni Schenk, United States of America Commission IV: Dieter Fritsch, Germany Commission V: Hirofumi Chikatsu, Japan Commission VI: Lukman Aziz, Indonesia Commission VII: Gabor Remetey-Fiilopp, Hungary 871. ISPRS commenced the publication of a bulletin, ISPRS Highlights, four times per year, with the first edition being issued in October 1996. 872. On 25 April 1997, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the Office for Outer Space Affairs and ISPRS. In summary, the terms of the memorandum commit both parties: (a) To promote and conduct activities of mutual interest to the United Nations Programme on Space Applications;

164 (b) To aim to sponsor a joint event annually; (c) To coordinate schedules, events, topics and/or specialist needs in pre-planning-related activities; (d) Jointly to seek financial support and identify specialists and lecturers for United Nations-led events that require photogrammetric, remote sensing and geographic information systems expertise; (e) To have ISPRS incorporate formal opportunities within the framework of the Programme on Space Applications to be included in the quadrennial ISPRS Congress and the relevant quadrennial ISPRS commission symposia and working group activities; (f) To request ISPRS to provide scientific and technological expertise through reviews, evaluations and recommendations on space-related matters of remote sensing. 873. The agreement has no financial implications for the United Nations or ISPRS. (b) Current activities (i) Technical working groups finalized for the period 1996-2000 874. The 44 working groups of the seven ISPRS technical commissions for the period 1996-2000 were finalized in January 1997 and published in the ISPRS Organization and Programs Book (Silver Book), and also placed on the Society's home page. The working groups will build on the work of the commissions demonstrated at the 1996 Congress. The Congress consisted of 10 tutorials, 127 technical and poster sessions, a technical exhibition, 3 plenary sessions and special sessions of collaborating organizations, during which new developments in the discipline of photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems were presented. The following new developments were revealed at the Congress: (a) The emergence of the new high spatial resolution remote sensing satellites that will become available within the next year or so; (b) The development to operational status of digital photogrammetry, based on digitized photography and remotely sensed images, and image processing for mapping applications, automatic digital terrain model generation and orthophoto production. This has resulted in the integration of this digital technology with geographic information systems for data acquisition, processing and management; (c) The above developments reveal that evaluation and definition of standards for data archival and distribution are becoming increasingly important for their applications; (d) There is a growing demand for fast, reliable and automated extraction and updating of data from digital images generated by geographic information systems and computer-aided design. Work in ISPRS has so far focused on such tasks as image segmentation, grouping, texture analysis and image matching. Substantial progress has been achieved in a number of projects on automatic and semi-automatic road and building extraction; (e) Developments in interferometric methods using radar data to determine high-accuracy digital terrain model data from space; (f) Spectral and radiometric studies and measurements to understand better the characteristics of reflected electro-magnetic radiation recorded by remote sensing satellite;

165 (g) The broad range of applications of remotely sensed data for renewable resources, resource and environmental monitoring, terrestrial ecosystems, desertification and land degradation and human settlements; (h) A better understanding of the characteristics of radar images and the relationships between the nature of terrain features and the characteristics of the radar propagation. (ii) Development of the programme of educational opportunities 875. Following the recommendation of the 18th ISPRS Congress, held in Vienna in 1996, that a task force be established to facilitate and promote grants, fellowships, scholarships, tutorials, workshops and similar educational opportunities in the fields of photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems, the Chairman of the ISPRS Task Force on Educational Opportunities has planned the following series of steps, which involve an integrated effort between the Task Force and members of ISPRS. Each of the members will act within his/her area of influence, which will be defined in relation to several factors, such as distance to the training centres, official language adopted by the training centres and so on. 876. The steps involved in the implementation process are outlined below: (a) Assess the existing training opportunities in photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems worldwide, aiming at updating the United Nations directory; (b) Make contact with existing training centres in the above fields for information on opportunities, courses calendar, programmes, grants, fellowships, scholarships and so on; (c) Identify grants, fellowships, scholarships and so on offered by each of the training centres in support of the ISPRS training programme; (d) Interact with ISPRS Technical Commission VI to exchange views on educational needs in photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems worldwide; (e) Facilitate interaction between ISPRS ordinary and associate members within the area of influence of the participant training centre and the centre officials in order to formalize the procedures and rules to be adopted; (f) Disseminate details of ISPRS training opportunities through ordinary and associate members within their area of influence, using available means of communication, such as ISPRS Highlights and the ISPRS home page; (g) Pre-select ISPRS training opportunity candidates by the ordinary and associate members and submission of proposals to the training centres; (h) Strengthen the interaction between the ordinary and associate members and the regional and sustaining members of the Society in order to ensure their involvement in the educational programme and their possible commitment of complementary financial support, when needed; (i) Follow-up the implementation of the training opportunities by the ordinary and associate members; (j) Provide information on all the educational opportunities implemented each year to the Chairman of the Task Force on Educational Opportunities.

