Source Abbreviations

Unless otherwise indicated, all federal record groups (RG) are located at the National Archives, College Park, Md. RG 40 General Records of the Department of Commerce RG 51, Lawton Files Records of the Office of Management and Budget, Office Files of Director Frederick J. Lawton, 1950–54 RG 56, Central Files General Records of the Department of the Treasury, Central Files of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1933–56 RG 59 General Records of the Department of State, Records Relating to the Vital Records Program for Emergency Planning RG 64 Records of the National Archives and Records Administration, Office of the Archivist, Planning and Control Case Files RG 87 Records of the U.S. Secret Service, General Correspondence and Subject File RG 111 Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer RG 121, REM Records of the Public Buildings Service, Records Relating to the Renovation and Modernization of the Executive Mansion, 1948–53 RG 167 Records of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Records Concerning the Move of the National Bureau of Standards to Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1952–66 RG 218, CDF Records of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Central Decimal File RG 263 Records of the Central Intelligence Agency, History Source Collection RG 269 General Records of the General Services Administration RG 304 Records of the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, National Security Resources Board Files RG 326 Records of the Atomic Energy Commission, Office of the Secretary General Correspondence 1951–58, Plants, Labs, Buildings & Land 5 RG 328 Records of the National Capital Planning Commission, National Archives, Washington, D.C. RG 330 Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Assistant Secretary of Defense, Civil Defense Division RG 341 Records of the Headquarters United States Air Force (Air Staff), Control and Warning Branch Files, 1951–61 192 Source Abbreviations

RG 351, BOC Records of the Government of the District of Columbia, Board of Commissioners General Files, National Archives, Washington, D.C. RG 396 Records of the Office of Emergency Preparedness Alexandria Records Alexandria City Council Records, City of Alexandria Archives and Records Center, Alexandria, Va. AOC Record Group 40.3, Microfilm Reel 77, Art and Reference Subject Files, Architect of the Capitol, Washington, D.C. BAS Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists CDNS House, Committee on Government Operations, Civil Defense for National Survival, Hearings before the House Military Operations Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, 84th Cong., 2nd sess. January–June 1956 CF Dwight D. Eisenhower Records as President, White House Central Files, Confidential File, Subject Series, DDEL CR Congressional Record DCCA Records of the Dupont Circle Citizens Association, Historical Society of Washington, D.C. DDEL Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kans. Disaster File White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, Disaster File Series, DDEL EAS White House Office, Office of the Staff Secretary, Emergency Action Series, DDEL FCA Federation of Citizens Associations of the District of Columbia Collection, Georgetown University Special Collections, Washington, D.C. FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) HST Papers, PSF Papers of Harry S. Truman, President’s Secretary’s Files, HSTL HST Papers, WHCF Papers of Harry S. Truman, White House Central Files, HSTL HSTL Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, Independence, Mo. HSW Historical Society of Washington, D.C. LOC Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. MCA Montgomery County Archives, Rockville, Md. MCHS Montgomery County Historical Society, Vertical File, Civil Defense, Rockville, Md. NSC Briefing Notes White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Briefing Notes Subseries, DDEL NSC Policy Paper White House Office, Office of the Special Subseries Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Policy Paper Subseries, DDEL Source Abbreviations 193

NYT New York Times PPP Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: USGPO) SSAS White House Office, Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, DDEL WBOT Records of the Greater Washington Board of Trade, George Washington University Special Collections, Washington, D.C. WP Washington Post WS Washington Star Washingtoniana Washingtoniana Division, Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library, Washington, D.C. Whitman File Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers as President (Ann Whitman File), DDEL Notes

Introduction 1. “D.C. Schools Will Graduate 6000 in 2 Days,” WP, June 7, 1948, sec. B, p. 1; “The Problem of Civil Defense Today,” June 28, 1948, box 13, folder “Civil Defense 2 of 2,” U.S. Grant III Papers, HSW; David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 648. 2. Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Strategic Vulnerability of Washington, D.C.,” September 3, 1948, box 40, folder “Vulnerability of Washington, D.C.,” RG 330. 3. As T.S. Eliot ends his poem “The Hollow Men” (1925), “This is the way the world ends / Not with a bang but a whimper.” 4. The Joint Chiefs of Staff weren’t the first to imagine an atomic attack on Washington, D.C. In November 1945, Life envisioned an atomic bombardment of Washington. See “The 36-Hour War,” Life 19, no. 21 (November 19, 1945). Nor was Washington the only target in these imaginary attacks. Atomic attack scenarios for other U.S. cities began regularly appearing in newspapers and mag- azines. See Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 52–66. 5. In the late 1940s, the metropolitan area was defined as the District of Columbia; the city of Alexandria, Va.; Arlington and Fairfax Counties (Va.); and Montgomery and Prince Georges Counties (Md.). 6. Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967), 280–2. 7. Carl Abbott, Political Terrain: Washington, D.C., from Tidewater Town to Global Metropolis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 7–8. 8. Lucy G. Barber, Marching on Washington: The Forging of an American Political Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 44–107, 179–218. 9. Stanley Harrold, Subversives: Antislavery Community in Washington, D.C., 1828–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 256. 10. Constance McLaughlin Green, Washington: Village and Capital, 1800–1878, vol. 1, Washington: A History of the Capital, 1800–1950 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962), 296. 11. For the international ramifications of the District’s segregation during the Cold War, see Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 96–9. 12. Alan Lessoff, The Nation and Its City: Politics, “Corruption,” and Progress in Washington, D.C., 1861–1902 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 1–14. 13. Frederick Gutheim (consultant) and the National Capital Planning Commission, Worthy of the Nation: The History of Planning for the National Capital (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977), 113–36 (the quote is on 135), 345–56. 196 Notes

14. Howard Gillette, Jr., Between Justice and Beauty: Race, Planning, and the Failure of Urban Policy in Washington, D.C. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 135–69. 15. “Statement of Commissioner Robert E. McLaughlin before the Senate Committee on Government Operations,” April 27, 1959, box 228, folder 4–100, RG 351, BOC. 16. Executive departments, bureaus, and agencies designated as “wartime essential” included obvious choices such as the Departments of State and Defense, the military services, the CIA, and the FBI. Given the enormous challenges of mobilizing and fighting modern war, however, the list of qualifying agencies was quite extensive. For example, the Coast and Geodetic Survey (within the Department of Commerce) was essential because it provided charts used by the Navy and the Air Force. Likewise, during wartime the military expected to use the mapping capability of the Geological Survey (within the Department of the Interior). The Civil Service Commission’s investigative unit, which had compiled a file of 5.5 million security index cards and 2.5 million “subversive activity information cards” by 1955, was also considered wartime essential. Even the Housing and Home Finance Agency was essential because of its $2.5 billion mortgage portfolio (circa 1955). Rather than list all known wartime essential executive agencies, I refer to them individually as needed. Sources: NSC, “Plan for Continuity of Essential Wartime Functions of the Executive Branch,” January 25, 1954, box 6, folder “NSC 159/4 . . . (1),” NSC Policy Paper Subseries, Annexes I and II; H.F. Hurley to L.J. Greeley, March 1, 1955, box 2, folder “Office of Defense Mobilization (2),” John S. Bragdon Records, Miscellaneous File, Civil Defense Subseries, DDEL. 17. FCDA, The National Plan for Civil Defense against Enemy Attack (Washington, D.C.: 1956), 2. For more on civil defense in the 1950s, see Rose, One Nation, 22–35; Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 105–287. 18. DCD, District of Columbia Survival Plan, 1959, LOC. 19. Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 31. 20. Allan M. Winkler, Life under a Cloud: American Anxiety about the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; reprint, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 68–75. 21. Even before continuity preparations were underway, Clinton L. Rossiter addressed this problem in his book Constitutional Dictatorship: Crisis Government in the Modern Democracies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948). According to Rossiter, a dictatorship would be needed after an atomic attack; the challenge was to set up, prior to war, constitutional limits to ensure the dictatorship wasn’t permanent. 22. Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 3–9, 52–4; Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 319–33; Andrew D. Grossman, Neither Dead nor Red: Civilian Defense and American Political Development during the Early Cold War (London: Routledge, 2001), 1–19; McEnaney, Civil Defense, 3–10. Notes 197

23. DCD, “In Case of an A-Bomb Attack What Should You Do?,” January 1951, Vertical Files, folder “Defense 1951,” Washingtoniana. 24. John Mintz, “U.S. Called Unprepared for Nuclear Terrorism,” WP, May 3, 2005, sec. A, p. 1.

A Nuclear Weapons Primer 1. Lynn Eden, Whole World on Fire: Organizations, Knowledge, and Nuclear Weapons Devastation (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004), 15–26. As Eden’s excellent book explains, for 50 years, U.S. military and security planners greatly underestimated the mass fires (or firestorms) that the thermal effects of nuclear detonations would produce. 2. David Miller, The Cold War: A Military History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 75. 3. William Daughtery et al., “The Consequences of ‘Limited’ Nuclear Attacks on the United States,” International Security 10, no. 4 (Spring 1986): 3–45. 4. Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 12–21, 26–8. 5. Zaloga, Kremlin’s Nuclear, 72–5, 241, 254; Miller, The Cold War, 95–9, 110–2. 6. NSC Planning Board, “U.S. Policy on Continental Defense,” July 14, 1960, in William Burr, ed., “Launch on Warning: The Development of U.S. Capabilities, 1959–1979,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 43, April 2001, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB43/Ͼ. 7. Kenneth Schaffel, The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945–1960 (Washington, D.C.: USAF, Office of Air Force History, 1991), 210–7.

1 By the Bomb’s Imaginary Light 1. “Army of 3690 from WPA Starts Strengthening Capital Defenses,” WP, June 11, 1940. 2. Louis J. Halle, Spring in Washington (New York: Antheneum, 1963), viii, 8–11. 3. Constance McLaughlin Green, Washington: Capital City, 1879–1950, vol. 2, Washington: A History of the Capital, 1800–1950 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962), 468–9; Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967), 251–6. 4. Green, Washington, 473. 5. David Brinkley, Washington Goes to War (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 107; Leslie T. Davol, “Shifting Mores: Esther Bubley’s World War II Boarding House Photos,” Washington History 10, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 1998–99): 49, 52. 6. Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 98–114; Elwyn A. Mauck, “History of Civil Defense in the United States,” BAS 6, nos. 8–9 (August–September 1950): 265; Virgil L. Couch, “Civilian Defense in the United States, 1940–1945,” unpublished mss., box 1, folder “Civilian Defense in the U.S., 1940–1945 (1),” Virgil L. Couch Papers, DDEL, 3–5. 7. Mauck, “History,” 266. 198 Notes

8. Donald A. Ritchie, James M. Landis: Dean of the Regulators (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 103–5. 9. Mauck, “History,” 266; Ritchie, James M. Landis, 105; Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 17–8; “Conferees Return OCD to LaGuardia,” NYT, January 15, 1942, sec. 1, p. 14. 10. “House Forbids OCD Funds for ‘Dancers,’ Donald Duck,” NYT, February 7, 1942, sec. 1, p. 1. 11. Ritchie, James M. Landis, 105, 108–15; Sidney M. Milkis, “Franklin D. Roosevelt and The Transcendence of Partisan Politics,” Political Science Quarterly 100, no.3 (Autumn 1985): 492–6. 12. Brinkley, Washington, 96. 13. CR, 77th Cong., 1st sess., December 12, 1941, vol. 87, part 9, 9741–2; 77th Cong., 2nd sess., June 15, 1942, vol. 88, part 4, 5222; Ritchie, James M. Landis, 111; Mike Reilly to Frank Wilson, December 16, 1941, box 50, folder “103-A Bomb Protection, Etc.,” RG 87, 7. 14. WS, “You and an Air Raid: What You Should Know,” 1942, Pamphlet File, “Civil Defense,” HSW; CR, 77th Cong., 2nd sess., May 11, 1942, vol. 88, part 3, 4072-3; Ritchie, James M. Landis, 110–1; Theodor Horydczak Collection, “Potomac Electric Co. Building: Air raid equipments and personnel III,” LOC, Prints and Photographs Division. 15. Caryl A. Cooper, “The Chicago Defender: Filling in the Gaps for The Office of Civilian Defense, 1941–1945,” The Western Journal of Black Studies 23, no. 2 (1999): 111–8; Barbara Orbach and Nicholas Natanson, “The Mirror Image: Black Washington in World War II-Era Federal Photography,” Washington History 4, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1992): 4–25, 92–3; Spencie Love, One Blood: The Death and Resurrection of Charles R. Drew (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 49; photographs in RG 208, Records of the Office of War Information, Series “Negro Activities in Industry, Government, and the Armed Forces, 1941–1945,” Still Picture Records, Special Media Archives Services Division, National Archives, College Park, Md. 16. Gregory Hunter, “Howard University: ‘Capstone of Negro Education’ during World War II,” Journal of Negro History 79, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 63–5; Brinkley, Washington, 251–2. 17. Report of the Committee for the Protection of Cultural and Scientific Resources, April 12, 1943, box 2, folder “Documents 1941–1951,” LOC Archives, Committee for the Protection of Cultural and Scientific Resources, LOC, Manuscript Division; Alvin W. Kremer, October 7, 1942, box 735, LOC Archives, Central File: MacLeish/Evans, accessed November 16, 2004 at Ͻhttp://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mff.002039Ͼ. 18. Edward T. Folliard, “All Presidents Are Architects,” WP, January 11, 1948; William Seale, The President’s House: A History, vol. II (Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association, 1986), 980–4. 19. Brinkley, Washington, 95; L.E. Albert to Frank Wilson, February 16, 1942, box 50, folder “103-A Bomb Protection, Etc.,” RG 87; Reilly to Wilson, December 16, 1941, 7. 20. “Defense Setup of District Held Undermanned, Ineffectual,” WP, January 14, 1943. 21. Dr. Robert McElroy, “Narrative Account of the Office of Civilian Defense,” November 1944, box 1077, RG 330. Notes 199

22. “President Announces Termination of OCD but Urges Continued Volunteer Efforts,” May 2, 1945, box 8, folder “(OEM) Office of Civilian Defense,” HST Papers, Files of Raymond R. Zimmerman; “All Civilian Defense Inactivated by Order of Commissioners,” WS, May 7, 1945. 23. Arata Osada, comp., Children of the A-Bomb: Testament of the Boys and Girls of Hiroshima (Ann Arbor: Midwest Publishers, International, 1982), 97, quoted in Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 719. 24. Rhodes, Making, 699–734 (the Tibbets quote is on 710). 25. Ibid., 740–2. 26. For Americans’ responses to the use of the atomic bombs, see Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 7–21. 27. Brinkley, Washington, 278. 28. Pamela Scott and Antoinette J. Lee, Buildings of the District of Columbia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 157–8. 29. Brinkley, Washington, 71–3; R. Alton Lee, “Building the Pentagon,” USA Today Magazine 121, no. 2572 (January 1993): 90 ff.; Alan P. Capps, “The Pentagon,” American History Illustrated 28, no. 2 (May/June 1993): 46 ff.; Alfred Goldberg, The Pentagon: The First Fifty Years (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretary of Defense, 1992), 6–19. 30. Lee, “Building the Pentagon”; Capps, “The Pentagon”; Gene Gurney, The Pentagon (New York: Crown Publishers, 1964), 1–15, 29; Brinkley, Washington, 72. 31. Robert McMahon, “The Republic as Empire: American Foreign Policy in the ‘American Century,’ ” in Harvard Sitkoff, ed., Perspectives on Modern America: Making Sense of the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 94. 32. Paul Y. Hammond, Organizing for Defense: The American Military Establishment in the Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1961), 187–205. 33. Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1990), 5. 34. Gurney, The Pentagon, 85–7. 35. Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 10–23; Aaron L. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America’s Anti- Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 336. 36. Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 1–22. 37. Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 139. 38. Ted Gup, The Book of Honor: The Secret Lives and Deaths of CIA Operatives (New York: Anchor Books, 2001), 15. 39. Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Atomic Shield 1947/1952, vol. II, A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1969), 42. 200 Notes

40. B. Franklin Cooling, “Civil Defense and the Army: The Quest for Responsibility, 1946–1948,” Military Affairs 36, no. 1 (February 1972): 11. 41. The U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1946), 11, 33–43. 42. “What Atom Bomb Means to U.S.: Revision of Plans for Defense,” United States News 21, no. 1 (July 5, 1946): 16–7. 43. Nehemiah Jordan, “U.S. Civil Defense Before 1950: The Roots of Public Law 920” (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretary of the Army, 1966), 58–9. 44. Colonel Dziuban, “Civil Defense, the Problem,” August 28, 1946, box 1069, folder “Strategic Plans Civil Defense,” RG 330. 45. Jordan, “U.S. Civil Defense,” 64–9; Office of the Secretary of Defense, “A Study of Civil Defense,” February 1948, box 55, RG 328, Office Files of Director John F. Nolen, Jr.; Mauck, “History,” 269. 46. Ansley Coale, “Reducing Vulnerability to Atomic Attack,” BAS 3, no. 3 (March 1947): 71–4, 98. 47. David B. Parker, “Can Washington Be Defended against an Atomic Bomb Attack?” Coast Artillery Journal (May/June 1947): 23; Parker, “2 Bombs in Rivers—All Washington Dies,” WP, August 3, 1947; Ralph E. Lapp, “Atomic Bomb Explosions—Effects on an American City,” BAS 4, no. 2 (February 1948): 49–54. 48. Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, Driven Patriot: The Life and Times of James Forrestal (New York: Knopf, 1992), 139–49. 49. William H. Kincade, “U.S. Civil Defense Decision-Making: The Ford and Carter Administrations” (Ph.D. diss., American University, 1980), 242–7. 50. Jordan, “U.S. Civil Defense,” 75. 51. Office of Civil Defense Planning, Civil Defense for National Security (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1948). 52. Charles Sawyer to Forrestal, December 28, 1948, box 30, folder “381 Civil Defense,” RG 304; “Comments on ‘Civil Defense for National Security,’ ” undated, box 35, binder “Comments on ‘Civil Defense for National Security,’ ” RG 330. 53. Hoopes and Brinkley, Driven Patriot, 444–68. 54. Wiley to James Webb, May 10, 1947; Lawton to Wiley, June 11, 1947, box 30, folder “381 (Decentralization of Federal Activities),” RG 304. 55. Alexander Wiley, “We Must Decentralize,” Reserve Officer (February 1948), reprinted in CR, 80th Cong., 2nd sess., February 3, 1948, vol. 94, part 9, A640-3; CR, 80th Cong., 2nd sess., February 11 and 24, March 25, 1948, vol. 94, parts 3 and 9, 3457-8, A783-4, A1080-1. 56. “Arthur M. Hill Resigns as Chief of National Resources Board,” WS, December 7, 1948. 57. The National Security Act of 1947 authorized the NSRB to provide advice to the president on “the strategic relocation of industries, services, government, and economic activities, the continuous operation of which is essential to the Nation’s security.” 58. Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy since 1938, 7th rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), 90–2; Martin Walker, The Cold War: A History (New York: Henry Holt, 1993), 53. 59. Friedberg, In the Shadow, 209. 60. Kreager to Symington, “Background on NSRB Board Meetings,” May 1, 1950, box 18, folder “Secretariat—NSRB Board,” RG 304, Office File of W. Stuart Symington. Notes 201

61. “Notes on Population Growth of D.C. Area,” August 1948, box 6, folder “Security—D.C. Dispersal,” RG 304, Office File of I.D. Brent. 62. General Services Administration, “Basic Principles and Assumptions Governing Preparation of the Long-Range Plan for the Security of the Nation’s Capital,” June 1950, box 48, folder “545-15-85 ‘Security for the Nation’s Capital,’ ” RG 328, Planning Files, i.

