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Atmospheric Dust and Acid Rain Ed Areas of Europe and North America

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Atmospheric Dust and Acid Rain Ed Areas of Europe and North America or the past several decades, sci- Atmospheric Dust entists have been studying acid F rain and how it affects the envi- ronment. As the harmful consequences of acidic air pollutants became increas- and Acid Rain ingly clear, governments in North Amer- ica and Europe began to regulate emis- sions of these compounds. Countries in Emissions of acidic air pollutants have fallen the European Union enacted a variety of laws to control the release of sulfur dramatically. Why is acid rain still a problem? dioxide and nitrogen oxides; the Clean Air Act imposed similar regulations in Atmospheric dust may be part of the answer the U.S. Policymakers expected these reductions to rejuvenate forests, lakes and streams in many regions. In some by Lars O. Hedin and Gene E. Likens respects, the issue seemed wrapped up. NEUTRALIZATION LOWERS ACIDIC EMISSIONS ACIDITY OF RAIN DUST EMISSIONS NEUTRALIZED PARTICLES OR CLOUD DROPLETS 88 Scientific American December 1996 Copyright 1996 Scientific American, Inc. But the problem of acid rain has not found that all the attention given to acid- juice and beer; ammonia, baking soda gone away. Why is the rain falling on ic compounds in the atmosphere has ob- and antacid tablets are all bases. Most parts of Europe and North America still scured the fact that emissions of bases of the bases in the atmosphere can be acidic, despite tighter controls on pollu- have also decreased. A number of fac- found in airborne particles referred to tion? And why do some natural ecosys- tors seem to be diminishing the level of as atmospheric dust. These dust particles tems—in particular, forests—show lev- these atmospheric bases and in the pro- are rich in minerals such as calcium car- els of damage from acid rain greater cess aggravating the ecological effects of bonate and magnesium carbonate, which than scientists originally predicted? acid rain. Ironically, among these factors act as bases when they dissolve in water. Recent findings suggest that acid rain are some of the very steps that govern- Atmospheric dust particles originate is a much more complex phenomenon ments have taken to improve air quality. from a combination of sources. Fossil- than previously thought. Results from Acids and bases are measured by what fuel combustion and industrial activi- several studies point to the unexpected is known as the pH scale: solutions with ties, such as cement manufacturing, but critical role of chemicals in the at- a pH of less than 7 are acidic; those with mining operations and metal process- mosphere known as bases, which can a pH greater than 7 are basic; those with ing, generate particles that contain bas- counteract the effects of acid rain by a pH of 7 are neutral. Common acids es. Construction sites, farms and traffic neutralizing acidic pollutants. We have around the home include vinegar, orange on unpaved roads also contribute. Sourc- es such as forest fires and erosion caused by wind blowing over arid soils with little vegetation are considered natural yet can still be linked to human activity. A Natural Antacid n the air, dust particles can neutralize Iacid rain in a manner similar to the way antacids counteract excess acid in an upset stomach. In a sense, when an acid and a base combine, they cancel each other out, producing a more neu- tral substance. Neutralization in the at- mosphere takes place as dust particles dissolve into acidic cloud-water droplets or combine directly with acidic gases such as sulfur dioxide or nitrogen ox- ides. These reactions also generate so- called base cations—a term used to de- scribe the positively charged atoms of elements such as calcium and magne- sium that arise when mineral bases dis- solve in water. In addition to lowering the acidity of precipitation, atmospheric base cations also neutralize acid rain once they reach the ground—although the chemistry is a bit different than in the atmosphere. O OSTI T Small particles of clay and humus (de- OBER R cayed organic matter) in soil bear nega- ATMOSPHERIC DUST (brown arrows) contains chemicals known as bases, which neutralize the acidic air pollutants (yellow arrows) that cause acid rain. Industrial emissions, agricultural processes, such as plowing, and traffic on unpaved roads contribute to atmospheric dust. Natural sources include forest fires and erosion by wind. Acidic pollutants derive primarily from the burning of fossil fuels in facto- ries, cars and homes. An additional bene- fit of dust particles is that they deliver nu- trients to forests; unfortunately, dust can cause health and environmental problems. Copyright 1997 Scientific American, Inc. tive charges and thus attract positively With the exception of early work in the were enacted because, as scientists have charged cations, such as calcium and 