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The Development of Crop Insurance & the U.S. Farm Safety Net By Ashley Craft, Tom Zacharias and Mechel Paggi, NCIS

Every American farmer today feeds, on average, 155 people. That Beginning with a Focus on Education is roughly a six-fold increase from just five decades ago, when farm- The early years of farm policy were dedicated to education, research ers fed just 26 people. Developments in technology, farming practic- and training —a dedication that still lives on with public universities, es, education and public policy made it possible, improving farmer publicly administered extension programs, and partnerships between efficiency by nearly six-fold and providing the American public with the public and private sectors, such as NCIS’ risk management education the world’s most affordable, abundant and safe food supply. programs for socially disadvantaged and limited-resource farmers. America’s commitment to agriculture is not surprising. The coun- Early public investment began in 1862, when Congress passed the try’s Founding Fathers were themselves farmers and recognized the Morrill Act, which distributed public land to several states and territories importance of a country’s ability to feed and clothe itself. Thomas and established colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. That same year Jefferson called farmers our “most valuable citizens,” and George also brought another monumental event for the agricultural industry Washington noted, “I know of no pursuit in which more real and im- when President Abraham Lincoln instituted the Bureau of Agriculture. portant services can be rendered to any country than by improving The Hatch Act, passed in 1887, continued policymakers’ push for im- its agriculture.” proved training and research. It established experiment stations, provid- Through the years, public support for agriculture has taken many ed centers for scientific research, transformed the Bureau of Agriculture forms, from investments in research and education to disaster aid into the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and added and individual commodity programs. That journey has led us to to- the Secretary of Agriculture to the president’s cabinet, thus cementing day’s safety net, with crop insurance as its centerpiece. What tomor- agriculture’s place as a public policy priority. row holds is anyone’s guess, but when charting a course for the future Of course, new technologies and best management practices designed it is important to understand the policy decisions of our past. to enhance productivity and efficiency are meaningless unless farmers

4 SEPTEMBER2015 ance Program and planted of what seed the Actthe provided for Federal the Crop Insur But perhaps, inretrospect, most importantly, production when in periods selling was short. buying of commodities surplus in periods and commodity stock holding by government; the cultural Adjustment Act of 1938introduced forpolicy agriculture. legislation that included price and income later Congress when approved permanent crops. This was Act amended justtwo years by paying farmers for planting soil-building lotment Act, encouraged which conservation by and Conservation Soil the Domestic- Al pand markets or remove surpluses. and 3) allow USDA the to spend money, ex- processors to control prices paid to farmers agreements, 2)enter into agreements with authorized to: 1) reduce acreage by voluntary ture power. new Specifically, was secretary the bysector of- granting Agricul Secretary the tosigned bring stability to agricultural the first farm very This legislationbill. was de- justment Act (AAA)of country’s 1933,the lin D. Agricultural the Ad signed Roosevelt - percent since turn the of century. the agriculture to started dwindle, also 50 falling cent. The number of Americans employed in and 1933and crop prices dropped by 56per income plummeted 70percent 1929 between were not asufficient policy.farm Net farm vestments ineducation and training alone history, it readily became apparent that in- with one ofstruggled worst the droughts in Greatthe Depression America and rural in Turbulent Times A Farm SafetyNetEvolves vocational agriculture schools. inhigh 1917 provided Federal support for teaching System. And lastly, Smith-Hughes the Act of thus Banks, Land Farm starting the Credit 1916 helped create 12Cooperative Federal farmers. Next, Federal the Farm Act Loan of technologiesnew from USDA the directly to erative Extension system to communicate Smith-Lever1914, the Act- up set Coop the 1900s with three key pieces of legislation. In something Congress addressed early inthe can readily access and afford these tools— Designed to stabilizeDesigned prices, Agri the - Three yearslater, the AAAwas replaced To counteract effects, the President Frank- When U.S. the economy collapsed during - - The Smith-LeverAct 1914 agriculture tothepresident’scabinet. United StatesDepartmentofAgricultureandaddedasecretary The ActalsohelpedtransformtheBureauofAgricultureinto other individualsinvolvedinfoodproductionand/oragriculture. for scientificinvestigationsbenefitingfarmers,ranchersand Established experimentalstations,providingresearchcenters The HatchAct 1887 international botanicalexaminationandnationalcropimprovement. Abraham LincolninstitutedtheBureauofAgriculturetoadvance colleges ofagricultureandmechanicarts.Thatsameyear,President Distributed publiclandtoseveralstatesandterritories,establishing The MorrillAct 1862 or removingsurpluses. 3) AllowtheUSDAtospendmoney, expandingmarkets paid tofarmers. 2) Enterintoagreementswithprocessors tocontrolprices 1) Reduceacreagebyvoluntaryagreements. Established firstfarmbillto: Agricultural AdjustmentAct 1933 entered theworkforceorpostsecondaryeducationprograms. schools, startingtheagriculturaleducationprogrambeforestudents Provided federalsupportforteachingvocationalagricultureinhigh The Smith-HughesAct 1917 family farmers. Credit System.ThegoalofthisActwastoincreasecreditrural Created 12CooperativeFederalLandBanks,thusstartingtheFarm Federal Farm LoanAct 1916 development. Morrill Act,totheircommunitiesprovidingeconomicandagricultural education providedatland-grantuniversities,establishedunderthe technologies fromtheUSDAdirectlytofarmers.Thisconnected Set uptheCooperativeExtensionsystemtocommunicatenew CROPINSURANCE TODAY