2 The Promise and Politics of Dispersal 1. For more on the attractions of dispersal as protection, see Tom Vanderbilt, Survival City: Adventures among the Ruins of Atomic America (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002), 73–81; Kathleen A. Tobin, “The Reduction of Urban Vulnerability: Revisiting 1950s American Suburbanization as Civil Defense,” Cold War History 2, no.2 (January 2002): 1–32. 2. Michael Quinn Dudley, “Sprawl as Strategy: City Planners Face the Bomb,” Journal of Planning Education and Research 21, no. 1 (Fall 2001): 54–5. For more on the perceived social and community benefits of dispersal, see Timothy Mennel, “Victor Gruen and the Construction of Cold War Utopias,” Journal of Planning History 3, no. 2 (May 2004): 116–50. 3. Dudley, “Sprawl,” 56–7; Robert Wojtowicz, “Building Communities in the Twentieth Century,” Journal of Urban History 28, no. 6 (September 2002): 813–4 (the Stein quote is on 813); Richard Walker and Robert D. Lewis, “Beyond the Crabgrass Frontier: Industry and the Spread of North American Cities, 1850–1950,” Journal of Historical Geography 27, no. 1 (January 2001): 3–9. 4. John H. Kyle, The Building of TVA: An Illustrated History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1958), 15–21; Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program, 1935–1954 (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 1971), 47–9; Tracy B. Augur, “The Dispersal of Cities as a Defense Measure,” BAS 4, no. 5 (May 1948): 131. 5. “Planning Cities for the Atomic Age: Mere Survival Is Not Enough,” American City (August 1946): 75–6. 6. Augur, “Dispersal of Cities,” 131–4. 7. Eric Arnesen, Black Protest and the Great Migration: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003), 36. 8. Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), 79–97; Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), 23, 211–8; Heather Ann Thompson, “Rethinking the Politics of White Flight in the Postwar City,” Journal of Urban History 25, no. 2 (January 1999): 163 ff. (the quote is from Thompson, note 38). 9. Robert B. Fairbanks and Zane L. Miller, “The Martial Metropolis: Housing, Planning, and Race in Cincinnati, 1940–55,” in Roger W. Lotchin, ed., The Martial Metropolis: U.S. Cities in War and Peace (New York: Praeger, 1984), 191–222 (the quote is on 206). 10. Augur, “Dispersal of Cities,” 131. 11. Kermit Parsons, “Shaping the Regional City: 1950–1990: The Plans of Tracy Augur and Clarence Stein for Dispersing Federal Workers from Washington, D.C.,” Proceedings of the Third National Conference on American Planning 202 Notes

History (Hilliard, Ohio: The Society for American City and Regional Planning History, 1990), 656–8. 12. NSRB, “A Recommendation to the President by the National Security Resources Board on Security for the Nation’s Capital” (NSRB-R-13), October 27, 1948, box 48, folder “545–15–85 ‘Security for the Nation’s Capital,’ ” RG 328, Planning Files. 13. “Notes on Population Growth of D.C. Area,” August 1948, box 6, folder “Security—D.C. Dispersal,” RG 304, Office File of I.D. Brent (hereafter Brent File). 14. I.D. Brent to Reginald Miller, January 19, 1949; NSRB, “A Recommendation to the President by the National Security Resources Board on Security for the Nation’s Capital—Emergency Plan,” November 23, 1948, box 5, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Office File of Gayle Arnold (hereafter Arnold File). 15. Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 217–8; Ken Hechler, Working with Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: G.P. Putnam’s, 1982; reprint, Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996), 45–9. 16. Steelman to James Webb, January 5, 1949, box 11, folder “Chronological File, January 1949,” RG 304, Reading File of John R. Steelman. 17. Kenneth D. Johnson to Reginald Gillmor, January 10, 1949; William Gill to Gillmor, January 6, 1949; I.D. Brent to Gillmor, January 19, 1949, box 5, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Arnold File. 18. Pamela Scott and Antoinette J. Lee, Buildings of the District of Columbia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 58. 19. Augur to J.W. Follin, July 14, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File. 20. Arnold, New Deal, 24–142 (the Augur quote is on 92); Cathy D. Knepper, Greenbelt, Maryland: A Living Legacy of the New Deal (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 13–39. 21. Arnold, New Deal, 234–6. 22. Steelman to Philip Fleming, May 31, 1949, box 3, folder “Greenbelt Project,” RG 304, Arnold File. 23. Augur et al. to Brent, June 21, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File. 24. Augur to Follin, July 14, 1949. 25. This description is adapted from information and the map provided in “Security for the Nation’s Capital—Short-Term Emergency Plan,” November 17, 1949, box 6, RG 304, Brent File. 26. Ibid., 2. 27. Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Atomic Shield, 1947/1952, vol. II, A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1969), 362–6. 28. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 748; Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 336. 29. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 designates the order of succession if both the presidency and vice presidency are vacant: the Speaker of the House; the president pro tempore of the Senate; and cabinet secretaries, in the order their departments (or predecessors) were created. In 1949, the ranking of the Notes 203

secretaries was State, Treasury, Defense, the Attorney General, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. 30. Kennedy to Truman, October 8, 1949, box 1, folder “C.D., General,” RG 304, Records Relating to Civil Defense, 1949–1953 (hereafter Civil Defense Records); “Kennedy Complains to Truman on Lack of Civil Defense Plan,” Washington Times-Herald, October 10, 1949, p. 31. Hale’s bill (H. Res. 385), Trimble’s bill (H.J. Res. 48), and Patman’s bill (H. Res. 358) were all introduced during the 81st Cong., 1st sess. See, respectively, CR, October 10 and 17, 1949, vol. 95, part 11, 14131–2, 14170; part 16, A6372; and from the 81st Cong., 2nd sess., January 18, 1950, vol. 96, part 13, A381-3. For McMahon’s announcement, see “McMahon Inquiry Seeks Facts in Civilian Atomic Defense,” WS, October 19, 1949; for Wiley’s suggestion, see “Senator Warns on Bomb,” WP, November 20, 1949. 31. AEC, “The City of Washington and an Atomic Bomb Attack,” November 1949, box 1, folder “Civilian Defense Program,” RG 304, Office File of Arthur M. Hill and John Steelman. 32. WP, November 17, 1949, p. 1; “The President’s News Conference of November 17, 1949,” PPP: Harry S. Truman, 1949, 569. 33. Donald R. Whitnah, editor-in-chief, Government Agencies, The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Institutions (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), 407–9; Hechler, Working with Truman, 158–61. 34. Grant to Hill, April 2, 1948, box 32, folder “381-Security for the Nation’s Capital—Emergency Plan,” RG 304. 35. Hill to Grant III, May 18, 1948; Grant III to Hill, August 5, 1948; Grant III to Arnold, February 8, 1949, box 32, folder “381-Security for the Nation’s Capital—Emergency Plan,” RG 304. 36. Grant III to Arnold, March 15, April 11, and April 29, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File. 37. Augur to Follin, November 15, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File. 38. Steelman to Louis Johnson, June 3, 1949; Steelman to Johnson, July 1949; Steelman to Johnson, December 19, 1949, box 12, “Chronological File” folders for June, July, and December 1949, RG 304, Reading File of John R. Steelman; Johnson to Steelman, August 1, 1949, box 9, folder “NSRB Doc. 112— Background,” RG 304, Board Documents. 39. Brent to Gill, December 20, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File. 40. National Capital Park and Planning Commission, Washington Present and Future: A General Summary of the Comprehensive Plan for the National Capital and Its Environs, monograph no. 1 (Washington, D.C.: National Capital Park and Planning Commission, April 1950), 5. 41. This description is adapted from the General Services Administration, “Basic Principles and Assumptions Governing Preparation of the Long-Range Plan for the Security of the Nation’s Capital,” June 1950, box 48, folder “545-15-85 ‘Security for the Nation’s Capital,’ ” RG 328, Planning Files. 42. Ibid., 13. 43. Ibid., 19–21. 44. Ibid., 10–2, 16–9. 45. Augur to Nolen, January 24, 1950, box 48, folder “545-15-85 Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 328, Planning Files; Steelman to Wurster, February 7 and 204 Notes

March 2, 1950, box 1, folder “Chronological File, January 1950–July 1950,” RG 304, Brent File. 46. Washington Present and Future, 5–10. 47. Augur to Follin, March 31, 1950, box 6, folder “Security for the Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File.

3 The District Defends Itself 1. “The President’s News Conference of October 13, 1949,” PPP: Harry S. Truman, 1949, 511–2. 2. “Gen. Young Uses Army Training to Streamline His District Domain,” Washington Times-Herald, January 5, 1950, p. 21. 3. Gordon Russell Young to the Commissioners, February 10, 1950; Young state- ment, March 3, 1950, John Nolen, Jr., Papers, HSW. 4. Truman to John Steelman, March 3, 1949, box 2, folder “Civilian Mobilization,” RG 304, Office File of Arthur M. Hill and John R. Steelman (hereafter Hill File). 5. T.J. Hayes to G.R. Young, February 6, 1950, box 2, folder “Civil Defense— District of Columbia,” RG 304, Office File of I.D. Brent (hereafter Brent File), 4; “NSRB to Control D.C. Civil Defense,” Washington Times-Herald, March 9, 1950, p. 1. 6. “Civil Defense Policy Adopted for District by Commissioners,” WS, February 14, 1950, sec. A, p. 1; “Police Official Due to Head Civil Defense Setup at Start,” WP, March 2, 1950, p. 1. 7. “D.C. Nominees Sought to Take Atom Courses,” WS, February 14, 1950, sec. B; “Specialists to Get Study on A-Bomb,” WP, March 26, 1950, sec. M, p. 9. 8. Harold Sandbank to Albert Shire, June 1, 1950, box 4, folder “General Services Administration,” RG 304, Letters Sent to Government Agencies. 9. “Defense of Washington,” WP, May 25, 1950. 10. “Model Atom Defense Plan Set for D.C.,” WP, May 23, 1950, sec. A, p. 1. 11. “Hypothetical Narrative,” unsigned, May 19, 1950, box 2, folder “District Civil Defense—Work File,” RG 304, Brent File. 12. “U.S. Is Still in Planning Stage on What to Do if A-Bomb Hits,” WS, August 14, 1950. 13. “Report Shows Many States Study Civilian Defense, Defer Action,” WS, March 9, 1950, sec. A, p. 15. 14. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation; My Years in the State Department (New York: W.W. Norton, 1969), 402. 15. Clay Blair, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 (New York: Times Books, 1987), 58–9; Joseph C. Goulden, Korea: The Untold Story of the War (New York: Times Books, 1982), 43. 16. Goulden, Korea, 47 (“settled down” quote); Robert W. Merry, Taking on the World: Joseph and Stewart Alsop—Guardians of the American Century (New York: Viking, 1996), 193–4 (“border incident” quote). 17. Acheson, Present, 405. 18. “Washington Unit Rushes Plan for Civilian Defense,” Washington Times-Herald, June 27, 1950, 4. 19. Clipping from the WP, July 11, 1950, Vertical File, folder “1950,” Tugwell Room, Greenbelt (Md.) Public Library. 20. Quoted in “Civil Defense: The City Under the Bomb,” Time LVI, no. 14 (October 2, 1950): 12. Notes 205

21. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., June 28, 1950, vol. 96, part 7, 9420. 22. Committee on the District of Columbia, Authorizing the District of Columbia Government to Establish an Office of Civil Defense, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., June 30, 1950, H. Rept. 2469, House of Representatives Reports vol. 11382; “Civilian Defense Bill for D.C. to Come Up in House Tomorrow,” WS, July 9, 1950, sec. A, p. 19; Pace to Lawton, August 4, 1950, and Roger Jones to William Hopkins, August 10, 1950, box 73, folder “August 11, 1950 {HR 6461-HJ Res. 461},” HST Papers, White House Bill File. 23. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., July 13 and 26, 1950, vol. 96, part 8, 10089, 11066; August 1, 1950, vol. 96, part 9, 11500. 24. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., August 25, 1950, vol. 96, part 10, 13520-3; “House Votes $290,000 Fund for District Civil Defense,” WP, August 26, 1950; “Conferees Approve $100,000 for District Civilian Defense,” WS, September 17, 1950. 25. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 790–7 (the quote is on 792). 26. Oral history interview with Frederick J. Lawton by Charles T. Morrissey, Washington, D.C., June 17 and July 9, 1963, HSTL; Lawton memorandum, July 3, 1950, box 6, folder “Truman . . . Agendas & Memorandums, 7/49- 7/52,” Papers of Frederick J. Lawton, HSTL. 27. “President’s News Conference,” November 17, 1949 and “President’s News Conference,” March 2, 1950, PPP: Harry S. Truman, 1949 and 1950, 572, 182. 28. Lawton memoranda, September 1 and 6, 1950, box 6, folder “Truman... Agendas & Memorandums, 7/49-7/52,” Lawton Papers; press release, August 30, 1950, box 21, folder “National Defense—Civil Defense,” Papers of Stephen Spingarn, Assistant to the President File, HSTL; Senate Document 218 (81st Cong., 2nd sess.), Senate Miscellaneous Reports vol. 11401; “Officials Explain Dispersal Plan for Bureaus,” WS, August 31, 1950. 29. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., August 31, 1950, vol. 96, part 10, 13972, 13975, 14005; “Plan to Decentralize Washington Delayed after House Criticism,” WS, September 1, 1950. 30. “The President’s News Conference of August 31, 1950,” PPP, 607. 31. “Third War Threat May Erase ‘Tempos’ of Earlier Conflicts,” WS, August 31, 1950; “Senator to Urge Succession Plan as Defense Step,” WS, September 15, 1950. 32. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., August 31 and September 14, 1950, vol. 96, part 10, 14005, 14012, 14789–90; “Senator to Urge Succession Plan.” 33. “The President’s News Conference of October 26, 1950,” PPP, 690. 34. Fondahl to Young, October 2, 1950, box 228, folder 4-100, RG 351, BOC. 35. “D.C. Civil Defense Will Be Based on 70,000 Wardens,” Washington Daily News, October 21, 1950; “Headquarters Set Up for District Wardens in Old Force School,” WS, December 8, 1950. 36. DCD, Manual for Wardens, 1951, LOC. 37. “This Civil Defense Warden Gets Results,” WS, August 12, 1952. 38. Minutes of the Civil Defense Committee, Federation of Citizens Associations, January 19, 1952, box 1, folder 25, FCA. 39. “Officials Here Seek 100,000 Volunteers for Civil Defense Jobs,” WS, March 6, 1951. 40. “Lives May Depend on You,” box 1, folder “Civil Defense—Misc.,” HST Papers, Files of Spencer R. Quick, HSTL (hereafter Quick Files). 41. “Women Must Play Greater Defense Role,” WP, December 11, 1951, clipping in box 4, folder 23, D.C. Federation of Women’s Clubs Papers, HSW. 206 Notes

42. The District of Columbia Citizen, “Civil Defense Edition,” October 1951, Vertical File, folder “Defense,” Washingtoniana. 43. “Officials Here Seek.” 44. Board of Commissioners, March 29, 1951, box 229, folder 4-109, RG 351, BOC. 45. “Fondahl Sets 50,000 Aides as July 1 Goal,” WP, February 27, 1951; Fondahl to the Commissioners, February 28, 1951, box 229, folder 4-116, RG 351, BOC. 46. “Fondahl Sets 50,000”; “Civil Defense Officials Complain of District’s Indifference to Needs,” WP, July 20, 1951. 47. “Civil Defense Officials Complain.” 48. “District below Manpower Goal in Civil Defense,” WS, September 2, 1951. 49. NSRB, United States Civil Defense (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1950); “Truman Urges Vast Set-Up to Direct Civilian Defense,” WP, September 19, 1950; Frank P. Zeidler, “Civil Defense: Community Problems and the NSRB Plan,” BAS 6, no. 11 (November 1950): 337–41; “Special Message to the Congress,” September 18, 1950, PPP, 641. 50. “Civil Defense: No Answers Available,” Newsweek 36, no. 16 (October 16, 1950): 25. 51. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., November 30 and December 1, 1950, vol. 96, part 12, 16007, 16009; Anne Wilson Marks, “Washington Notes,” BAS 7, no. 1 (January 1951): 17; House, Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., December 19, 1950, H. Rept. 3209, House of Representatives Reports, vol. 11385, 13. 52. Oral history interview with David H. Stowe by Jerry N. Hess, Washington, D.C., May 27, 1969, HSTL; Donald Dawson memorandum, November 28, 1950; Walter White to Truman, January 15, 1951, box 1743, folder “2965 {1945–1951},” HST Papers, White House Official File; Clarence Mitchell to White, December 8, 1950, box A181, folder “Civil Defense Caldwell, Millard...March,” Records of the NAACP, Group II, LOC, Manuscript Division. 53. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., January 2, 1951, vol. 96, part 12, 17089-92; “Civil Defense Begins,” New Republic 123, no. 26 (December 25, 1950): 9; “Federal Civil Defense Act,” BAS 7, no. 2 (February 1951): 59–62. 54. John Russell Young to Caldwell, January 3, 1951, box 229, folder 4-116, RG 351, BOC. 55. Caldwell to Young, January 18, 1951, box 2, folder “Federal, State, Local Relationships D”; James Wadsworth to H.L. Godwin, February 7, 1951, box 1, folder “Civil Defense, General,” RG 304, Civil Defense Records. 56. “Survival,” box 5, folder “Civil Defense Campaign—General Folder 1,” Quick Files. 57. John De Chant, January 25, 1951, box 2, folder “Federal, State, Local Relationships D,” RG 304, Civil Defense Records. 58. Newsweek 38, no. 17 (October 22, 1951): 27; Cabinet meeting notes, July 20, 1951, box 1, folder “Jan. 2–Dec. 31, 1951,” Papers of Matthew Connelly, HSTL.

4 Downtown, Out of Town, or Underground? 1. “Truman to Try again on Decentralization,” Washington Daily News, November 11, 1950. 2. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., December 7, 1950, vol. 96, part 12, 16240, 16242. 3. Clay Blair, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 (New York: Times Books, 1987), 421; Symington to Larson, December 8, 1950, box 4, folder Notes 207

“General Services Administration,” RG 304, Letters Sent to Government Agencies. 4. Pamela Scott and Antoinette J. Lee, Buildings of the District of Columbia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 186. 5. “U.S. Dispersal Will Be within 20-Mile Radius,” WS, November 26, 1950; House Committee on Public Works, Dispersal of Government Agencies, Vicinity of the District of Columbia, Hearings before the Committee on Public Works, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., December 8, 1950, 1–31, 56–8. 6. Stein to Holland, undated, reprinted in Senate Committee on Public Works, Dispersal of Federal Buildings, Hearings before the Senate Committee on Public Works, Subcommittee on Public Buildings, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., December 13, 14, and 18, 1950, 106. For more on Stein’s efforts to couple planned communi- ties to dispersal, see Kermit Carlyle Parsons, ed., The Writings of Clarence S. Stein: Architect of the Planned Community (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 503–6, 567–8, 592. 7. Robert A. Caro, Master of the Senate (New York: Knopf, 2002), 592, 611, 933. 8. House Committee, Dispersal, 17, 29–31 (the Cunningham quote is on 17). 9. Senate Committee, Dispersal, 2–7, 18–25, 34–5 (the Jones quote is on 18). 10. “Regional Council to Draft Role in Dispersal,” WS, October 11, 1950. 11. Senate Committee, Dispersal, 122–9, 145–51 (the Gutheim quote is on 127). 12. “Annual Budget Message to the Congress: Fiscal Year 1952,” January 15, 1951, PPP: Harry S. Truman, 1951, 103–4; “Military Seen Moving More Than Others in Transfer Plan,” WP, January 14, 1951; “Agency Removal List Combined,” WP, January 16, 1951. 13. Senate Committee on Public Works, S. Rept. 216, 82nd Cong., 1st sess., April 11, 1951, Senate Reports vol. 11487. 14. Lawton memorandum, February 16, 1951, box 6, folder “Truman . . . Agendas & Memorandums, 7/49-7/52,” Papers of Frederick J. Lawton, HSTL. 15. Senate Committee, Dispersal, 186–8; “Wisdom of Scattering U.S. Agencies Still Questioned,” WS, March 18, 1951. 16. “Dispersal Unpopular in Suburbs, which Feel U.S. already Has too Much Land,” WS, March 25, 1951; House Committee on Public Works, Dispersal of Federal Agencies, Hearings on H.R. 1728 before the Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Grounds of the Committee on Public Works, 82nd Cong., 1st sess., February 5, 6, and 8, 1951, 139–40. 17. CR, 82nd Cong., 1st sess., April 18 and 23, 1951, vol. 97, part 3, 4028-52, 4145-75. 18. Truman to Holland, April 24, 1951, box 927, folder “Dispersal of Government Departments 285-I,” HST Papers, WHCF, Official File. 19. “Truman again Asks Dispersal of U.S. Buildings to Suburbs,” WS, January 21, 1952. 20. “Alternate Pentagon Takes Shape Nearby,” Washington Daily News, June 21, 1951; “ ‘Second’ Pentagon Underground?,” WS, March 11, 1951. 21. “Underground Sites Policy Adopted by the Army and Navy Munitions Board,” June 26, 1947, box 146, folder “Agencies—Munitions Board,” HST Papers, PSF, Subject File; James Forrestal to Arthur Hill, May 18, 1948; Hill to the Secretary of State, May 24, 1948; Munitions Board to the JCS, July 9, 1948; JCS, Document A-3222, cited in I.D. Brent to William A. Gill, January 18, 1950, box 1, folder “Chronological File January 1950–July 1950,” RG 304, Office File of I.D. Brent (hereafter Brent File); “100 Underground War Plant 208 Notes

