Introduction

The Ladies, I should tell you, have been dealing largely and profitably at the shop of the Muses. And the Hon. Mrs. Norton ... has been proving that she has some of the true ink in her veins, and has taken down several big boys in Mr. Colburn's Great Burlington School. Mrs. Hemans, too, has been kindly noticed by Mr. Murray, and has accomplished the difficult feat of a second edition. Apollo is beginning to discharge his retinue of sprawling men-servants, and to have handmaids about his immortal person, to dust his rays and polish his bow and fire-irons. If the great He- Creatures intend to get into place again, they must take Mrs. Bramble's advice, and "have an eye to the maids." -John Hamilton Reynolds (1832)

Although their influence and even their existence has been largely unac­ knowledged by literary scholars and critics throughout most of the twentieth century, women poets were, as their contemporary John Hamilton Reynolds nervously acknowledged, a force to be reckoned with in early-nineteenth­ century Britain.1 Not only Felicia Hemans and Caroline Norton but Letitia Elizabeth Landon and Mary Howitt were major players and serious competi­ tors in the literary marketplace of Reynolds's time. Their poetry was reviewed in the most prestigious journals, respected by discerning readers, reprinted, imitated, anthologized, sung, memorized for recitation, copied into com­ monplace books, and bought by the public. Before their time, prominent writers such as Joanna Baillie, Anna Letitia Barbauld, Hannah More, Mary Robinson, Anna Seward, Charlotte Smith, Mary Tighe, and others helped to change the landscape of British poetry both in style and in subject matter. They were active participants in, and sometimes instigators of, important literary debates of the age. There were, of course, many women poets whose books made no splash at all, but that was true of great numbers of volumes by aspiring male poets

I. See "Letters of Edward Herbert, New Series. No. r;• Athenaeum, 7 January 1832, 6, re­ printed in Selected Prose of john Hamilton Reynolds, ed. Leonidas M. Jones (Cambridge, Mass. , 1966), 422.