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5 America’s Commitment grew to become our modern-day farm policy. “Agriculture…is our wisest evolved with the passage of four new acts. Even though crop insurance was original- The first being the Agricultural Act of 1954, ly introduced on a pilot basis and only cov- pursuit, because it will in which introduced flexible price supports to ered wheat, it would go on to pave the way the end contribute most to commodity programs. The second, the Ag- for farmers to financially recover from natural ricultural Act of 1956, introduced the use of disasters and volatile market fluctuations; pay real wealth, good morals, conservation reserve, in addition to acreage their bankers, fertilizer suppliers, equipment and happiness.” control, for supply management. Next came providers and landlords; purchase their pro- the Food and Agricultural Act of 1965, es- duction inputs for the next season; and give President Thomas Jefferson tablishing new income support payments in them the confidence to make longer term in- combination with reduced price supports and vestments that increased their productivity. age, maintain acreage allotments and extend continued supply controls. Finally, the first in- By 1939, approximately 165,000 wheat price supports based on a parity concept, clusion of a title for rural development came policies were in place in 31 states. According which was meant to raise commodity prices in the 1970 Agricultural Act. to Crop Insurance, Disaster Assistance, and the and help them keep pace with inflation. Ad- Role of the Federal Government in Providing ditionally, the bill created the Farmers Home Preparing for Bad Times Catastrophic Risk Protection, the government Administrations (FMHA) emergency loan During the Good “absorbed all delivery and operating costs” program, which established emergency loans Positive changes were beginning to take ensuring each of the policies was covered. at subsidized interest rates for farmers who place within agriculture during the 1970s, As the government continued to expand the suffered losses caused by a natural disaster. thanks in part to past public investments. Federal Crop Insurance Program, eventu- It is important to note that if, or when, Between 1970 and 1973, farmers saw a 73 ally covering much more than just wheat, Congress faces the dilemma of not passing a percent increase in their real net income. it remained a pilot program for the first new farm bill and the current rule expires, the Land values also increased 376 percent in the 40 years. rules and regulations governing most of U.S. 1970s. However, most decision makers recog- The Agricultural Act of 1949, another farm policy would automatically revert to the nized that good times do not always last, so permanent piece of agricultural legislation, permanent 1938 and 1949 agricultural acts. enhancements were made to provide a better was enacted to broaden commodity cover- From 1954 to 1970, farm policy slowly cushion when tides inevitably turned. Specifically, the Agricultural Act of 1973 created disaster payments for farmers who were prevented from harvesting two-thirds of normal production, price targets for select- ed commodities and deficiency payments to farmers of those commodities when prices fell below target levels. The Agricultural Act of 1977 further increased target prices and loan rates, revised payment limits upwards and substituted current planted acreage for al- lotments. Then came the Federal Crop Insur- ance Act of 1980, which phased out the free Federal farm disaster payment program and enabled private crop insurers and agents to market “All-Risk” crop insurance—the birth of today’s public-private partnership. Initially the 35 companies that held a rein- surance agreement with FCIC for the 1981/82 crop year had a slow start due to a shortened sales season, but still sold $12-13 million in premium with a loss ratio of around 60 per- cent. In 1982 and 1983, the Federal crop in- surance program paid out 63 percent more in losses than premiums paid in. All told, more than $1 billion in crop insurance losses were paid out in 1982 and 1983, equaling half as much as had ever been paid out during the entire 45-year history of the program.