Sites Found,” Pittsburgh Press, December 1, 1948; “ ‘Second’ Pentagon Underground?” 22. Directive Number S-3020.1, May 17, 1955, in Department of Defense, Wartime Readiness Plans Book, October 10, 1955, box 36, binder “Wartime Readiness Plans Book,” RG 330, 2; Louis Johnson to Wiley, November 7, 1949, box 6, folder “Security for Nation’s Capital,” RG 304, Brent File; “Johnson Tells of Plan to Move Capital If It Is Ever Attacked,” WS, November 11, 1949; “ ‘Second’ Pentagon Underground?” 23. Memorandum for the Committee on Disaster Planning, November 29, 1949, box 37, folder “Disaster Planning,” RG 330. 24. N.J. McCamley, Cold War Secret Nuclear Bunkers: the Passive Defence of the Western World during the Cold War (South Yorkshire, U.K.: Leo Cooper, 2002), 6–9; GlobalSecurity.org, “Site R-Raven Rock,” accessed July 5, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/facility/raven-rock.htmϾ. 25. Lt. Edgar B. Stern memorandum, June 11, 1951, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/other/ajcc-doc3.jpgϾ; Briefing Sheet for the Chairman, JCS, December 28, 1960, RG 218, CDF 1960, box 17, folder 3180. 26. Inventory of Military Real Property, June 30, 1955, box 77, binder “Inventory of Army Real Property Continental U.S.,” RG 330, Assistant Secretary of Defense (Comptroller), Inventories of Military Real Property, 1954–57. 27. Leo G. Sands, “The Microwave Era Begins,” Radio & Television News (October 1950): 35–8; Bell System, “Radio Relay: Communication by Microwave,” undated; Long Lines Department of AT&T, “The Latest Word in Communications,” 1947. Preceding items accessed September 22, 2003 at Ͻhttp://www19.addr.com/~longline/tech-equp/index.htmlϾ. 28. Captain F.M. Mead memorandum, June 12, 1951, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/other/ajcc-doc2a.jpgϾ. 29. “Justification of the Radio Relay System,” May 1951, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/other/ajcc-doc5a.jpgϾ. 30. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 792–3, 798. 31. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation; My Years in the State Department (New York: W.W. Norton, 1969), 140–1. 32. Department of Defense Directive 200.05-1TS, November 10, 1951; John J. McLaughlin to the Office of the Secretary of Defense, May 18, 1951, box 37, folder “Disaster Planning,” RG 330. 33. MDW, “Air Raid Precaution Organization—The Pentagon,” November 9, 1951, in Wartime Readiness Plans Book. 34. Defense Directive, November 10, 1951. 35. CR, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., December 14, 1950, vol. 96, part 12, 16564. 36. The description is based upon a drawing in 1/8 inch scale by Lorenzo Winslow, September 14, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing—Alterations Project 49-100-9,” RG 121, REM. Other details are from Winslow to Allan S. Thorn, August 18, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing—Alterations Project 49-100-9”; Thorn to Supervising Engineer, March 11, 1952, box 3, folder “Specifications: Alternations and Additions to East Terrace, 1/11/51,” RG 121, REM. 37. Naval Aide to the President, May 16, 1945, box 131, folder “Naval Aide to the President,” HST Papers, PSF, General File. Notes 209

38. William Seale, The President’s House: A History vol. II (Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association, 1986), 980–4; L.C. Chamberlin to Thorn, December 21, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9”; W.E. Reynolds to Dennison, January 25, 1951, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect,” RG 121, REM. 39. Seale, President’s House, 1039; Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion (hereafter Commission), Minutes of the 26th Meeting, August 16, 1950, box 1, folder 2, RG 121, REM, 3. 40. Seale, President’s House, 1025–31; Bess Furman, White House Profile; A Social History of the White House, Its Occupants and Its Festivities (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1951), 334; U.S., Commission on Renovation of the Executive Mansion, Report, Compiled Under Direction of the Commission by Edwin Bateman Morris (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1952), 35–42; James Webb to Truman, December 27, 1948, box 150, folder “Budget Misc. 1945–53 (folder 1),” HST Papers, PSF, Subject File. 41. Seale, President’s House, 1031; William B. Bushong, “Lorenzo Simmons Winslow: Architect of the White House, 1933–1952,” White House History 5 (Spring 1999): 23–32; William J. Moyer, “The Man behind the White House Remodeling,” WS Sunday Magazine, December 16, 1951, 14–5. 42. In July 1949, a pit was dug in the White House garden to test soil conditions for the foundation. Borings struck bedrock at 70 feet. See Memorandum for the President, July 27, 1949, box 301, folder “Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion Correspondence (folder 1),” HST Papers, PSF, White House File. Details of the July 26, 1950 meeting come from Thorn memorandum, July 27, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49- 100-9,” RG 121, REM. 43. Thorn memorandum, August 17, 1950, box 8, folder “A.S. Thorn Supervising Architect Misc. Pending,” RG 121, REM. 44. Office of the Chief of Engineers to Winslow, October 5, 1950, box 7, folder 2, RG 121, REM. 45. Thorn, July 27, 1950; Winslow to Thorn, August 18, 1950; Thorn memoran- dum, December 21, 1950, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect,” RG 121, REM. The East Wing shelter was four levels below the executive mansion’s first or state floor, according to Michael R. Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev, 1960–1963 (New York: Edward Burlingame, 1991), 476. 46. Commission, Minutes of the 26th Meeting; Winslow to W.E. Reynolds, August 8, 1950; Thorn memoranda, August 17 and 31, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9,” RG 121, REM. 47. Seale, President’s House, 663, 978–83. 48. Winslow to Thorn, August 18, 1950. 49. For details of the foundation work on the White House, see Richard Doughtery, “The White House Made Safe,” Civil Engineering (July 1952): 46–52, reprinted in Commission, Report, 97–100. 50. Commission, Minutes of the 26th Meeting; Thorn memorandum, July 27, 1950; Thorn to Winslow, July 28, 1950, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Thorn to Supervising Engineer, December 13, 1951, box 3, folder “Specifications: Alterations and Additions to East Terrace 1/11/51,” RG 121, REM. 210 Notes

51. GSA, “Emergency Improvements,” attached to Thorn memorandum, June 22, 1951; Charles Barber to Thorn, September 1, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9,” RG 121, REM. 52. Thorn, July 27, 1950. 53. “Estimate Revisions to Shelter in East Wing,” July 10, 1950; W.E. Reynolds to David Stowe, December 7, 1950; Thorn to Winslow, December 14, 1950; Thorn directive, January 2, 1951; Thorn to Dennison, September 14, 1951, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Winslow to Dennison, August 27, 1951, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9,” RG 121, REM. 54. Thorn memorandum, August 8, 1950; Reynolds to Dennison, December 14, 1950, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Office of the Chief of Engineers to Winslow, October 5, 1950; Commission, Minutes of the 31st, 33rd, and 38th Meetings, box 1, folders 2 and 3, RG 121, REM. 55. H.L. Bowman to Winslow, December 19, 1950, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9”; Thorn memorandum, December 21, 1950; Thorn to Bowman, December 28, 1950, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect,” RG 121, REM. 56. These figures are taken, respectively, from “Estimate Revisions to Shelter in East Wing”; “White House Alterations East Wing,” July 18, 1950, box 8, folder “A.S. Thorn Supervising Architect Misc. Pending”; Design and Construction Division to Thorn, September 15, 1950, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect,” RG 121, REM. 57. Thorn memorandum, June 22, 1951; Thorn to Lawton, June 26, 1951, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9”; Thorn memo- randum, May 29, 1951, box 4, “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect,” RG 121, REM. 58. Thorn memorandum, January 15, 1951; Reynolds to Dennison, January 25, 1951; Thorn to Dennison, February 20, 1951, box 4, “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Winslow to Thorn, January 15, 1951, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9”; Minutes of the 36th Meeting, January 26, 1951, box 1, folder 3; Design and Construction Division to Captain George Miller, August 7, 1952, box 7, folder 2, RG 121, REM. 59. Acting Supervising Architect memorandum, June 6, 1952; Thorn memorandum, August 11, 1952, box 7, folder 2; Colonel Gillette inspection report, March 28, 1952; Thorn to Winslow, April 10, 1952; Thorn memorandum, December 20, 1950; Thorn to Dennison, May 2, 1951, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect.” 60. Commission, Minutes of the 50th Meeting, September 6, 1951, box 1, folder 4; W.M. Russell to Thorn, June 14, 1951, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Thorn to J. Paul Hauck, September 12, 1951, box 4, folder “Extra Copies of Memorandums”; Thorn memorandum, January 17, 1952, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9”; Thorn, Change Notice 15, February 27, 1952, box 3, folder “Specifications, Alterations, and Additions to East Terrace, 1/11/51,” RG 121, REM. 61. Gillette inspection report, March 28, 1952; Thorn to Winslow, April 10, 1952, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Chief of Mechanical-Electrical Section to Thorn, April 24, 1952, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49-100-9,” RG 121, REM. Notes 211

62. “The Presidency—Guided Tour,” Time LIX, no. 7 (February 18, 1952): 17–8; “A 7-Million-Dollar Home: What It’s Like to Live in New White House,” U.S. News & World Report 32, no. 12 (March 21, 1952): 19–22; Rex W. Scouten, “President Truman’s Televised Tour,” White House History no. 5 (Spring 1999): 46–50; Seale, President’s House, 1050–1. 63. Acting Supervising Architect to R.O. Jennings, June 4, 1952, box 4, folder “Confidential Reading File of the Supervising Architect”; Acting Supervising Architect memorandum, June 6, 1952; Design and Construction Division to Captain George Miller, August 7, 1952; Thorn memorandum, August 11, 1952; Acting Chief, U.S. Chemical Corps Protective Division to Thorn, September 26, 1952, box 7, folder 2, RG 121, REM. 64. “Revised List of Furnishings,” April 14, 1953, box 7, folder 2; Design and Construction Division memorandum, April 16, 1953; J.B. Harrison to Thorn, May 11, 1953, box 7, folder “White House East Wing Alterations Project 49- 100-9,” RG 121, REM. 65. David Miller, The Cold War: A Military History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 72. 66. Robert J. Lewis, “Architect Says Kennedys Will Find White House Cozy,” WS, January 22, 1961, sec. F, p. 8. 67. Oral history interview with Admiral Robert L. Dennison by Jerry N. Hess, October 6, 1971, Washington, D.C., HSTL, 98.

5 Apathy and the Atom 1. “The Civil Defense Alert America Convoy,” HST Papers, Official File, box 1743, folder “2965 (1952–53)”; “Personal and Otherwise,” Harper’s Magazine 211, no. 1265 (October 1955). 2. Fondahl to the Commissioners, “Progress Report,” October 31, 1951; DCD, Information Bulletin, December 17, 1951, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana; DCD, “In Case of an A-Bomb Attack What Should You Do?,” January 1951, Vertical Files, folder “Defense 1951,” Washingtoniana; “Civil Defense Far From Ready to Cope with Attack,” WS, April 6, 1951; Senate Committee on Government Operations, Civil Defense in the District of Columbia, Hearings before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess., April 27, 1959, 76. 3. “The Alert America Convoy Comes to Washington!,” packet of newspaper clippings and publicity material in box 2, folder 17, Student Research File (B File), HSTL. 4. FCDA, “Alert America Campaign Progress Report,” October 15, 1951, box 1, folder 6, Student Research File (B File), Civil Defense, HSTL. 5. For more on the Freedom Train, see Richard M. Fried, The Russians Are Coming! The Russians Are Coming!: Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold-War America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 29–49. 6. “Civil Defense Alert America Convoy.” 7. “The Alert America Convoy!”; Frank Wilson to Helen Crabtree, January 15, 1952, box 5, folder “Civil Defense Campaign Correspondence,” HST Papers, Files of Spencer R. Quick, HSTL (hereafter Quick Files). 8. “Civil Defense Alert America Convoy.” 9. “Alert America Convoy Comes to Washington!” 212 Notes

10. Ibid. For more on the FCDA’s use of Alert America to manipulate public response and action, see Andrew D. Grossman, Neither Dead nor Red: Civilian Defense and American Political Development during the Early Cold War (London: Routledge, 2001), 69–105. 11. “Alert America Convoy Comes to Washington!” 12. Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 3–10, 123–46 (the quote is on 123). 13. Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 3–9. 14. Fried, Russians, 45–6; “Alert America Convoy Comes to Washington!” 15. Minutes of the January 5, 1952 meeting, box 1, folder 25, FCA; Meeting Notes, January 7, 1952, box 1, folder 30, DCCA; Notes for the Military and Naval Affairs Committee, February 15, 1952, box 106, folder “Military and Naval Affairs 1951–52,” WBOT; “Civil Defense Raid Shelter Survey to Start,” WP, February 22, 1952, p. 19; Notes of the Executive Board Meeting, February 25, 1952, box 4, folder 23, District of Columbia Federation of Women’s Clubs Records, HSW; William Cawley, “Injury of Mrs. Julie McConnaughy,” March 26, 1952, box 28, folder “Civil Defense Training,” RG 56, Central Files. 16. “400 CD Volunteers Attend First of Three Indoctrination Talks,” WS, March 5, 1952. 17. “Adv. Council Joins GOC Recruit Drive” and “ADC Deputy for Operations Explains Air Defense System,” The Aircraft Flash 1, no. 1 (October 1952): 3, 6–7; Directorate of Requirements, “General Operational Requirement for an Aircraft Control and Warning System for Air Defense, 1952–1958,” December 27, 1951, box 1, folder “R&D 1–4SOR3(GOR-3),” RG 341, 2–3; Kenneth Schaffel, The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945–1960 (Washington, D.C.: USAF, Office of Air Force History, 1991), 156–60. 18. Air Defense Command, “Organization—Air Bases and Units,” October 12, 1951, box 7, folder “Ground Observer Corps—General Folder 2,” Quick Files; “ ‘Operation Skywatch’ Proves Valuable to Air Defense System in First 11 Weeks,” The Aircraft Flash, 5; William G. Key, “Air Defense of the United States,” Pegasus (November 1952): 1–6, box 6, folder “Ground Observer Corps- General Folder 1,” Quick Files. 19. “Plane Spotters Observe 125 in D.C. Test,” WP, June 24, 1951; The Aircraft Flash, 4. 20. DCD, August 8, 1951, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana; “These Ground Observers, Taking Nothing for Granted, Prepare for Any Emergency, Including an Atomic Bomb Attack,” Pittsburgh Courier, Washington ed., September 1, 1951. 21. On the segregation of Washington, see Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 274–312; “Segregation in the District of Columbia,” WS, October 19, 1952, reprinted in The Negro History Bulletin 16, no. 4 (January 1953): 79–85. For details on theater “spotters,” see Shirlee Taylor Haizlip, The Sweeter the Juice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 64. 22. William D. Cawley to McDonald, January 7, 1952, box 28, folder “Civil Defense Ground Observer Corps,” RG 56, Central Files. Notes 213

23. “D.C. Starts 24-Hour Skywatch, but Needs Men to Continue,” WP, July 15, 1952; “Civil Defense Class Hears Camalier Plea for More Workers,” WS, June 11, 1952. 24. “Civil Defense Folds Its Lone Volunteer Air Spotter Post,” WP, June 28, 1953, clipping in Samuel Spencer Papers, box 4, folder 95, HSW; DCD, “Office of Civil Defense Organization,” attached to DCD Memorandum Order no. 8, July 6, 1953, box 228, folder 4-100, RG 351, BOC, 10. 25. “ ‘Operation Skywatch’ Proves Valuable,” 5. 26. For more on Washington’s “invasion” by UFOs, see Dan Gilgoff, “Saucers Full of Secrets,” Washington City Paper, December 14–20, 2001; Curtis Peebles, Watch the Skies!: A Chronicle of the Flying Saucer Myth (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 60–72; “Flying Objects near Washington Spotted by Both Pilots and Radar,” July 22, 1952, p. 27, and “ ‘Objects’ Outstrip Jets over Capital,” NYT, July 28, 1952, p. 1; “8 on Screen; Planes Sight Odd ‘Lights,’ ” WP, July 22, 1952, sec. A, p. 1; “ ‘Saucer’ Outran Jet, Pilot Says; Air Force Puts Lid on Inquiry,” WP, July 28, 1952, sec. A, p. 1. 27. “Air Force Debunks ‘Saucers’ as Just ‘Natural Phenomena,’ ” NYT, July 30 1952, p. 1. 28. CIA, “Comments and Suggestions of UFO Panel,” January 21, 1953, 1, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.foia.cia.govϾ; Peebles, Watch, 80–7. 29. Quoted in Peebles, Watch, 84. 30. Assistant Director for Scientific Intelligence to Walter Bedell Smith, September 24, 1952, quoted in Peebles, Watch, 77–9. For more on the CIA’s interest in UFOs, see Gerald K. Haines, “A Die-Hard Issue: CIA’s Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947–90,” Studies in Intelligence 1, no. 1 (1997). 31. “Statement by the President on the Ground Observer Corps ‘Operation Skywatch,’ ” July 12, 1952, PPP: Harry S. Truman, 1952, 474–5. 32. Edward J. Ruppelt, The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1956), 150–63 (the quotes are on 151 and 157, respectively). 33. “ ‘Sightings’ Increase Here,” NYT, July 30, 1952, p. 10. 34. Though many doubted the Air Force’s explanation, weather conditions did produce inversions on July 19 and 26. A Civilian Aviation Administration study of the sightings described eddies forming along the inversions’ edges, causing bulges that reflected radar signals. Pushed by the wind, the bulges moved swiftly off the sweep of the radarscopes. Furthermore, one of the F-94 pilots scrambled to intercept the UFOs concluded that another pilot had mistaken light coming from the ground as something in the air, a common error when flying at low alti- tudes. See Peebles, Watch, 63–7; Ruppelt, Report, 169–70; Gilgoff, “Saucers.” 35. FCDA Daily News Digest no. 349, July 30, 1952, box 5, folder “Civil Defense Campaign—General Folder 2,” Quick Files; “Fondahl Flays Slash in D.C. Defense Fund,” Washington Times-Herald, July 6, 1952; Senate Committee, Civil Defense, 76. 36. “Officials Report D.C. Civil Defense Stalled,” WP, September 12, 1952; Engineer Commissioner memorandum, December 4, 1952, box 228, folder 4- 102, RG 351, BOC; DCD, Information Bulletin, September 29, 1952, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana. 37. “Public Apathy Still Cripples Defense Plans,” WS, June 8, 1951. 38. Robert Jay Lifton, “Imagining the Real: Beyond the Nuclear ‘End,’ ” in Lester Grinspoon, ed., The Long Darkness: Psychological and Moral Perspectives on Nuclear Winter (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 79–99. 214 Notes

39. Lewis Mumford, “Social Effects,” Air Affairs (March 1947): 370–82. 40. Søren Kierkegaard, “The Sickness Unto Death,” in Robert Bretall, ed., A Kierkegaard Anthology (New York: Modern Library, n.d.), 344. 41. Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 293. 42. Daniel Lang, “A Reporter at Large,” The New Yorker, November 16, 1946, 84 ff. 43. Sylvia Eberhart, “How the American People Feel about the Atomic Bomb,” BAS 3, no. 6 (June 1947): 146–9, 168. 44. “Civil Defense Officials Complain of District’s Indifference to Needs,” WP, July 20, 1951. 45. Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan, “A Preliminary Report on Public Attitudes toward Civil Defense,” box 144, folder “Agencies—FCDA,” HST Papers, PSF, Subject File. 46. Millard Caldwell, “Civil Defense and National Security,” FCDA Press Information no. 254, June 20, 1952, box 5, folder “Civil Defense Campaign— General Folder 1,” Quick Files. 47. Barnet Beers to Robert Lovett, February 26, 1952, box 1088, folder “Michigan Survey of Public Attitudes”; Caldwell to Lovett, box 1091, folder “Minutes of Staff Meetings,” RG 330; “Summary Statement No. 4—The Federal Civil Defense Program,” March 26, 1952, FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. II, part 1, 49. 48. Caldwell, “Civil Defense.” 49. “Statement by the President on Civil Defense,” January 12, 1952, PPP, 25–6. 50. Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 125. 51. Christopher Bright, “Nike Defends Washington: Antiaircraft Missiles in Fairfax County, Virginia, during the Cold War, 1954–1974,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 105, no. 3 (Summer 1997): 317 ff. 52. Symington to Burton, June 20, 1950, box 2, folder 4, RG 51, Lawton Files, sub- series 47, 3b; Symington address to the Joint Atomic Energy Committee, December 4, 1950, box 15, folder “Federal Civil Defense Administration,” RG 304, Office File of W. Stuart Symington. 53. Caldwell, “Civil Defense.” 54. James Wadsworth to Symington, November 29, 1950, box 2, folder “Federal, State, Local Relationships, A,” RG 304, Records Relating to Civil Defense, 1949–1953. 55. “Message to the Congress,” April 24, 1952; “Statement by the President,” July 15, 1952, PPP, 289–90, 478 (the quote is on 290); Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 16, 162–83. 56. “Let’s Just Hope No A-Bomb Hits D.C.,” WP, March 8, 1953, sec. B, pp. 1, 7; Transcript of “District Round Table Program,” WWDC, May 10, 1953, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana. 57. FCDA Daily News Digest no. 303, May 23, 1952, box 5, folder “Civil Campaign—General Folder 1,” Quick Files. 58. “Plane Spotting Post to Close in Maryland,” WP, November 3, 1952. 59. “Report of Security Survey,” May 18, 1955, box 1, folder “Front Royal,” RG 59, 1–2. 60. “Record of Conversation between Earl G. Millison and Melvin N. Blum,” tran- scribed by Edward Mike, undated, box 1, folder “Basic Data on Relocation Site,” RG 59. Notes 215

61. Permit, USDA Agricultural Research Administration, May 7, 1952, box 1, folder “Dept. of Agriculture Permit,” RG 59. 62. “Record of Conversation.” 63. “Record of Conversation”; “Report of Security Survey.” 64. Table attached to Benjamin Taylor memorandum, February 27, 1961, box 13, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans August 1961,” RG 396, OCDM National HQ Central Files, 1958–61. 65. Tom Vanderbilt, Survival City: Adventures among the Ruins of Atomic America (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002), 145. 66. USIA Announcement 56–40, February 1, 1956, box 5, folder “Vital Records Program, 1955 & 1956,” RG 59; GSA Relocation Officer to Participants, July 13, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7 (General),” RG 64; Hampden- Sydney College historian to Christopher Bright, May 29, 2004. I’m grateful to Mr. Bright for sharing this letter with me. 67. Andrew Goodpaster to the President of Sweet Briar College, January 30, 1956, box 8, folder “Relocation Sites (1),” EAS. 68. USMC Commandant to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, April 4, 1961, box 17, folder “3180 (17 November 1960) Sec. 2,” RG 218, CDF 1960. 69. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Benson to John Foster Dulles, June 7, 1954, box 1, folder “Dept. Of Agriculture Permit,” RG 59. 70. The agency was the Office of Emergency Planning. See William Rice to Justice Chambers, November 5, 1963, box 6, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Classified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03. 71. Bureau of the Budget Bulletin 51-11, March 21, 1951, box 1, folder “Background Information on Vital Records Program,” RG 59; “Emergency Relocation Plan Being Devised for Agencies,” WP, April 27, 1951; Truman to J. Edgar Hoover, September 25, 1951, box 28, folder “NSRB 7 of 10,” HST Papers, WHCF, Confidential File. 72. Truman to Gorrie, June 11, 1952 and attached Gorrie memorandum, undated; NSRB Bulletin 53-1 Draft, August 20, 1952, box 28, folder “NSRB 10 of 10,” HST Papers, WHCF, Confidential File; Stowe to Maurice Staats, May 1, 1952, box 13, folder “Correspondence, 1952 [2 of 3, May–August],” Papers of David Stowe, HSTL; Gorrie to Truman, April 3, 1952, box 146, folder “Agencies—NSRB,” HST Papers, PSF, Subject File; Executive Order 10346 and related materials, box 1671, folder “1591 (Feb. 1951–53),” HST Papers, Official File. 73. Truman to Hoover, September 25, 1951; undated Gorrie memorandum; Gorrie to Truman, April 3, 1952; NSRB Activities Fourth Quarter, July 15, 1952, box 1, folder “National Security Resources Board,” HST Papers, Staff Member and Office Files, David H. Stowe Files.