xxv XXVl Introduction

as well. And certainly women who attempted poetry could be patronized, handicapped by their lack of formal education, constrained by needlework, child care, and other household responsibilities, and limited by their socio­ economic status. But despite these difficulties and more, a surprising number of women succeeded in becoming an integral and enduring part of the liter­ ary scene. Poetry pervaded everyday life then in a way we can barely begin to com­ prehend today. It was a major form of expression and entertainment for literate people. Newspapers and periodicals featured it prominently. Friends exchanged poetic gifts, sometimes composed "impromptu" for albums, and sent verse in lieu of thank-you notes and to commemorate births, deaths, and marriages within families. In social circles, poetry was the source of heated discussion, parlor games, and evening readings by the fireside. This volume reflects not only the prevalence of poetry during the time but also gives a sampling of the varieties of women's poetic enterprises and the many ways in which women participated in this, the most prolific age of verse production. To this end, it chronicles the more obscure, such as Christian Milne, along with the more prominent, such as Charlotte Smith, including works by women in all economic and social strata, from the alehouse keeper Isabel Pagan and the domestic servant Janet Little to the socialite Lady Caro­ line Lamb. Some of the poets in this volume, such as Ann Radcliffe, Agnes Strickland, and Helen Maria Williams, are generally associated with other genres; however, their poems were well known to their contemporaries. The strictures of social class, which associated commercial book publi­ cation with "being in trade," and the cultural emphasis on female modesty meant that many women who wrote poetry never published or, if they did, were careful to dissociate their names from their works. Yet modern readers forget that in those days poetry sometimes circulated widely in manuscript form; for example, Susanna Blamire's verse became well known through oral transmission and through other unpublished sources. Though it was taught in school, her verse was not printed until 1842, two generations after the poet's death. Writers such as Jane Austen, Lady Byron, Maria Edgeworth, and Dorothy Wordsworth wrote poetry solely for family and close friends. Maria Abdy, Elizabeth Cobbold, and Mary Tighe published only in small private editions. Certain aristocratic women, such as Lady Anne Lindsay and Carolina, Bar­ oness Nairne, took extreme measures to retain their anonymity and refused to acknowledge their authorship of much admired poems even when pressed to do so by those who had guessed the truth. In both cases, their names were not published with their work until half a century after it first became Introduction XXVll popular. At the other end of the socioeconomic scale, some poetry came be­ fore the public as the result of an act of charity; such was the case with Ann Candler, whose book was produced by subscription with her name appended to aid the solicitation. Even some of the most commercially successful books of poetry, for example, those by Felicia Hemans, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Mary Robinson, and Charlotte Smith, were motivated by the poets' serious economic need. But it is not just financial status that separates the poets whose work is contained in this volume. Although they all wrote between the years 1770 and 1840, they wrote in such diverse styles, about such varied experiences and subject matter, expressing such divergent political opinions, that in some cases they have little more in common than their gender. Some were friends who gave one another emotional support. Maria Edgeworth, for example, consoled Anna Letitia Barbauld when Eighteen Hundred and Eleven was at­ tacked by the Quarterly Review. But others were bitter rivals and even enemies. Anna Seward rarely lost an opportunity to disparage Charlotte Smith, and after a quarrel Hannah More turned on the former object of her patronage and conducted a letter-writing campaign against Ann Yearsley. Some, such as Hannah More and Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna, were conservatives, while others, for instance, Mary Robinson and Helen Maria Williams, were liberals. Mary Hays openly espoused feminist principles; Jane West was outspokenly anti-feminist. Some, such as Elizabeth Cobbold, were married with many children, while others, such as Joanna Baillie, remained contentedly single all their life. Some, such as Letitia Elizabeth Landon, aspired to literary repu­ tation, whereas others, such as Maria Logan, seemed indifferent to public acclaim. Emma Roberts and Anna Maria Jones traveled the world; Jane Tay­ lor and Ann Batten Cristal! appear never to have ventured far from their small, circumscribed spaces. Still, however they may have differed, evidence suggests that they read one another's poetry. The works of the sixty-two poets contained in this volume are presented within the context of their lives, careers, and critical reputations. Certain biographical patterns provide clues about how, within a society that dis­ couraged women's participation in literary culture in subtle and sometimes not so subtle ways, women established themselves as respected poets in Lon­ don, Edinburgh, or the provinces-a few becoming professional writers and earning a reasonable living. Nearly all women poets came from dissenting households, a religious environment more likely to give them permission to develop and to exercise their talents. Most of them had an educated parent who taught them to read, gave them access to books, and encouraged their writing. Biographical accounts of their childhoods reveal a predictable uni- xxvm Introduction formity-as youngsters they tended to be precocious; they showed an early interest in, and talent for, making verses; they read voraciously; they begged to be allowed to learn more than was customary for girls, and they were often accommodated. A significant number turned to writing professionally only as an economic expedient in a time of financial crisis, using their talent to sup­ port their families; Felicia Hemans, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Mary Russell Mitford, Charlotte Smith, and Ann Yearsley fit this mold. As adults, the most successful found a mentor to guide their continued intellectual development and to introduce them to people who could advance their ambitions. Many were savvy in exploiting family connections or other relationships to gain access to publication. None, of course, not even the most socially advantaged, had a university education, and many were essentially self-taught. But in certain ways what they felt to be a grave handicap, the lack of a classical education, may have contributed to their originality: since they were not trained in the conven­ tional manner, their work could be more innovative. Contemporary critics often notice their talent or "genius" while deploring the "incorrectness" of their verse. It is useful to look at women poets together, apart from their male con­ temporaries, not because of any common ideology (for which one will search in vain) but because their varied perspectives on the world were all shaped by a personal struggle with patriarchal constraints. All of them constructed a poetic self within an environment where artistic expectations were highly gendered. It is revealing to examine their diverse strategies for coming to terms with the tension between their society's concepts of being a writer and a woman, an artist and a daughter, a poet and a mother or a wife. To group them together for reading or study does not mean that we subscribe to the confining essentialist notions of female authorship current during their own era (with which many of them concurred and which many at times even exploited). But it does put us in a better position to see how they departed from gendered expectations, writing, for example, about such "unfeminine" subjects as politics, war, and economics, though sometimes that departure had a disastrous effect on their careers, as in the case of Anna Letitia Barbauld. To read a volume of poetry by women only allows us to notice and to ponder why it was that women were so drawn to certain motifs and symbols. Birds, for example, permeate verse by women. One may search in vain for the "correspondent breeze," but birds lurk everywhere, not simply as a symbol for ecstatic poetic creation as in John Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale" or Percy Bysshe Shelley's "To a Sky-lark" (though women certainly wrote their share of verse in this popular vein) but also as a perfect metaphor to explore the Introduction XXIX conflicting desires for freedom and for safety.2 Birds yearn for release from their caged confinement in the domestic sphere, and birds take refuge in the security of that same cage after escaping from the life-and-death struggles of a vicious natural world. Sometimes, as in Helen Maria Williams's "Elegy on a Young Thrush," birds perish, having mistaken the succor of the hearth for danger. In Mary Howitt's "The Sea-Gull" or Ann Radcliffe's "The Sea-Mew," however, the bird reigns triumphant, enjoying its exhilarating freedom and power of flight. In these poems and others, women debate within and among themselves the virtues of domesticity measured against the excitement of liberty and its attendant danger. But the home itself is far from entirely safe; poetry within this volume explores, too, the disquieting way the secure veneer of the domestic sphere may give way to violence and tragedy (see, for instance, Helen Leigh's "The Revenge"). It unmasks the unnerving ways in which outside events, the home, and the internal world of psychic reality interpenetrate one another, as in, for example, Felicia Hemans's "Arabella Stuart" or Mary Robinson's "The Lady of the Black Tower." Although the topic is not entirely unknown in the poetry of men, women poets seem to have been particularly drawn to the subject of opium.3 In­ trigued by its power, they celebrate the drug again and again not only for its ability to alleviate physical pain but for its capacity to alter conscious­ ness. In Anna Seward's sonnet "To the Poppy" a woman tormented by love, "Misfortune's Victim," welcomes the kind dreams opium brings, dreams that lull her grief into nothingness. The speaker in Sara Coleridge's "Poppies" marvels that her child, innocent of the "sorrows of the night," little guesses "how good" the poppies are to her for bringing sleep "at midnight's darksome hour." Henrietta O'Neill's "Ode to the Poppy" lauds the "potent charm" of the "soul-soothing plant," which can disarm agonizing pain with its "soft Lethean power." But its power goes even further, for with opium "the mourner bears to live" and "the hopeless die." The speaker hazards that if suicide were not a crime, she would, with the aid of opium, "burst these terrestrial bonds, and other regions try." Maria Logan's remarkable poem "To Opium" celebrates the drug's mood-altering qualities. At opium's command "gay scenes arise/ To