166 (c) Future activities (i) Conferences 877. The seven ISPRS technical commission symposia were held in 1998, as announced on the ISPRS home page and other ISPRS publications. At some of the symposia, special meetings will be directed towards the interests of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. In addition, ISPRS is planning to participate in the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in the form of workshops and an exhibition. The next ISPRS Congress will be held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands from 16 to 23 July 2000. (ii) Satellite image sensors 878. Since the beginning of satellite remote sensing the number and variety of imaging space sensors has increased considerably. This trend will continue in the next decade. For the task of environmental research and monitoring, data from different sensor types will be available. Multi-sensor and multi-temporal data sets can be used for various disciplines and applications. In most cases the interpretation and processing of those data are aimed at describing environmental situations quantitatively or deriving geophysical parameters. The quality of scientific results and products obtained from remote sensing data depends mainly on the radiometric, spectral and geometric calibration of the sensor: the accuracy of the calibration limits finally the quality of derived products. In the past, remote sensing data included errors and limitations that were not always clearly understandable by the users. The standards and terminology used by various groups and communities were not necessarily the same. It is therefore one of the main objectives of Commission I of ISPRS to bring together experts in sensor calibration to report on the calibration procedures of current and planned sensors and the techniques and standards applied. The aim is to seek a common understanding of the meaning of standards and terms. 879. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data from satellite and aircraft are becoming increasingly important in mapping applications, in particular for digital terrain model generation using interferometric techniques and, more recently, stereoscopic techniques. At the same time SAR is becoming increasingly important as a complementary source of data for a range of applications, including agricultural monitoring, hazard prediction and disaster monitoring. For this reason SAR needs to be more understood and integrated with other data. More image- processing systems are providing facilities for handling SAR and better algorithms are being developed. ISPRS has set itself the objective of extending the use of SAR as a source of geo-spatial data, to remove the mystique from SAR and extend awareness of the potential of the data and of the means available to exploit them. (Hi) Acquisition of data from geographic information systems 880. ISPRS will collaborate with other organizations to make efficient use of the wide range of data types and of the large volumes of data becoming available from satellite sensors and aircraft and to encourage the dissemination of such data for a range of applications. An important activity in the use of such a wide range of data is their use to solve specific problems through the design of one-off systems. Geographic information systems are becoming increasingly important in the management of the large volumes of topographical and environmental data collected by photogrammetry and remote sensing. The subsequent structuring of the data for efficient management and retrieval will be a major area of study for ISPRS in the future. (iv) Digital photogrammetric workstations 881. Digital photogrammetric workstations continue to develop at a very rapid pace. Systems are becoming less expensive and easier to use, thus creating a wider range of users, often coming from the geographic information systems and computer-aided design communities. The near future will see the advent of powerful personal computer, Windows NT-based digital photogrammetric workstations, thus opening up an even greater user community. ISPRS will therefore concentrate on four aspects of digital systems: developing more automation; integration of data from different sources in photogrammetric systems and geographic information systems; encouraging greater communication between manufacturer and user; and real-time systems. Object recognition