6 The Eisenhower Way 1. Author interview with General Andrew J. Goodpaster (Ret.), July 15, 2003, Washington, D.C. 2. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), 34–7, 43–5, 220–1 (the quote is on 34). 3. For the “hidden-hand” Eisenhower, see Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982). For the “hands- off” Eisenhower, see H.W. Brands, “The Age of Vulnerability: Eisenhower and 216 Notes

the National Insecurity State,” American Historical Review 94, no. 4 (October 1989): 963–89; Martha Smith-Norris, “The Eisenhower Administration and the Nuclear Test Ban Talks, 1958–1960: Another Challenge to ‘Revisionism,’ ” Diplomatic History 27, no. 4 (September 2003): 503–41. 4. Oral history interview with Arthur S. Flemming by Thomas Soapes, November 24, 1978, Washington, D.C., DDEL, 24–7; author interview with Goodpaster. 5. Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 4–5, 178–83 (the quote is on 179); author interview with Goodpaster. 6. Eisenhower as recorded by Maxwell Rabb, Minutes of the Interim Assembly, June 18, 1955, box 5, folder “Special ‘Cabinet’ Meeting of June 17, 1955,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series, 8. 7. Eisenhower to Henry Luce, July 6, 1960, box 21, folder “Luce, Harry,” Whitman File, Name Series. 8. John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991), 65–7. 9. Ibid., 61–3, 77. 10. “Special Message to the Congress,” April 2, 1953, PPP: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953, 142–6. 11. Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 508–10. 12. As David Holloway writes: “It is, to some degree, a matter of taste whether one calls [the Soviet bomb] a thermonuclear bomb or a boosted weapon.” Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994), 303–9 (the quote is on 308). 13. Joseph E. McLean, “Project East River—Survival in the Atomic Age,” and Roland Sawyer, “It’s Up to You, Mr. President,” BAS 9, no. 7 (September 1953): 244–52; Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 189–96. 14. NSC 159/4, September 25, 1953, FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. II, part 1, 475–89. 15. “Summary of Present Decentralization Policies,” undated, box 19, folder “Space—Washington, D.C.,” RG 269, Central Files 1949-73; “Analysis of Department of Defense Space Utilization at Seat of Government,” December 31, 1949 and December 31, 1952, boxes 554 and 555, folders “Space Reports Washington Area March-December 1949” and “Space Reports Washington Area 1952,” RG 330, Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Personnel & Reserve), Utilization of Space Reports, 1948–55. 16. Ralph E. Lapp, “Eight Years Later,” BAS 9, no. 7 (September 1953): 234–6; “Architect Urges Key U.S. Depts. Be Moved,” WP, October 23, 1953. 17. Donald Monson, “City Planning in Project East River,” BAS 9, no. 7 (September 1953): 265–7. 18. “U.S. to Keep New Buildings from Downtown Washington,” WS, August 2, 1954; Rowland Hughes to John Taber, July 15, 1954, box 92, folder “M7–2/3.5 FCDA Space,” RG 51, Subject Files of the Director, 1952–61. 19. Record of Actions by the NSC, January 29, 1954, box 1, folder “Record of Actions Taken by NSC 1954 (1),” Whitman File, NSC Series; Robert Cutler to Dr. Elliott, March 5, 1954; Flemming to Wilson, January 18, 1956, box 7, folder “[Emergency Governmental Relocation Sites] [1954–58],” NSC Briefing Notes; Flemming, Defense Mobilization Order draft, box 24, folder “Continental Defense—Continuity of Government (1),” Disaster File. Notes 217

20. “U.S. to Keep.” 21. Allan M. Winkler, Life under a Cloud: American Anxiety about the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; reprint, Urbana: University of Illinois Press), 93–4. 22. Minutes, December 13, 1954, box 1, folder “Minutes of the 20th Meeting,” RG 328, National Capital Regional Planning Council, Minutes; ODM Statement, February 18, 1955, box 7, folder “[Emergency Governmental Relocation Sites] [1954–58],” NSC Briefing Notes. 23. Gordon Dean to Joseph Dodge, March 16, 1953; Strauss to Cole, undated, box 91, folder “Space Vol. I”; “The Inception, Design and Construction of the New Headquarters Building at Germantown, Maryland,” March 22, 1957, box 91, folder “Space Vol. II,” RG 326; S.Rept. 142, 84th Cong., 1st sess., U.S. Senate Reports vol. 11815. 24. “New Headquarters Building for AEC,” minutes of October 27, 1954 meeting; Lewis Strauss to the Commissioners, March 9, 1955; John A. Derry to R.W. Cook, April 28, 1955, box 91, folder “Space Vol. I,” RG 326; Marie Hallion and Clarence Hickey, “The Atomic Energy Commission and Its Site at Germantown,” The Montgomery County Story 44, no. 3 (August 2001): 190. 25. “Inception,” 9–10; John Nolen, Jr., to Strauss, June 29, 1955, box 91, folder “Space Vol. II,” RG 326. 26. J.L. Kelehan memorandum for the files, May 2, 1955, box 91, folder “Space Vol. I,” RG 326. 27. Libby to Eisenhower, May 3, 1955, box 91, folder “Space Vol. I,” RG 326. 28. Hallion, “Atomic Energy,” 191–2. 29. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), 388, 417–18. 30. In its editorial “CIA Belongs in the District,” the Washington Daily News, December 15, 1955, reported that Dulles publicly stated he wanted the CIA to be as close as possible to the White House. 31. Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, December 10, 1954, box 4, folder “Cabinet Meeting of December 10, 1954,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series, 5–6. 32. Grose, Gentleman Spy, 417–18. 33. CIA, “Public Comment on the New CIA Building, 1955–1956,” May 19, 1956, 1–8 (the Fisher quote is on 2); CIA, “Chronology of Local Government Actions on the Langley Site, March 1955–March 1956,” May 28, 1956, box 25, folder 14, RG 263; NCPC, “Final Report on the Proposal to Locate the CIA Headquarters at Langley, Virginia,” March 2, 1956, box A, folder 8, John Nolen, Jr. Papers, HSW; “CIA Belongs in the District”; “CIA’s Langley Site Opposed by NCPC,” WS, December 16, 1955; “Council Launches a Renewed Effort to Get the CIA to Locate in District,” WP, December 24, 1955. 34. “Public Comment” (the Dulles quote is on 3); “Statement of the Regional Council Members Relating to the Langley Proposal,” December 5, 1955, box 9, folder 0-041, RG 351, BOC; “20 Minute Factor Vital in CIA Building Site,” WS, May 11, 1955; Grose, Gentleman Spy, 418. 35. “Public Comment”; “Chronology of Local Government Actions.” 36. “Description of New Headquarters Building of CIA,” undated; “CIA Staff Starts Move to Langley,” WS, September 21, 1961, clipping, box 25, folder 14, RG 263. 37. NSC, “Plan for Continuity of Essential Wartime Functions of the Executive Branch,” January 25, 1954, box 6, folder “NSC 159/4 . . . (1),” NSC Policy Paper Subseries, 2. 218 Notes

38. “Plan for Continuity,” 4. 39. NSC memorandum of discussion, January 29, 1954, box 5, folder “182nd Meeting of NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series; “Plan for Continuity,” Annex II. 40. Annex B to ODM Report, attached to “Progress Reports on Continental Defense,” June 14, 1954, box 2, folder “Continental Defense, Study by Robert C. Sprague (4),” White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Subject Subseries, DDEL, 13. 41. NSC memorandum, January 29, 1954, 4. 42. Record of Actions by the NSC, January 28, 1954, box 1, folder “Record of Actions...1954(1),” Whitman File, NSC Series. 43. Richard P. Pollack, “The Mysterious Mountain,” The Progressive 40, no. 3 (March 1976): 12–6; Ted Gup, “Doomsday Hideaway,” Time 138, no. 23 (December 9, 1991): 26–9. 44. Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II, Seven Days in May (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 15, 115, 270, 322, 329. 45. The Departments were Agriculture, Commerce, HEW, HUD, State, Transportation, Labor, Interior, and Treasury. The Federal agencies were the Postal Service, FCC, Federal Reserve Board, Civil Service Commission, Veterans Administration, Selective Service, and the Federal Power Commission. See Pollack, “The Mysterious Mountain.” 46. Gup, “Doomsday Hideaway,” and “The Doomsday Blueprints,” Time 140, no. 6 (August 10, 1992): 32–9. 47. Gup, “Doomsday Hideaway” (the Fowler quote is on 28); Biography of Paul L. Russell, January 1974, box 5, folder “Russell, Paul L.,” RG 70, Records of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Biographical Information Files. 48. “Report on the Relocation Operation Readiness of November 20, 1954,” December 1, 1954, box 4, folder “Cabinet Meeting of December 3, 1954,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 49. “Phonevision” was a type of subscription television service offered by Zenith to allow movie-viewing in homes. A device unscrambled the broadcast signal, which was delivered over a dedicated phone line or by air. It seems the ODM or the Signal Corps used the technology to set up this early form of video-conferencing. I’m grateful to Albert LaFrance for sharing these details about Phonevision with me. 50. “Report on the Relocation.” 51. Ibid. 52. Untitled report, circa July 1956, box 1, folder “Current Matters,” EAS. 53. Eisenhower to Flemming, December 14, 1954, box 14, folder “Flemming, Arthur S. 1953–55 (2),” Whitman File, Administration Series. 54. “Report on the Relocation,” 5, 10.

7 Practice Makes Perfect 1. The scenario is based upon these sources. Soviet bombers and bases: Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 15–24; Christoph Bluth, Soviet Strategic Arms Policy before SALT (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 5–7, 174–5. DEW, Pinetree, and CONAD: Kenneth Schaffel, The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945–1960 (Washington, D.C.: USAF, Notes 219

Office of Air Force History, 1991), 169–71, 209–17, 238–9. D.C. warning system: National Academy of Sciences’s Advisory Committee on Civil Defense, “The Attack Warning System of the Metropolitan Washington Area,” October 1, 1955, box 796, folder “Civil Defense,” RG 46, Records of the U.S. Senate, Committee on the District of Columbia, file SEN 84A-FS, National Archives, Washington, D.C., 1–9, 12–13. Background on Conelrad: FCC, “Emergency Control of Electromagnetic Radiation Pursuant to Executive Order No. 10312, Dated December 10, 1951,” box 699, folder “136-F CONELRAD,” HST Papers, WHCF, Official File. Four-mile evacuation: Fondahl memorandum, April 7, 1955, box 24, folder “Continental Defense—Continuity of Government (2),” Disaster File. President’s evacuation: “White House Emergency Plan,” August 3, 1955, box 19, folder “White House Emergency Plan—WHEP [1955–58],” NSC Briefing Notes, 1. 2. Brigadier General R.E. Koon to Edward Beach, May 31, 1955, box 1, folder “Emergency Procedures—Attack Warning 1955 (2),” EAS. 3. National Academy of Sciences, “Attack Warning System.” 4. “An Interview with Governor Val Peterson,” BAS 9, no. 7 (September 1953): 238. 5. Fondahl to Gordon Young, March 13, 1951; Young to the Commissioners, March 27, 1951, box 229, folder 4-116, RG 351, BOC. 6. NSC memorandum of discussion, March 4, 1955, box 6, folder “239th Meeting of NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series, 5. 7. Author interview with Henry Rapalus, July 10, 2003, Rockville, Md. 8. Fondahl memorandum, April 7, 1955, 5–7. 9. Government of the District of Columbia, Order no. 49, January 12, 1954, box 231, folder 4-154, RG 351, BOC. 10. NSC memorandum, March 4, 1955, 8. 11. Beach to the NSC Special Committee, April 8, 1955, box 1, folder “Emergency Procedures—Attack Warning 1955(1),” EAS. 12. Bluth, Soviet Strategic, 7, 175 (the quote is on 175); Zaloga, Kremlin’s Nuclear, 17, 24, 31–5. 13. Donald P. Steury, ed., Intentions and Capabilities: Estimates on Soviet Strategic Forces, 1950–1983 (Washington, D.C.: History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, 1996), 5–7, 26–30. 14. Carlton Savage, “Continental Defense,” February 10, 1953, FRUS, 1952–54, vol. II, part 1, 231. For more on continental defense policies between 1953 and 1955, see Richard M. Leighton, Strategy, Money, and the New Look, 1953–1956, vol. III, History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, ed. Alfred Goldberg (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2001), 114–39. 15. GSA, “Air Raid Drill Fact Sheet,” December 10, 1952 and “Information for Use in Government-Wide Air Raid Drill,” December 12, 1952, box 28, folder “Civil Defense Air Raid Drills,” RG 56, Central Files; “Office of Civil Defense Organization,” attachment to DCD Order no. 8, July 6, 1953, box 228, folder 4-100, RG 351, BOC, 16. 16. GSA, “Information for Use,” attachment 1 and reports. 17. GSA, “Air Raid.” 18. DCD, Basic Indoctrination Manual, January 15, 1953, Vertical File, folder “Civil Defense and Defense, Public Proclamations,” 50; DCD Order no. 3, September 14, 1953, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana. 220 Notes

19. J.J. Hurley to Victor H. Anderson, November 5, 1953; Hurley, “Attendance List,” December 21, 1953, box 1, folder “U.S. Capitol-Senate Wing,” RG 396, Records Relating to the U.S. Capitol, Senate, and House Protection Plans, 1951–54 (hereafter Capitol Records); Press Release, October 24, 1951; William Jenner to David Lynn, July 7, 1953; Harold Goodwin to W.B. Bookwalter, November 24, 1953; Bookwalter to Lynn, November 25, 1953; Gordon F. Harrison to J. George Stewart, February 14, 1955, AOC. 20. Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 84–104 (the first quote is on 96; the second, 98). For more on the elaborate nature of civil defense exercises, see Tracy C. Davis, “Between History and Event: Rehearsing Nuclear War Survival,” The Drama Review 46, no. 4 (Winter 2002): 11–45. 21. “Summary of Meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee on Armaments,” March 16, 1953; “Memorandum of Discussion at the 146th Meeting of the National Security Council, Wednesday, May 27, 1953,” May 30, 1953, FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. II, part 2, 1135–37, 1169–74. 22. “Mixup Mars Civil Defense Attack Test,” Washington Times-Herald, July 20, 1953, clipping in box 4, folder 96, Samuel Spencer Papers, HSW. 23. “Confusion over Civil Defense Pointed up in District Survey,” WS, March 17, 1955. 24. DCD, “Briefing on CPX Phase of Operation Alert,” June 14, 1954, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana. 25. Hornell Hart, “The Remedies versus the Menace,” BAS 10, no. 6 (June 1954): 197–205. 26. Spencer to Eisenhower, March 16, 1954; Beach to Sherman Adams, April 16, 1954; Flemming to Beach, March 22, 1954, box 656, folder “133-B Civil Defense (1),” White House Central Files, Official File, DDEL. 27. “Vast D.C. Area ‘Obliterated’ in Mock Raid” and “Civil Defense Spotty in Nation-Wide Raid,” WP, June 15, 1954, sec. A, pp. 1, 10; “D.C. Ghost City as Thousands Go to Shelters,” WS, June 14, 1954, clipping in box 5, folder 104, Spencer Papers; Donald Menn to Mr. Kreer, June 15, 1954, box 4, folder “Vital Records Program 1953 & 1954,” RG 59; Norman Hartman to Ira Willard, June 17, 1954, folder “Continuation of Regular Meeting, July 13, 1954,” Alexandria Records. 28. Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 189–204. 29. Jeremy L. Korr, “History of the Capital Beltway in Montgomery County,” The Montgomery County Story 43, no. 3 (August 2000): 140. 30. “Special Message to the Congress,” February 22, 1955, PPP: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1955, 276. 31. CDNS, part 3, March 1956, 644–5. 32. “5-4-3-2-1 and the Hydrogen Age Is upon Us,” Life 36, no. 15 (April 12, 1954): 24–33. 33. As reported in DCD memorandum to Commissioners, March 11, 1955, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana; Fondahl memorandum, April 7, 1955. 34. “Civil Defense Study Shifts to Dispersal,” WP, August 31, 1953; Fondahl mem- orandum, April 7, 1955, 5; Minutes of the Takoma Park Civil Defense Committee, March 9, 1955, City of Takoma Park (Md). Records, Civil Defense Materials, 1954–59, Historic Takoma Park Archives, 2. Notes 221

35. Board of Commissioners, “Statement of Basic Civil Defense Policy in the Event of Thermonuclear Attack on Metropolitan Washington,” April 28, 1955, box 229, folder 4-119, RG 351, BOC, 3. 36. John W. Finney, “Millions Seen in Peril, Lacking CD Program,” WP, May 20, 1955, sec. A, p. 3; “Teague Plans Reappraisal of CD Program,” WS, May 19, 1955, sec. A, p. 3, and “Civil Defense Chief Tangles with Teague on D.C. Exodus,” Washington Daily News, May 25, 1955, clippings in box 7, folder 112, Spencer Papers. 37. “Full City Evacuation Time Estimated at Two Hours,” WS, June 2, 1955; “4- Hour D.C. Evacuation Difficult, House Told,” WS, June 7, 1955; “D.C. Citizens’ Evacuation Called Senseless,” WP, June 5, 1955; “3 to 4 Hours Set for City Evacuation in Air Raid,” WP, June 10, 1955, clippings in box 7, folder 112, Spencer Papers. 38. NSC memorandum of discussion, March 4, 1955, 7–10. 39. NSC memorandum of discussion, April 8, 1955, box 6, folder “244th Meeting of NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series, 2–5; Fondahl memorandum, April 7, 1955. 40. Motion Picture, “Operation Alert, Pentagon, Washington, D.C., 6/15/1955,” RG 111. 41. “Report and Recommendations on Operation Alert, 1955,” July 5, 1955, box 5, folder “Cabinet Meeting of July 1, 1955,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 42. “Report on Operation Alert 1955,” January 4, 1956, box 2, folder “Operation Alert 1955 Standards,” RG 396, Operations and Exercise File, 1953–61. 43. “Atom Exodus . . . 15,000 to ‘Flee’ Washington in M-Day Test,” Newsweek XLV, no. 24 (June 13, 1955): 28–9; Oakes, Imaginary War, 86–9; press statement, May 27, 1955, box 16, folder “Civil Defense (1),” CF. 44. White House Staff Briefing Sheet for box 3, folder “OPAL 1955(4),” EAS; White House Locator List, June 15, 1955, box 16, folder “Civil Defense (1),” CF; “When Ike ‘Fled’ Washington,” U.S. News & World Report 38, no. 25 (June 24, 1955): 66. 45. White House Staff Briefing Sheet; Goodpaster to Whitman, June 27, 1955, box 3, folder “OPAL 1955(4)”; undated map of Camp David, box 3, folder “OPAL 1955(1),” EAS. 46. For details of the Interim Assembly, see “Report and Recommendations,” Attachment D. For photographs of OPAL 55, see “When Ike ‘Fled’ ”; Time LXV, no. 26 (June 27, 1955): 17; and Oakes, Imaginary War, 89–91. 47. Memorandum, June 17, 1955, box 10, folder “Operation Alert June 1955,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 48. “Ike Declares ‘Martial Law,’ ” Washington Daily News, June 16, 1955, clipping in box 7, folder 112, Spencer Papers; Oakes, Imaginary War, 88–9. 49. The “recourse” quote is from “The President’s News Conference of July 6, 1955,” PPP, 672. All other quotes are Maxwell Rabb’s rendering of the President’s words in the Minutes of the Interim Assembly, June 18, 1955, box 5, folder “Special ‘Cabinet’ Meeting of June 17, 1955,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 50. “Operation Alert Sidelights,” “15,000 Evacuate City In Mock H-Bombing,” WS, June 15, 1955; “Operation Alert Is Called Good Test of Real Thing,” WS, June 16, 1955, sec. A, p. 4; “Ike, 15,000 Quit Capital in Civil Defense Drill; 60 Cities Undergo Tests,” WP, June 16, 1955, sec. A, p. 1; “Instructions to RM Participants”; “Basic Information Concerning State Department Relocation Site for Operation Alert 1955,” box 3, folder “Operation Alert, 1955,” RG 59, 5. 51. “Operations [sic] Alert—1955 Summary of Exercise Problems,” box 10, folder “Operation Alert June 1955”; George McConnaughey to Flemming, June 29, 222 Notes

1955, box 10, folder “Relocation—Operation Alert—Report,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 52. “Report and Recommendations,” Attachments D and E. 53. “15,000 U.S. Workers Quit City Today in A-Raid Test,” WP, June 15, 1955, sec. A, p. 1; “Ike, 15,000”; “15,000 Evacuate City.” 54. “Operation Alert Sidelights”; “So 11th and F Was ‘Hit’ by an H-Bomb: Ho, Hum,” WS, June 16, 1955. 55. “Atom Exodus”; “Ike, 15,000”; “So 11th and F Was ‘Hit’ ”; “Mock Martial Law Ordered for Nation,” WS, June 16, 1955, clipping in box 7, folder 112, Spencer Papers. 56. “Report and Recommendations,” Attachments B, C, and E; Loeber to Alexander, June 28, 1955, box 10, folder “Operation Alert—Staff Comments,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 57. “Officials Call Alert Test a Success for Weak Points that It Revealed,” WP, June 26, 1955, clipping in box 7, folder 113, Spencer Papers. 58. Willard Bascom, “Operation Alert, June 15, 16, 1955: Criticisms and Recommendations for the Future,” box 259, folder “NAS—Civil Defense,” Papers of Merle A. Tuve, LOC, Manuscript Division. 59. “Fired CD Official Will Keep ‘Fighting,’ ” Washington Daily News, June 16, 1955; “District’s CD Deputy Fired after Criticism,” WS, June 16, 1955, clippings in box 7, folder 112, Spencer Papers; “Underhill Fired after Rapping Drill,” WP, June 16, 1955, sec. A, p. 1; Newsweek, “So Much to Be Done,” XLV, no. 26 (June 27, 1955): 21. The figures on the warden corps come from Henry Backenheimer to the Federation of Citizens Associations, January 1955, box 1, folder 4, DCCA. 60. Untitled report, circa July 1956, box 1, folder “Current Matters,” EAS.