6 SEPTEMBER2015 saw more than 21million acres of flooded came on heels the of adisastrous 1993that Crop Insurance Reform Act of 1994,which management. on was spending considerably more eachyear hovered 30percent in the range and Congress ly 1990s,crop insurance participation rates for taxpayers as well. Even as late as ear the ing hardship, not just countryside, inthe but sufficiently targeted and slow toarrive, caus- assistance,needed but aid was expensive, not an unparalleled farm debt crisis.Producers again reeling, with adverse both weather and ture throughout ‘70s,U.S. the agriculture was Insurance Policymakers Turn toCrop was received. percent or greater and adisaster payment for policy 1988loss 1989ifthe eral was 65 ing farmers to purchase or maintain a Fed- and eligibility for disaster assistance, requir cropformalized between link the insurance lief on nearly crops all states. inall It also islation was that enacted provided for re - D.C., for answers. Eventually disaster leg- and eyesweremedia, all on Washington, 200 percent. 309 percent; Ohio, 298percent; and Missouri, cent; South Dakota, 338percent; Minnesota, ana’s loss ratio was 400percent; Iowa, 375per loss ratios that 500 percent. exceeded Indi- North Dakota and Montana had statewide spared hadeas been by drought. the Illinois, By few geographic end the of 1988,very ar crop insurance were near disastrous levels. effects the losses, on cropyields and Federal peratures produced abnormally low crop-hail worst. While clear the skiesand tem - high lossin an ratio industry of 147percent. than $638 million was paid resulting inlosses (MCPI) program was again disastrous. More er, Federal the Multiple Peril Crop Insurance 40.8 percent, lowest the since 1946.Howev - mendous aloss 1984,experiencing ratio of vate crop-hail insurance program had atre- “year1984 the of contrasts.” The nation’s - pri ThatCongresswhen theis passed Federal Despite investments the - made inagricul The 1988drought dominatedthe news Events took in1988then aturn for the Steve Harms, and Rain Hail L.L.C.,called ad hoc ad disaster relief measures than risk - - - -

Agricultural AdjustmentAct 1949 economic disasters. the wayforfarmerstofinanciallyrecoverfromvariousnaturaland basis, initiallyonlycoveringwheat,thisadditionwouldgoontopave Even thoughcropinsurancewasoriginallyintroducedonapilot most popularandpreferredfarmingsafetynetprogramtothisday. seed thathasallowedcropinsurancetogrowthenumberone Created theFederalCropInsuranceProgramandfirmlyplanted Agricultural AdjustmentAct 1938 prior to1936.Thisactlastedtwoyearsbeforebeingamended. soil-building cropsinsteadofprimarythatwerebeingpushed Encouraged conservationbypayingbenefitstofarmersforplanting Domestic AllotmentAct Soil Conservationand 1936 wheat andfoodprogramsto1969 aswell. reduced pricesupportsandcontinued supplycontrols.Extended Established newincomesupport payments incombinationwith Food andAgriculture Act 1965 and providedupto29millionacresofConservationReserve. control forsupplymanagement.ThisActestablishedtheSoilBank Introduced theuseofaconservationreserveinadditiontoacreage Agricultural Act 1956 who sufferedlossescausedbyanaturaldisaster. Established emergencyloansatsubsidizedinterestratesforfarmers Emergency LoanProgram Farmers HomeAdministration’s 1949 permanent 1938and1949agriculturalacts. governing mostofU.S.farmpolicywouldautomaticallyreverttothe dilemma ofnotpassinganewfarmbill,therulesandregulations concept. Itmaybeworthnoting,thatiforwhenCongressfacesthe allotments andextendhighpricesupportsbasedonaparity Enacted tobroadencommoditycoverage,maintainacreage CROPINSURANCE TODAY ®

