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Becoming a Nun in the Dharmaguptaka Tradition

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Becoming a Nun in the Dharmaguptaka Tradition Buddhist Studies Review 25(2) 2008, 174–93 ISSN (print): 0256–2897 doi: 10.1558/bsrv.v25i2.174 ISSN (online): 1747–9681 Becoming a Nun in the Dharmaguptaka Tradition Ann Heirman Ghent University ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the formal issues involved in the two stages (novice and probationer) that precede the full ordination of Buddhist religious women, as they are given in the early textual background of the Dharmaguptaka tradition: the age of the candidates, the precepts to be followed, the ordination procedures, and the role played by the full members of the community, nuns and monks. One of the most current discussions within the Buddhist communities is the posi- tion of women, and more particularly of bhikṣuṇīs (nuns). This discussion natu- rally also gives rise to many relevant questions on the two stages that precede the full ordination of a bhikṣuṇī: the stage of śrāmaṇerī (novice) and of śikṣamāṇā (probationer). The present research focuses on all formal issues involved in these stages, aiming at defi ning them within the early textual background of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya tradition, the present-day living tradition of China, Taiwan, Korea and large parts of Vietnam. The Dharmaguptaka-vinaya (Dgv) was translated into Chinese in the early fi fth century. At around the same time, three more full vinayas were also trans- lated.1 Later, at the beginning of the eighth century, the monk Yijing2 義 淨 trans- lated large parts of the Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (根 本 說 一 切 有 部 毘 奈 耶 Genbenshuoyiqieyou bu pinaiye, T 1442–T 1451),3 as well as other vinaya texts belong- ing to the same school.4 In the meantime, however, the Dgv (四 分 律 Sifen lü) had 1. In the beginning of the fi fth century, four complete vinayas were translated into Chinese. In chronological order, these are: 十 誦 律 Shisong lü (T 1435), Sarvāstivāda-vinaya; 四 分 律 Sifen lü (T 1428), Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; 摩 訶 僧 祇 律Mohesengqi lü (T 1425), Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya; and 彌 沙 塞 部 和 醯 五 分 律 Mishasai bu hexi wufen lü (T 1421), Mahīśāsaka-vinaya. For details, see Yuyama (1979). 2. Throughout the article, Pinyin transcription has been used for Chinese terms. 3. Of the Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya, a Tibetan translation as well as many Sanskrit fragments are extant. For details, see Yuyama (1979, 12–33). 4. Besides the above mentioned vinayas, two major vinaya texts have survived in an Indian lan- guage. The most important one is the Theravāda vinaya written in Pāli. Although a Pāli vinaya was translated into Chinese at the end of the fi fth century, the translation was never presented © Equinox Publishing Ltd 2008, Unit 6, The Village, 101 Amies Street, London SW11 2JW HEIRMAN BECOMING A NUN IN THE DHARMAGUPTAKA TRADITION 175 been strongly promulgated in China by infl uential Buddhist masters, such as Daoxuan 道 宣 (596–667). Around 705–710, the latter vinaya was even imposed by imperial decree as the only vinaya to be followed in the Chinese empire.5 The Dgv consequently became the reference point for monastic discipline in China, and all ordinations have since then been based on its guidelines. Following the tradition of the Chinese masters, we will also compare the Dharmaguptaka information with details given in the other extant vinayas. It is hereby important to point out that vinayas diff erent from the Dharmaguptaka tra- dition have no explanatory relevance for the Dharmaguptaka tradition itself.6 Still in China, vinaya masters regularly consulted several vinayas at the same time in order to discuss monastic matters. Daoxuan 道 宣 (596–667), for instance, explic- itly emphasized that the Dgv is the basic vinaya text, but that, if needed, other vinayas can be consulted.7 The principle is applied to all vinaya issues, including the topic of the present article, the śrāmaṇerī and śikṣamāṇā steps towards the full ordination. Therefore, in order to understand the Chinese view on these study periods for women, we will cautiously follow Daoxuan’s approach. THE ŚRĀMAṆERĪ ORDINATION: STEPS AND DETAILS The age of the candidate The fi rst step in the monastic career of a woman is the going forth (chu jia 出家 pravrajyā). The Dgv does not indicate the age at which one can become a novice (shamini 沙彌尼 śrāmaṇerī). It does indicate, however, the minimum age for a male novice (shami 沙彌 śrāmaṇera; T 1428 810c22–811a3): a boy cannot be younger than twelve, unless he is able to chase away crows. The strength one needs to chase away these powerful birds is connected by the Dgv to the necessary strength to keep up the precepts and to eat one meal a day only. If a young boy is capable of doing this, he can be granted the going forth. The other vinaya traditions have similar rules. The Pāli Vinaya (Vin I 79,5–6 and 79,19–20) and the Sarvāstivāda-vinaya to the emperor and was subsequently lost (see Heirman 2004, 377–8; 2007). The second text to have survived in an Indian language only, is the chapter for bhikṣuṇīs (bhikṣuṇī-vibhaṅga) of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins, preserved in a transitional language between Prākrit and Sanskrit (Roth 1970, lv–lvi). It has never been translated into Chinese. 