8 Capital Confusion 1. Quoted in Thomas J. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1983), 63. 2. Franz Kafka, “The Burrow,” in The Great Wall of China: Stories and Reflections, trans. Willa and Edwin Muir (New York: Schocken Books, 1970), 60. 3. Beach to Lambie, September 23, 1955, box 19, folder “Beach, Edward L. (Comdr.),” Papers of James M. Lambie, Jr., DDEL; Ewing to the President, September 23, 1955, box 656, folder “133-B Civil Defense (2),” White House Central Files, Official File, DDEL; Beach to the NSC Special Committee, September 15, 1955, box 1, folder “Emergency Procedures—Attack Warning 1955(4),” EAS. 4. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), 394–405. 5. Beach to Flemming, May 18, 1955, box 1, folder “Emergency Procedures— Attack Warning 1955(1),” EAS; “Apathy Will Be to Blame if 96,000 Die in Attack,” WS, June 23, 1955, sec. A, p. 8; “White House Won’t Get Out Till D.C. Gives the Word,” Washington Daily News, October 18, 1955, clipping in box 7, folder 116, Samuel Spencer Papers, HSW. 6. Staff Notes no. 4, August 1, 1956, box 24, White House Office, Staff Research Group Records, 1956–61, DDEL, 4; Directive S-3020.1, May 17, 1955, 8, and “Joint Emergency Evacuation Plan,” October 24, 1955, both in Department of Defense, Wartime Readiness Plans Book, box 36, folder “Wartime Readiness Plans Book,” RG 330. Notes 223

7. National Academy of Sciences’s Advisory Committee on Civil Defense, “The Attack Warning System of the Metropolitan Washington Area,” October 1, 1955, box 796, folder “Civil Defense,” RG 46, Records of the U.S. Senate, Committee on the District of Columbia, file SEN 84A-FS, National Archives, Washington, D.C., 23–4; DCD Bulletin no. 9, May 11, 1955, box 392, folder “Civil Defense Correspondence, Memos 1950–55,” WBOT, Series XVIII, 2. 8. DCD, “District of Columbia Interim Voluntary Evacuation Plan,” January 24, 1956, box 27, folder “Civil Defense 1953,” RG 56, Central Files; “Evacuation Plan Called Suicidal,” WS, June 27, 1956. 9. Department of Defense Instruction C-3020.9, January 12, 1956, box 2, folder “EP-Attack Warning 1956–1957(1),” EAS; ODM memorandum, December 20, 1955, quoted in USIA Announcement 56–40, February 1, 1956, box 5, folder “Vital Records Program, 1955 & 1956,” RG 59; National Security Agency, “Emergency Evacuation of the Washington Area,” June 25, 1956, personal papers of Henry Rapalus, Rockville, Md. 10. CDNS, part 2, March 6, 1956, 516–20; Haldore Hanson, “If the Enemy Did Attack . . .,” The New Republic 134, no. 9 (February 27, 1956): 15; “We’re Sitting Ducks,” Washington Daily News, March 7, 1956, p. 3. 11. Bascom to Tuve, April 4 and 19, 1956, box 262, folder “Civil Defense”; Tuve to Holifield, January 17, 1956, box 259, folder “Civil Defense,” Papers of Merle A. Tuve, LOC, Manuscript Division. 12. Fondahl to Peterson, January 18, 1956; Harold Aitken to Fondahl, February 3, 1956, box 262, folder “Civil Defense,” Tuve Papers. 13. AP photograph, January 5, 1958, Washington Star Photograph Collection, Washingtoniana. 14. CDNS, part 4, April 17, 1956, 1179; memoranda of discussions at the 288th Meeting of the NSC, June 15, 1956 (written June 18) and 306th Meeting, December 20, 1956 (written Dec. 21), FRUS, 1955–1957 XIX, 326, 379–83. 15. Memorandum of 288th Meeting, 326. 16. Kerr, Civil Defense, 95, 106–12 (the quote is on 108); David L. Snead, The Gaither Committee, Eisenhower, and the Cold War (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 1999), 91. 17. NSC memorandum of discussion, August 18, 1956, box 8, folder “293rd & 294th Meeting of the NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series, 7–8. 18. “Memorandum of a Conference with the President,” November 6, 1957, FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. XIX, 620–4; “The President’s News Conference of March 14, 1956,” PPP: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1956, 309–10. 19. Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 58–62; Kerr, Civil Defense, 112–13. 20. Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 251. 21. Kerr, Civil Defense, 113–15. 22. “Course in Disaster Protection for S.E.,” The Courier S.E. Washington Weekly Newspaper, December 16, 1955; DCD Quarterly Report, April 16, 1956, box 229, folder 4-1056, RG 351, BOC; “There’s No Place to Hide If an H-Bomb Blasts D.C.,” WP, December 16, 1956; DCD, Annual Report for 1956, January 4, 1957, Vertical Files, Washingtoniana, 1. 23. DCD, Quarterly Reports, July 10 and October 7, 1957, box 229, folder 4-1056, RG 351, BOC. 224 Notes

24. DCD, Quarterly Report, October 7, 1957; “30 D.C. Skywatchers Honored by Civil Defense,” WP, December 12, 1957, sec. C, p. 20. Barbara Luchs and her husband Wallace also built the District’s first home fallout shelter. See chapter 10. 25. Eileen S. McGuckian, Rockville: Portrait of a City (Franklin, Tenn.: Hillsboro Press, 2001), 125–57. 26. George Q. Flynn, Lewis B. Hershey, Mr. Selective Service (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 304–9 (the quote is 309); oral history interview with Brigadier General Paul H. Griffith by Jerry N. Hess, March 9, 1971, Washington, D.C., HSTL; FCDA Press Release 267, undated, box 5, folder “Civil Defense Campaign—General folder 2,” HST Papers, Files of Spencer R. Quick, HSTL; Minutes of the Civil Defense Advisory Committee Meeting, January 5 and March 1, 1956, box 8, folder “Civil Defense,” Papers of Paul H. Griffith, HSTL. 27. “ ‘Get Acquainted’ with the New Program in Montgomery County’s Civil Defense,” Maryland News, undated clipping, MCHS. 28. FCDA, “The Staff College, Olney, Maryland,” box 28, folder “Civil Defense Training,” RG 56, Central Files. 29. Montgomery County Office of Civil Defense Press Release, April 30, 1956, box 8, folder “Civil Defense,” Griffith Papers. 30. “CD Movie Made in Olney,” Montgomery County Sentinel, January 19, 1956, clipping, MCHS; Charles H. Tower to Eisenhower, May 29, 1956, box 100, folder “3-C-14 Ground Observer Corps (2),” White House Central Files, Official File, DDEL; “Civil Defense Annual Report 1955,” attached to Minutes of the Civil Defense Advisory Committee Meeting, March 1, 1956, 3. 31. “Cabin John CD Squad Protects County Area,” Montgomery County Sentinel, March 15, 1956, clipping, MCHS. 32. Rapalus memorandum; “City of Rockville—Civil Defense Staff Members,” Rapalus papers; author interview with Henry Rapalus, July 10, 2003, Rockville, Md. 33. “National Civil Defense Program Initiated in Montgomery County,” Maryland News, September 7, 1956, clipping, MCHS; Montgomery County Office of Civil Defense Press Release, March 23, 1956; Your Survival Montgomery County Maryland; G. Roy Hartwig to Paul Griffith, August 16, 1956, box 8, folder “Civil Defense,” Griffith Papers. 34. “Proposed Areas of Study for the Civil Defense Elements of the City of Rockville—1955–56,” box 1, folder “Civil Defense,” RG 17, Alexander Greene Papers, MCA. 35. Your Survival Montgomery County; “Organization and Operation Plan for Rockville Civil Defense,” Rapalus papers. 36. DCD, Quarterly Reports dated October 7, 1957 and September 30, 1958, box 229, folder 4-1056, RG 351, BOC. 37. Montgomery County Civic Federation, “Suggestions for a More Effective Civil Defense Program in Montgomery County,” February 11, 1958, box 1, folder 9, Office of County Manager, Series I, Subject Files, MCA. 38. Worthington Thompson to the Montgomery County Council, June 2, 1959, box 1, folder 9, Office of County Manager, Series I, Subject Files, MCA. 39. Defense Mobilization Order I-19, January 9, 1956, box 91, folder “Space Vol. II,” RG 326; Flemming to Charles Wilson, January 18, 1956, box 7, folder “[Emergency Government Relocation Sites][1954–58],” NSC Briefing Notes. 40. Pamela Scott and Antoinette J. Lee, Buildings of the District of Columbia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 235–7; GSA, “Federal Buildings Notes 225

Construction Program, Washington and Vicinity 1956–1965,” January 1956, box 29, folder “Current Public Building Program,” RG 328, Office Files of John F. Nolen, Jr.; GSA, “Federal Space Problem in Washington, D.C. and Its Solution,” August 1959, box 29, folder “Federal Buildings Construction Program,” John S. Bragdon Records as Special Assistant to the President, DDEL. 41. Goodpaster memorandum, April 9, 1958, box 21, folder “Office of Defense Mobilization (4),” SSAS. 42. NSC 5802/1, February 19, 1958 (revised May 15, 1958), box 23, folder “Continental Defense, 1957–61 (1),” Disaster File, 7. 43. Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks, “Feasibility Study on Location of Department of Defense Buildings,” November 19, 1958; Bartholomew to Robert Merriam, December 11, 1958, box 6, folder “Government Buildings,” Robert E. Merriam Records, DDEL; Merriam to the President, May 26, 1959, box 41, folder “Staff Notes May 1959(2),” Whitman File, Diary Series. 44. Goodpaster memorandum, May 28, 1959, box 41, folder “Staff Notes May 1959 (1),” Whitman File, Diary Series. 45. AEC Announcement 363, September 21, 1955; Harbridge House, Inc., “Abstract of a Survey of Employee Disposition toward the Relocation of Headquarters of the Atomic Energy Commission,” April 3, 1957; “Notes on Germantown Headquarters Plans Briefing,” box 91, folder “Space Vol. II,” RG 326. 46. Astin to George T. Moore, July 14, 1955, box 1, folder “Reasons for Move to Gaithersburg”; James P. Collins, “The Decision to Move the National Bureau of Standards,” box 5, folder “Jim Collins M.S.,” RG 167. 47. Sinclair Weeks to Spessard Holland, May 29, 1956, box 5, folder “1956”; “New Home for National Bureau of Standards,” box 5, folder “1964”; Astin to the Secretary of Commerce, February 2, 1961, box 1, folder “Reasons for Move to Gaithersburg”; “New Home for National Bureau of Standards,” box 5, folder “1964,” RG 167. 48. Management Planning Division, “Summary of the Responses on the Move to Gaithersburg,” February 11, 1957, box 5, folder “1957,” RG 167. 49. James B. Banks et al., “Civil Rights in Washington, D.C., 1948–1958: Status and Trends in Housing,” in Ben D. Segal et al., eds., Civil Rights in the Nation’s Capital: A Report on a Decade of Progress (New York: National Association of Intergroup Relations Officials, 1959), 41–2. For more on how federal home ownership programs spurred white flight, see Peter Dreier et al., Place Matters: Metropolitics for the Twenty-First Century (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 107–10. 50. Haynes Johnson, “Integration Outside District Has a Smooth Beginning,” WS, April 15, 1964; Robert E. Baker, “Suburbs Opening for Negroes,” WP, October 17, 1963. 51. Johnson, “Integration.” 52. “Race Problem in Nation’s Capital,” U.S. News & World Report 43, no. 13 (September 27, 1957): 35; Washington Board of Trade News, August 1957; Robert A. Harper and Frank O. Ahnert, Introduction to Metropolitan Washington (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers, 1968), 15–8. 53. Bruce Bliven, “Black Skin & White Marble,” New Republic 119, no. 25 (December 20, 1948): 13–15. 54. Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 286, 296–8 226 Notes

(the quote is on 286); George B. Nesbitt, “Non-White Residential Dispersion and Desegregation in the District of Columbia,” Journal of Negro Education 25, no. 1 (Winter 1956): 12. 55. The Brown v. Board of Education decision didn’t apply to the District of Columbia. In voiding the “separate but equal” principle, the Court cited the 14th Amendment’s requirement that no state could deny equal protection of the laws. The Court simultaneously reviewed Bolling v. Sharpe, a suit filed by black parents of children enrolled in the District’s public schools. Citing the 5th Amendment’s due process clause, the Court also ruled the District’s segregation to be unconsti- tutional. For more on the desegregation of the District’s schools, see the articles in Washington History 16, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 2004/05), a special issue com- memorating the fiftieth anniversary of the Brown and Bolling decisions. 56. Samuel Spencer to Eisenhower, May 26 and June 7, 1954, box 282, folder “71-U Segregation in District of Columbia,” White House Central Files, Official File, DDEL; Walter Goodman, “The Capital Keeps Calm,” New Republic 131, no. 17 (October 25, 1954): 10–13; Carl F. Hansen, Miracle of Social Adjustment: Desegregation in The Washington, D.C. Schools (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B’Nai Brith, 1957), 45–50; Eugene Davidson, “An Analysis of Desegregation in the District of Columbia,” box A226, folder “Desegregation: Schools Branch Action—District of Columbia 1954–55,” NAACP Records, Group II, LOC, Manuscript Division. 57. Hansen, Miracle, 50–9; U.S. News, “Race Problem,” 38. 58. U.S. News, “Race Problem,” 35. 59. Hansen, Miracle, 59–60. 60. David Lawrence, “Washington’s Worry,” U.S. News & World Report 46, no. 14 (April 6, 1959): 120. 61. Green, Secret City, 323. 62. GSA, “Basic Principles and Assumptions Governing Preparation of the Long- Range Plan for the Security of the Nation’s Capital,” June 1950, box 48, folder “545-15-85 ‘Security for the Nation’s Capital,’ ” RG 328, Planning Files, 19. 63. Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy: 1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2001), 17–32. 64. Joshua Olsen, Better Places, Better Lives: A Biography of James Rouse (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2003), 136–94; Bloom, Suburban Alchemy, 33–47 (the quote is on 47). 65. William Maher to John Derry, February 27, 1956, box 91, folder “Space Vol. II,” RG 326.

9 Land of the Blind 1. Rabb to Flemming, July 31, 1956, 9, attached to Record of Action, July 26, 1956, box 7, folder “Cabinet Meeting of July 25, 1956,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 2. The following sources were used to describe the warning system and the “surprise alert”: Kenneth Schaffel, The Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945–1960 (Washington, D.C.: USAF, Office of Air Force History, 1991), 238; “Report on the New FCDA Attack Warning Plan,” November 8, 1956, box 2, folder “25b Staff Study”; Position Description, Civil Defense Officer (Attack Warning), August 6, 1956, box 3, Notes 227

folder “Position Description CD Officer”; “Back-Up Data for Holifield Committee,” March 6, 1956, box 3, folder “23 Holifield Committee”; Leslie Kullenberg to Attack Warning Division, January 28, 1957, box 3, folder “30 Memos—Inter-Office”; Harold Aitken to Val Peterson, September 13, 1955, box 3, folder “33 NAWAC,” RG 396, Warning File and Communications Subject File, 1951–59 (hereafter Warning File); Aitken to all personnel, undated, and Kullenberg, “Report on Surprise Alert,” December 21, 1955, box 2, folder “Surprise Alert Dec. 20, 1955,” RG 396, Operations and Exercise File, 1953–61. 3. Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC, March 5, 1955, box 15, folder “NSC 5513/1—Attack Warning,” NSC Policy Paper Subseries. 4. Beach to the NSC Special Committee, March 19, 1956, box 2, folder “EP— Attack Warning 1956–57 (2),” EAS. 5. Peterson to James Lay, June 29, 1956, box 15, folder “NSC 5513/1—Attack Warning,” NSC Policy Papers Subseries. 6. The Maryland counties of Calvert, St. Marys, and Charles also received warning information from the new center. Portions of Anne Arundel and Howard Counties, Md., lay within 20 miles of the zero milestone marker; however, they weren’t included as part of the new warning area. Washington Warning Area Control Point Operating Procedures, effective July 1, 1958, box 1, folder “Classified Location SOP,” RG 396, Warning File, 1. 7. Peterson to Lay, June 29, 1956, and August 15, 1956, box 15, folder “NSC 5513/1—Attack Warning,” NSC Policy Papers Subseries. 8. Peterson to Lay, “Actions by FCDA to Implement the Washington Area Warning Center,” August 28, 1956, box 15, folder “NSC 5513/1—Attack Warning,” NSC Policy Papers Subseries; memorandum of discussion, September 28, 1956, box 8, folder “298th Meeting of NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series. 9. Edwards to Director, Attack Warning Division, October 19, 1956, March 8, 1957, and October 6, 1957, box 1, folder “Washington Warning Center Weekly Reports,” RG 396, Warning File. 10. Dee to all personnel, July 24, 1957, box 1, folder “National-SOP”; Edwards to Dee, February 21, 1958, box 1, folder “Classified Location Special and Periodic Reports—1958,” RG 396, Warning File. 11. DCD, “Standard Operating Procedure for Attack Warning Division,” February 1957, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana, 2. 12. Barnet Beers, Status Report no. 3, March 14, 1958, folder “Regular Meeting, March 25, 1958,” and E.G. Heatwole to the Alexandria City Council, January 7, 1958, folder “Regular Meeting February 11, 1958,” Alexandria Records. 13. Edwards to Roderick, October 4, 1957, box 1, folder “Washington Warning Center Weekly Reports,” RG 396, Warning File; Flow Chart, Appendix 2 to Washington Warning Area Control Point. 14. “Proposed Changes to the Chart ‘Attack Warning Channels for Civilians,’ ” January 30, 1957, box 2, folder “EP Attack Warning 1956–57(4),” EAS; “Basic Rules for Issuance of Air Raid Warning,” March 29, 1957, box 2, folder “16 Conelrad”; “FCDA Emergency Personnel Alerting Plan,” October 22, 1957, box 1, folder “National—SOP,” RG 396, Warning File. 15. Edwards to Director, Attack Warning Division, April 29, 1957, box 1, folder “Washington Warning Center Weekly Reports,” RG 396, Warning File. 16. “Washington Warning Area Control Point Public Action Signal Determination Charts,” Appendix 4, September 26, 1958, box 1, folder “Classified Location 228 Notes