167 and image understanding is the central theme of these developments and a number of ISPRS working groups therefore have object recognition and image interpretation on their agenda of study. (v) Resource and environmental monitoring 882. New approaches introduced in remote sensing of the environment include the use of reference surfaces to correct for topographical effects, thermal imaging of soils that account for solar direction on the recorded field measurements, decomposition of radar backscatter into different mechanisms for the analysis of urban areas and a new hue-intensity-saturation transformation. The fusion of sensor data and integration of climatic information and human activities have been the approach for modelling processes of desertification and degradation, including the discrimination of different levels of environmental problems. The combination of remote sensing data and human factors will gain increasing importance in future studies of the environment. Studies of terrestrial ecosystems will focus on the development of automated techniques for identification and mapping of agricultural vegetation and estimation of agricultural productivity, based on a range of satellite systems and climatic data. The study of urban areas with radar data shows the advance in the analyses of backscatter in distinct polarizations (horizontal transmit, horizontal receive (HH); horizontal transmit, vertical receive (HV); vertical transmit, vertical receive (W)), to stratify and delineate constructed areas, water and forest zones. Socio-economic information can also be derived from remotely sensed data combined with auxiliary data. 883. New high-resolution satellite sensors such as those which will be available in the next few years with resolutions as high as one metre will provide new opportunities for mapping, studies of urban areas and monitoring the environment. Future studies by ISPRS working groups will include extension of the analyses of the spectral characteristics and polarization properties of various types of terrain cover; the application of remotely sensed data and geographic information systems for sustainable development; new approaches to computer- assisted image interpretation and analysis of multi-spectral, multi-resolution and multi-sensor remotely sensed data; global monitoring incorporating collaboration with appropriate international bodies associated with monitoring the environment; radar applications, based on multi-wavelength and multi-polarization data, for applications in land cover classification, biomass estimation, forest inventory, wetland mapping, agricultural crop monitoring, urban analysis and sea state conditions; and renewable resource and geotechnical applications for mineral and petroleum exploration, based on a range of sensors, such as high- resolution satellites and aerial photography. 3. International cooperation 884. The role of ISPRS in promoting international cooperation for the advancement of photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information systems has expanded significantly over recent years. There are three categories of organization with which the Society associated: organizations of the United Nations system, United Nations- related organizations and other societies in related areas of science and technology. (a) Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 885. ISPRS has observer status with the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Since 1989, the ISPRS Secretary-General has delivered a statement at each of the annual February meetings of its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and at the annual June meetings of the Committee itself. ISPRS maintains liaison with the Office for Outer Space Affairs, Member States of the United Nations and its Secretariat on all matters relating to space activities. The Office for Outer Space Affairs also organizes conferences and education and training programmes in various aspects of the space sciences. (b) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 886. ISPRS has a non-governmental organization category B relationship for information and consultative relations with UNESCO, which makes it eligible for financial support and gives it the opportunity to submit proposals.

168 (c) Economic and Social Council 887. ISPRS is an accredited non-governmental organization in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council and the United Nations Office at Vienna. As with UNESCO, ISPRS submits reports and receives many United Nations documents. ISPRS participates actively in the United Nations regional cartographic conferences by preparing background and scientific papers as well as by contributing to policy discussions and resolutions. (d) Department of Public Information 888. ISPRS participates in the annual conference organized by the Department of Public Information of the United Nations Secretariat and receives monthly documents from the Department on United Nations activities. The Department has allowed two ISPRS Council members access to the United Nations photo library services. (e) Department for Development Support and Management Services 889. ISPRS coordinates and consults with the staff of the Department for Development Support and Management Services of the United Nations Secretariat to promote international cooperative activities with the United Nations regional groups. (f) International Union of Technical Associations and Organizations 890. ISPRS is a member of UATI, an international non-governmental organization umbrella organization for engineering and technology organizations. It coordinates and facilitates cooperation with UNESCO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Economic and Social Council and conducts collaborative projects in the developing world. It has joined with the World Federation of Engineering Organizations to become the International Council for Engineering and Technology. (g) International Organization for Standardization 891. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies. ISO international standards are developed in agreement between member bodies. International organizations such as ISPRS may be granted liaison status (category A or B) with an ISO technical committee, subcommittee or working group. Category A liaison status gives the right to full participation, whereas B status is for information only. ISPRS currently has liaison status on the following ISO technical committees: ISO/TC 20 Aircraft and Space Vehicles; ISO/TC 42 Photography; ISO/TC 172 Optics and Optical Instruments and its Subcommittee 9, Electro optical systems; and ISO/TC 211 Geographic Information/Geomatics. (h) World Bank environmental information systems in sub-Saharan Africa (i) International Social Science Council 892. ISPRS has collaborative arrangements with the International Social Science Council and several of its working groups. (j) International Committee for Architectural Photogrammetry (k) International Council of Monuments and Sites 893. ISPRS and the International Council of Monuments and Sites each provide six members to the managing body, the International Committee for Architectural Photogrammetry, which holds an international conference every two years at which the most recent developments in architectural photogrammetry are presented.