2. Poems in this category include, for instance, Elizabeth Bentley's "To a Redbreast;' Sara Coleridge's "The Captive Bird with Ardour Sings," Mary Hays's "Ode to Her Bullfinch," Felicia Hemans's "The Wings of the Dove;' Mary Robinson's "The Linnet's Petition," Charlotte Smith's Sonnet III, "To a Nightingale," Agnes Strickland's "The Enfranchised; or, The Butterfly's First Flight," Ann Taylor's "The Little Bird's Complaint to His Mistress" and "The Mistress's Reply to Her Little Bird;' Helen Maria Williams's "Sonnet to the White-Bird of the Tropic," and Ann Yearsley's "The Captive Linnet." 3. See, for example, Thomas Doubleday's untitled sonnet beginning, "Poppies, that scatter'd o'er this arid plain," published in Sixty-jive Sonnets (London, 1818). xxx Introduction charm my raptur'd sight," and the drug, she says, revives her poetic powers. In turn, her "Muse/ Now pours the grateful strain," proclaiming opium's "peer­ less worth." Logan, who lived for many years with chronic pain, identifies her own Muse with the poppy flower. The poppy, a weed in English fields, is a "neglected Flow'r." In the same way, her poetic talent is "to all the world unknown," and her "songs are lost in air." But if a respected poet such as Eras­ mus Darwin should champion the poppy, "Then Fame shall bid each future age,/ Admiring, own thy pow'r!" This volume also contains sonnets, odes, elegies, satires, songs, pastorals, anti-pastorals, love lyrics, epistles, long narrative poems, ballads, riddles, and a portion of an epic.4 Women tried their hand at every conceivable poetic form, and individual poets, such as Mary Robinson and Ann Yearsley, were remarkably versatile in the number of forms they attempted. Some readers may also be surprised by the range of subject matter in these poems and the variety of tone. Contrary to stereotypical notions of writing by women, many poems in this volume are comic, from Jane Austen's witty "On a Headache" to the gentle, affectionate humor of Susanna Blamire's tour de force, "Stoklewath; or, The Cumbrian Village;' to the accomplished parody of Catherine Maria Fanshawe's "Fragment in Imitation of Wordsworth," to the contemptuous comedy of Elizabeth Hands's "A Poem, on the Supposi­ tion of an Advertisement Appearing in a Morning Paper." Elizabeth Moody slices her contemporary down to size in her humorous critique "To Dr. Dar­ win, On Reading His Loves of the Plants." The Countess of Blessington piles up contemporary cliches in "Stock in Trade of Modern Poetesses" to highly comic effect. Focusing on the poetry of women allows, too, the opportunity to see the extent to which social practices such as training young girls in music and expecting them to perform for small audiences informed their subsequent poetic practice and distinguished it from that of their male counterparts. Many poems in this volume originated as songs, for instance, Lady Anne Lindsay's "Auld Robin Gray," Carolina, Baroness Nairne's "The Laird o' Cock­ pen," Amelia Opie's "Go, youth Beloved," and Isabel Pagan's "A New Love Song, with the Answer." The traditional female musical "accomplishments" gave women both the opportunity and the incentive to compose verse and to set it to music. In song, moreover, their work became widely known, often long before finding its way into print. ''.Auld Robin Gray," the single