SOP”; Beers to Assistant Administrator Communications, June 19, 1958, box 1, folder “Classified Location—Correspondence,” RG 396, Warning File. 17. Washington Warning Area Control Point, Appendix 2; Beers to Assistant Administrator Communications, June 19, 1958; “Air Attack Warning System Expanded in Capital Area,” OCDM Press Release, August 28, 1958; Harry Roderick, “Malfunctioning of Siren Circuit,” December 2, 1958, folder “Washington, D.C. Special Reports,” RG 396, Warning File; M.L. Reese to the Montgomery County Council, December 10, 1959, box 1, folder 9, Series I, Subject File, MCA. 18. DCD Quarterly Report, September 30, 1958, box 229, folder 4-1056, RG 351, BOC. 19. Memorandum dictated July 19, 1956, box 9, folder “July 1956,” RG 40, Records of Undersecretary of Commerce Walter Williams. 20. Goodpaster memorandum, May 19, 1955; Harold Botkin to Flemming, June 8, 1955; Goodpaster to Lt. Colonel George McNally, July 6, 1955; McNally to Goodpaster, August 10, 1955; Goodpaster to McNally, August 13, 1955, box 2, folder “EO-Communications (1)”; McNally to Chief, Army Communications Service Division, September 13, 1955; diagrams of the Red Line circuits, box 2, folder “EP-Communications (5),” EAS. 21. Flemming to Franklin G. Floete, April 27, 1956; Floete to Flemming, May 16, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 2 Essential Records,” RG 64; Lewis Strauss to Flemming, May 15, 1956, box 172, folder “Security 16 Emergency Action Papers,” RG 326, Office of the Secretary General Correspondence, 1951–58. 22. ODM, Alert Documents nos. 2 and 3, in “Key Documents for Operation Alert 1956,” box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7 (General)”; copies of telegrams received at GSA relocation site, July 20, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 part 7C,” RG 64. 23. “6-Day Air Raid Test Opens Today,” WP, July 20, 1956, sec. A, pp. 1–2; “U.S. Cities ‘Razed’ in Atomic Drill” and “ ‘Business-as-Usual’ Attitude Greets A-Drill,” WP, July 21, 1956, sec. A, pp. 1, 8; “Operation Alert 1956,” report prepared for the FCDA by the Stanford Research Institute, March 1, 1956, box 2, binder “Operation Alert 1956,” RG 396, Operations and Exercise File, 1953–61; “General Instructions for Operation Alert 1956,” April 2, 1956, box 7, folder “Cabinet Meeting of April 6, 1956,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 24. ODM, “Operation Alert 1956 Final News Roundup,” July 25, 1956, box 10, folder “Operation Alert 1956 General,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927; ODM, “Briefing for Operation Alert 1956 (Revised),” box 3, folder “OPAL 1955 (2)”; Flemming to Eisenhower, July 21, 1956, folder “OPAL 1956 (4),” EAS; “Agencies to Be Served by Mail Messenger” and “Motor Transport Service for Operation Alert 1956,” June 29, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7,” RG 64. 25. GSA Relocation Officer to participants, July 13, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7 (General)”; Code Word List for OPAL 1956, folder “056-129 Part 7C,” RG 64. 26. GSA Relocation Officer to Wayne Grover, August 13, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7B”; “Facts Bearing on Success of Communications System in the Exercise,” undated, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7C”; GSA News, “Special Edition Operation Alert 1956”; Federal Register, July 22 and 25, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7 (General),” RG 64. 27. GSA News, “Special Edition”; BAS 9, no. 7 (September 1953): 267; exercise news copy, July 22, 1956, box 116, folder “056-129 Part 7C”; Wayne Grover to Notes 229

the Director, Office of Management, May 10, 1956, folder “056-129 Part 2 Essential Records,” RG 64. 28. Deputy Archivist to Deputy Commissioner, Public Buildings Service, August 29, 1957, box 2, folder “Part II,” RG 64, Office of the Archivist, Wayne C. Grover Day File. 29. “Operation Alert 1956,” July 24, 1956, box 7, folder “Cabinet Meeting of July 25, 1956,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series; Rabb to Flemming, July 31, 1956, 5; Department of Defense, “Final Evaluation Report for Operation Alert 1956,” undated, box 3, folder “Final Evaluation Report for OPAL 1956 (1),” EAS; Report by the Joint Strategic Plans Committee to the JCS, July 24, 1956, box 35, folder “CCS354.2 U.S. (7-20-56) Sec. 2,” RG 218, Geographic File, 1954–56. 30. Eisenhower diary entry, January 23, 1956, box 12, folder “January 1956 Diary,” Whitman File, Diary Series. 31. Rabb to Flemming, July 31, 1956, 2; Flemming to Heads of Executive Departments, April 2, 1956, box 7, folder “Cabinet Meeting of April 6, 1956,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series, 3; untitled report, circa July 1956, box 1, folder “Current Matters,” EAS, 4. 32. Rabb to Flemming, July 31, 1956, 6–10. See also Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 150–1. 33. Beach to Adams, July 30, 1956, box 3, folder “OPAL 1956(4)”; Adams to Gray, March 6, 1957, box 2, folder “EP—Emergency Action Papers (1),” EAS; Author telephone interview with Roemer McPhee, August 25, 2003. 34. ODM, Mobilization Plan C, June 1, 1957, box 5, folder “Mobilization Plans (4),” White House Office, Office of the Staff Secretary, Arthur Minnich Series, DDEL; Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, Federal Emergency Plan D-Minus, June 1959, box 2, folder “Fed. Emergency Plans (1),” EAS. 35. The two quoted items come from the NSC memorandum of discussion, July 12, 1957, box 9, folder “330th Meeting of NSC,” Whitman File, NSC Series, 1, 4. The other information comes from “Operation Alert, 1957” and attachments, January 28, 1957, box 8, folder “Cabinet Meeting of February 1, 1957”; “Operation Alert, 1957” and attachments, May 20, 1957, box 9, folder “Cabinet Meeting of May 24, 1957”; “Exercise Record of Action,” June 21, 1957; “Briefing Guides for Operation Alert,” box 9, folder “Cabinet Meeting of June 21, 1957,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series; teletype, July 15, 1957, box 5, folder “OPAL 1957 (bomb damage assessment) (3),” EAS; Secretary of Defense to the Secretaries of the Military Departments et al., May 8, 1957, box 3, folder “Department of Defense,” RG 396, Operations and Exercise Files, 1953–61. 36. Eisenhower to Koop, March 21, 1955; Koop to Eisenhower, April 5, 1955, box 1, folder “Emergency Designees (1),” EAS. In 1958, Eisenhower asked other prominent private citizens to head up some of the emergency agencies. 37. Evan Aurand to White House Emergency Staff, July 3, 1957, box 4, folder “OPAL 1957(5)”; teletype, July 17, 1957, box 5, folder “OPAL 1957 (bomb damage assessment) (3)”; memorandum for Goodpaster, July 19, 1957, box 4, folder “OPAL 1957(7),” EAS; Bradley Patterson to Goodpaster, June 13, 1957, box 9, folder “Cabinet Meeting of June 17, 1957,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 38. Teletype, July 15, 1957, box 4, folder “OPAL 1957 (messages) (3)”; teletype, July 19, 1957, box 5, folder “OPAL 1957 (bomb damage assessment) (1),” EAS. 39. The quotes come from L. Arthur Minnich’s paraphrasing of the President. See Minutes of Cabinet Meeting, July 19, 1957, box 9, folder “Special Cabinet 230 Notes

Meeting on Operation Alert—July 19, 1957,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. Unsigned notes on White House stationery suggest the President’s actual words were harsher than those recorded. According to these notes, the President said, “Martial law—tell people what to do and shoot them if they don’t—have to do it.” Also: “Won’t be any lawyers—most of em [sic] will be in big cities and be killed.” Box 4, folder “Operation Alert 1957 (7),” EAS. 40. Author interview with General Andrew J. Goodpaster (Ret.), July 15, 2003, Washington, D.C. 41. Eisenhower to the Naval Aide, December 13, 1957, box 1, folder “EAP— Correspondence (4)”; withdrawal sheet, box 1, folder “Emergency Action Documents—Copies of Documents Ready for President’s Approval”; Goodpaster to ODM Director, December 4, 1957, box 2, folder “EP-Emergency Action Papers (1),” EAS; Cabinet Record of Action, June 23, 1958, box 11, folder “Cabinet Meeting of June 13, 1958” and Cabinet Action Status Report, October 3, 1958, box 12, folder “Cabinet Meeting of October 9, 1958,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series; Robert Cutler to Gray, June 9, 1958, box 10, folder “Emergency Action Documents [1958–59],” White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, Executive Secretary’s Subject File Series, DDEL. 42. “Exercise Document Operation Alert 1958,” undated, box 11, folder “Cabinet Meeting of July 7, 1958,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 43. ODM Telecommunications Area, “Operation Alert 1958—Evacuation and Capability Estimate,” June 13, 1958, box 12, folder “Evaluations OPAL 1958 Reports,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 44. “Suggested Report to the Cabinet,” September 29, 1958, box 12, folder “Cabinet Meeting of September 26, 1958,” 3; “Briefing of President,” July 7, 1958, box 11, folder “Cabinet Meeting of July 7, 1958”; “Report by Operation Alert Seminar Groups on Operational Readiness, Security, and Emergency Information,” undated, box 12, folder “Cabinet Meeting of October 9, 1958,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 45. Goodpaster memorandum, August 7, 1958, box 21, folder “Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization (1),” SSAS; Eisenhower to Hoegh, August 25, 1958; Robert Gray to Eisenhower, September 24, 1958, box 12, folder “Cabinet Meeting of September 26, 1958,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 46. S. Rept. 1717, 85th Cong., 2nd sess., June 17, 1958, Senate Reports vol. 12062. 47. The following departments or agencies were asked to assign cadres to Mount Weather: Agriculture, Budget, Commerce, GSA, HEW, Housing and Home Finance Agency, Interior, Labor, Postal Service, Treasury, and Veterans Administration. In addition, the AEC, Small Business Administration, Defense, Federal Reserve Board, Justice, and State were asked to assign liaisons to Mount Weather. See Robert Gray to Goodpaster, August 6, 1958, box 2, folder “Emergency Procedures—EAPS (2),” EAS; Hoegh to Heads of Departments and Agencies, September 2, 1958, box 12, folder “Federal Emergency Relocation Plan [April 1959–September 1960](2),” SSAS. 48. Cabinet Record of Action, September 29, 1958, box 7, folder “Cabinet Meeting of June 21, 1956,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. 49. “Discussion of Operation Alert 1958,” October 9, 1958; Cabinet Record of Action, October 25, 1958; “Approved Recommendations Growing Out of Operation Alert, 1958,” October 31, 1958, box 12, folder “Cabinet Meeting of October 9, 1958,” Whitman File, Cabinet Series. In addition to the Regional Notes 231

Arc, the ODM created the Federal Executive Reserve, “composed of leading persons from the industrial, educational, and financial worlds” who “represent a substantial standby capability for augmenting the executive resources of Government.” These individuals were given security clearances. In the spring of 1959, five teams of “reservists” received tours of Mount Weather. The State Department brought in 45 people; and the Interior Department, 27. Even the Housing and Home Finance Agency had a team. Hoegh to Goodpaster, June 18, 1959, box 21, folder “Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization (2),” SSAS. 50. Lewis Berry to Director of Administration, September 23, 1960, box 11, folder “Shelters and Vulnerability Reductions 2-1,” RG 396, Selected OCDM Central Files, 1959–60 (hereafter Central Files). 51. William Durkee to Buford Ellington, August 23, 1965, box 1, folder “Federal Regional Centers,” RG 396, Assistant Director’s Subject Files, 1961–65. 52. Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 538; “A New Civil Defense Center,” WS, August 6, 1971; “Civil Defense Stands by in Underground Olney Center,” The Sentinel, October 21, 1971, clippings, MCHS. 53. “Review of Federal Relocation Arc,” November 5, 1958, box 3, untitled binder, RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A-03; Record of Action, Director’s Staff Meeting, December 11, 1958, box 1, folder “Committees Director’s Staff (A-G),” RG 396, OCDM National HQ Central Files, 1958–61 (hereafter National HQ Files). 54. “Relocation Site Activities, Calendar Year, 1959,” February 29, 1960, box 1, folder “Confidential—Use of Buildings”; Joe Walstrom memorandum, May 16, 1961, box 4, folder “Site Hardening,” RG 59; Dean Poblens to Jack Scott, November 23, 1959, box 4, folder “High Point Classified Location”; John J. O’Neill to Eugene J. Quindlen, September 14, 1959, box 4, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans”; “Summary of Emergency Readiness Status of Federal Agency Headquarters,” December 31, 1960, box 21, folder “Agency Readiness Summaries as of 12-31-60,” RG 396, National HQ Files. 55. Hoegh, September 2, 1958. 56. Hoegh to Goodpaster, September 23, 1959, box 5, folder “White House Gen. Goodpaster,” RG 396, National HQ Files. 57. “Requirement for Special Resource Data at the Classified Location,” March 24, 1960, box 5, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans 1-8,” RG 396, Central Files; OEP, “Interim Standing Operating Procedures for Emergency Use of the Classified Location,” September 14, 1962; Robert Phillips to J.M. Chambers, November 29, 1962, box 6, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03. 58. William Y. Elliott to Mr. Henderson, April 10, 1959, box 1, folder “Background Information on V.R. Program,” RG 59. 59. In March 1960, the JCS ordered the establishment of a Department of Defense Damage Assessment Center at Site R. See Memoranda for the Chief, Defense Atomic Support Agency, March 21, 1960, and January 13, 1961, box 27, folders “3181 (17 March 1959) Gp. 3” and “Gp. 4,” RG 218, CDF 1959. 60. Walstrom, “Emergency Relocation: The Alternate Joint Communications Center,” July 22, 1960, box 1, folder “Background Information on V.R. Program,” RG 59; “Briefing Sheet for the Chairman, JCS,” April 14, 1959, box 27, “folder 3181 (4 March 1959)”; Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, September 17, 1959, box 27, folder “3181 (4 September 1959)”; 232 Notes

Memorandum for the Secretary of the Army, May 13, 1959, box 27, folder “3181 (17 March 1959)”; Arleigh Burke to the Secretary of Defense, September 21, 1959, box 22, folder “3180 (23 March 1959),” RG 218, CDF 1959. 61. Gates to the Chairman of the JCS, October 5, 1960; Chairman of the JCS to Gates, September 9, 1960; “Concept for the Use of the Alternate Joint Communications Center,” Briefing Sheet for the Chairman of the JCS, December 28, 1960, box 17, folder “3180 (9 May 1960),” RG 218, CDF 1960; Walstrom memorandum, July 22, 1960. 62. Staff Notes no. 4, August 1, 1956, box 24, White House Office, Staff Research Group Records, 1956–61, DDEL, 3; J. Patrick Coyne to Robert Cutler, January 3, 1958; “Readiness Status of Selected Relocation Sites,” December 30, 1957, box 7, folder “[Emergency Governmental Relocation Sites][1954–58],” NSC Briefing Notes; White House Army Signal Agency to AEC et al., July 29, 1958, box 2, folder “Emergency Procedures—EAPs (2)”; Aurand to Goodpaster, October 17, 1960, box 2, folder “Emergency Procedure—General (5),” EAS; Bill Gulley with Mary Ellen Reese, Breaking Cover (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), 146–50. 63. Ted Gup, “The Ultimate Congressional Hideaway,” WP Sunday Magazine, May 31, 1992; Thomas Mallon, “Mr. Smith Goes Underground,” American Heritage 51, no. 5 (September 2000): 60–8; Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 214. 64. Mallon, “Mr. Smith”; Mary Louise Ramsey to J. George Stewart, April 21, 1955, AOC; Goodpaster memorandum, May 1955, box 8, folder “White House Relocation Site (4),” EAS; Flemming to Sherman Adams, June 30, 1955, box 16, folder “Civil Defense (1),” CF. 65. As reported in “Notes for Mr. Richardson,” January 20, 1960, box 5, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans,” RG 396, Central Files. 66. T. Perry Lippitt to Val Peterson, February 16, 1954; “Emergency Plan Supreme Court Building,” box 2, folder “Supreme Court CD Organization,” RG 396, Records Relating to the U.S. Capitol, Senate, and House Protection Plans, 1951–54; James Browning to Earl Warren, November 19, 1959; John Davis to Warren, April 29, 1966; Warren to Davis, April 29, 1966, box 414, folder “Court-Subject File-Marshal Civil Defense,” Papers of Earl Warren, LOC, Manuscript Division.

10 The Satchel Has Been Passed . . . 1. Quoted in Circular Memorandum to Regional and Division Engineers, Bureau of Public Roads, November 29, 1961, box 2, folder “Civil Defense Misc.,” Papers of Leonard J. Dow, LOC, Manuscript Division. 2. “Inaugural Address,” January 20, 1961, PPP: John F. Kennedy, 1961, 1. 3. David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Fawcett Crest Books, 1972), 50–81. 4. For Rostow’s statement, see Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 36. 5. Goodpaster memorandum, January 25, 1961, box 1, folder “Memos— re Change of Administration (4),” Whitman File, Presidential Transition Series. For Eisenhower’s predelegation for the use of nuclear weapons, see William Burr, Notes 233

ed., “First Declassification of Eisenhower’s Instructions to Commanders Predelegating Nuclear Weapons Use, 1959–1960,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 45, May 18, 2001, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB45/Ͼ. 6. “Kennedy Complains to Truman on Lack of Civil Defense Plan,” Washington Times-Herald, October 10, 1949, p. 1; Kennedy to Truman, October 8, 1949, box 1, folder “C.D., General,” RG 304, Records Relating to Civil Defense, 1949–53. 7. Douglass Cater, “The Politics of Civil Defense,” The Reporter 25, no. 4 (September 14, 1961): 32–4; Thomas J. Kerr, Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a Holocaust? (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1983), 116–19. 8. Kerr, Civil, 118–19; “Special Message to the Congress,” May 25, 1961 and “Radio and Television Report to the American People,” July 25, 1961, PPP, 402, 533–40. 9. For the first strike planning, see Fred Kaplan, “JFK’s First-Strike Plan,” The Atlantic Monthly 288, no. 3 (October 2001): 81–6; William Burr, ed., “First Strike Options and the Berlin Crisis, September 1961,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 56, September 25, 2001, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB56/Ͼ. For an overview of U.S. nuclear strategy, see David Alan Rosenberg, “Constraining Overkill: Contending Approaches to Nuclear Strategy, 1955–1965,” Seminar 9 (1994), Colloquium on Contemporary History, Naval Historical Center, accessed June 23, 2005 at Ͻhttp://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9b. htmlϾ. For public fears, see Walter Karp, “When Bunkers Last in the Backyard Bloom’d,” American Heritage 31, no. 2 (February/March 1980): 84–93; Allan M. Winkler, Life under a Cloud: American Anxiety about the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; reprint, Urbana: University of Illinois Press), 127–30. 10. Kerr, Civil Defense, 105, 120–6; Harry B. Yoshpe, Our Missing Shield: The U.S. Civil Defense Program in Historical Perspective (Washington, D.C.: FEMA, 1981), 346–50; Wallace Bowers memorandum, September 15, 1961, AOC. 11. Senate Committee on Government Operations, Civil Defense in the District of Columbia, Hearing before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigation of the Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess., April 27, 1959. 12. DCD, Bulletin no. 8, Series 1959, Office of Civil Defense Memoranda Orders, Washingtoniana; Robert McLaughlin to Holifield, February 19, 1960, box 228, folder 4-100, RG 351, BOC; Donald Smith, “Oh, So That’s Whatever Happened to Civil Defense,” WS Sunday Magazine, January 10, 1971. 13. DCD Newsletters for October 1961, June–July 1962, and October 1962, AOC; Kathleen Perkins to Wilbur Lawyer, July 26, 1960, box 228, folder 4-104, RG 351, BOC; Stephanie Brown, “In the Event of a National Emergency: Marjorie Merriweather Post’s Fallout Shelters,” paper delivered at “Washington Builds for War: Defense, the Homefront, and Security in the Capital Region,” Sixth Biennial Symposium on the Historic Development of Metropolitan Washington, D.C., March 5, 2005, Washington, D.C. 14. DCD, “Instructions to Shelter Occupants for Emergency Use of Shelters,” Pamphlet File, folder “Civil Defense,” HSW; H.C. Fellows to the President of the Federation of Citizens Associations, December 14, 1961, box 3, folder 77, FCA. 15. Benjamin Taylor to Marvin Blumberg, May 12, 1961, box 19, folder “Shelters & Vulnerability Reduction May–June 1961,” RG 396, OCDM National HQ Central Files, 1958–61 (hereafter National HQ Files). 234 Notes

16. “Communications Center Here to Be Underground,” November 1, 1962, clip- ping, MCHS. 17. Editorial, Fairfax City Times, November 8, 1961, 4. 18. Rose, One Nation, 78–112; Winkler, Life Under, 129–31; Kerr, Civil Defense, 122–9; Yoshpe, Our Missing, 15–6; Inez Robb, “Please—No Civil Defense Yak,” Raleigh (N.C.) Times, September 3, 1962, clipping in box 2, folder “Civil Defense Notes,” Dow Papers. 19. DCD Newsletter, May 1962, AOC; “CD Signal’s Automatic Evacuation Meaning Is Dropped,” WP, May 4, 1962, sec. A, p. 8. 20. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 188–9, 217, 242. 21. Fursenko, One Hell, 188–9 (the quote is on 189); “Chronologies of the Crisis,” compiled for Laurence Chang and Peter Kornbluh, eds., The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: A National Security Archive Documents Reader (New York: The New Press, 1992), accessed June 23, 2005 at the National Security Archive Ͻhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/cuba_mis_cri/chron.htm.Ͼ. 22. “Chronologies of the Crisis”; Ernest R. May and Philip D. Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House during the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997), 45–76, 189–203. 23. Furensko, One Hell, 242–3; “Chronologies of the Crisis”; “Radio and Television Report to the American People,” October 22, 1962, PPP: John F. Kennedy, 1962, 806–9. 24. “Civil Defense Queries Rise in D.C. Area,” WP, October 24, 1962, sec. A, p. 4; “103 Shelters Licensed, Five Are Ready for Use,” WP, October 26, 1962, sec. A, p. 14; “Shelter Sites Grow, 103 Certified here,” WP, October 27, 1962, sec. A, p. 1. 25. DCD Newsletter, November 1962, AOC. 26. “Stores in Capital Find No Panic,” NYT, October 26, 1962, p. 18. 27. May, Kennedy Tapes, 338–40; McCone memorandum, October 23, 1962, FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. XI, 173–4. 28. McDermott to Shepard, October 24, 1962, box 2, folder “Emergency Planning,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 29. May, Kennedy Tapes, 347–55. 30. McDermott to Leo Bourassa, October 27, 1962, box 3, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03; Alice L. George, Awaiting Armageddon: How Americans Faced the Cuban Missile Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 48–51. 31. McDermott to Sen. Spessard Holland and attachment, September 28, 1962; “Concept of Operations for the White House Emergency Information Program,” October 4, 1962; McDermott to Edward R. Murrow, October 17, 1962; Robert Philips to J.M. Chambers, October 22, 1962; Chambers to Salinger, October 25, 1962; Phillips to McDermott, October 25, 1962; “Recent Developments White House Emergency Information Program,” April 26, 1963, box 4, folder “White House Information 1961–62,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. For the Kennedy administration’s handling of the media during the crisis, see George, Awaiting, 87–114. 32. “Chronologies of the Crisis.” By October 26, 24 of the SS-4s were operational. See Furensko, One Hell, 266. 33. Aurand to Wilton B. Persons, November 11, 1960, box 2, folder “Turnover— Memos for Records,” Whitman File, Presidential Transition Series; “Helicopter Notes 235