169 (I) Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 894. ISPRS is currently establishing formal arrangements with the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites to enable it to have closer working relationships. 4. Publications The publications of ISPRS fall into five categories: (a) The journal International Archives ofPhotogrammetry and Remote Sensing contains the proceedings and the scientific and technical presentations of each Congress, edited and distributed by the member organization responsible for the Congress. The scientific and technical presentations at technical commission symposia are also published by the sponsoring member as volumes of the Archives; (b) The ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, the official publication of the Society, contains scientific and technical articles and reviews in the field of photogrammetry and remote sensing, and, as such, endeavours to be a primary channel of communication on the scientific activities of ISPRS for specialists in all countries working in the many disciplines applying photogrammetry and remote sensing; (c) The ISPRS Highlights is the official bulletin of the Society, containing such items as the ISPRS annual reports, general news of ISPRS activities, event reports of ISPRS-sponsored conferences, lists of officers, keynote speeches, books, project and technology reviews, minutes of Council and technical commission meetings, and calls for papers; (d) The ISPRS Organization and Programs 1996-2000 (Silver Book) and the annual publication ISPRS Member List (Blue Book) are published to provide members and interested groups a brief description of current activities and addresses and the underlying precepts of the Society; (e) Special circulars and announcements are used to provide information on Congresses, symposia and other activities of ISPRS. 5. Point of contact The secretariat and headquarters of ISPRS from 1996 to 2000 are located at the Secretary-General's office at: School of Geomatic Engineering University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia Telephone: +(61) (2) 9385 4197 or +(61) (2) 9385 5308 Facsimile: +(61) (2) 9313 7493 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.geod.ethz.ch/isprs

H. International Space University 1. Mandate and objectives 895. Founded in 1987, the International Space University (ISU) is an innovative, global, interdisciplinary, international and intercultural space-oriented educational institution devoted to (a) the education, in space-related