7 America’s Commitment Crop Insurance

Farm Policy farmland and $4 billion in damage. Accord- 1996. FAIR eliminated target prices for in- ing to Ken Ackerman, Manager of the Federal come supports, introduced nearly complete Crop Insurance Corporation at the time, the planting flexibility, and continued marketing legislation was “designed to combine the crop and non-recourse loans for existing crops. It insurance program and the various ad hoc paved the way for one of the most effective established marketing loans for all program Federal disaster relief bills into a single, uni- and popular forms of crop insurance used by crops with the exception of extra-long staple fied program so that farmers will have more farmers today. cotton and capped loan rates at 1995 levels. certainty in knowing how the government The year 1996 also brought with it a seis- This Act also streamlined crop insurance by will protect them in the event of a natural di- mic shift in farm policy. Crop prices had re- paving the way for a single-delivery system, saster and taxpayers will have more certainty bounded, new international markets were transferring existing Farm Service Agency knowing what their financial risk exposure is.” emerging, and growers wanted to be un- (FSA) delivered policies to the private insur- The reform bill also restructured crop shackled from the government when making ance companies. insurance to increase farmer participation, business decisions. Producers and lawmakers These changes helped strengthen the crop increased the private sector’s role, enhanced alike supported farm policies that were more insurance industry and by 1998, more than provisions of the crop insurance program for free-market oriented and benefited from pri- 180 million acres of farmland were insured the farmer and created the USDA’s Risk Man- vate-sector efficiency. under the program, representing a three- agement Agency (RMA). It made participa- Thus was born the Federal Agricultur- fold increase from just 10 years earlier. Un- tion in crop insurance mandatory for farmers al Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act of der Secretary of Agriculture at the time, Gus to be eligible for deficiency payments under Schumacher, said, “RMA and the private crop price support programs, certain loans and “In no other country do insurance companies have developed innova- other benefits. Catastrophic coverage (CAT) so few people produce tive new crop insurance policies and provided was created, compensating farmers for losses protection to more farmers and more acres exceeding 50 percent of an average yield paid so much food, to feed than ever before.” at 60 percent of the price established for the The 1990s saw great expansion in the num- so many, at such crop that year. ber of crops and counties protected by crop Crop insurance revenue products—Crop reasonable prices.” insurance including canola, blueberries and Revenue Coverage (CRC) and Income Pro- Florida fruit trees. New programs, such as the tection (IP)—were also introduced to farmers President Group Risk Plan, Revenue Assurance and Ad- beginning with the 1996 spring crop year and Dwight D. Eisenhower justed Gross Revenue, were also introduced. 8 SEPTEMBER2015 Midwest and South were Deep facing ahis- ing that, at same the time, farmers across the would reduced to need be or eliminated. if it meant other of parts farm the safety net urged lawmakers to expand system, the even stated support their for crop insurance and table. Farmers from coast to coast repeatedly tional budget were cuts to- farm policy inevi were under way, it obvious became that addi- Centerpiece as Farm Policy’s Crowning CropInsurance future deliberations. farm policy insurance 2008bill inthe and stage the set for sion. This led to budget reductions for crop encing ramificationsfrom the recent - reces emerged as U.S. the economy- began experi insurance. However, budget new pressures and again steps taking meant to improve crop helping build on 2002’s plan farm security and Actservation Energy (2008Farm Bill) billion inliability by 2005. more than $4.1billion inpremium and $46 in liability in 1981, crop insurance boasted From $377 million in premium and $3 billion ity communities of rural across country. the successfully protecting economic the viabil- programthe had grown substantially and was today’s crop insurance system was established, lic-private partnership structure that signifies farmers following disaster. ever,time as largest the single source of aid to croptime insurance had emerged, for first the in America’s portfolio. farm policy By that trend the ued of prioritizing crop insurance changesal to commodity and policies contin- reduce fraud, waste and abuse. pation and included provisions to designed to encourage greater crop insurance- partici increased premiumalso discounts to farmers and protection on historic based yields. ARPA ance products including revenue insurance farmers to access different types ofcrop insur Risk Protection Act (ARPA) made it for easier able and widely available. The Agricultural goals of making crop insurance more afford - er important piece of legislation its to further Such support is understandable consider By Farm new 2012when discussions Bill In 2008Congress Food, the - Con passed Just after two decades the historic pub- Another Farm in 2002 madeBill addition- By May 2000,Congress approved anoth- - - Reserves forgrains. addition tothesealterations,thisActalsointroducedFarmerOwned upwards andsubstitutedcurrentplantedacreageforallotments.In Increased targetpricesandloanrates,revisedpaymentlimits Food andAgriculturalAct 1977 such deficiencypayments. when pricesfellbelowtargetlevelsandtodetermine harvesting two-thirdsofnormalproduction,deficiencypayments Created disasterpaymentsforfarmerswhowerepreventedfrom Protection Act Agriculture andConsumer 1973 set dateorhavetheirallotmentsreducedinfutureyears. percent ofparity.Italsorequiredfarmerstoplanttheircropbeforea Created minimumloanratesandadditionalpricesupportsbasedon Agricultural Act 1970 catastrophic (CAT) coverage. certain loansand otherbenefits.”Thisinturnalso created be eligiblefordeficiencypayments underpricesupportprograms, Made participationincropinsurance mandatoryfor“farmersto Federal CropInsurance Reform Act 1994 for cottonandrice. maintain totalproductionandloanrates.Introducedmarketingloans Allowed lowercommoditypriceandincomesupports,tryingto Food SecurityAct 1985 Act anddairysupportpriceswerelowered. Marketing quotasandriceallotmentswereeliminatedunderthis Continued andmodifiedcommodityprogramsthrough1985. Agricultural andFoodAct 1981 for disasterprograms.” regions andthisformofinsurancewasviewedasa“replacement multi-peril cropinsurance(MPCI)forcropsthroughoutvarious making itmoreaffordableandaccessible.TheActalsoestablished Increased participationintheFederalCropInsuranceProgram, Crop InsuranceAct 1980 CROPINSURANCE TODAY ®