Annex to White House Emergency Plan,” box 9, folder “White House Emergency Plan (1),” EAS; “Department of Defense Joint Emergency Evacuation plan (Short title: JEEP),” Appendix 1 to Annex E, December 23, 1961, accessed June 23, 2005 at Albert LaFrance, “A Secret Landscape: The Cold War Infrastructure of the Nation’s Capital Region” Ͻhttp://coldwar-c4i.net/Ͼ. 34. Memorandum, October 26, 1962, box 414, folder “Court—Subject File— Marshal Civil Defense,” Papers of Earl Warren, LOC, Manuscript Division; George, Awaiting, 51–2; Ed Cray, Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 366–7, 399–400. 35. DCD, “Report on Operation Alert 1959,” May 18, 1959, box 6, folder “III (Reports)—Evaluations—Phase 1,” RG 396, Operations and Exercise Files, 1953–61, 5; DCD Newsletter, June–July 1962, AOC; “Just How Ready Is Washington for a Nuclear Attack?” WS, November 11, 1962, sec. C, p. 1. 36. “Chronologies of the Crisis”; Fursenko, One Hell, 271–3. For transcripts of White House meetings on October 27, see May, Kennedy Tapes, 492–629. 37. Kevin Sullivan, “40 Years after Missile Crisis, Players Swap Stories in Cuba,” WP, October 13, 2002, sec. A, p. 28. 38. Robert L. O’Connell, “The Cuban Missile Crisis: Second Holocaust,” in Robert Cowley, ed., What Ifs? of American History: Eminent Historians Imagine What Might Have Been (New York: Berkley Books, 2003), 251–72. 39. For more on the whereabouts of legislators during the crisis, see Robert C. Albright, “Politics Brings Varied Views of Cuban Actions,” WP, October 27, 1962, sec. A, p. 2; “Capital Praises Kennedy’s Stand,” NYT, October 29, 1962; Richard L. Lyons and Julius Duscha, “Politicians See No Clear Picture of Cuba Action’s Effect on Vote,” WP, October 30, 1962, sec. A, p. 1. For evacuation plans for Cabinet officials, see William Y. Elliott to Gordon Gray, October 14, 1960; Elliott to the Secretary of State, March 19, 1959, box 1, folder “Background Information on V.R. Program,” RG 59, 8. 40. McDermott to Hodges, November 9, 1962, box 6, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03. 41. George, Awaiting, 52; E.L. Keenan, “Comments on Draft Emergency Operations Order,” October 2, 1959, box 6, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans,” RG 396, National HQ Files; Hubert R. Gallagher to Assistant Director for Plans and Operations, March 7, 1960, box 5, folder “Federal, State & Local Plans 1–8,” RG 396, Selected OCDM Central Files, 1959–60; G. Lyle Belsley, “Administrative Readiness Deficiencies,” November 6, 1962, box 2, folder “Emergency Planning,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 42. Unsigned memorandum for files, October 16, 1962, box 4, folder “White House Information 1961–62,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 64A927. 43. Ralph Thompson to the General Counsel, January 25, 1961, box 17, folder “Relationships I-K,” RG 396, National HQ Files, 2; Charles Primoff memoran- dum, April 10, 1970, box 40, folder “Government Preparedness 1969–72,” RG 396, Subject Files. 44. In 1962, the Soviet Union had 56 ICBMs, 104 SLBMs, and 263 strategic nuclear warheads deliverable by bombers. Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 248. 236 Notes

Postscript 1. Hampden-Sydney College historian to Christopher Bright, May 29, 2004. 2. Henry H. Ford to Mr. Crockett, February 14, 1963, box 1, folder “Front Royal”; W. Trone to Mr. Porter, November 18, 1963, box 2, folder “EP8 Vital Records Program—Discontinuance,” RG 59. 3. Robert Y. Phillips to Edward McDermott, October 10, 1963, box 6, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03; Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 213. 4. A. Weatherbee to Bernard Boutin, May 24, 1963, and Edward R. Murrow to Edward McDermott, August 30, 1963, box 6, folder “Special Facilities Branch,” RG 396, Declassified P-95 Records, Accession 66A03; author phone interview with the Archivist of the Airlie Foundation, June 30, 2005. 5. Bill Gulley with Mary Ellen Reese, Breaking Cover (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), 35–8. For more on the Kennedy fallout shelter, see Tom Vanderbilt, Survival City: Adventures among the Ruins of Atomic America (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002), 141–4. 6. Albert LaFrance, “A Secret Landscape: The Cold War Infrastructure of the Nation’s Capital Region,” accessed June 28, 2005 at Ͻhttp://coldwar- c4i.net/index.htmlϾ. 7. Edward Zuckerman, The Day after World War III (New York: Viking, 1984), 62–6; “America’s Doomsday Project,” U.S. News & World Report 107, no. 6 (August 7, 1989): 26–8. Zuckerman’s book remains the best full-length study of continuity of government preparations during the 1970s. For the Reagan admin- istration’s continuity preparations, see James Mann, “The Armageddon Plan,” The Atlantic Monthly 293, no. 2 (March 2004): 71–4. 8. DCD, “Government of the District of Columbia, Community Shelter Plan Study for Washington, D.C.,” vol. I, June 1965, Washingtoniana; DCD, “Shelter Provision Information,” February 6, 1963, AOC. 9. Northern Virginia Regional Planning Commission, “Community Shelter Program,” September 1968, Fairfax City Regional Public Library, Virginia Room. 10. J. George Stewart to Lyndon Johnson and John W. McCormack, July 24, 1963; R. Stuart Hummel to T. Perry Lippitt, July 13, 1964; “Capitol Hill Emergency Self-Protection Plan,” July 1, 1968, AOC, 2, 16. 11. “Civil Defense Office Is Still with Us, Changed to Meet Peaceful Disaster,” Montgomery Sentinel, April 6, 1967, clipping, MCHS. 12. Donald Smith, “Oh, So That’s Whatever Happened to Civil Defense,” WS Sunday Magazine, January 10, 1971. 13. Paul Hodge, “Civil Defense Studies Plan for Evacuation of Northern Virginia,” WP, January 20, 1977; Barbara Halliday, “ ‘The Ultimate Disaster’: In Nuclear Attack, Alexandrians Would Head for the Hills,” Fairfax Journal, June 30, 1978, sec. A, p. 2. 14. Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission, Clarksburg Master Plan and Hyattstown Special Study Area, June 1994, 1, 20–1. 15. In Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), Margaret Pugh O’Mara explains how Cold War priorities and politics gave rise to high-tech, Notes 237

university-centered communities or areas in California’s Silicon Valley, Atlanta, and Philadelphia. 16. Paul E. Ceruzzi, “Operations Research, Military Contracting, and the Growth of Tysons Corner, Virginia, 1945–1970,” paper delivered at “Washington Builds for War: Defense, the Homefront, and Security in the Capital Region,” Sixth Biennial Symposium on the Historic Development of Metropolitan Washington, D.C., March 5, 2005, College Park, Md. 17. Kermit Parsons, “Shaping the Regional City: 1950–1990: The Plans of Tracy Augur and Clarence Stein for Dispersing Federal Workers from Washington, D.C.,” Proceedings of the Third National Conference on American Planning History (Hilliard, Ohio: The Society for American City and Regional Planning History, 1990): 689. 18. Ibid., 684. 19. See chapters 6 and 9. 20. Schwartz, Atomic Audit, 213. 21. Vanderbilt, Survival City, 139. Throughout his book, Vanderbilt provides fasci- nating descriptions and analysis of missile silos, atomic test sites, and other “ruins of the atomic age.” 22. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, The 9/11 Report (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2004), 61; Dan Balz and Bob Woodward, “America’s Chaotic Road to War,” WP, January 27, 2002, sec. A, p. 1; “America under Attack,” Camera Works, September 13, 2001 and “Was Washington Prepared?,” news graphic, WP, September 17, 2001, accessed September 20, 2001 at Ͻhttp://www.washingtonpost.comϾ. 23. Laura Meckler, “Emergency Plan Gets Full Tryout,” Tulsa (Kans.) World, September 12, 2001, 7. 24. Paul Bedard, “Things that Go Bump in the Night at Cheney’s Cave,” White House Weekly, December 4, 2001. 25. The 9/11 Report, 61, 465–6; Howard Kurtz, “ ‘Armageddon’ Plan Was Put into Action on 9/11, Clarke Says,” WP, April 7, 2004, sec. A, p. 29. 26. Zuckerman, The Day After, 219–24. 27. Barton Gellman and Susan Schmidt, “Shadow Government Is at Work in Secret,” WP, March 1, 2002, sec. A, p. 1. 28. Steve Twomey et al., “District Unprepared to Cope with Attack,” WP, September 17, 2001, sec. A, p. 1; Balz, “America’s Chaotic”; Dana Milbank, “Cheney Authorized Shooting Down Planes,” WP, June 18, 2004, sec. A, p. 1. 29. The Continuity of Government Commission, Preserving Our Institutions: The Continuity of Congress (May 2003), 14. 30. Carol D. Leonnig and Steve Twomey, “D.C. Developing New Emergency Plans in Response to Last Week’s Breakdown,” WP, September 18, 2001, sec. B, p. 1; “D.C.’s Trouble in the House,” WP, September 25, 2001, sec. A, p. 22; Spencer S. Hsu, “Sept. 11 Chaos Prompts Exit Plan,” WP, August 17, 2002, sec. A, p. 1; “Preparedness: D.C. Emergency Management Agency,” online discussion July 18, 2002, accessed August 17, 2002 at WP Ͻhttp://washingtonpost. comϾ. 31. David Snyder, “Ready for This?,” WP, September 18, 2005, sec. B, p. 1; Sari Horwitz and Christian Davenport, “Terrorism Could Hurl D.C. Area into Turmoil,” WP, September 11, 2005, sec. A, p. 1. 32. DEMA, Family Emergency Preparedness Guide, evacuation map, accessed July 3, 2005 at Ͻhttp://dcema.dc.govϾ; “Terrorism Could Hurl.” 238 Notes

33. Government of the District of Columbia, District Response Plan, The Basic Plan, 7–9. For an example of the lack of precise planning links, see Emergency Support Function #1: Transportation, 10 and 15, April 4, 2002, accessed July 3, 2005 at Ͻhttp://dcema.dc.govϾ. 34. Continuity Commission, Preserving, ii. 35. “NSC 5802/1,” February 19, 1958 (revised May 15, 1958), box 23, folder “Continental Defense, 1957–61(1),” Disaster File, 9. 36. See chapter 7. Index

9/11 attacks, 186–7 support of Alert America, 79 transfer of atomic weapons, 156 Acheson, Dean, 47–9, 66 work on White House shelter, 70, 72 Agriculture Department atomic weapons Beltsville, Md., research station, 35, delivery systems for, 9–10 62, 95 effects described, 9 continuity of, 95, 106, 160, 183 AT&T, 65, 154, 156, 182 Front Royal, Va., station, 94, 183 see also Bell System participation in exercises, 109, 128, 157 attack warning Air Force signals see under Warning Red; Air Defense Command, 82, 86 Warning Yellow Air Defense Control Centers, 112–14 systems, 7–8, 85, 111–13, 149–50, 154 Air Defense Forces, 114, 149–50, 154 time of, 6, 10, 47, 99, 105, 121–3, Continental Air Defense Command 142, 173, 175 (CONAD), 111, 149 see also Distant Early Warning Line; Filter Centers, 82, 86 Washington, D.C., attack need for ground observers, 82 warning system of Operation Skywatch, 83–6 Augur, Tracy Alert America see under Federal Civil advocacy of dispersal, 28–30, 60 Defense Administration background of, 28–9 Alternate Joint Communications Center dispersal plans for metropolitan see Site R Washington, D.C., 32–43, American Heritage Foundation, 79 104–5, 147 Anacostia job with Office of Defense Naval Air Station at, 11, 113, 133 Mobilization, 100 neighborhood of, 47, 138 job as Urban Planning Officer, 30, 63 River, 11, 26, 30, 35, 54, 84, 122, 177 see also dispersal Andrews Air Force Base, 1, 34, 66, 85, 184 ballistic missiles, 6, 10, 132, 135–6, Architect of the Capitol, 117, 167, 184 142, 166, 175, 182, 235 n.44 Arctic Circle, 10, 111 see also Nike antiaircraft missiles Arlington County, Va., 39, 151, 195 n.5 Bartholomew, Harland, 143 Army Corps of Engineers, 45–6, 64, 70, Bascom, Willard, 114–15, 130, 133, 135 72–3, 91, 102, 108, 171 Beach, Edward, 98, 113–15, 126, Army Signal Corps, 65, 108, 127 131–3, 150, 159, 162 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Beers, Barnet, 123 discovery of Soviet bomb tests, 35, 99 Bell and Light system, 112–13, 116–17, dispersal to Germantown, Md., 5–6, 151, 168 101–3, 144, 185 Bell System, 65, 151 imagined attack on Washington, see also AT&T D.C., 36 Berlin Crisis, 171–2 relocation site of, 155 Berryville, Va., 5, 106, 151 240 Index

Bloom, Nicholas Dagen, 147 gender roles and, 53–4, 80 Board of Commissioners lack of realism in planning, 8, 24, explained, 3–4, 45 117–21, 129–30, 137, 142 request for help from FCDA, 56–7 military’s views of, 22, 170–1 support for civil defense, 4, 46, 49, in Montgomery County, Md., 93, 54, 79, 122 119–20, 128–9, 139–42, 173, during World War II, 14, 16 178, 184 see also Washington, D.C., need for after Soviet atomic test, 35–6 government of in northern Virginia, 120–2, 128, Boyer, Paul, 89 154, 184–5, 175, 180 Brickner, Kenneth, 114–15, 133 overview of, 5 Bull, Harold R., 22 place of in national security state, 56, Bureau of the Budget 92–3, 131 decentralization and, 31, 62 post-World War II planning for, 21–4 dispersal and, 26, 31, 33, 37–8, 49, in Prince Georges County, Md., 48, 61, 144 119–20, 122, 178, 180 hostility toward Office of Civilian shift from evacuation to shelters, 135–7 Defense, 14 states and cities seek guidance for, relocation site of, 165–6 55–6, 93, 138, 141–2, 171 Bureau of Yards and Docks see under Navy struggle to keep pace with weapons’ Bush, George W., 186–7 improvements, 6, 10, 22, 98–9, Bush, Vannevar, 119 119–20, 122–3, 135, 142, 173 in Washington, D.C. see D.C. Office Caldwell, Millard, 56–7, 90–2, 171 of Civil Defense Camp David during World War II, 12–16 communication system of, 155–6, 161 see also fallout shelters; Federal Civil as presidential relocation site, 126–7, Defense Administration; see 166, 170, 183 under Congress as presidential retreat, 69 Clay, Lucius, 1, 25 Capital Beltway, 115, 121, 185 Coast and Geodetic Survey, 109, Castro, Fidel, 174, 179 196 n.16 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Cold War, origins of, 18–19 continuity of, 133, 155, 196 n.16 Columbia, Md., 6, 147, 185 creation of, 19–21 Commerce Department, 109, 129, 155 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 176–7 communism, 18–20, 29, 137, 145, 174 move to Langley, Va., 103–5 see also Soviet Union opposition to dispersal, 103, 143–4 Conelrad, 112–15, 151, 154–6 participation in exercises, 109 Congress proposed dispersal of, 50, 101 on 9/11, 186–7 relocation site of, 96 civil defense in Capitol buildings and, UFO scare and, 85 117–18, 172, 184 Chaney, Mayris, 13–14 continuity of, 6–7, 31, 35, 127, 160, Charters of Freedom, 158 162, 167–8, 177 Chavez, Dennis, 59–60 creation of D.C. Office of Civil Cincinnati, Ohio, 29–30 Defense, 45–7, 49 Civil Air Defense Patrol, 5, 55, 121 creation of FCDA, 56 civil defense criticisms of Office of Civilian apathy toward, 54, 87–93, 173 Defense, 13–14 debate over evacuation, 122–4 during Cuban Missile Crisis, 175, exercises see under individual names 180–1 failure of, 7–8, 57, 87, 92–3, 137–8, failure to participate in exercises, 121, 141–2 129, 156 Index 241

fallout shelters and, 137, 171–3 decentralization, 24–5, 31, 50, 59, governance of Washington, D.C., 61–3, 101 3, 45 Declaration of Independence hostility toward dispersal, 4, 50–1, protection of, 158 60–3, 100, 144, 147 Defense Department reduction of budget of D.C. Office of authorization to use nuclear weapons, Civil Defense, 77, 86–7, 93, 135 156, 170 reduction of budget of FCDA, 57, 92 civil defense and, 123, 131, 170–1 reduction of budget for Federal continuity of, 63–4, 66–8, 177 Relocation Arc, 164, 166 creation of, 19–20 relocation site of, 7, 129, 167–8, Crisis Relocation Planning of, 184–5 180, 185 evacuation plans of, 64, 67, 132–4 view of civil defense as state and local see also Joint Emergency responsibility, 120 Evacuation Plan Constitution, The Office of the Secretary of Defense, Article I, Section 2, 167–8, 189 63, 67, 132–33, 158, 166 protection of, 158 opposition to dispersal, 38, 100, 143 Continental Air Defense Command participation in exercises, 124–5, 129, (CONAD) see under Air Force 158 continuity of government proposed dispersal of, 31, 37–8, 42, after 9/11, 186–9 143 defined, 2, 4 relocation sites of, 63–8, 155, 166 see as deterrent, 98 also Fort Ritchie, Md.; Raven difficulties of, 105, 109, 150 Rock Mountain; Site R emphasis on executive branch, 7, 165–8 Dennison, Robert, 69, 71, 73, 75 of executive departments and Departmental Auditorium, 77, 90, 175 agencies, see under individual Detroit, Mich., 28–9, 60 names dispersal of judicial branch, 7, 168, 177–8 antecedents of, 28 of legislative branch see under Congress Congressional hostility toward, 4, overview of, 5–6 50–1, 60–3, 100, 144, 147 planning of, 30–32, 42, 99–100, 106, defined, 4–6 131 described, 27–8 of president, 75, 107, 126, 166–7, effects of hydrogen weapons on 169–70, 183–4 planning of, 100–1, 143, 147 recommendations for, 187–9 Eisenhower administration plans for, revelations about, 185 101, 142–3 tests of see Operation Readiness; plans for metropolitan Washington, Operation Alert D.C., 30, 33–5, 37–43 see also Eisenhower, Dwight D., Project East River proposals for, 100 involvement in continuity Truman administration plans for, planning 49–52, 59–63 Continuity of Government see also Augur, Tracy; decentralization Commission, 187, 189 see under Atomic Energy Corning, Hobart, 138, 146 Commission; Central Council of National Defense (CND), Intelligence Agency; Defense 12–13 Department; National Bureau of Crisis Relocation Planning (CRP) see Standards under Defense Department Distant Early Warning Line (DEW), 10, Cuban Missile Crisis, 173–9, 181, 183 111, 114, 155, 218 n.1 Culpeper, Va., 38, 183 District of Columbia see Washington, Cutler, Robert, 98, 105–6, 124, 160 D.C. 242 Index