170 fields, of professionals of all disciplines; (b) the creation and expansion of knowledge through research and the training of researchers; and (c) the exchange and dissemination of knowledge and ideas in the service of the world community, dedicated to the development of space-related activities for peaceful purposes, the improvement of life on Earth and the expansion of life into space, by inspiring those leaders and innovators who will promote the application of space technology in areas such as communication, education, science, health care, meteorology and management of resources for initiating sustainable development of all nations, and who will guide humanity into the next frontier. 896. ISU offers a wide range of innovative educational and outreach programmes devoted to space and the peaceful applications of space, and is building up its research activities in collaboration with partners around the world. 897. The breadth of its programmes, coupled with its global network of institutions and individuals, enables the University to play a unique role in the development of space for the benefit of all the people of the world. 2. Activities 898. ISU currently conducts a number of space education programmes for the benefit of the worldwide community: (a) Summer session programme. Beginning in 1988, ISU began offering an annual 10-week summer session programme, held each year in a different educational or research institution around the world. Since that time the programme has been held in Austria, Canada, France, Japan, Spain, Sweden and the United States of America. Plans are under way for future programmes to be held in Asia and South America. Each year, approximately 100 graduate students and young professionals from around the world participate in the programme. Students are asked to participate in one of the two design projects of topical significance that are proposed for collaborative team work. The programme plays a valuable role in providing an overview of world space activities and a unique opportunity for its participants to work with space professionals worldwide; (b) Master of Space Studies programme. After relocating to the site of its planned central campus in Strasbourg, France, in 1995, ISU began offering a one-year Master of Space Studies programme based in Strasbourg, including a 12-week professional placement period at an ISU affiliate or other institution in different parts of the world. The programme covers a broad range of disciplines applicable to space and its utilization and focuses on the integration of those disciplines into a coherent picture. The course is international in content and perspective and demands a personal commitment to a multicultural working environment. All students participate in the team project, which develops teamwork skills in a multinational environment and is an opportunity to develop innovative solutions to current programmes; (c) Professional development programmes. Short courses, seminars and other activities emphasize the international and interdisciplinary components of chosen themes. The professional development programme provides further professional training for mid-level and senior managers working in space-related government and industrial organizations, helping them improve performance in space endeavours; (d) Forum activities. ISU provides a neutral forum, independent of national or commercial interests, for discussion and debate of the many challenging technical and non-technical issues relating to space and its applications. Each year ISU hosts an annual international symposium tied to the topic of the current Master of Space Studies team project. In 1998 the topic was "Space and the global village: tele-services for the twenty-first century". In addition, ISU also supports smaller forum activities such as workshops; (e) Research. A high-quality interdisciplinary and intemational research programme is being implemented. The ISU permanent faculty will conduct research with the active support of the broader ISU community, especially its 25 affiliates and other space institutions around the world;

171 (f) ISU affiliates. Currently ISU has 25 affiliates from 14 countries. These ISU affiliates are universities, university departments, research or educational institutions and consortia of institutions throughout the world. Together with the ISU central campus, the affiliates constitute an international, multidisciplinary network offering great potential for cooperative endeavours in teaching, research and outreach. 899. In the future ISU plans to expand and enhance its programmes and also to become involved in other efforts such as the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. For example, alumni of ISU have agreed to undertake the planning and coordination of the Youth Forum that will be held at the Conference. 3. Intemational cooperation 900. In addition to the 25 ISU affiliates mentioned above, ISU has ongoing cooperative agreements with various space agencies such as ESA, the National Space Research Centre (CNES) of France, the National Aeronautics and Space Association of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency to provide education and training for their employees and potential employees, the exchange of faculty and cooperation on projects of interest. 901. In 1995 ISU was invited to become a member of the Space Agency Forum. A year later, the Forum endorsed a proposal for ISU to coordinate the work of its Focus Group on Space Education in order to help develop means to provide education and training for the professionals required for the future development of and research in space-related fields. 902. In 1997 ISU was granted observer status by the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 4. Publications The ISU core textbook, Space, is currently being published by McGraw Hill. This textbook, originally inspired by the core curriculum of the summer session programme, will be used as a tool to support all ISU programmes. It will also be available as a resource to the wider public. ISU publishes annually the proceedings of the ISU annual symposium, the Master of Space Studies team project reports and summer session programme design projects report. A complete list of ISU publications is available on the University's Web page. 5. Point of contact Head, Office of the President International Space University Pare d'Innovation Bd Gonthier d' Andernach 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France Telephone: +(33) (3) 88 54 54 52 Facsimile: +(33) (3) 88 65 54 47 E-mail: [email protected] URL: http://www.isunet.edu

172 Annex LIST OF SELECTED UNITED NATIONS DOCUMENTS RELATING TO OUTER SPACE' A. Documents of the General Assembly 1. Resolutions and decision of the General Assembly*

Resolution Decision number Action by the General Assembly number Date of adoption 1348 (xm) Establishes the ad hoc Committee on the 13 December 1958 Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 1472 (XIV) A Establishes the Committee on the Peaceful 12 December 1959 Uses of Outer Space. 1721 (XVI) B Establishes the United Nations registry for 20 December 1961 launchings. 1721 (XVI) E Increases the membership of the 20 December 1961 Committee. 13 December 1963 Made the Declaration of Legal Principles 1962 (xvm) Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space/ 19 December 1966 Decides to convene the United Nations 2221 (XXI) Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 19 December 1966 Commends the Treaty on Principles 2222 (XXI) Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