1950s by Hans Egnér of Uppsala Agri- known for some time, microscopic par- magnesium; as a result, soils contain a cultural University in Sweden and Eville ticles suspended in the air can cause a natural store of base cations attached Gorham of the Freshwater Biological range of health problems when inhaled; to these particles. As acidic rainwater Association laboratory in England, sci- they also degrade visibility and contrib- drains into the ground, the base cations entists have not paid much attention to ute to a host of other environmental give up their places to the positively the idea that the atmosphere can be a problems. Governments in North Amer- charged hydrogen ions found in acids, major source of base cations found in ica and Europe have for over 20 years which bind more tightly to the soil par- soils. Scientists have traditionally thought designated acceptable air-quality stan- ticles. Because these particles sequester that the slow dissolution of minerals dards for particulate matter; these regu- hydrogen ions, the acidity of the water and rocks in deeper parts of the soil re- lations were quite distinct from those that flows through the soil stays low. In plenished base cations, in a natural pro- focusing on acidic pollution. (Atmo- some soils the process becomes more cess called chemical weathering. spheric dust from other sources appears complex: acid rain triggers the dissolu- But recent findings, including our own to have dropped off as well: Gary J. tion of toxic aluminum ions that also studies, are now revising the general view Stensland and Donald F. Gatz of the Il- displace the base cations. of how bases enter soils and how forests linois State Water Survey have found As long as the soil has an abundant depend on atmospheric inputs of min- that emissions of particles containing supply of base cations, this buffering erals and nutrients. In some forests the bases have fallen in response to less system, known as cation exchange, pro- atmosphere actually appears to be the traffic on unpaved roads.) tects forests from the harmful effects of main source of base cations. These new Working together with European sci- acid rain. But the natural reserves of results suggest that many forests are entists, we began by evaluating the base cations can become depleted if soils more sensitive to changes in atmospher- longest records of precipitation chem- that are naturally poor in bases are ex- ic chemistry than scientists once believed. istry that can be found in eastern North posed to acid rain over decades, as has America and western Europe. By mea- been the case in regions of Europe and Less Dust, More Damage suring base cations dissolved in snow North America. In these areas, hydro- and rainwater, we can keep track of the gen ions and aluminum ions have dis- fforts to reduce emissions of acidic levels of mineral bases in the atmosphere placed a large part of the available base Eair pollutants offered encouraging and monitor the input of these base cat- cations in soils, allowing levels of alu- results at first: levels of atmospheric sul- ions into forest ecosystems. Our find- minum to rise and leaving the soil high- fur, for instance, have dropped dramati- ings were startling: we discovered that ly acidic. Furthermore, such acidified cally over the past three decades in much atmospheric bases have declined at un- soils can no longer protect downstream of Europe and eastern North America. expectedly steep rates during the past 10 ecosystems from acid rain: waters that The two of us became concerned, how- to 30 years. The longest existing North drain these forests carry both acids and ever, that policymakers and scientists American record, collected at the Hub- aluminum into streams, lakes and rivers. alike might be neglecting the role of at- bard Brook Experimental Forest in New Dust particles may serve one other im- mospheric bases in their attempts to eval- Hampshire, showed a 49 percent drop portant role. Elements such as calcium uate whether these reductions in sulfur in atmospheric base cations since 1965. and magnesium, as well as sodium and compounds have benefited the environ- On the other side of the Atlantic we potassium—all of which can be found ment. Considering the significance of found that the longest-running high- in mineral dust—are essential nutrients basic chemicals to both forest growth quality European record, from the for- for most plants. Acid rain not only dis- and the prevention of acid rain, we de- ested area of Sjöängen in southern Swe- lodges these elements from clay and hu- cided to investigate whether levels of at- den, showed a 74 percent decrease in mus particles, from which plants get mospheric dust have also changed over base cations since 1971. Our analyses of most of their nutrients, it also washes time in response to lower emissions im- several other records confirmed with few them into rivers and streams, depleting posed by new regulations.
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