District of Columbia Emergency New Look of, 7, 98 Management Agency (DEMA), opposition to national shelter 187–9 program, 136–7 District of Columbia Office of Civil participation in tests, 108, 125, 161–2 Defense (DCD) support for decentralization, 101 in Alert America, 79, 81 support for desegregation of budget of, 49, 53, 77, 86, 93, 135 Washington, D.C., 3, 145 changed mission, 184–5 support for dispersal, 98, 101, 103, civil defense classes of, 81, 138, 172 143–4 creation of, 48–9 transition meeting with John Cuban Missile Crisis and, 175, 178 Kennedy, 169–70 FCDA and, 57, 89, 131, 135, 138 views on martial law, 127, 161–2, ground observer posts and, 84, 138–9 180–2 Lorton, Va., command center, 178, Ellis, Frank, 170–1 185 Emergency Action Papers (EAPs) participation in exercises, 116–17, assembled, 98, 156, 159–60, 162–3, 119, 130, 156–7 167 plans of, 57, 117, 122 in Cuban Missile Crisis, 176, 180, 182 problems with Congress, 87, 93, 135, purposes of, 6 172 shown to John Kennedy, 170 racial divisions and, 54, 84 recruitment of volunteers, 52–4, 79, Fairfax County, Va., 34, 66, 91, 102–3, 81, 89, 117, 184 105, 128, 145, 147, 151, 195 n.5 responsibility for attack warning, 7–8, fallout, 6, 9, 101–2, 118, 122, 129, 112–13, 124, 150, 154–5 154, 159–61, 165, 180 support for continuity of federal fallout shelters, 132, 134, 136–7, 170–3, government, 7, 96, 115, 121, 175, 184, 224 n.24, 236 n.5 123–4, 181 Falls Church, Va., 145, 151 see also Fondahl, John see under Farquhar, Arthur, 93, 139 Congress Federal Buildings Services see General District of Columbia Survival Plan, 5, Services Administration, warden 132, 172, 188 see also Washington corps of Area Survival Plan committee Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Dondero, George, 50, 60 77, 96, 133, 155, 161, 196 n.16 Drew, Dr. Charles, 14–15 Federal City Council, 104 Dulles, Allen, 103–5, 133 Federal Civil Defense Administration Dulles, John Foster, 127, 169 (FCDA) Alert America campaign of, 77–81, Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 19–20 84, 86, 90, 119, 137, 175 Edwards, Allan, 151, 154 budget problems of, 57, 92–3 Eisenhower, Dwight D. creation of, 56–7 attitude toward civil defense, 98–9, criticized, 135, 138 119, 137, 155 D.C. Office of Civil Defense and, 57, background of, 97 89, 131, 135 creation of National Emergency fallout shelter standards, 171–2 Agencies, 160–1, 229 n.36 merged with Office of Defense heart attack of, 131 Mobilization, 163 insistence on tests, 98, 109, 121, 155 move to Battle Creek, Mich., 101 involvement in continuity planning, Olney, Md., training center, 117, 5–7, 97–8, 105–6, 124, 126, 140–1, 154, 164 131–2, 150–1, 155–6, 158–64, participation in exercises, 126–7, 150, 166–7, 188 156–7 Index 243

promotion of evacuation, 121–4, 132 participation in exercises, 108–9, 121 recruitment of white middle class work on attack warning systems, 150 volunteers, 80–1 Fondahl, John shift from evacuation to shelter, 7, Alert America and, 77–9, 81 136–7, 141 appointed director of the D.C. Office takeover of Washington’s warning of Civil Defense, 46 system, 7–8, 150–5 difficulties of, 7, 77, 82, 86–7, 120, warning protocol, 149–50, 154 135, 138–9, 172 see also civil defense see under explanation of apathy toward civil Congress defense, 88–9, 138 Federal Communications Commission FCDA and, 55–7, 141 (FCC), 128, 155, 158, 165 participation in exercises, 130, 156 Federal Emergency Plan D-Minus, plans of, 115, 122–4, 134, 185 159–60, 170 retirement of, 172 federal government work of, 47, 52–4, 83–4, 131, 155 employment in Washington, D.C., 2, see also D.C. Office of Civil Defense 26, 31, 33–4, 38–9, 42–3 Forrestal, James, 19, 23–4, 56, 63 essential agencies of see wartime Fort Belvoir, Va., 16, 154 essential agencies Fort Knox, Ky., 15, 136, 183 post-attack functioning of see Fort Meade, Md., 66–7 continuity of government Fort Reno, Washington, D.C., 112, see also dispersal 150–1, 154–5, 172, 183 Federal Register, 157, 162 Fort Ritchie, Md., 63–4, 132–3, 158, 180 Federal Relocation Arc Freedom Train, 79 communication lines of, 155–6 Front Royal, Va. see State Department, deactivation of sites, 183 relocation site of Eisenhower’s interest in, 97–8, 105–6, 124 Gaither Committee, 136–7 existence revealed, 185 Gaithersburg, Md., 5, 144–5, 147, 185 origins of, 95–6 General Services Administration (GSA) overview of, 5–6, 95 construction projects of, 142–3 regional centers of, 163–4 decentralization and, 59 use of during exercises, 109, 113, dispersal planning of, 38–43, 61, 143 125–8, 157–8, 160–3, 176 participation in exercises, 157–8 weaknesses of, 155, 161–4, 166–7, relocation site of, 95, 157, 165 176–7 warden corps of (Federal Buildings Federal Reserve Board, 161, 180, Services), 116–17 183, 185 work on continuity of government, Federal Triangle, 1, 23, 26, 39, 79, 113 96, 187 Federal Works Agency, 24, 26, 30–1, Geological Survey, 147, 196 n.16 37–8 Germantown, Md., 5, 103, 144, 185 see also General Services Gillette, Douglas, 70, 74 Administration Godwin, H.P., 84, 112 Federation of Citizens Associations, Goodpaster, Andrew, 97–8, 126, 155, 81, 146 157, 162, 167, 170 Federation of Civic Associations, 54 Grant III, Ulysses S., 1, 37 Flemming, Arthur Gray, Gordon, 143, 159, 162 appointed director of the ODM, 98 Green, Constance McLaughlin, 145 continuity planning of, 105–6, 156, Greenbelt, Md. 159, 163 civil defense in, 48, 180 dispersal policies of, 102–3, 142 development of, 32–3, 144 evacuation plans for, 133 as planned dispersal site, 33–5, 185 244 Index

Greenbrier relocation site, 167–8, Joint Emergency Evacuation Plan 180, 185 (JEEP), 132–4, 158, 170, 177 Grover, Wayne, 157–8 Justice Department, 128, 157, 165, 182 Gup, Ted, 107, 167, 185 Gutheim, Frederick, 61, 104 Kennedy, John F. as Congressman, 35, 49, 170 Hampden-Sydney College, 95, 183 during Cuban Missile Crisis, 174–9 Hansen, Carl, 146, 175 fallout shelter program of, 171–3 Harpers Ferry, W.Va., 38, 41–2 foreign policy of, 169 Hart, Hornell, 120–1 inauguration of, 169 Hayes, Thomas, 46–7, 53, 57 transition meeting with Eisenhower, Heidegger, Martin, 88 169–70 High Point see Mount Weather, Va. Kennedy, Robert, 174, 176, 178 Hill, Arthur M., 25, 30–2 Khrushchev, Nikita, 171, 174, 177–9 Hiroshima bombing, 9, 16, 21–2, 119 Kierkegaard, Soren, 88 Hoegh, Leo Korean War, 32, 48–51, 59, 69, 87, appointed FCDA Administrator, 99 89–90, 92, 169 opposition to dispersal, 143 plans for regional relocation La Guardia, Fiorello, 13, 22 centers, 164 Landis, James M., 13–14, 22 sending of wartime essential Langley, Va., 103–5, 144 employees to Mount Weather, Lapp, Ralph E., 23, 100 163, 166, 186 Lawton, Frederick J., 25, 49–50, 62, 96 shelter policy of, 136–7, 141–2 Library of Congress, 15, 185 Holifield, Chet Lifton, Robert Jay, 88–9 criticism of Eisenhower administration, 137 MacArthur, Douglas, 49, 59, 97 hearings of, 135–6 Marshall, George, 29, 66 interest in Washington’s civil defense, martial law, 127, 161–2, 180–2 135, 172 Maryland, 6, 34, 43, 63–4, 95, 101–2, Holland, Spessard, 60, 62–3 121–2, 133, 146, 151, 154, 187 Homeland Security Department, 8, 189 see also individual cities and counties Hopley, Russell J., 24, 55–6 McCarthy, Joseph, 47, 90 Howard University, 14–15 McCormack, John, 179–82 Humphrey, George, 106, 127 McDermott, Edward, 176–7, 181 Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, 187–8 McKellar, Kenneth, 51, 70 hydrogen weapons McMahon, Robert, 19 effects described, 9 McMillan Plan, 3 Soviet tests of, 75, 99 McNamara, Robert, 169–70, 174, 176 U.S. tests of, 9–10, 75, 99, 101 McPhee, Roemer, 159 see also Soviet Union, nuclear weapons microwave communications, 65–6, 94, of; United States, nuclear 107, 128, 151 weapons of military ability to protect United States from intercontinental ballistic missiles attack, 90–1 (ICBM) see ballistic missiles views on civil defense, 22 see also Defense Department John McShain, Inc., 71–2, 74 Military District of Washington Johnson, Louis, 35, 38, 49, 64, 66, 170 (MDW), 45, 66, 138, 154, 186 Johnson, Lyndon, 167, 179, 182 Miller, Lorenzo, 82–4, 138 Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1–2, 63–4, 108, Millison, Earl G., 93–5 124, 127, 132–3, 158, 166 Mobilization Plan C, 159–60 Index 245

Montgomery County, Md. National Security Act, 19–20, 200 n.57 attack warning system of, 151, 154–5 National Security Agency, 134, 140 CIA and, 104 National Security Council (NSC) civil defense in, 93, 128–9, 139–42, continuity planning of, 96, 99–100, 173, 184 105–6, 131, 160, 162, 166 ground observer posts in, 93, 140 creation of, 20–1 segregation in, 139, 144–5 debate on evacuation of Washington, Mount Pony, Va., 183, 185 D.C., 115, 124, 132 Mount Weather, Va. dispersal policies of, 101, 143 on 9/11, 186 Executive Committee (ExComm) of, communication system of, 155–6, 164 174–6, 178 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 176–82 policymaking of, 98, 119, 136, 189 daily operations of, 154, 165–6 studies of Washington’s attack developed as relocation site, 95, 107 warning system, 150–1 existence revealed, 107–8, 185 National Security Resources Board Operation Alerts and, 125–8, 157, (NSRB) 161–2 civil defense and, 45–7, 49, 55–6, Operation Readiness and, 109 91–3, 120 personnel and agencies with continuity of government planning of, assignments at, 133, 136, 163, 5, 7, 25–6, 30–2, 42, 96, 105, 165–6, 183, 218 n.45 200 n.57 takeover of Washington’s attack disbanded, 98 warning system, 151, 154–5 dispersal planning of, 30–2, 36–8, 42, Mumford, Lewis, 88–9 59, 61 Munitions Board, 63 formed, 19–21, 25 ineffectiveness of, 5, 25, 96, 100 Nagasaki bombing, 9, 17, 21–2, 119 national security state National Academy of Sciences, 114, civil defense and, 21–4, 56, 87, 92, 130, 133, 135 131 National Archives, 157–8 dispersal and, 38 National Association for the estimates of Soviet striking capability, Advancement of Colored People 116 (NAACP), 15, 56, 81 origins of, 19–21 National Bureau of Standards (NBS) naval aide to the President, 69, 75, 81, campus in Washington, D.C., 1–2, 144 98, 159, 162, 170, 176, 182 dispersal of, 5–6, 144–5, 185 see also Beach, Edward; Dennison, operations at Front Royal, Va., 94 Robert protection of Charters of Freedom, 158 Naval Gun Factory, 1, 11, 23 National Capital Park and Planning Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks, 143, Commission (Park Commission), 166, 171 32–3, 37–8, 42–3 New Deal, 3, 11–12, 14, 20, 25, 32 National Capital Planning Commission new towns, 6, 147, 185 (NCPC), 102, 104–5, 143, 217 Nike antiaircraft missiles, 91, 111, 154, National Capital Regional Planning 159, 179–80 Council (NCRPC), 101, 104–5, 143 Nolen Jr., John, 33–4, 39, 42, 102 National Damage Assessment Center nonessential agencies, 37, 42–3 (NDAC), 161, 163, 165–6 nuclear weapons see atomic weapons; National Emergency Airborne hydrogen weapons see under Command Post (NEACP), 184 Soviet Union; United States National Mall, 32, 39, 51, 101–2, 104, 128, 181, 188 Oakes, Guy, 118 see also ‘tempos’ O’Connell, Robert, 179, 181 246 Index

Office of Civil and Defense support for shelters, 132, 136–7 Mobilization (OCDM), 163–6, work on warning systems, 115, 150–1 170–1, 181 Pinetree Line, 111–12, 114 Office of Civilian Defense (OCD), see also Distant Early Warning Line 13–16, 46 Pittman, Steuart, 170, 173, 175 Office of Defense Mobilization (ODM) Pliyev, Issa, 174, 178–9 continuity planning of, 106, 134, Postal Service, 157, 161, 230 n.47 156, 159–60, 166–8 Potomac River, 11, 26, 38, 47, 104, creation of, 98 122, 132, 143, 177 dispersal policies of, 101–4, 142 Presidential Emergency Facilities merged with FCDA, 163 (PEFs), 183–4 participation in exercises, 108–9, presidential succession, 35–6, 202 n.29 126–9, 162 Prince Georges County, Md., 32, 34, see also Flemming, Arthur 62, 131, 133–4, 145, 151, 175, Office of Emergency Planning (OEP), 195 n.5 171, 176–8, 180–2 see also under civil defense Office of War Information (OWI), Project East River, 99, 101 14–15 Offutt Air Force Base, 111, 186 Quantico, Va., 38, 62, 133, 180 see also Strategic Air Command Quirauk Mountain, Md., 65–6 Operation Alert 1954, 120–21, 123 Rabb, Maxwell, 126, 149 1955, 124–30, 138, 155–6, 159, 165 Radford, Arthur, 115, 127 1956, 155–9 Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service 1957, 160–2, 176 (RACES), 5, 141 1958, 162–3 RAND Corp., 136 Eisenhower’s part in creation of, 6, 98 Randolph, A. Phillip, 11–12 unrealistic scenarios of, 132, 159, 182 Rapalus, Henry, 115, 140–1 Operation Fireball, 119–20 Raven Rock Mountain, 63–4, 66–7, 87, Operation Readiness, 106, 108–9 108, 167 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 119, 189 see also Site R Oxon Hill, Md., 34 Rayburn, Sam, 50, 56, 167 Reston, Va., 6, 147, 185 Parsons, Kermit, 185 Reynolds, W.E., 60, 121 Pearl Harbor, 12, 69, 115 Rockville, Md., 115, 139–41, 173 Pentagon Rodericks, George, 172, 175, 178, 184 9/11 attack on, 186 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 13–14 communication links to, 66, 111, Roosevelt, Franklin 113, 166 civil defense and, 13–14 construction of, 17–18 death of, 16 evacuation plans for see Joint Pentagon and, 17–18, 67 Emergency Evacuation Plan White House and, 15, 70–1 imagined attacks on, 1, 9, 23, 36, 117, 120 Schwartz, Max, 52, 54, 87 importance of, 2, 19–20, 103 shelters see fallout shelters in Operation Alert 1955, 124–5, 128 Sherry, Michael, 90 shelters in, 66 Silvers, Hal, 131, 133–4 Peterson, Val Site R, 64–5, 67–8, 95, 126–7, 132, appointed FCDA Administrator, 99 158, 162, 165–6, 180, 183, 185–6 debate on merits of sheltering versus see also Raven Rock Mountain evacuation, 121, 123–4 Smith, Howard, 62–3 evacuation plans for, 133 Social Science Research Council, participation in exercises, 127 22, 89 Index 247

Soviet Union Treasury Department aircraft of, 1, 5, 10, 82, 87, 90, 111, continuity of, 106, 180 113, 116, 132 participation in exercises, 81, 109, Cold War and, 18–20, 48, 59 117, 127–8, 161 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 174–9 relocation sites of, 183 deterrence of, 91–2, 98 tunnel to White House, 69, 73 espionage of, 6, 18, 104 Truman, Harry S. nuclear weapons of, 1, 10, 131–2, authorization of Conelrad, 112 136, 142, 169, 182, 235 n.44 authorization of development of propaganda of, 25, 85, 87 hydrogen bomb, 6 striking capability of, 10, 108, 116, continuity of government planning of, 120–1, 158–60, 166 5, 64, 75, 96, 105 test of atomic bomb, 32, 35–6, 41, Doctrine of, 23, 171 64, 171 end of World War II and, 16–18 test of hydrogen bomb, 75, 99–100 Korean War and, 48–9, 59 War Scare of 1948 and, 23–5 reaction to Soviet atomic test, 35, 171 see also Washington, D.C., imagined reelection of, 31 attacks on support for civil defense, 23–4, 46, Spencer, Samuel, 121, 132 55–6, 81, 86, 90–2, 170 Springfield, Va., 34 support for desegregation of Stalin, Joseph, 6, 18 Washington, D.C., 3, 145 State Department support for dispersal, 4, 49–52, 59, Cuban Missile Crisis and, 177, 180–1 61–3, 104 offices in Washington, D.C., 17, 21, treatment of NSRB, 25, 31–2 50, 61, 101, 144 use of the Bureau of the Budget, 37 participation in exercises, 109, 121, White House renovation and, 69–71, 127–8, 161 73–4 relocation site of, 93–6, 109, 121, Tuve, Dr. Merle, 135 128, 155, 165–6, 180, 183 Tysons Corner, Va., 66, 185 Steelman, John, 32 Stein, Clarence, 28, 60, 147 UFOs, 85–6 Stewart Air Force Base, 112, 150 Underhill, John Garrett, 123, 130 Stowe, David, 49–50, 75, 96 United States Strategic Air Command (SAC), 111, air defense systems described, 91, 114, 179 111–14 Strauss, Lewis, 102, 133 nuclear weapons of, 9–10, 170, 179 submarine-launched ballistic missiles part in Cold War’s origins, 18–19 (SLBM) see ballistic missiles United States Information Agency Suitland, Md., 34 (USIA), 95, 134, 177, 183 Supreme Court United States Strategic Bombing continuity of, 7, 168, 177–8 Survey, 21–2, 27, 36, 61, 119 during Cuban Missile Crisis, 177–8, 181 Valley Forge Foundation, 79 participation in exercises, 129 Vanderbilt, Tom, 185, 237 n.21 rulings on racial segregation, 145–6 Virginia, 2, 5, 15, 34, 43, 62, 101–2, Symington, Stuart, 55–7, 59, 91, 171 146, 187 see also individual cities and counties Takoma Park, Md., 48, 122 Teague, Olin, 122–3 Wadsworth, James, 33–4 ‘tempos’ Warning Red on National Mall, 17, 21, 26, 31, defined, 77, 173 38–9, 43, 50–1, 61–2, 103–4 test activation of, 47, 113, 116, 121–2 proposed construction of, 34–6 see also attack warning 248 Index

Warning Yellow imagined attacks on, 1–2, 23, 36, 47, accidental declaration of, 114, 154 67, 111–14, 117, 136, 158–60, declaration of, 96, 112–13, 124, 132, 179–81 see also Operation Alert 136, 141 lack of home rule, 3, 93 defined, 77, 173 national security state in, 21 difficulty of keeping secret, 114–15, planning for civil defense office in, 124, 134 45–7 test activation of, 126–7, 149–50, population of, 12, 26, 122, 145 156, 160 present–day emergency plans of, see also attack warning 187–9 Warren, Earl, 168–9, 177–8 segregation of, 2–3, 14–15, 54, 84, Warrenton, Va., 95–6, 183 145–7 War Scare of 1948, 24–6 slavery in, 3 wartime essential agencies symbolic importance of, 3–4, 8, 49, defined, 4–5, 196 n.16 122–3, 135 dispersal of, 30, 38, 40–1, 101–2, 147 UFO scare in, 85–6 participation in exercises, 108–9, 121, see also dispersal, plans for 124–9, 156–63, 160, 182 metropolitan Washington, D.C. responsibilities of, 105–6, 164, 186 Washington National Airport, 1, 11, 45, vulnerability of, 105 86 wartime essential personnel Washington Navy Yard see Naval Gun advance evacuation of, 113–14, 120, Factory 124, 155, 163, 177–8, 181 white flight, 2, 29–30, 145–7, 225 n.49 cadres of at Mount Weather, 7, 106, White House 159, 163, 165, 176 East Wing, 15 during Cuban Missile Crisis, 176, reconstruction of, 69–75 178–9 security of during World War II, 15–16 expected actions during crisis, 115, shelters, 15, 68–75, 87, 98, 113, 155, 129, 134, 162–3, 181–2 186–7 Washington Area Survival Plan Signal Agency, 155–6, 162 committee (WASP), 132, 135, 138, White House Emergency Information 141 Program, 177, 182 Washington and Lee University, 15, 95, White House Emergency Plan (WHEP), 157, 165 113, 132, 170, 177 Washington Board of Trade, 46, 81 White Sulphur Springs, W.Va., 6, 167 Washington, D.C. Whittington, Will, 59–60 on 9/11, 185–7 Wiley, Alexander, 24–5, 36, 64 Alert America in, 77–80 Wilson, Charlie, 124–5, 132 attack warning system of, 14, 111–15, Winslow, Lorenzo S., 68–75 150–5 Works Progress Administration, civil defense in see under D.C. Office 11, 14 of Civil Defense World War I, 12–13, 97, 139, 180 civil defense during World War II, World War II 14–16 civil defense during, 12–15 during Cuban Missile Crisis, 175–6 effects on Washington, D.C., 11–12, difficulty of evacuating, 109, 115, 14, 16–17 121–4, 132–5 effects of World War II on, 11–12, Young, Gordon Russell, 45–7, 115, 124 14, 16–17 Young, John Russell, 45, 57 exercises staged in, 116–17, 119–21, 124–30 zero milestone marker, 33–5, 37–9, 42, government of, 3, 45–6 102–4, 136, 141, 143, 147, 151, ground observer posts in, 82–5, 138–9 184