"Some of the older documents are out of print. 'The list of selected resolutions is partially annotated. Two resolutions concerning questions relating to general and complete disarmament were adopted by the General Assembly in 1963 and are of relevance to outer space: (a) resolution 1884 (XVIII) of 17 October 1963, in which the Assembly welcomed the expression by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America of their intention not to station in outer space any objects carrying nuclear weapons or other kinds of weapons of mass destruction and called upon all States to refrainfrom participating in the conduct of those activities; and (b) resolution 1910 (XVIII) of 27 November 1963, in which the Assembly welcomed the signing of the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, signed in August 1963, and called upon all States to become parties to it. 173 Resolution Decision number number Date of adoption Action by the General Assembly 2345 (XXH) Commends the Agreement on the Rescue 19 December 1967 of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 2453 (XXUI) A Commends the results of the United 20 December 1968 Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 2453 (XXITJ)B Requests the Committee on the Peaceful 20 December 1968 Uses of Outer Space to complete urgently the preparation of a draft liability agreement and approves the establishment of a working group on direct broadcast satellites. 2777 (XXVI) Commends the Convention on International 29 November 1971 Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.

Enlarges the membership of the Committee 3182 (XXVm) 18 December 1973 on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space by the appointment of nine additional members. 3235 (XXIX) Commends the Convention on Registration 12 November 1974 of Objects Launched into Outer Space.

Expands the membership of the Committee 32/196 B 20 December 1977 on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space from 37 to 47. Commends the Agreement Governing the 34/68 5 December 1979 Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Decides to convene the Second United 35/15 3 November 1980 Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE 82) in 1982. Expands the membership of the Committee 35/16 3 November 1980 on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space from 48 to a maximum of 53. Commends the Secretary-General of 36/36 18 November 1981 UNISPACE 82 for the satisfactory arrangements for the Conference.

174 Resolution Decision number Action by the General Assembly number Date of adoption 37/89 10 December 1982 Requests the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the two Subcommittees to consider the implementation of the recommendations of UNISPACE 82 and requests the specialized agencies and other international organizations to continue and enhance their cooperation with the Committee. Endorses the recommendations of 37/90 10 December 1982 UNISPACE 82; decides on an expansion and reorientation of the United Nations Space Applications Programme; decides to establish an Intemational Space Information Service; and requests the Secretary-General to strengthen the Outer Space Affairs Division. Reaffirms the importance of the 37/91 10 December 1982 Convention on Intemational Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. Adopts the Principles Governing the Use 37/92 10 December 1982 by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting. Adopts the Principles Relating to Remote 41/65 3 December 1986 Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space. Urges all States that have not yet ratified or 41/66 3 December 1986 acceded the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, to give urgent consideration to ratifying or acceding to the Convention in order to assure its broad application.

175 Resolution Decision number Action by the General Assembly number Date of adoption 44/46 Endorses the initiative of international 8 December 1989 scientific organizations and bodies to designate 1992 as Intemational Space Year and also endorses the recommendation of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space that international cooperation should be promoted through the Intemational Space Year and that the training and educational capabilities of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications should be utilized to bring about a meaningful role for the United Nations, through voluntary contributions by Member States and without any impact on the regular budget of the United Nations or the existing programme of work of the Programme. Appoints the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist 45/315 11 December 1990 Republic as a member of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, with immediate effect, to fill the vacancy brought about by the accession of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany. Adopts the Principles Relevant to the Use 47/68 14 December 1992 of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space. Expands the membership of the Committee 49/33 9 December 1994 on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space from 53 to 61 members. 51/122 13 December 1996 Adopts the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries. 52/56 Agrees that the Third United Nations 10 December 1997 Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE HI) shall be convened in 1999. Requests UNISPACE lH to submit a report 53/45 3 December 1998 to the General Assembly at its fifty-fourth session.