9 America’s Commitment “Providing farmers the torical drought, far worse than the drought crop insurance. That is a testament to just how option to insure their of 1988. But unlike the ‘80s, farmers now well agents, adjusters, the companies, and embraced insurance. More than 282 million Risk Management Agency (RMA) worked whole farm at once gives acres and $117 billion in liability were pro- together in one of the worst droughts in the farmers more flexibility, tected by 2012, and many farmers who had history of this nation.” purchased crop insurance for years, were sub- The Agricultural Reform, Food and Jobs promotes crop diversity, mitting loss notices to their insurance agent Act was signed into law on February 7, 2014. and helps support the for the first time. The new Act accelerated the evolution from All told, crop insurance paid more than traditional farm price and income support to production of healthy $17 billion in indemnities that year, but that risk management and solidified crop insur- fruits and vegetables. was only part of the story. Farmers received ance as the primary tool for farmers in deal- More flexibility also aid quickly after claims were adjusted, and ing with production and price risk. that aid helped them break even, not profit. The 2008 Farm Bill’s direct and countercy- empowers farmers Because of the system’s unique cost-sharing clical payment programs and the state-based and ranchers to make structure, farmers had paid more than $4 revenue program known as ACRE (Average billion in premiums and shouldered approx- Crop Revenue Enhancement Program) were a broader range of de- imately $13 billion in deductibles before re- eliminated. In their place, a farmer could cisions with their land, ceiving a dime from crop insurance. Private choose one of two new farm programs that helping them succeed insurers also suffered $1.3 billion in losses, began with the 2014 crop year: 1) Price Loss which otherwise would have fallen on the Coverage (PLC), a program that makes a pay- and strengthening our backs of taxpayers. ment to a producer when the market price for agriculture economy.” Michael Scuse, Under Secretary for USDA, a covered crop is below a fixed reference price; said of the situation after he toured devastated or 2) Agriculture Risk Protection (ARC), Agriculture Secretary farms that summer: “I have yet to have a sin- a program that makes a payment when ei- Tom Vilsack gle producer call me with a complaint about ther the farm’s revenue from all crops or the