4. Taken from Helen Maria Williams's Peru. Other women who wrote epics include Eliza­ beth Cob bold, Hannah Cowley, Elizabeth Hands, Mary Howitt, and Ann Yearsley. Anna Seward invented a hybrid form that Erasmus Darwin termed the "epic elegy." Introduction XXXl most popular contemporary ballad of the English Romantic period, was not only sung throughout Scotland but also carried into England by balladeers and strolling players, translated into French, and sung in Mary Wollstone­ craft's Maria, or the Wrongs ef Woman. In large part, through the works of women, the conversational language of song made its way into the poetic mainstream well before the publication of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Lyrical Ballads in 1798. The prefaces women appended to their books of verse were far more apolo­ getic about the deficiencies to be found within than were those of male poets, for women felt profoundly disadvantaged educationally. Even so, cer­ tain major works in this volume, among them Anna Letitia Barbauld's Eigh­ teen Hundred and Eleven, Charlotte Smith's "Beachy Head," Susanna Blamire's "Stoklewath; or, The Cumbrian Village," Mary Tighe's Psyche, and Mary Robinson's "The Camp," are virtuoso performances that can stand unblush­ ingly alongside the most admired works by men of the period. However, with the possible exception of Felicia Hemans, whose collected Poetical Works were reprinted by Oxford University Press i.n r9r4 as part of its Standard Authors series, none of the poets in this volume has been considered canonical in the twentieth century. The fame of many women poets was not short-lived; anthologies from the late nineteenth century attest to the endurance of works not only by Hemans but also by Joanna Baillie, Anna Letitia Barbauld, Susanna Blamire, Ann Grant, Mary Howitt, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Carolina, Baroness Nairne, Caroline Norton, Amelia Opie, Charlotte Smith, Jane Taylor, and Mary Tighe.5 As late as 1929 Francis T. Palgrave's Golden Treasury still included selec­ tions from Anna Letitia Barbauld, Lady Anne Lindsay, Carolina, Baroness Nairne, and Caroline Norton.6 Even before the present resurgence of interest in nineteenth-century women writers the twentieth century saw printings of books by and about Joanna Baillie, Anna Letitia Barbauld, the Countess of Blessington, Mary Howitt, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Lady Anne Lindsay,