176 2. Reports of the Special Political Committee and the Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) of the General Assembly on the question of the peaceful uses of outer space

Symbol Session Agenda item Special Political Committee A/33/344 Thirty-third 51 and 52 A/34/664 Thirty-fourth 48 and 49 A/35/582 Thirty-fifth 55 and 56 A/36/657 Thirty-sixth 61 and 62 A/37/646 Thirty-seventh 62, 63 and 131 A/38/714 Thirty-eighth 70 A/39/713 Thirty-ninth 72 A/40/1023 Fortieth 76 A/41/751 Forty-first 72 A/42/812 Forty-second 76 A/43/767 Forty-third 75 A/44/814 Forty-fourth 75 A/45/821 andCorr.l Forty-fifth 73 A/46/637 Forty-sixth 71 A/47/610 Forty-seventh 72 Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) A/48/645 Forty-eighth 84 A/49/618 Forty-ninth 76 and 147 A/50/604 Fiftieth 83 A/51/590 Fifty-first 83 A/52/615 Fifty-second 85 A/53/596 Fifty-third 82

177 3. Reports of the ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to the General Assembly

Title Year Ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1959 Official Records of the General Assembly, Fourteenth Session, Annexes, agenda item 25, document A/4141 Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1961 Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixteenth Session, Annexes, agenda item 21, document A/4987 Ibid., Seventeenth Session, Annexes, agenda item 27, documents A/5181 1962 Ibid., Eighteenth Session, Annexes, agenda item 28, documents A/5549 and Add. 1 1963 Ibid., Nineteenth Session, Annexes, annex No. 10, document A/5785 1964 Ibid., Twentieth Session, Annexes, agenda item 31, document A/6042 1965 Ibid., Twenty-first Session, Annexes, agenda items 30, 89 and 91, document A/6431 1966 Ibid., Twenty-second Session, Annexes, agenda item 32, documents A/6804 and Add.l 1967 Ibid., Twenty-third Session, agenda item 24, document A/7285 1967 Ibid., Twenty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 21 (A/7621) and Supplement No. 21A 1969 (A/7621/Add.l) Ibid., Twenty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/8020) 1970 Ibid., Twenty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/8420) 1971 Ibid., Twenty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/8720) 1972 Ibid., Twenty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/9020 and Corr. 1) 1973 Ibid., Twenty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/9620) 1974 Ibid., Thirtieth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/10020) 1975 Ibid., Thirty-first Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/31/20) 1976 Ibid., Thirty-second Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/32/20) 1977 Ibid., Thirty-third Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/33/20) 1978 Ibid., Thirty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/34/20) 1979 Ibid., Thirty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/35/20) 1980 Ibid., Thirty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/36/20) 1981 Ibid., Thirty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/37/20) 1982 Ibid., Thirty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/38/20) 1983 Ibid., Thirty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/39/20) 1984

178 Title Year Ibid., Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/40/20 and Corr.l) 1985 Ibid., Forty-first Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/41/20 and Corr.l) 1986 Ibid., Forty-second Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/42/20) 1987 Ibid., Forty-third Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/43/20) 1988 Ibid., Forty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/44/20) 1989 Ibid., Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/45/20) 1990 Ibid., Forty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/46/20) 1991 Ibid., Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/47/20) 1992 Ibid., Forty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/48/20) 1993 Ibid., Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/49/20) 1994 Ibid., Fiftieth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/50/20) 1995 Ibid., Fifty-first Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/51/20) 1996 Ibid., Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/52/20) 1997 Ibid., Fifty-third Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/53/20) 1998 4. Summary records of relevant meetings of the Special Political Committee and the Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee)

Symbol Session Year Special Political Committee A/SPC/33/SR.6-12 Thirty-third 1978 A/SPC/34/SR. 15-20 Thirty-fourth 1979 A/SPC/35/SR. 14-19 Thirty-fifth 1980 A/SPC/36/SR. 15-20 Thirty-sixth 1981 A/SPC/37/SR. 15-20,23, 25, Thirty-seventh 1982 31,33 and 34 A/SPC/38/SR.18-19,21, 25, Thirty-eighth 1983 26, 39 and 43 A/SPC/39/SR.39-45,47 and 49 Thirty-ninth 1984 A/SPC/40/SR.37-46 Fortieth 1985 A/SPC/41/SR.33-38 Forty-first 1986 A/SPC/42/SR.14,16-20 and 22 Forty-second 1987