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10 SEPTEMBER2015 search for this article in PDF form. anceinamerica.org/resources-materials and of those resources, please visit www.cropinsur ing alarge number of resources. To find a list challenges tomorrow may bring. ready to do our inmeeting whatever part as a crop insurance industry, we must remain leaders share same this overarching goal, and fiber supply. be important will It that future common America’s of goal securing and food foundingthe of great this nation shared who a quired foresight the of leadersdating back to farmers’ individual and needs, cost-sharing. delivery, ability the uniquely to be tailored for public-private partnership structure,of speed surance and its many strengths, including a nomic or natural disasters thanks to crop in- abilitythe to more quickly recover from- eco tion provided. can history be of yields higher until own their produc actual - additional premium support and benefits the provided and new farmers beginning with an might mostpolicies the effective. be also It studies to determine where products new and commodities and initiated feasibility several tion by producers agricultural of under served ducing that policies new increase- participa orlying plan policy the of insurance. toofequal apart deductible the on under the insurance that would allow indemnities to be an underlying or individual plan policy of purchase area coverage incombination with provides crop producers with option the to Supplementalthe Coverage Option, or SCO, or plan of insurance.second The program, or incombination with an underlying policy plan that acotton producer may alone use Protection Plan, or STAX, is an area revenue natural disasters or price declines. expand protectiontheir against due losses to supplemental that policies help will producers strengthened crop insurance by adding two grams, 2014Farm the substantially Bill revenue. of apredetermined or benchmark level of alternative) which choose is below 86percent county’s revenue for acrop farmer (the may Editor’s Note: Getting to stage this inour has history re- Today, like never before, our farmers have The also Farm putBill priority on intro- The first program, theStacked Income In addition two farm topro new these - This piece was compiledus- - -

America’s commitment to agriculture waste andabuse. levels tofarmersandincludedprovisionsdesignedreducefraud, based onhistoricyields.ThisActalsoincreasedpremiumsubsidy insurance productsincludingrevenueandprotection Made iteasierforfarmerstoaccessdifferenttypesofcrop Agricultural RiskProtection Act 2000 programs, supportingU.S.agriculture. Corporation programs,riskmanagementprogramsandeducational the RiskManagementAgencytooverseeFederalCropInsurance payments basedonhistoricalproduction.Congressalsoestablished price supportandsupplycontrolprogramswithofdirect Repealed mandatorycropinsuranceparticipationandalsoreplaced and Reform Act Federal AgricultureImprovement 1996 importance offarmsecurity. price andincomesupporttoriskmanagementtools,signifyingthe Accelerated theevolutionoffarmpolicyfromtraditional Agricultural Actof2014 2014 farmers, researchanddevelopment. conducted byRMA,aswellexpandedassistancefororganic Helped expandregulatoryoptionsofthecropinsuranceindustry Food, ConservationandEnergyAct 2008 Federal CropInsuranceAct. Established a counter-cyclical payments program. Also amended the Investment Act Farm SecurityandRural 2002 CROPINSURANCE TODAY

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11 America’s Commitment Citations 1‐ https://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2009‐summer/us‐farm‐policy/ 2‐ https://www.richmondfed.org/‐ /media/richmondfedorg/publications/research/economic_review/1987/pdf/er730304.pdf 3‐ https://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2009‐summer/us‐farm‐policy/ 4‐ http://newdeal.feri.org/wallace/haw05.htm#1 5‐ http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/agricultural‐adjustment‐ administration.html 6‐ http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/259572/eib3_1_.pdf 7‐ http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/259572/eib3_1_.pdf 8‐ http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/259572/eib3_1_.pdf 9‐ http://www.ag.senate.gov/issues/2008‐farm‐bill under the 2008 summary in a downloadable PDF form 10‐ http://www.usda.gov/documents/usda‐2014‐farm‐bill‐highlights.pdf 11‐ http://www.cropinsuranceinamerica.org/just‐the‐facts/how‐does‐the‐2014‐farm‐bill‐ change‐crop‐insurance/#.Vcz6NPlVhBd 12‐ http://www.rma.usda.gov/aboutrma/what/history.html 13‐ https://www.pinterest.com/pin/498140408762447869/ 14‐ Crop Insurance, Disaster Assistance, and the Role of the Federal Government in Providing Catastrophic Risk Protection, Drs. Joseph W. Glauber and Keith J. Collins 15‐ https://www.organicconsumers.org/old_articles/ofgu/farmbill.htm 16‐ Provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 Introduction, Frederick J. Nelson and Lyle P. Schertz* 17‐ https://www.afpc.tamu.edu/pubs/0/121/wp99‐9.pdf 18‐ http://www.swcs.org/index.cfm/6788/427/farm_security_and_rural_investment_act_of_2002 _sectionbysection_summary_of_the_conservation_title 19‐ http://www.caes.uga.edu/center/caed/presentations/2008/documents/FCEALONG.pdf 20‐ http://www.ag.senate.gov/issues/farm‐bill 21‐ A 25 Year Milestone in Farm Policy: Looking Back at the 1989 GAO Report, Drs. Keith Collins and Tom Zacharias, NCIS