5. See, for example, the following anthologies: S. 0. Beeton, ed., Beeton's Great Book of Poetry, 2 vols. (London, 1871); Charles Gibbon, ed., The Casquet of Literature: being a Selection in Poetry and Prose from the Works of the Most Admired Authors, 4 vols. (London, 1874-75); James T. Fields and Edwin P. Whipple, eds., The Family Library of British Poetry from Chaucer to the Present Time (Boston, 1881); The Cambridge Book of Poetry and Song (New York, 1882); Robert Inglis, ed., Gleanings from the English Poets (Edinburgh, [c. 1882]); Thomas Young Crowell, ed., Red Letter Poems by English Mert and Women (New York, 1885); and Andrew Lang, ed., The Blue Poetry Book, 2nd ed. (London, 1896). 6. Francis T. Palgrave, ed., The Golden Treasury, Selected from the Best Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language (London, 1929). XXX!l Introduction

Carolina, Baroness Nairne, Caroline Norton, Amelia Opie, Mary Robinson, Anna Seward, Charlotte Smith, Agnes Strickland, Jane Taylor, Mary Tighe, Helen Maria Williams, and others. Still, it is clear that World War I and the modernists brought about a pro­ found change in literary taste that left unread most poetry of the romantic era, that written by men as well as that written by women. Decades later, when critics and academics began rediscovering and reviving poetry from this period, they overlooked the works of women. By the 1960s five male poets constituted the "romantic" canon. The women were so effectively "not there" that they were even excluded from consideration as "minor" poets. They appeared in literary history at best as footnotes and at worst solely in familial relation to the "major" male writers.' It is no accident that now, at a point in history when women constitute more than half of all students attending college, when publishers recognize as never before the purchas­ ing power of women readers, when women in unprecedented numbers have entered graduate programs in English and joined the faculties of academic institutions, more serious attention is being paid to the literature and the lives of women who wrote poetry during the romantic era. Felicia Hemans said of Mary Tighe, "Her Poetry has always touched me greatly, from a simi­ larity which I imagine I discover between her destiny and my own." 8 Current readers are finding that the poetry written by Tighe and her female contem­ poraries not only strikes a responsive chord but inspires a rethinking of the meaning of the term romantic. To help advance that rethinking, to aid in the process of reassessing and revising traditional narratives about the evolution of ideas, poetic forms, and literary culture of that age, is a major goal of this book. The plan of this volume was capacious, greedy: to gather together more texts by more women poets of the romantic era than have ever been available in one book in the twentieth century and to accompany those texts with in­ depth accounts of the lives and careers of these poets in order to illuminate the peculiar conditions of authorship for women and to place their poetry in its social, historical, and literary context. The poems have a tendency to illu­ minate one another. In similar fashion, the lives contextualize one another as well as the poetry; conversely, the poetry provides a context for the lives.

7. For a discussion of the lack of representation of women writers of the romantic era in the anthologies of the 1960s and 1970s and their recuperation during the 1980s and 1990s, see the introduction to Romantic Women Writers: Voices and Countervoices, ed. Paula R. Feldman and Theresa M. Kelley (Hanover, N.H., 1995), 3-4, 269-70. 8. Quoted by Henry Fothergill Chorley in Memorials of Mrs. Hemans, with Illustrations of her Literary Character from her Private Correspondence, 2 vols. (London, 1836), 2 :176. Introduction XXXlll

This book resists the impulse to narrow the selection of poets to a new ca­ nonical few and instead tries to replicate, albeit only in a representative way, the multiplicity of women's poetic voices that the era produced. The character of modern scholarship and critical debate concerning many of the poets in this volume is just now beginning to take shape. For others it is still unformed. Years hence, will there be a new canon? new canons? no canon? What poets and what works will most engage the scholars, teachers, students, and critics of the future? How will the romantic era be defined? Much remains uncertain. But having more expansive materials close at hand to inform discussion promises at least a brighter climate for debate.