179 Symbol Session Year A/SPC/43/SR.6-10 Forty-third 1988 A/SPC/44/SR. 19-21 Forty-fourth 1989 A/SPC/45/SR.13-16and22 Forty-fifth 1990 A/SPC/46/SR. 16-20 Forty-sixth 1991 A/SPC/47/SR.5-8 Forty-seventh 1992 Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) A/C.4/48/SR.2 and 15-17 Forty-eighth 1993 A/C.4/49/SR.2 and 18-22 Forty-ninth 1994 A/C.4/50/SR.2 and 16-18 Fiftieth 1995 A/C.4/51/SR.2 and 12-14 Fifty-first 1996 A/C.4/52/SR.2 and 10-13 Fifty-second 1997 A/C.4/53/SR.2 and 10-12 Fifty-third 1998 B. Documents of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space /. General documents relating to the work of the Committee Coordination of outer space activities within the United Nations system and programmes of work: 1976-1998 A/AC.105/166 and Corr.l, 183,201,233, 242, 278,293, 309, 325, 342, 359, 373, 389 and Corr.l, 415, 444 and Corr.l, 465 and Corr.l, 491 and Corr.l, 524, 551, 587, 631, 675 and 700 2. Documents relating to launching of space objects (a) Information furnished in conformity with General Assembly resolution 1721 (XVI) B by States launching objects into orbit or beyond A/AC.105/INF.1-402 (b) Information furnished in conformity with the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space ST/SG/SER.E/1-356 ST/SG/SER.E/INF.1-14 5. Verbatim records of the Committee Symbol Session A/AC. 105/PV. 1-279 First-twenty-eighth

180 A.AC.105/SR.280-307 Twenty-ninth and thirtieth'' A/AC.105/PV.308-418 Thirty-first-thirty-eighth COPUOS/T.419-455 Thirty-ninth-forty-firsf C. Documents of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee 1. Reports of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee A/AC.105/5, 14, 20 and Add.l, 31, 39, 55 and Corr.l and Add.1-3, 82, 95 and Corr.l, 102, 116 and Corr.l, 131,150,170,195,216,238 and Corr.l, 267,287 and Corr.l, 304, 318 and Corr.l, 336,351, 369 and Corr.l, 383 and Corr.l, 409 and Corr.l, 429,456,483, 513, 543,571,605, 637, 672, 697 and Corr.l and 719 2. Summary records of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee Symbol Session A/AC.105/C.1/SR.1-222 and corrigenda^ First-sixteenth* D. Documents of the Legal Subcommittee 1. Reports of the Legal Subcommittee A/AC.105/6,12 and Corr.l, 19 and Corr.l, 21 and Add.l and 2, 29, 35, 37,43,45, 58, 85, 94, 101, 115 and Corr.1-3,133,147,171,196,218,240,271 and Corr.l, 288,305,320 and Corr.l, 337, 352, 370 and Corr.l and 2, 385,411,430,457 and Corr.l, 484, 514, 544, 573, 607, 639, 674, 698 and 721 2. Summary records of the Legal Subcommittee Symbol Session A/AC.105/C.2/SR.1-597 First-thirty-fiftiV COPUOS/LEGAL/T.598-612 Thirty-sixth and thirty-seventh'

''Summary records were prepared for the twenty-ninth and thirtieth sessions. beginning with the thirty-ninth session, in 1996, unedited verbatim transcripts were issued. /A/AC.105/C.1/SR.97, 98, 102, 103, 115, 116, 118 and 207-215 were not issued. ^Summary records of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee were discontinued after the sixteenth session. *No summary records were prepared for the 170th-186th meetings or for the nineteenth session. 'Beginning with the thirty-sixth session, in 1997, unedited transcripts were issued. 181