5. Heirman (2002b, 414, 419–23; 2007). 6. When strictly interpreting the vinaya rules, vinayas can never, as rightfully pointed out by the Chinese monk Yijing 義 淨 (635–713), be intermingled (Yijing, 南 海 寄 歸 內 法 傳 Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan, Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas, T 2125 205b28–c5, trans. in Takakusu [1896, 13]). This is the result of the gradual redaction of these legal texts: no matter to what extent they developed independently or in symbiosis with each other, at a certain point they were fi nalized as separate legal codices that mutually exclude each other (see von Hinüber 1999, 89–91; Heirman 1999). 7. Daoxuan, 四 分 律 刪 繁 補 闕 行 事 鈔 Sifen lü shanfan buque xingshi chao, An Abridged and Explan- atory Commentary on the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya (T 1804 2b19–20). © Equinox Publishing Ltd 2008 176 BUDDHIST STUDIES REVIEW (T 1435 151b21–c1), for instance, indicate that a boy cannot be younger than fi f- teen, unless he can chase away crows. The same birds are also mentioned in the other vinayas. The Mahīśāsaka-vinaya (T 1421 117a27–8) accepts young boys as śrāmaṇeras provided they can chase away crows. The two boys given as exam- ples are seven and eight years old. The Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya (T 1425 461b9–12) mentions three kinds of śrāmaṇeras: those between seven and thirteen, those between fourteen and nineteen, and those between twenty and seventy. The fi rst category is also called ‘the śrāmaṇeras who can chase away crows’. Finally, the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition (T 1453 484c4–9) mentions two conditions: a boy has to be at least seven years old and has to be able to chase away crows.8 The ordination procedure of a śrāmaṇerī The ordination ceremony of a śrāmaṇerī (pravrajyā) as described in the Dgv, bhikṣuṇī-skandhaka (chapter on nuns; T 1428 923c15–924a16) starts with the shav- ing of the hair (ti tou 剃頭, (śirastuṇḍa-) muṇḍana).9 The legal procedure is car- ried out by the bhikṣuṇī-saṃgha on the basis of a jñapti-karman (see further). The saṃgha needs to be a legally constituted assembly of fully ordained members. According to the Dgv (T 1428 886a23–b8), there are four such legal assemblies, saṃghas, that can carry out formal procedures: a saṃgha composed of four, fi ve, ten or twenty members.10 A saṃgha consisting of four members can carry out all formal acts, with the exception of the invitation (zi zi 自恣, pravāraṇā),11 the full ordination of a bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī (shou da jie 受大戒, upasaṃpadā), and the reha- bilitation ceremony (chu zui 出罪, ābarhaṇa).12 For a full ordination in a border area or for an invitation ceremony, a saṃgha of fi ve members is needed. A full ordination in a central area has to be carried out by a saṃgha of ten. Finally, for a rehabilitation, twenty fully ordained bhikṣus or bhikṣuṇīs need to be present. If the necessary quorum is not obtained, the procedure is not legal. The Dgv adds that it is not possible to call in a bhikṣuṇī (in a bhikṣu-saṃgha) or to call in a śikṣamāṇā, a śrāmaṇera, or a śrāmaṇerī in an attempt to obtain the necessary quorum.13 Since the organization of the bhikṣuṇī-saṃgha is based on the bhikṣu-saṃgha, we in all 8. T 1453 is a karma-vācanā text of the Mūlasarvāstivādins translated by the monk Yijing in 703 CE (Yuyama 1979, 18). 9. In the bhikṣuṇī-vibhaṅga, pācittika 121, a parallel description is given (T 1428 755b4–c5). 10. This is also the case for other vinaya traditions. For details, see Chung (1998, 26–7). 11. The pravāraṇā (or invitation) ceremony is held at the end of the summer retreat. On this occa- sion, every bhikṣu (and bhikṣuṇī) is expected to invite his (her) fellow bhikṣus (bhikṣuṇīs) to point out his (her) wrongs, if any, whether seen, heard, or suspected. 12. A bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī who violates a saṃghāvaśeṣa precept, is temporarily, for the duration of one or more periods of penance, suspended from the main activities of the saṃgha. After this, the saṃgha can re-admit the punished bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī by means of a jñapti-caturtha-karman. This is called ‘the rehabilitation’, chu zui 出罪, ābarhaṇa. 13. T 1428 886b1–2. © Equinox Publishing Ltd 2008 HEIRMAN BECOMING A NUN IN THE DHARMAGUPTAKA TRADITION 177 probability also have to interpret the rule as follows: it is equally not possible for a bhikṣuṇī-saṃgha to call in a bhikṣu, a śikṣamāṇā, a śrāmaṇera, or a śrāmaṇerī in order to obtain a legal quorum.
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