Editorial Note

All poems in this volume were originally penned between the years 1770 and 1840. These boundaries are arbitrary, as any dates purporting to encompass the romantic era must be, and were chosen so as to include such impor­ tant works as Lady Anne Lindsay's ''Auld Robin Gray" and Susanna Blamire's "Stoklewath" from the early 1770s and to reach slightly beyond Queen Vic­ toria's accession to the throne in 1837. However one may define the timespan of the romantic era, the years 1770 to 1840 take in its context. Whenever possible, the copy text chosen was one published during the poet's lifetime, under her supervision, and before 1840. However, in some cases one or more of these conditions could not be met, for example, in instances of posthumous publication or unpublished texts, such as those by Lady Byron and Maria Edgeworth. The copy text is the earliest known au­ thoritative version except in instances where the poet substantially revised and improved the text (for example, Mary Howitt's "The Voyage with the Nautilus," which she reworked after its first book publication in 1831) or where rarity has made the earliest authoritative version unavailable. To preserve the historical specificity of the text, the original spelling, capi­ talization, and punctuation have been retained except that the longs has been modernized, placement of closing quotation marks has been regularized to precede a colon or a semicolon and to follow a comma or a period, and ini­ tial words in stanzas in which all the letters were capitalized in the original published version of the poem, now have only the first letter capitalized. In the occasional instances of an obvious typographical error in the copy text the error has been corrected and the editorial intervention noted. Poets' own notes to texts have been reproduced in full under the assump­ tion that the poet considered these notes a necessary and integral part of her text. The poet's name appears in italics at the end of these notes to differenti­ ate them from editorial notes, which are not signed unless they are appended to an authorial note. Notes to poems are keyed to line numbers where pos­ sible and appear at the bottom of the page. Notes to titles, epigraphs, whole stanzas, and to anything that could not be keyed to a line number follow the text of the poem. Poets appear in the volume in alphabetical order. A chronological list­ ing would have been misleading for long-lived poets such as Joanna Baillie

xxxv XXXVl Editorial Note

and Anna Letitia Barbauld, who actively published over the course of many years, and for poets such as Catherine Maria Fanshawe, whose work ap­ peared in print decades after it was composed. The texts of each poet are ordered chronologically insofar as the chronology can be determined, gener­ ally according to the date of first known publication, which is the date that immediately follows the text. The date of the copy text is given in the "Texts Used" section, following the headnote. Dating of poems is often tentative, however, for many poems first saw publication in periodicals that are now obscure and were frequently published anonymously, under pseudonyms or under different titles, making these early texts difficult to discover. "Sources for Headnotes," arranged by author, includes only sources not cited in notes to headnotes. The following abbreviations are used in notes to identify frequently cited sources:

Allibone, Samuel Austin Allibone. A Critical Dictionary of English Critical Dictionary Literature and British and American Authors Living and Deceased from the Earliest Accounts to the Latter Half of the Nineteenth Century. 3 vols. Philadelphia, l870-7r.

Boyle, Index Andrew Boyle. An Index to the Annuals, Vol. l, The Authors (1820-1850). Worcester, 1967. DLB Dictionary of Literary Biography. Various editors. 167 vols. Detroit, 1978-. DNB Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, eds. Dictionary of Na­ tional Biography. 22 vols. London, 1917. Feminist Companion Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements, and Isobel Grundy, eds. The Feminist Companion to Literature in English: Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the Present. New Haven, 1990. Landry, Donna Landry. The Muses of Resistance: Laboring-Class Muses of Resistance Women's Poetry in Britain, 1739-17¢. Cambridge, 1990. Lonsdale, Eighteenth- Roger Lonsdale, ed. Eighteenth-Century Women Poets: Century Women Poets An Oxford Anthology. Oxford, 1989. Mitford, Recollections Mary Russell Mitford, Recollections of a Literary Life; or, Books, Places, and People. New York, 1852. N&Q Notes and Queries. London, 1849-. Todd, Dictionary Janet Todd, ed. A Dictionary of British and American Women Writers, 1660-1800. Totowa, N.J., 1987. British Women Poets of the Romantic Era